Research Approaches to Sustainable Biomass Systems

1

Background of Bioenergy Utilization Development in Japan

Tadashi Yokoyama and Hiroshi Yoshida

Abstract

Increasing public concern about climate change over the last couple of decades has motivated the government of Japan to promote the production of bioenegy as alternatives for fossil fuel. This chapter provides the societal background and principal policies for the promotion of bionergy utilization in Japan, with a brief depiction of the issue concerning global warning caused by human activities.

Keywords

Climate change; global temperature; greenhouse gases; IPCC; Kyoto Protocol; Biomass Nippon Strategy; Basic Law on the Promotion of Biomass Utilization; Basic Plan for the Promotion of Biomass Utilization

Chapter Outline

1.1. Environmental Change with Human Activities

1.2. Japanese Biomass Utilization Policy

References

1.1 Environmental Change with Human Activities

Tadashi Yokoyama

In recent times, the global temperature and carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere have increased rapidly. Although over at least the last 650,000 years, atmospheric temperatures and carbon dioxide levels have periodically increased and decreased in a cyclical pattern (Jouzel et al., 2007), many people feel that today’s climate change is different from previous climate changes based on several observations such as the remarks issued by the US Environment Protection Agency (EPA) on current climate change. First, none of the natural causes of climate change, including variations in the Sun’s energy and the Earth’s orbit, can fully explain the observed climate changes. Second, burning huge quantities of fossil fuels, including coal, oil, and natural gas, to satisfy domestic and industrial energy needs is overloading the atmosphere with carbon dioxide that contributes to the greenhouse effect. Human activities are also adding other heat-trapping greenhouse gases (GHGs), such as methane and nitrous oxide, to the atmosphere. For hundreds of thousands of years, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere stayed between 200 and 300 parts per million; however, today it has increased to nearly 400 parts per million, and is still rising. Along with other GHGs, this extra atmospheric carbon dioxide is trapping solar heat to cause climate change (http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/indicators/weather-climate/).

Figure 1.1 illustrates a thousand-year record of temperature variations for Germany and Central Europe based on documentary data obtained from Glaser and Reimann (2009); it suggests that after around 1900, temperature has certainly increased from the baseline that represents the average temperature for the past 1000 years in Central Europe. Figure 1.2 shows the average carbon dioxide concentration in December in Manua Los, Hawaii (Keeling et al., 2009). In 1958, the atmospheric carbon dioxide averaged 314.67 ppmv; it increased 22.4% to 385.02 ppmv in 2008 over a period of 50 years.

FIGURE 1.1 A thousand-year record of temperature variations for Germany and Central Europe. (Source: Glaser and Riemann, 2009.)

FIGURE 1.2 Average carbon dioxide concentration every December in Manua Los, Hawaii.

The conference held in Villach, Austria, 1985 was regarded as an important milestone in the international climate change debate. A major scientific assessment, The role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases (GHGs) in climate variations and associated impacts, presented at the conference was based on the investigation made by a small group of environmental scientists and research managers associated with nongovernmental organizations from 1983 to 1985. A general conclusion of the conference is the anticipation of an unprecedented rise of global mean temperature during the first half of the twenty-first century.

With the scientific evidence accumulated, climate change appeared to be one of the important challenges to future economic prosperity in the international community during the late 1980s. In 1988, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established jointly by the World Meteorological Organization and United Nations Environment Program. The IPCC emphasized that the emissions resulting from human activities may be changing the Earth’s climate in its first assessment report published in 1990 (Houghton et al., 1990). In the wake of increased concerns about environmental issues, including global warning, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992. This conference, also known as the Earth Summit, led to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), together with the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and other documents also known as Agenda 21. The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize the atmospheric GHG concentrations at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with Earth’s climate system. Subsequently, the Kyoto Protocol, which set a target to reduce GHG emissions by 5.2% below the 1990 levels by 2012, was agreed upon as a protocol of the UNGCCC in December 1997. However, it was not until February 2005 that the Protocol eventually entered into force after long negotiations among the parties involved (United Nations, 1998). Industrialized countries are required to ratify and implement the Protocol in order to reduce GHG emissions below the quantified targets assigned to each country during the first commitment period (2008–2012).

1.2 Japanese Biomass Utilization Policy

Hiroshi Yoshida

According to the Kyoto Protocol, Japan needs to achieve a 6% reduction of GHG emissions to prompt the government of Japan to reconsider its energy policy (Government of Japan, 2006). Based on various responses and inputs from the general public during the 1970s, the government decided to promote the utilization of biomass fuel because it is a carbon-neutral energy source. The first oil crisis in 1973 also aroused public interest in the use of biomass energy; however, the widespread use of biomass has not been realized because the government prioritized the development of nuclear power or natural gas in the national energy policy. The promotion of biomass utilization in Japan since the early 2000s has been motivated not only by GHG emissions reduction but also by other issues. First, international crude oil prices substantially increased during the early 2000s, which motivated the development of renewable energy sources as alternatives for foreign oil. Second, recycling organic wastes such as animal waste, sewage sludge, and other biomass disposals is urgently needed in accordance with the national move to construct a recycle-oriented society. Third, the effective utilization of abundant biomass resources available in rural areas is expected to revitalize rural economies that have been adversely affected during the long recession by generating new industries and jobs in rural regions. With increasing public concerns over these issues, the government of Japan established the Biomass Nippon Strategy (BNS) in 2002 (MAFF, 2009).

The BNS has four ultimate goals: (i) the prevention of global warning; (ii) the creation of a recycling-oriented society; (iii) the promotion of new competitive strategic industries for bioproducts, biofuel and biopower; and (iv) the revitalization of the agricultural, forestry, and fisheries industries as well as local communities. In line with these goals, initial specific targets were laid out, with 2002 as the base year and 2010 as the target year. These targets include increasing (i) biofuel use for the transportation sector from virtually zero to 500,000 KL (crude oil basis); (ii) biomass energy use capacity from 68,000 KL to 3.08 million KL; and (iii) the recovery rate of unused biomass materials from 20% to more than 25%.

In 2009, the government enacted the Basic Law on the Promotion of Biomass Utilization by addressing fundamental principles, defining responsibilities of the concerned institutions, and setting the fundamental conditions of the policy for comprehensive biomass utilization. Table 1.1 summarizes the fundamental principles on biomass utilization and governmental policies of this law. Because the Basic Law addresses only the conceptual framework of policies, detailed policies are defined in the Basic Plan for the Promotion of Biomass Utilization established in 2010. The Basic Plan has provided basic strategies and various action plans to improve the performance of biomass-related projects with three specific objectives: (i) the revitalization of 600 local communities by establishing local biomass plans; (ii) the strengthening of international competency by achieving 500 billion yens of output in biomass-related industries; and (iii) the prevention of climate change and creation of a recycling-oriented society by achieving 26 million tons of carbon equivalents of emission reductions.

TABLE 1.1

Fundamental Principles and Governmental Policies of the Basic Law on the Promotion of the Biomass Use, Japan

References

1. Glaser R, Riemann D. A thousand year record of climate variation for Central Europe at a monthly resolution. Journal of Quaternary Science. 2009;24:437–449.

2. Government of Japan. Baiomasu nippon sogo senryaku (Biomass nippon comprehensive strategy). 2006; ; 2006; Accessed 29.06.2012 [in Japanese].

3. Houghton JT, Jenkins GJ, Ephraums JJ, eds. Climate change: The IPCC scientific assessment Report prepared for Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change by Working Group I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1990; ; 1990; Accessed 11.06.2012.

4. Jouzel J, Masson-Delmotte V, Cattani O, et al. Orbital and Millennial Antarctic Climate Variability over the Past 800,000 Years. Science. 2007;317(5839):793–796.

5. Keeling RF, Piper SC, Bollenbacher AF, Walker JS. Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Record from Mauna Loa. 2009; ; 2009; doi: 10.3334/CDIAC/atg.035, 2009.

6. Ministry of Agriculture. Forestry, and Fisheries (MAFF). Japan: Japanese biomass policy; 2009; ; 2009; [in Japanese].

7. United Nations. Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework on Climate Change. 1998; ; 1998; Accessed 20.06.2012.

8. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC). ; Accessed 20.06.2012.

Chapter 2

Biomass as Local Resource

Toshio Nomiyama, Nobuhide Aihara, Atsushi Chitose, Masaaki Yamada and Seishu Tojo

Abstract

Stressing that a key to the development of biomass utilization is innovation in biomass-related science and technology, this chapter outlines the potential and challenges for biomass utilization with the focus on energy use in a local society. After a brief introduction on the definition of biomass, the characteristics of biomass and the amount available for energy production are described, followed by the discussion on a biomass system that will contribute to establishing a lower-carbon recycling society to mitigate global warming. The advantages and disadvantages of biomass for energy use are enumerated, and the components of the biomass system are illustrated in the framework of the supply chain of biomass material flows. Further, conditions required for the establishment of the optimum biomass system are discussed with emphasis on location-specific characteristics of biomass supply and demand in terms of natural endowments as well as social and economic conditions.

Keywords

Characteristics of biomass as energy source; available amount of biomass; net primary production; supply chain of biomass material flows; location-specific conditions; limited profitability; procurement cost; conversion cost; technological innovation

Chapter Outline

2.1. Definition and Category of Biomass

2.1.1. Definition of Biomass

2.1.2. Characteristics and Categories of Biomass Resources with Emphasis on Energy Use

2.2. Potential Amount of Biomass and Use of Bioenergy

2.2.1. Potential Availability of Biomass in the World

2.2.2. Potential Amount of Biomass and the Amount Available for Use in Japan

2.3. Biomass Systems

2.3.1. Components of a Biomass System

2.3.2. Prerequisites for a Biomass System

References

2.1 Definition and Category of Biomass

Toshio Nomiyama and Nobuhide Aihara

2.1.1 Definition of Biomass

Biomass is a collective term applied to the abiotic organic matter and the living plants that are partially integrated into the ecosystem. Plants grow by performing photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight to convert atmospheric carbon dioxide and water in the soil into carbohydrate. Other living organisms use the energy stored in plants to live by degrading carbohydrate into carbon dioxide and water. Plants are important sources of food for human beings and other herbivores in the ecosystem.

In Japan, the roles of biomass as an essential resource in human life including its energy use are emphasized in legal documents. The word biomass as a legal term was first mentioned in the Enforcement Ordinance on the Law Concerning Special Measures to Promote the Use of New Energy, which was revised in 2002. In the revision, Article 1, Number 1 stipulates that the use of biomass is to create fuel produced from organic matter derived from animals and plants which can be utilized as energy sources (not including crude oil, petroleum gas, inflammable natural gas, coal, and products manufactured from these resources). In addition, Numbers 2 and 6, which address the organic matter as biomass, stipulate that biomass be used to gain heat and to use it to generate power as new energy. This interpretation of biomass use is shared by the Basic Law on the Promotion of the Biomass Utilization, which was enacted in 2002. Defined in Article 2, Section 1, biomass is organic resources derived from animals or plants excluding fossil resources such as crude oil, petroleum gas, inflammable natural gas and coal. The Basic Law stipulates in Section 2 that biomass be used as raw materials for products (not including indirect uses of biomass as raw materials of products or the use of agricultural and fishery products for originally intended purposes) or as energy sources."

2.1.2 Characteristics and Categories of Biomass Resources with Emphasis on Energy Use

There are three categories of biomass resources based on their source: (1) waste biomass including organic waste such as livestock excrement and food residues discharged from households and food-related industries; (2) unused biomass composed of inedible parts of agricultural products such as logging residues, rice straw, and rice husk; and (3) resource crops (dedicated energy crops) that can be used to produce bioethanol and biodiesel fuel, such as rapeseed, corn, and rice. The biomass is produced in agriculture as well as forestry and fishery industries as either main crops or waste and unused materials.

Biomass resources are converted into the following six types of end-products: (1) fertilizers and feed; (2) raw materials of chemical products such as amino acids and useful chemical substances; (3) materials such as plastics and resins; (4) fuel such as ethanol, diesel, wood pellets, biogas, and solid fuel; (5) thermal energy; and (6) electric energy. These products are generally used in the following five categories: (1) recycled use; (2) use of products; (3) power generation; (4) use of heat; and (5) use of fuel.

Biomass used for energy is expected to contribute to establishing a lower-carbon recycling society to mitigate global warming. Specifically, biofuel is viewed as a promising renewable energy that contributes to carbon savings as compared with liquid fossil fuel of higher carbon intensity. This is because theoretically biofuel is carbon neutral based on the fact that all biomass carbon has recently been taken from atmospheric carbon in photosynthesis during the plant growth period.

Among renewable energy sources, biomass occupies a unique position due to the following characteristics. First, both historically and geographically, biomass is used almost all over the world; it is available almost anywhere on earth. Second, biomass energy is diverse in terms of both feedstocks and end-use products. A variety of biomass can be converted into different products in the form of solid, liquid, gas, and power. Third, among the many renewable energy sources, only biomass is transportable and storable so that its production can be adjusted to accommodate changes in output demand. Fourth, its use is not limited to energy; fuel is only one option among the many other potential uses. Over human history, biomass has been used for multiple purposes: food, animal feed, fertilizer, fiber, fuel, medicines, and materials for various crafts and buildings. Fifth, waste biomass that has been viewed as inherently detrimental to society can be used as feedstock for energy use.

Although biomass energy has various advantages, it also has disadvantages. First, biomass energy is in general of lower energy intensity than fossil fuel because of its lower bulk density. Second, biomass is less efficient in the conversion into liquid fuel than fossil fuel. The production of liquid biofuel entails greater energy loss in the conversion process. Third, biomass resources are usually distributed in small amounts across wide areas except for high-yielding resource crops. This causes higher feedstock procurement costs (including collection and transportation costs). Fourth, due to the first three characteristics, biofuel production is unlikely to be economically viable using the current level of technology. Fifth, because biomass possesses a feature of possible multiple uses, enhancing biomass energy production would likely lead to unintended repercussions regarding its other uses (e.g. food and animal feeds) that may adversely impact the food supply or biodiversity, causing social and environmental problems.

2.2 Potential Amount of Biomass and Use of Bioenergy

2.2.1 Potential Availability of Biomass in the World

There are abundant amounts of biomass growing on land and in the ocean. The total amount of biomass on land is about 1.8 trillion tons based on dry weight and about 4 billion tons in the ocean. Also, the soil contains biomass of almost equal amount to terrestrial plants. Because the biomass includes food for human consumption and animal feed, estimating only the amount of convertible biomass for energy sources is meaningful and important.

The available amount of biomass for energy and other uses is subject to the net balance between biomass production and self-consumption by living organisms on a flow basis. The flow biomass is usually called primary biomass produced from the stock biomass. Net primary production (NPP) is a widely used indicator to show the net balance; it is defined as the difference between the rate at which the plants in an ecosystem produce biomass and the rate at which they consume some of the resulting biomass for respiration. Cao and Woodward (1998) estimated that global NPP was 57 Pg-C y−1 with 640 Pg-C of carbon stocks in vegetation and 1358 Pg-C of carbon stocks in soil. According to Janzen (2004), atmospheric CO2 enters terrestrial biomass via photosynthesis at a rate of about 120 Pg-C y−1 (gross primary productivity). However, about half of it is immediately released as CO2 by plant respiration, so that the NPP is about 60 Pg-C y−1. Undoubtedly, sustainable biomass utilization is subject to a lower rate than the NPP. In addition to the excessive use of biomass, inadequate use of biomass should be avoided because inappropriate management in biomass use may lead to adverse effects on a local ecosystem such as the degradation of biodiversity and the diminished capacity to provide other environmental services.

Regarding the potential amount of biomass for bioenergy, according to an estimate by the Japan Institute of Energy (2009), the standing stock of waste-based biomass per year in the world is 51 EJ in agriculture, about 47 EJ in livestock farming, and about 40 EJ in forestry, making the total amount about 138 EJ. The waste biomass from cattle manure is about 23 EJ, accounting for the largest proportion in the breakdown, followed by logging waste that is about 22 EJ. By regions, Asia has large potential, accounting for 58% of availability in crop biomass and 47% in livestock biomass.

2.2.2 Potential Amount of Biomass and the Amount Available for Use in Japan

The available quantity of biomass and the target rate of biomass use in 2020 based on its type in Japan estimated by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery (MAFF), Japan are shown in Table 2.1. This estimated amount of biomass expressed in carbon equivalents is based on the information available in the Basic Plan for the Promotion of Biomass Utilization. Most types of biomass are used for resources and raw materials. Meanwhile, the data in the table indicate slow progress in the use of non-edible biomass such as food waste, inedible parts of agricultural crops, and residual materials from forestry. Table 2.2 summarizes the potential annual bioenergy production in 2020 in Japan. The use of biomass energy in 2020 was predicted by MAFF for converting the potential biomass into energy.

TABLE 2.1

Potential Amount of Biomass and Target Rate of its Use in 2020 by Biomass Type in Japan

∗Maximum amounts available for use are calculated based on an assumption that (1) target use ratio in 2020 and (2) 100% use ratio are all achieved by increasing the uses as energy.

†Crops are target amount of production in 2020.

Source: MAFF (2012). Current status and problems of biomass. Reference in the 9th Meeting of the Biomass Business Strategy Exploration Team of the MAFF.

TABLE 2.2

Target of Bioenergy Production in 2020 in Japan

∗1 PJ = 25,800 kL (equivalent of crude oil) = 278 million kWh. Available amount to be used as electricity is calculated while taking into account of power generation loss and efficiency of gasification, etc.

†Calculations are based on conditions that electricity consumption per household is 4734 kWh y−1, and the amount of gasoline consumption per automobile is 1000 L y−1.

‡Converted maximum amount available for use (t-C) based on the ratio of atomic/molecular weights of C and CO2.

§The value in the quick report in FY 2010 was 1.256 billion tons.

Source: MAFF (2012). Current status and problems of biomass. Reference in the 9th Meeting of the Biomass Business Strategy Exploration Team of the MAFF.

2.3 Biomass Systems

Atsushi Chitose, Masaaki Yamada, and Seishu Tojo

2.3.1 Components of a Biomass System

When biomass is used as a resource for human activities, the concept of a biomass system should be established (Kitani, 2004). Effective utilization of biomass requires a comprehensive framework that integrates all stages of the supply chain of biomass material flows – i.e. production, collection, transport, conversion, distribution, and consumption – into a well-organized and structured system. The concept of this supply chain is schematically illustrated in Figure 2.1.

FIGURE 2.1 Biomass flow in a biomass system.

In the production stage, identifying the various types of biomass suitable for local geographical and meteorological conditions is required. Biomass can be produced mainly in artificial forest, farm land, lake, and coastal areas. These spaces and fields are located in a continuous area or regions that are linked organically. In the collection and transport stage, biomass will be collected to centralize conversion facilities. The collector and transporter of biomass along with the disposal contractor and the distributor of products in the distribution stage play leading roles as linkers of respective space and facility.

In the conversion stage, the conversion facilities of biomass to biofuel and other end-use products, which are important components of the biomass system, play central roles in supplying energy and industrial raw materials to consumers. The waste generated in the conversion process should be disposed of by returning it to the original fields in a manner in harmony with the local ecosystem. Biomass supply will be maintained by keeping the fields adequately in the ecosystem because the production and use of biomass fundamentally rely on the function of nature everywhere.

In the consumption stage, the consumer of biofuel and other end-products performs the anchor role in the biomass system. The biomass system would be managed under the governing regulations and rules, and a well-managed system coordinates various fields, spaces, facilities, stakeholders and agents for enhancing local industries without imparting additional environmental loads by cooperating with various local organizations through the establishment of an effective social network.

2.3.2 Prerequisites for a Biomass System

The construction of an optimal biomass system requires thorough consideration from a holistic point of view with attention to the following location-specific characteristics in terms of natural endowments as well as social and economic conditions.

First, the biomass system is subject to the biomass feedstock available in both type and volume. Thus, the optimal biomass system would depend on the natural resources in a particular region. The optimal combination of potential biomass resources in use is determined by climate, geography, water, land resources, and other natural conditions. Second, the biomass system is conditional on the stage of economic development. The promotion of biomass utilization is expected to generate social and economic benefits in addition to its contribution to the reduction of GHG emissions. However, these expected benefits will vary according to local social and economic conditions with different system components. Also, the stage of economic development governs the conditions surrounding the biomass supply chain. Generally social infrastructure such as roads, water supply, and electric distribution is better provided in higher-income than in lower-income regions. Third, the biomass system may be subject to social, cultural, and institutional rules including formal laws, acts, other legal regulations and codes, as well as informal constraints such as local customs, norms and cultural beliefs. The adoption and diffusion of new biomass use to a larger extent may require institutional innovation that will induce a society to establish an appropriate social system to facilitate an effective use of local biomass resources.

Given these location-specific conditions, the optimal technology applied to the biomass system can be determined. Technology is associated with all stages of the biomass supply chain, spanning production, collection, transport, conversion, and distribution. Specifically, the biomass system requires the development of an optimal set of bio-related technologies that adapts local conditions in the production and conversion stages. Furthermore, because the enhancement of biomass utilization may bring about adverse environmental and social impacts and consequences, the biomass system should suffice the environmental assessment and other evaluations in the planning stage.

It is clear that the construction of a biomass system requires a thorough assessment in all stages of the biomass supply chain from various points of view. In principle, the sustainable operation of the biomass system should satisfy the conditions such that it is economically viable, environment friendly, and socially acceptable. More specifically, the prerequisites of the biomass system are: (a) not to compete with food production; (b) to produce no additional environmental load; (c) to contribute to the construction of a lower-carbon society; (d) to be adaptable to a local society; (e) to be managed throughout the biomass system; and (f) to be economically viable from a societal point of view.

With these prerequisites, the priority of using biomass resources may differ among regions; however, it seems legitimate that, in practice, the priority should be assigned in the following order: first on food, second on the material use for higher-value products that will contribute more to increases in rural income, third on animal feed or fertilizer, and perhaps last on fuel. The main reason that fuel production would be given the lowest priority in biomass utilization is its low profitability in a commercial operation. With the current state of technology, biofuel cannot compete with fossil fuel in profitability with only a few exceptions such as the case of sugar cane-based ethanol in Brazil. This implies that economic viability is an important prerequisite for the development of biofuel