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+ = =
r
i
g
n
c
W
m
m
( ) 3 1 1 2 1
2
3
2
0
+ = =
c
n D
m
m
r
i
g
where is the density of electromagnetic
energy on the particle( ;
W
) kg J / D is the
radiation power density; is the matter
density of the particle ( )
3
m kg ; is the
index of refraction, and is the speed of
light.
r
n
c
Equations (2) and (3) show that only
for 0 = W or 0 = D the gravitational mass is
equivalent to the inertial mass ( 1 = ) . Also,
these equations show that the gravitational
mass of a particle can be significtively
reduced or made strongly negative when the
particle is subjected to high-densities of
electromagnetic energy.
Another important equations obtained
in the quantization theory of gravity is the
new expression for the kinetic energy of a
particle with gravitational mass m
g
and
velocity V, which is given by [2]
( ) 4
2
0
2
1
2
2
1
V m V m E
i g kinetic
= =
Only for 1 = the equation above reduces to
the well-known expression
2
0
2
1
V m E
i kinetic
= .
The thermal energy for a single
particle calculated starting from this equation
is
2
0 2
1
V m T k
i B
= [3], where the line over the
velocity term indicates that the average value
2
is calculated over the entire ensemble;
is the Boltzmann
constant.
K J k
B
/ 10 38 . 1
23
=
Now, this expression can be rewritten
as follows ( )
2
2
1
2
0
2
1
V m V m T k
g i B
= = . We
have put because is always positive,
and
T k
B
can be positive and negative. Thus,
we can write that
( ) ( ) 5
2
0 2
1
2
2
1
T k V m V m E
B i g thermal
= = =
Only for 1 = the expression of
reduces to .
thermal
E
T k
B
In the derivation of the Rayleigh-Jeans
law, the assumption that , and
that each radiation mode can have any energy
T k E
B thermal
=
E led to a wrong expression for the
electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black
body in thermal equilibrium at a definite
temperature, i.e., Since the continuous
Boltzmann probability distribution shows
that
( ) ( ) ( ) 6 exp exp
T k
E
E P
E
E
E P
B thermal
One can conclude that the average energy per
mode is
( )
( )
( ) 7
0
0
T k
dE E P
dE E EP
E
B
= =
=
T k
nhf
nhf P E P
B
and the average energy per mode can be
calculated assuming over only the discrete
energies permitted instead integrating over
all energies, i.e.,
( )
( )
= =
0
0
0
0
exp
exp
n
B
n
B
n
n
T k
nhf
T k
nhf
nhf
nhf P
nhf P nhf
E
whose result is
1
=
T k
hf
B
e
hf
E
or
( ) 9
1
=
T k
hf
B
B
B
e
T k hf
T k
E
Note that only for , this expression
reduces to
T k hf
B
<<
T k E
B
= (the classical
assumption that breaks down at high
frequencies). Equation (9) is therefore the
quantum correction factor, which transforms
the Rayleigh-Jeans equation( )
2 2
2 c kTf into
the Plancks equation, i.e.,
( ) ( ) 10
1
1 2
1
2
,
2
3
2
2
T k
hf
T k
hf
B
B
B
e
c
hf
e
T k hf
c
kTf
T f I
However, in the derivation of the Plancks
law the wrong assumption that T k E
B thermal
=
was maintained. Now, Eq. (5) tells us that we
must replace for T k
B
T k
B
. Then the
Plancks equation must be rewritten as
( ) ( ) 11
1
1 2
,
2
3
=
T k
hf
B
e
c
hf
T f I
= =
= = =
Then, by making
T k
hf
u
B
=
df
T k
h
du
B
=
Then Eq. (13) gives
43 42 1
15
0
3
4
2
4
4
1
2
du
e
u
h
T k
c
h
D
u
B
=
The integral above can be done in several
ways. The result is, 15
4
[4]. Thus, we get
( ) 14
15
2
4 4 4
3 2
4 5
4
T T
h c
k
D
B
B
=
where is the
Stefan-Boltzmanns constant.
4 2 8
10 67 5 K m watts
B
=
/ .
Note that, for 1 = (gravitational mass
equal to inertial mass), Eq. (14) reduces to
the well-known Stefan-Boltzmanns equation.
However, at high energy density conditions
the factor can become much greater than
1 (See Eqs. (2) and (3)). This divergence,
which is related to the
4
correlation between
gravitational mass and inertial mass, can
explain the increment of 10 to 20 times in the
recently observed emissivity [1]. In this case,
we would have 20 10
4
to = 2 .
If we put 2 and
0
2
B W = into
Eq. (2) the result is
( ) 15 10 1 . 5
2
21
5
2
0
r
r
n
n
c
B
= =
For example, in the case of a intergalactic
plasma with and
3
. 1
<< m kg 1
r
n , Eq.
(15) gives
( ) 16 10 3 . 5
5
Tesla B <<
Magnetic fields with these intensities are
relatively common in the Universe, and even
much more intense as for example, the
magnetic field of neutron stars ( to
Tesla) and of the magnetars ( to
Tesla) [
6
10
8
10
8
10
11
10 5, 6, 7].
In the case of Thermal radiation,
considering Eq. (14), we can put Eq. (3) in
the following form
( ) 17 1 1 2 1
2
3
2 4 4
+ =
c
n T
r B
For 2 , we get
( ) 18 10 08 . 9 4
2
7
r
n
T
=
For and Eq. (18) gives
3
. 1
<< m kg 1
r
n
( ) 19 10 08 . 9
7
K T <<
Temperatures are relatively
common in the Universe (close to a star, for
example).
K T
6
10
Thus, we can conclude that there are
several ways to produce 2 in an
intergalactic plasma (or interstellar plasma)
in the Universe.
4
Equation (14) describes the power
density radiated from a blackbody. For
objects other than blackbodies, the
expression is
( ) 20
4 4
T e D
B
=
where is the emissivity of the object.
Emissivity is therefore the ratio of energy
radiated by a particular material to energy
radiated by a blackbody at the same
temperature, i.e.,
e
D D e
= . According to
Kirchhoff law of thermal radiation, at
thermal equilibrium (that is, at a constant
temperature) the emissivity of a material
equals its absorptivity.
Note that, according to Eq. (14), the
emissivity of a blackbody is not one, but
equal to , only in the case of
4
1 = is that
the emissivity of the blackbody becomes
equal to 1. Similarly, the emissivity of
objects other than blackbodies, is given by
, and only in the case of e
4
1 = is that the
emissivity of the object becomes equal to
(usual emissivity). Thus, at high energy
density conditions
e
( 1 > ) the emissivities of
the objects can surpass their usual values.
This fact, observed in the recent detection of
an unidentified emission line in the stacked
X-ray spectrum of galaxy clusters [1], has
also been observed in an experiment which
reveals that, under certain circumstances, the
emissivity of metamaterials can surpass its
usual emissivity [8].
5
References
[1] Bulbul E. et al. (2014) Detection of an Unidentified
Emission Line in the Stacked X-Ray Spectrum of Galaxy
Clusters ApJ 789, 13.
[2] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of
the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.
[3] Schoeder, D. V. (1999) An introduction to Thermal
Physics, Addison-Wesley, p.15.
[4] Spiegel, M. R. (1973) Mathematical Handbook of
Formulas and Tables, McGraw-Hill, p.98.
[5] Mereghetti, S. (2008). The strongest cosmic
magnets: soft gamma-ray repeaters and anomalous
X-ray pulsars. Astronomy and Astrophysics Review
15 (4): 225287, arXiv 0804.0250.
[6] Olausen, S. A. and Kaspi, V. M. (2014) McGill
SGR/AXP Online Catalog, The Astrophysical
Journal Supplement, Volume 212, Issue 1, article
id. 6, p. 22.
[7] Kouveliotou, C.; Duncan, R. C.; Thompson, C. (2003).
Magnetars, Scientific American, p. 35.
[8] Liu, X., et al (2011) Taming the Blackbody with
Metamaterials, Phys. Rev. Lett. 107, 045901.