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    Natural Gas: A Basic Handbook
    Natural Gas: A Basic Handbook
    Natural Gas: A Basic Handbook
    Ebook346 pages5 hours

    Natural Gas: A Basic Handbook

    By James G. Speight

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    Natural gas represents nearly one-quarter of the world’s energy resources. More than half of American homes rely on it as their main heating fuel. It serves as the raw material necessary in everyday paints, plastics, medicines and explosives. It produces the cleanest of all fossil fuels. It is natural gas—and everybody should acquire a basic understanding of it. This valuable easy-to-use reference supplies all the basics that every person should know about the natural gas industry. Introductory engineers, managers and analysts will benefit from this informative, practical handbook. Natural gas remains a vital component of all energy sources, and with an increasing demand for information on this useful energy source, Natural Gas: A Basic Handbook is an essential tool for anyone involved in the energy industry.

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherElsevier Science
    Release dateOct 1, 2007
    ISBN9780127999845
    Natural Gas: A Basic Handbook
    Author

    James G. Speight

    Dr. Speight is currently editor of the journal Petroleum Science and Technology (formerly Fuel Science and Technology International) and editor of the journal Energy Sources. He is recognized as a world leader in the areas of fuels characterization and development. Dr. Speight is also Adjunct Professor of Chemical and Fuels Engineering at the University of Utah. James Speight is also a Consultant, Author and Lecturer on energy and environmental issues. He has a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry and a Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry, both from University of Manchester. James has worked for various corporations and research facilities including Exxon, Alberta Research Council and the University of Manchester. With more than 45 years of experience, he has authored more than 400 publications--including over 50 books--reports and presentations, taught more than 70 courses, and is the Editor on many journals including the Founding Editor of Petroleum Science and Technology.

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      Book preview

      Natural Gas - James G. Speight

      195

      Preface

      Gas processing, although generally understandable using chemical and/or physical principles, is often confusing because of the frequent changes in terminology and the myriad mathematical equations and symbols used to describe a process. This renders gas processing a subject that is, at best, difficult for the layman to understand and appreciate. This book represents an attempt to alleviate the confusion that arises from mathematical relationships and the uncertainties in the terminology. Thus, the book falls into two convenient subdivisions: Part One deals with the origin and occurrence of natural gas and describes recovery, properties, and composition. Part Two deals with processing methods and explains the principles by which natural gas can be prepared for consumer use by removal of unwanted or noxious constituents.

      Although gas processing employs different process types, there is always an overlap between the various concepts. In an introductory text such as this, repetition is helpful to the reader, and this is achieved by subdividing the subject categories and using cross-referencing so that the reader will not miss any particular aspect of the processing operations. While every effort is made to ensure adequate cross-referencing, each chapter is a stand-alone segment of the book and has sufficient information to give the reader the necessary background.

      In summary, the book describes gas processing for the non-technical reader and serves as a handy, easy-to-use source to compare the scientific and technological aspects of gas-processing operations and the means by which the environment might be protected. In addition, the book is suitable for use in courtrooms and boardrooms as well as for junior scientists and first-year engineering students.

      James G. Speight, Ph.D., D.Sc.,     The University of Trinidad and Tobago

      Part I

      Origin and Properties

      CHAPTER 1

      History and Uses

      1.1 Introduction

      Natural gas (also called marsh gas and swamp gas in older texts and more recently landfill gas) is a gaseous fossil fuel found in oil fields, natural gas fields, and coal beds. As one of the cleanest, safest, and most useful of all energy sources, it is a vital component of the world’s supply of energy. While it is commonly grouped in with other fossil fuels and sources of energy, there are many characteristics of natural gas that make it unique.

      Natural gas is the result of the decay of animal remains and plant remains (organic debris) that has occurred over millions of years. Over time, the mud and soil that covered the organic debris changed to rock and trapped the debris beneath the newly-formed rock sediments. Pressure and, to some extent, heat (as yet undefined) changed some of the organic material into coal, some into oil (petroleum), and some into natural gas. Whether or not the debris formed coal, petroleum, or gas depended upon the nature of the debris and the localized conditions under which the changes occurred.

      Natural gas is found in reservoirs beneath the surface of the earth (see Composition and Properties) and is often associated with petroleum, although gas that is not associated with petroleum is also known. Production companies use sophisticated, expensive technology to find and drill into these reservoirs. Once brought from underground, the natural gas is refined to remove impurities such as water, other gases, sand, and other compounds. Some hydrocarbons, such as propane and butane, are removed and sold separately. Other impurities are also removed, such as hydrogen sulfide (the refining of which can produce sulfur, which is then also sold separately). After refining (Chapter 7), the clean natural gas is transmitted through a network of pipelines that deliver natural gas to its point of use.

      Two new and possibly large sources of methane that may extend the availability of natural gas are methane hydrates (also called gas hydrates) and coal-bed methane (Berecz and Balla-Achs, 1983; Sloan, 1997; Gudmundsson et al., 1998; Max, 2000; Sloan, 2000). Their production technologies have only recently been developed, and these sources are now becoming economically competitive.

      Methane-rich gases are also produced by the anaerobic decay of non-fossil organic material and are referred to as biogas. Sources of biogas include swamps, which produce swamp gas; marshes, which produce marsh gas; landfills, which produce landfill gas, as well as sewage sludge and manure, by way of anaerobic digesters, in addition to enteric fermentation, particularly in cattle.

      Although natural gas is a vital component of the world’s supply of energy and one of the most useful of all energy sources, it must be understood that the word gas has a variety of different uses, and meanings. Fuel for automobiles is also called gas (being a shortened version of gasoline), but that is a totally different fuel. The gas used in a barbecue grill is actually propane (C3H8), which, while closely associated with and commonly found in natural gas and petroleum, is not really natural gas.

      Natural gas is the flammable gaseous mixture that occurs alone or with petroleum in reservoirs and is predominantly methane (CH4) and some of the higher molecular weight paraffins (CnH2n+2) generally containing up to five carbon atoms (Table 1-1). Briefly, methane is the simplest member of the hydrocarbon series and has one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms (Figure 1-1).

      Table 1-1

      Range of Composition of Natural Gas

      Figure 1-1 Simplified representation of methane as (a) a two-dimensional formula and (b) a three-dimensional formula.

      In its purest form, the natural gas delivered to the consumer is almost pure methane, and the remaining hydrocarbons and non-hydrocarbons have been removed though refining. The non-hydrocarbon constituents include, but are not limited to, carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), nitrogen (N2), and helium (He).

      All of the hydrocarbon constituents of natural gas are combustible, but non-flammable non-hydrocarbon components (carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, and helium) detract slightly from the heating value of natural gas. However, they are valuable, and in certain natural gases where their concentrations are relatively high, they may be extracted commercially.

      Natural gas is colorless, shapeless, and odorless in its pure form. Quite uninteresting except that natural gas is combustible, and when burned it gives off a great deal of energy. Unlike other fossil fuels, however, natural gas is clean burning and emits lower levels of potentially harmful by-products into the air. It is the environmental aspect of natural gas use that is currently elevating its use as an important energy source.

      There are several general definitions that have been applied to natural gas science and technology. For example, lean gas contains methane as the major constituent. On the other hand, wet gas contains considerable amounts of the higher molecular weight hydrocarbons. Natural gas is considered dry when it is almost pure methane, having had most of the other commonly associated hydrocarbons removed. When other hydrocarbons are present, the natural gas is wet. To further define the terms dry and wet in quantitative measures, the term dry natural gas indicates that there is less than 0.1 gallon (1 gallon, US, = 264.2 m³) of gasoline vapor (higher molecular weight paraffins) per 1,000 ft³ (1 ft³ = 0.028 m³). The term wet natural gas indicates that there are such paraffins present in the gas, in fact more than 0.1 gal/1,000 ft³.

      Sour gas contains hydrogen sulfide, whereas sweet gas contains very little, if any, hydrogen sulfide. Residue gas is natural gas from which the higher molecular weight hydrocarbons have been extracted and casing-head gas is derived from petroleum but is separated at the separation facility at the wellhead.

      Natural gas is considered as an environmentally friendly clean fuel, offering important environmental benefits when compared to other fossil fuels. The superior environmental qualities over coal or crude oil are that emissions of sulfur dioxide are negligible, and nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide emissions are lower. This helps to reduce problems of acid rain, ozone layer, or greenhouse gases. Natural gas is also a very safe source of energy when transported, stored, and used.

      Natural gas is produced in many countries around the world and most of those countries produce both oil and natural gas; a few produce only natural gas. The ten largest natural gas producing countries are: United States, Canada, Russia, United Kingdom, Algeria, Netherlands, Iran, Indonesia, Norway, and Uzbekistan (EIA, 2004). Because transportation costs add to the cost of natural gas, in most countries natural gas is consumed within the country or exported to a neighboring country by pipeline. Technology for liquefying natural gas so that it can be transported in tankers is improving (Chapter 4). As technology continues to expand the options for gas transportation, demand for natural gas is expected to grow.

      A common misconception about natural gas is that resources are being depleted at an alarming rate and the supplies are quickly running out. In fact, there is a vast amount of natural gas estimated still to be retrieved from a variety of reservoirs (Chapter 2). However, many proponents of the depletion theory believe that price spikes indicate that natural gas resources are depleted beyond the point of no return. However, price spikes of any commodity are not always caused by waning resources but can be the outcome of other forces at work in the marketplace.

      1.2 History

      By definition, natural gas is a naturally occurring gaseous fossil fuel that is found in oil fields, and natural gas fields, and coal beds. For clarification, natural gas is not the same as town gas, although the history of natural gas cleaning has its roots in town gas cleaning (Chapter 5).

      Town gas is a generic term referring to manufactured gas produced for sale to consumers and municipalities. The terms coal gas, manufactured gas, producer gas, and syngas (synthetic natural gas, SNG) are also used for gas produced from coal. Depending on the processes used for its creation, town gas is a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, and volatile hydrocarbons with small amounts of carbon dioxide and nitrogen as impurities.

      Prior to the development of natural gas supplies and transmission in the United States during 1940s and 1950s, virtually all fuel and lighting gas was manufactured, and the by-product coal tar was an important feedstock for the chemical industry. The development of manufactured gas paralleled that of the industrial revolution and urbanization.

      The uses of natural gas did not necessarily parallel its discovery. In fact, the discovery of natural gas dates from ancient times in the Middle East. During recorded historical time, there was little or no understanding of what natural gas was; it posed somewhat of a mystery to man. Sometimes, such things as lightning strikes would ignite natural gas that was escaping from under the earth’s crust. This would create a fire coming from the earth, burning the natural gas as it seeped out from underground. These fires puzzled most early civilizations, and were the root of much myth and superstition. One of the most famous of these types of flames was found in ancient Greece, on Mount Parnassus about 1000 BC. A goat herdsman came across what looked like a burning spring, a flame rising from a fissure in the rock. The Greeks, believing it to be of divine origin, built a temple on the flame. This temple housed a priestess who was known as the Oracle of Delphi, giving out prophecies she claimed were inspired by the flame.

      These types of springs became prominent in the religions of India, Greece, and Persia. Unable to explain where these fires came from, they were often regarded as divine, or supernatural. The energy value of natural gas was not recognized until about 900 BC in China, and the Chinese drilled the first known natural gas well in 211 BC. The Chinese formed crude pipelines out of bamboo shoots to transport the gas, where it was used to boil sea water, separating the salt and making it drinkable.

      Natural gas was discovered and identified in America as early as 1626, when French explorers discovered natives igniting gases that were seeping into and around Lake Erie. In Europe, natural gas was unknown until it was discovered in Great Britain in 1659, although it was not commercialized until about 1790. Around 1785, natural gas produced from coal was used to light houses, as well as streetlights. Manufactured natural gas of this type (as opposed to naturally-occurring gas) was first brought to the United States in 1816, when it was used to light the streets of Baltimore, Maryland. This manufactured gas was much less efficient, and less environmentally friendly, than modern natural gas that comes from underground.

      In 1821 in Fredonia, United States, residents observed gas bubbles rising to the surface from a creek. William Hart, considered as America’s father of natural gas, dug there the first natural gas well in North America (Speight, 1993, Chapter 1 and references cited therein). The American natural gas industry got its beginnings in this area. In 1859, Colonel Edwin Drake (a former railroad conductor who adopted the title Colonel to impress the townspeople) dug the first well. Drake hit oil and natural gas at 69 feet below the surface of the earth.

      More recently, natural gas was discovered as a consequence of prospecting for crude oil. It was often an unwelcome by-product, as natural gas reservoirs were tapped in the drilling process and workers were forced to stop drilling to let the gas vent freely into the air. Now, and particularly after the crude oil shortages of the seventies, natural gas has become an important source of energy in the world.

      Throughout the 19th century, natural gas was used almost exclusively as a source of light, and its use remained localized because of lack of transport structures, making it difficult to transport large quantities of natural gas long distances. There was an important change in 1890 with the invention of a leak-proof pipeline coupling, but transportation of natural gas to distant customers did not become practical until the 1920s as a result of technological advances in pipelines. Moreover, it was only after World War II that the use of natural gas grew rapidly because of the development of pipeline networks and storage systems.

      The techniques to discover gas are essentially those used to discover crude oil. When using seismic techniques, gas slows down the velocity of the seismic waves to produce a characteristic and stronger reflection. Over time, as more knowledge of a hydrocarbon province is obtained, better recognition of the characteristics and amplitude of the seismic reflection from gas can lead to a greater chance of success.

      Natural gas, like crude oil and often in conjunction with crude oil, has been generated over geological time from deep-lying source rock, sometimes called the kitchen, which contains organic debris. It is now generally accepted that the deeper and hotter the source rock, the more likelihood of gas being produced. However, there is considerable discussion about the heat to which the organic precursors have been subjected, and it is no way certain that cracking temperatures (300°C, 572°F) played a role in natural gas formation. Maturation of the organic debris through temperature effects occurred over geological time (millennia), and shortening the time to laboratory time and increasing the temperature to above and beyond the cracking temperature (at which the chemistry changes) does not offer conclusive proof of high temperatures (Speight, 2007).

      At some point during or after the maturation process, the gas and crude oil migrated from the source rock upward, sideways, or in both directions (subject to the structure of the accompanying and overlying geological formations). Eventually, the gas and crude oil were trapped in reservoirs in the subsurface formations that were often many miles from the source rock. It is rare that the source rock and the reservoir were one and the same. Thus, a natural gas field may have a series of layers of crude oil/gas and gas reservoirs in the subsurface. In some instances, the natural gas and crude oil parted company leading to the occurrence of reservoirs containing only gas (non-associated

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