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    Topology Essentials
    Topology Essentials
    Topology Essentials
    Ebook132 pages52 minutes

    Topology Essentials

    By Emil G. Milewski

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    About this ebook

    REA’s Essentials provide quick and easy access to critical information in a variety of different fields, ranging from the most basic to the most advanced. As its name implies, these concise, comprehensive study guides summarize the essentials of the field covered. Essentials are helpful when preparing for exams, doing homework and will remain a lasting reference source for students, teachers, and professionals. Topology includes an overview of elementary set theory, relations and functions, ordinals and cardinals, topological spaces, continuous functions, metric spaces and normed spaces, countable spaces, and separation axioms.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherResearch & Education Association
    Release dateJan 1, 2013
    ISBN9780738672533
    Topology Essentials

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    • 5/5
      cClear definitions for set theory, then covers general topologhy, then metric spaces, and some otherr topcs.

    Book preview

    Topology Essentials - Emil G. Milewski

    AXIOMS

    CHAPTER 1

    ELEMENTARY SET THEORY

    1.1 SETS

    We shall use an intuitive concept of set, which for the purpose of this booklet is sufficient. The word set is not defined in mathematics and the use of this word is governed by certain axioms. The sets will be denoted by capital letters A, B, C ..., X, Y, etc. We write

    a ∈ A

    to indicate that an element a belongs to the set A. If a is not an element of A, we write

    a ∉ A.

    To denote a set we can use one of two methods. The first is to list explicitly the elements of a set inside braces. For example,

    {1, 2, x, z}

    is a set having 1, 2, x, and z as elements.

    The second is to give the rule by which a typical object of the set is determined.

    For example,

    {x | x is an even number}

    is a set of numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, ....

    DEFINITION OF SUBSET

    A set A is said to be a subset of a set B if each element of A is an element of B.

    We denote A is a subset of B by

    A ⊂ B.

    If A is not a subset of B, we write

    A ⊄ B.

    Two sets A and B are equal if they contain exactly the same elements, that is,

    A = B if and only if A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A.

    The set which contains no elements is called the empty set and is denoted by φ.

    We shall use the notation of symbolic logic. If a and b are propositions (sentences), then:

    By definition, "a ⇒ b" means (˥a) ∨ b.

    By definition, "a ⇔ b" denotes (a ⇒ b) ∧ (b ⇒ a).

    The quantifier there exists is denoted by ∃, and the quantifier for each is denoted by ∀.

    EXAMPLE

    ∀a ∃b ∀c : p(a,b, c) means:

    for each "a there exists a b such that for each c",

    p(a, b, c) is true.

    The negation of this statement is obtained mechanically by replacing each quantifier ∃ by quantifier ∀ and each quantifier ∀ by ∃ and negating the proposition, thus

    ∃a ∀b ∃c : ˥p(a, b, c).

    1.2 OPERATIONS ON SETS

    DEFINITION OF UNION OF SETS

    The union of two sets A and B, denoted A ∪ B, is the set of all elements which belong to A or B, i.e.:

    A ∪ B = {x | (x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)}.

    DEFINITION OF INTERSECTION

    The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted A ∩ B, is the set of elements which belong to both A and B, i.e.:

    A ∩ B = {x|(x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)}.

    DEFINITION OF DIFFERENCE

    The difference of two sets A and B (or the relative complement of B with respect to A), denoted A − B, is the set of elements which belong to A but do not belong to B, i.e.:

    A − B = {x| (x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∉ B}.

    If

    A ∩ B = φ

    that is, if A and B do not have any elements in common, then A and B are disjoint sets. Sometimes the elements of a set are sets themselves. To clarify these situations we use the words class, family or collection synonymously with set. In most texts class is used for a set of sets and family or collection for a set of classes.

    A non-empty set equipped with some type of mathematical structure is called space, for example topological space, vector space, metric space, etc. The elements of a space are called points.

    EXAMPLE

    For every set A

    A ∪ φ =A and A ∩ φ = φ.

    EXAMPLE

    For any

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