The John Wesley Code: Finding a Faith That Matters
By James Stuart
()
About this ebook
James Stuart argues that John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, can help Methodists find a new vision today if they are prepared to listen and learn from Wesley. He paints a challenging portrait of Wesley, profoundly transformed and driven by the love of God, who chose to stand alongside the poor and dislocated people of his day and offer a message of healing, hope and personal transformation.
Because Wesley was so in touch with the presence of God’s grace and love in his life, he can offer us fresh, new ways for ministry in a postmodern society.
John Wesley was one of the best known figures of the 18th century. For 50 years he tirelessly rode the length of Britain preaching his message of ‘plain truth for plain people.’ He turned aside from a comfortable and well-provisioned life as a Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford to live and work among the poor and needy.
Wesley wanted Methodists to be people with warm hearts, catholic spirits, a whole gospel and an open mind. He once observed, ‘we may not know much in this life, but we can love much.’ It was this emphasis on love—love of God and love of others, love as the end purpose of life and love as the reason for life, love which was both universal and unconditional—that made the message of Methodism sound like a new gospel to those oppressed and weighed down by the forces of privilege, class and power.
Drawing on the best of contemporary and historical scholarship, James Stuart traces the writers, theologians, people Wesley met and the key experiences that shaped Wesley's ideas.
Importantly, Stuart then revisits the enduring themes and other principles of Wesley and the early Methodists, to see how they might affect our practice, inspire our theology and renew our lives today.
This eBook edition includes an 11 session study guide to enable small groups to explore the book’s messages in more depth.
About the Author
Dr James Stuart was born in New York City and received his BA in history from Franklin and Marshall College in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. He served as an officer in the US Navy before pursuing theological studies in the United States, England, Germany and Switzerland. He holds a doctorate in systematic theology and social ethics from the University of Zürich, Switzerland.
He has served churches in Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Illinois and New Zealand, was the John Wesley Lecturer in Systematic Theology at St John’s Trinity Theological College in Auckland, and has taught at universities in Illinois and Oregon. While serving as chaplain at the University of Canterbury, he lectured in sociology and peace studies. He is the author of two other books, The Many Faces of Christ (1998) and Making Meaning, Finding Health (1999) and has written numerous articles on religion, theology and ethics.
James Stuart
Dr James Stuart was born in New York City and received his BA in history from Franklin and Marshall College in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. He served as an officer in the US Navy before pursuing theological studies in the United States, England, Germany and Switzerland. He holds a doctorate in systematic theology and social ethics from the University of Zürich, Switzerland.He has served churches in Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Illinois and New Zealand, was the John Wesley Lecturer in Systematic Theology at St John’s Trinity Theological College in Auckland, and has taught at universities in Illinois and Oregon. While serving as chaplain at the University of Canterbury, he lectured in sociology and peace studies. He is the author of two other books, The Many Faces of Christ (1998) and Making Meaning, Finding Health (1999) and has written numerous articles on religion, theology and ethics.
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The John Wesley Code - James Stuart
The John Wesley Code
Finding a Faith that Matters
James Stuart
Copyright © 2013 Rev Dr James Stuart
Smashwords edition
First published in print format 2008
by Philip Garside Publishing Ltd.
All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever without the express written permission of the publisher except for the use of brief quotations in a book review.
This ebook is licensed for your personal enjoyment only. This ebook may not be re-sold or given away to other people. If you would like to share this book with another person, please purchase an additional copy for each recipient. If you are reading this book and did not purchase it, or it was not purchased for your use only, then please purchase your own copy. Thank you for respecting the hard work of this author.
* * * * * *
Acknowledgements for 2008 print edition
The publishers gratefully acknowledge the generous support of The PAC Media and Communications Endowment Fund of the Methodist Church of New Zealand, which made possible the publication of the 2008 print edition of this book
Author’s Dedication
I dedicate this book to my teacher and Doktor Vater, the late Professor Gerhard Ebeling and to the good folk of the Wainoni Methodist Church who encouraged me during the writing and embody the Wesleyan faith.
‘Future things belong unto the Lord.
I know He will do all things well.
And therein I rest: As to the things which
I do not understand, I let them alone.’
John Wesley
Letter to Captain Richard Williams
13 September 1774
* * * * *
ISBN 978-1-927260-04-3
Philip Garside Publishing Ltd
PO Box 17160
Wellington 6147
New Zealand
books@pgpl.co.nz
www.pgpl.co.nz
Table of Contents
Title and Copyright
Acknowledgements
Introduction — Finding Wesley in a Broom Closet
Picturing the World of Wesley
Scenario: A Brand from the Burning
Chapter 1 — Setting the Context
Wesley’s Genealogy
The Importance of Purpose
That Wonderful Providence
Part I — The Guiding Principles of a Methodist
Chapter 2 — Consider Expedience
Living the Christian Life
Achieving the End: Itinerancy
The Lollard Tradition
Field Preaching
An Extraordinary Call
Enlarging the Conversation: The Connexion
Follow the Path of Expediency
Scenario: Aldersgate to Bristol: Emerging Patterns
Chapter 3 — Trust Experience
The Cartesian Revolution
Lockean Sensibility
Berkeley’s Idealism
Hume’s Empiricism
Wesley’s Religious Sensibility
Scenario: Having this witness
Chapter 4 — Seek Consensus
Methodism and the Industrial Revolution
The Methodist Movement
The Holy Club
The Moravian Connexion
Methodist Polity
Methodist Consensus
Scenario: A Remarkable Conversation
Chapter 5 — Honour the Vision
Moravian Stillness
Free Grace
Christian Perfection
Ought We to Separate?
Best of All
Scenario: The Methodist Way
Part II — The Theological Imperatives of a Methodist
Chapter 6 — Learn Compassion
Compassion: The Essential Act
The Wesleyan Paradox
A Rope of Sand
Christianity is a Social Religion
A Great Grace
Compassion and the Community of Goods
Scenario: ‘Should we Shut up our Compassion?’
Chapter 7 — Follow Providence
An Idea in its Time
The Design of Providence
A Hair’s Breadth
Following Providence
The Paradox of Providence
Epiphanies of Providence
Scenario: An Uncommon Train of Providence
Chapter 8 — Live by Grace
The Psychology of Original Sin
The Politics of Original Sin
The Impact of the Reformation
The Human Condition Apart from Grace
Wesleyan Arminianism
Scenario: Religion Agreeable to the Highest Reason
Chapter 9 — Love Unconditionally
The Wesleyan Renaissance: Historical, Doctrinal, Ecclesiastical Motifs
The Fundamental Theological Motif
The Ways of Love
The Sophie Hopkey Affair
The Native American Fiasco
The Moravian Encounter
The Aldersgate Experience
Love: The Determinative Theological Imperative
Scenario: The Strongest Evidence
Part III — The Enduring Character of a Methodist
Chapter 10 — The People Called Methodists
A Warm Heart
Nothing Tangible
Enabled by Grace
An Open Mind
The Knowledge Revolution
The Limits of Reason
A Catholic Spirit
The Radical Difference
Openness to God
A Whole Gospel
Ad Populum
A Simple, Clear Message
Scenario: A Matter of Absolute Duty
Chapter 11 — Quo Vadis
Methodist Amnesia
A Way Forward
A Malleable Polity
Theological Flexibility
Communal Integrity
A Final Word From Wesley
Appendix 1 — Wesley as Apologist for Methodism
Treatises
Letters
Appendix 2 — Methodism: A Community of Common Goods
Breaking the Cycle: The Community of Common Goods
Appendix 3 — John Wesley: A Life of Ambiguity and Contradiction, Determination and Vision
Ambiguities
Wesley and Women
A Clear Vision
Selected Bibliography
Primary Sources
For Further Reading
Biographical
Theological
General
Index
About this book
About the Author
Visit our Site, Join our Mailing List, Review this book
Study Guide
Introduction
Starting a Study Group
List of Sessions
Session One — Setting the Context
Session Two — Consider Expedience
Session Three — Trust Experience
Session Four — Seek Consensus
Session Five — Honour the Vision
Session Six — Learn Compassion
Session Seven — Follow Providence
Session Eight — Live by Grace
Session Nine — Love Unconditionally
Session Ten — The People Called Methodists
Session Eleven — Quo Vadis
Session Twelve (Optional) — Shared Meal
Acknowledgements
This book is the culmination of almost 40 years of reading and reflecting on the life and thought of John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist Church. It was almost by accident that I discovered Wesley.
While studying at the University of Zürich, my teacher, Professor Gerhard Ebeling, shared with me his interest in Wesley and the Methodist movement. He had been exploring the influence of German pietism on the theology of Friedrich Schleiermacher and came across the Moravian Connection, in particular, its religious consequences in 18th century England. So he encouraged me a Methodist, to explore Wesley's understanding of experience. This exploration became the theme of my doctoral dissertation and opened countless other doors. One might say it marked a critical turning point in my life. So I want to offer thanks to the following persons and institutions whose support along the way made this book possible:
To my doctoral colleagues at Zürich - die Ebeling Schüler - whose searching questions, insights and support guided me in my doctoral studies
To the Swiss Methodist Church, Pastor Konrad Hell, and the members of Zürich congregation who opened their doors and their hearts to my wife and family
To the many colleagues and students at the colleges and universities which have enriched my life: Wesley Theological Seminary, Asbury Theological Seminary, Tübingen University, Eastern Baptist Theological Seminary, the University of Zürich, Greenville College (Illinois), St John's -Trinity Theological College (Auckland), Lewis and Clark College (Portland, Oregon), and Canterbury University (Christchurch). You have opened up new vistas on Wesley and increased my understanding of the world in which we live
To the British Methodist Church, Lincoln College, Oxford, the Methodist Archives at City Road, London, in particular Raymond George, Vivian Green, John Bowmer and other interpreters of Wesley
To my many friends and colleagues in the United Methodist Church, USA and the wider ecumenical community
To the Methodist Church of New Zealand and the many friends and colleagues I've made over the last 29 years
To my local theological community which meets faithfully each month for dialogue and exploration
Finally to my wife Gillian, my children Peter, Fiona and Ian, to Ingrid and my whanau who regularly asked how the book was going and whose support and encouragement means the world to me.
I am grateful to Philip Garside for his editing and organising skills. Largely unsung, his hard work as editor is so essential to a thoughtful religious discourse in Aotearoa New Zealand and Australia.
To all those and the many, many more I offer a heartfelt and simple thank you!
James Stuart
September 2008
Introduction — Finding Wesley in a Broom Closet
Many years ago when I was a doctoral student at the University of Zurich, I was invited to attend a Methodist Theological Conference at Lincoln College, Oxford University. Following the Conference I remained at Lincoln College to do further research on Wesley. From Lincoln I travelled to London and was given access to continue my research at City Road where I met John Bowmer. John introduced me to Raymond George who invited me to spend some time as a guest at Richmond College, the Methodist Theological College just outside London overlooking the Thames. That year of study and research in England was one of the highlights of my life. It introduced me to the hospitality and generosity of what Wesley called the Connexion and I have been forever grateful to British Methodism for enlarging my understanding and appreciation of the Methodist Church.
One day while at Richmond, I took a break from my research and went for a walk. Quite by accident I inadvertently opened a door which led into a storage closet where the college cleaners kept their supplies. Just as I was turning to leave I looked up and noticed a number of very old books arranged neatly on some shelves high up on the walls of the closet above the cleaning materials. Being curious I found a small stepladder in the corner and used it to get a better look at the books. The books were covered in dust and obviously had been stored there for a long time. The first book I took down and dusted off was an early Methodist hymnbook containing original hymns by Charles Wesley. I opened it and began paging carefully through it. In the margins I noticed written notes and comments in the unmistakable handwriting of John Wesley. I discovered that in every instance where Charles Wesley in his hymn had used the word ‘sinless’, John Wesley had crossed the word out in the margin and replaced it with the word ‘spotless.’
The next book I took down from the shelf was a copy of the French philosopher, Nicolas de Malebranche’s book, The Search for Truth. Throughout its pages I came upon numerous comments by Wesley. I later learned that Wesley had been very interested in the thought of Malebranche and his philosophy, a cross between Cartesian dualism and Christian Platonism. Malebranche’s ideas had a significant influence on the theology and preaching of Jonathan Edwards, one of the formative leaders and shapers of the New England Revival in North America. I can still remember my first encounter with Edwards’ classic sermon Sinners In the Hands of an Angry God in my Homiletics class in Seminary. Edwards, an avid Calvinist, portrayed God as an austere, omnipotent sovereign who directed his angels to dangle the damned over the fires of hell and drop them in one at a time. Read Jonathan Edwards’ sermons alongside Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter and one gets a good sense of what life must have been like in New England in the 17th and 18th centuries.
As I dusted off and paged through the books on the shelves I gained a new appreciation of the scale of Wesley’s reading and also an insight into the man himself. For example on the front title page of a book by the Deist, John Tillotson, Wesley wrote simply: ‘This book will make good waste paper.’ It turned out that I had discovered part of Wesley’s personal library in the broom closet of Richmond College. When I informed Raymond George of my discovery, he was shocked and terribly embarrassed that for years these books sat there on those shelves in that broom closet, undisturbed and unnoticed, gathering dust.
That experience has remained with me as both a metaphor and a message. On the one hand as a metaphor, the ‘broom closet and dusty books’ symbolises one of the deep and enduring problems of Methodism: our comfortable but ambivalent relationship to Wesley and the origins of Methodism. To some Methodists Wesley remains an icon-like superhero riding from one end of Britain to the other proclaiming the Gospel to all and sundry. This oft uncritical, iconographic hero-worship has sometimes caused Methodists to turn a blind eye to the other side of Wesley: an autocratic and driven man. As the architect of American Methodism Francis Asbury liked to say, Whatever big Daddy wants big Daddy gets.
On the other hand if the ‘broom closet and dusty book’ is a metaphor it also contains a message for Methodists. That message depends a lot on whether we are prepared to go into the broom closet, dust off the books, take them out of the broom closet and learn from our past. I would be the first to acknowledge that Wesley had his shortcomings, but that is not a good reason to ignore or even dismiss his relevance to the challenges Methodists face today.
A number of years ago I came across a short article by the Cuban Liberation theologian Israel Batista. In the article he referred to the Bible as ‘a storehouse of meaning’, a book about a community of people who were blessed with the gift of meaning. That meaning, treasured and preserved through the centuries, gave the Christian church its identity and purpose. I found this a helpful and insightful way to think about the Bible and the tradition of the church. It was clear to me where Batista was going with the metaphor of the Bible as a storehouse. If we go back to Jesus, the source of the Church’s meaning, and explore his life, argued Batista, we can debate and discuss what he taught but we cannot ignore where he chose to stand. Jesus, Batista concluded, opted for the poor. This option for the poor, argued Batista, was the subversive aspect of the Bible as a storehouse of meaning.
As I began this book I asked myself what was it that was subversive about Wesley. The obvious contradictions immediately came to mind:
the contradiction between his ordinary call to ministry and his extra-ordinary call or ‘indeterminate commission to preach the gospel in England’
his concept of the whole world as his parish in contrast to the parish-based polity of Anglicanism
his ambivalent relations with the established Church of England in spite of his constant professions of being loyal to it
his theological synergism which went against the confessional theological mood of the time
his deep understanding of Eastern Christian traditions such as Macarius of Egypt, often ignored and suppressed by Western Christianity
his borrowing of church organisation models from the Lollards and the Moravians which undermined the traditional polity of the Church
his call for plain truth for plain people, when theological language had become esoteric and remote
his emphasis on universal redemption in contrast to traditional reformed, particular redemption
his catholic spirit as opposed to the sectarian spirit of the age.
The list went on and on. Gradually, however, what became most apparent to me was Wesley’s decision to step outside the boundaries of accepted church polity and socio-cultural reality and engage in ministry from a base among those who had been excluded.
Especially enlightening in this regard are the oft-quoted words of the Duchess of Buckingham after attending a Methodist gathering in the parlour of the Countess of Huntingdon,
‘I thank your ladyship for the information concerning the Methodist preachers. Their doctrines are most repulsive and strongly tinctured with impertinence and disrespect towards their superiors in perpetually endeavouring to level all ranks and do away with all distinctions. It is monstrous to be told that you have a heart as sinful as the common wretches that crawl the earth. This is highly offensive and insulting, and I cannot but wonder that your ladyship should relish any sentiments so much at variance with high rank and good breeding.’¹
Unlike his colleague, George Whitefield, Wesley was never comfortable in the parlours and homes of the rich and privileged but rather preferred the simplicity of his modest lodgings at the Foundry. Perhaps there was a tinge of arrogance in this choice, but I think one would be hard-pressed challenging that choice by trying to reduce Wesley’s brand of Christianity to Victorian morality. In his own words, Wesley would have said that he was simply following the way of Providence as it opened out before him. He believed he was doing what he believed Jesus would have done. In doing that, there was no place to stand except alongside those who had been marginalised, in spite of his own innate political conservatism.
Douglas Meeks in his book, The Position of the Poor, has observed that,
‘Wesley’s turn to the poor was not simply service of the poor, but more importantly life with the poor… He actually shared the life of the poor in significant ways, even to the point of contracting diseases from their beds…’²
So with this underlying premise, I have set out to take another look at Wesley’s life and ministry, not to articulate a particular Wesleyan theology or to establish his place in history, or even to add another informative biography to the already long list of Wesley biographies. Rather, I identify those characteristics of Wesley’s life and work and the emergence of early Methodism that were particularly subversive of the dominant paradigms of the age.
It is clear to me that Wesley, unlike his theological contemporaries, chose what the American poet, Robert Frost, has called ‘the road less traveled.’ The contradictions are everywhere. Instead of the usual extracurricular activities of student life at Oxford, Wesley chose the discipline of the Holy Club spending his time with a few others gathering food for the poor, visiting the prisons and helping those in need. Instead of a comfortable and well-provisioned life as a lifetime Fellow of Lincoln College, Wesley chose the company of those who worked in the mills, mines and factories of a rapidly industrialising England. Instead of the liturgy, sacraments, the decency and order of the polity of the Church he loved, Wesley chose the unpredictable ‘paroxysms’³ (a term used by Robert Southey to characterise early Methodist worship) of Methodist chapels and societies. There are clear political choices embedded in early Methodism that shaped the praxis of the movement.⁴ These political choices form the substance of the first part of the book.
Reflecting on these clear choices Wesley made in his life and on the peculiar polity of Methodism that arose because of those choices, I have identified at least four principles embedded in the praxis of early Methodism:
Expedience or the principle of necessity
Experience or the principle of sensibility
Consensus or the principle of co-operation, and
Vision or the principle of integrity.
As principles, these criteria guided Wesley as he sought to provide direction to the Methodist movement.⁵ They were not always easy to follow and implement, and, as Wesley often discovered, they led him in directions he hadn’t anticipated – sometimes at great personal cost. Nevertheless they gave the developing Methodist movement some of its enduring qualities: a democratic spirit, a flexible polity, an evangelical heart and an ecumenical latitude that was rare in an age characterised by continual discord not only over religious doctrine but also over political and social realities.
The second part of the book follows naturally out of the first part. As I reflected on Wesley’s unusual praxis, I came to see that Wesley was forced by the context of the emergent Methodist movement to reduce Christian theology to what he believed were its defining teachings. As he often said, he wanted plain truth. Methodist theology was done ‘on the run’ or more precisely on the back of a horse – thus it’s eclectic and synergistic character. From this one should not construe that Wesley was a second-rate theologian. Given the time and inclination Wesley could have put together a theological system as coherent and as compelling as any of the Reformers. However, the constraints of the Methodist movement did not afford him this luxury. Instead, much of his operative theology was embedded in traditional reformed and Anglican theology with strong emphases on such doctrines as original sin, salvation by faith, predestination and Christian perfection. Holding Methodist theology together was Wesley’s deep commitment to conventional Trinitarian theology.⁶
Contained within these traditional theological themes I have identified a set of theological emphases that permeated early Methodist theology. I have decided to call them the imperatives of Methodism. They were the driving and shaping forces at work in the way Methodists did their theology.
The first imperative I identified was the principle of Providence, a principle poorly understood today. Wesley frequently referred to ‘the ways of Providence’ to explain the emergence and growth of Methodism and he regularly thought of the direction of his life due to the leadings of Providence. The second imperative is the principle of Compassion, what the former Roman Catholic theologian, Matthew Fox, has called our most underused human resource. The third principle is that of Grace, which if taken seriously radically changes the traditional paradigms of contemporary Christian theology. Finally the fourth imperative I identified is the principle of Unconditional Love which, it seemed to me, was the integrating factor between Christian praxis and reflection; between what Methodists did and said, between talking the talk and actually walking the talk.
Wesley himself once observed, ‘we may not know much in this life, but we can love much.’ It was this emphasis on love, love of God and love of others, love as the end purpose of life and love as the reason for life, love which was both universal and unconditional, that made the message of Methodism sound like a new gospel to those oppressed and weighed down by the forces of privilege, class and power. To people displaced by the many enclosure acts of 18th century England, to miners, millworkers and factory workers who worked from sun up to sun down, to the poor trapped not only in the poverty of their class but also in a poverty of spirit – the words of God’s grace being free in all and free for all must have struck the notes of forgiveness, healing and freedom in their ears for the first time.
Finally, I turned my attention to what Wesley called the character of a Methodist. Methodist behaviour and practice often brought criticism and derision. I include an appendix identifying over 30 documents in the corpus of Wesley’s writings that are ‘apologies’ for Methodism. These writings served a twofold purpose: first, to defend Methodism before its critics and second, to help Methodists recognise and appreciate the significance of belonging to a faith community seeking personal and social transformation.
A number of years ago I addressed the New Zealand Methodist Conference on the theme: ‘The Character of a Methodist.’ In that address I described Methodists as persons with warm hearts, catholic spirits and a whole gospel. I still think that best describes the spirit of Methodism which Wesley sought. However, after revisiting the sources, I realised I had omitted something important. Wesley often grew impatient with the constant strife among Christians over opinions. As I pointed out earlier, he wanted ‘plain truth for plain people’ and, consequently, he sought to inculcate into Methodist practice and polity considerable tolerance and understanding. Methodists needed to know who they were and what they stood for – but that did not give them the right to act or to think that they were better or superior to others. Methodists ‘think and let think’ affirmed Wesley, but, at the same time, they recognised and respected the opinions of others.
Furthermore respect for others and their opinions especially when those opinions appeared contrary to the essentials of Christianity did not give Methodists permission to ignore, condemn or dismiss those opinions or the person who held them. As his four Appeals to Men of Reason and Religion so aptly illustrate, Wesley took the opinions of others very seriously and tried to understand them. In so doing he accorded others who differed with him a much higher level of respect and tolerance than just acknowledging differences. And he expected the people called Methodists to do the same. Thus I added a fourth quality: an open mind. A Methodist is one then who expresses four qualities: a warm heart, an open mind, a catholic spirit and a whole gospel.
In the concluding chapter I revisit these enduring themes of Wesley and the early Methodists to see how they might affect our practice, inspire our theology and renew our lives as Methodists. Methodism was first a movement and it is that sense of movement I believe we need to recapture. While I fully acknowledge that most movements, from a sociological perspective, eventually institutionalise themselves, I also recognise that institutionalisation dramatically changes a movement. We can become so ‘captured’ by the priorities of property, programmes and finances that we forget what gave us birth, lose sight of the rules that first guided us, distrust the theological imperatives that once inspired us and lose those qualities that made us who we are. When that happens, we spend most of our time on what I call ‘holding patterns,’ trying desperately to hold on to what we may have already lost. In regard to his Fellowship at Lincoln, his time in Georgia as a missionary, his constant struggle with Whitefield and his Calvinist followers, to Methodism in the Americas and finally to his relationships to the Church of England and even with his brother Charles, Wesley learned over and over again that letting go of the old allows the new to take its place. Isn’t that what the Christian faith is all about, new life and resurrection?
Picturing the World of Wesley
Most of the illustrations accompanying books on Wesley and early Methodism portray a romantic pastoral England with Wesley gallantly riding from town to town proclaiming the gospel. This couldn’t be farther from the truth. Life for most people in 18th century England was in the words of the philosopher Thomas Hobbes, ‘poor, nasty, brutish and short.’ The advent of industry and the accompanying dislocation of thousands of poor farmers and workers from the country to the towns and cities meant living under abominable conditions. The lives of poor people were considered insignificant by the privileged and little concern was expressed over the high mortality rates due to industrial accidents in the factories, mills, mines, workhouses and debt prisons. There were essentially no laws protecting children from intolerable working conditions.
While the roads were controlled by robbers, the streets of the cities and towns were often ruled by mobs. It was a century of savage justice which was designed to punish most people by the death sentence. Justice was a travesty and administered by individuals who bought their judicial privileges. Parliament was run by men who spent a great deal of their time in gambling and drinking and whose vote could always be bought. The South Sea Company scheme of 1711, a get rich quick scheme, led to over eight years of financial chaos and ruin in England.
It was also a century of superstition when women suspected of being in communication with the powers of darkness were rounded up, summarily condemned and burned at the stake or drowned in the rising tide. According to some social historians, England acquired the dubious honour as the most drunken nation in Europe. Aristocrats and bourgeoisie alike consumed huge quantities of alcohol. The brothels flourished and the love of cruel sports such as cock-fighting went unchecked. Even religious life was characterised by gratuitous vulgarities and bitter fighting among those who counted themselves as the redeemed. Behind the pictures of a rapidly industrialising and prosperous England was the other reality of thousands languishing in poverty and ignorance.⁷
William Hogarth (1697–1764), the artist and engraver, whose life paralleled the rise and growth of Methodism, gives us a more honest picture of life in 18th century England. The son of a schoolmaster, who spent a prolonged period in the Fleet prison for debtors, Hogarth experienced firsthand the harsh realities of his century. Cut off by the lack