History of the young king Francesco II of Naples

Romualdo M. De Velazquez

History of the young king Francesco II of Naples

The sky is the limit

ISBN: 9788899617073

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Table of contents

Introduction

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Chapter 9

Chapter 10

Chapter 11

Chapter 12

Chapter 13

Chapter 14

Chapter 15

Chapter 16

Chapter 17

Chapter 18

Capitolo 19

Chapter 20

Chapter 21

Chapter 22

Chapter 23

Chapter 24

Chapter 25

Chapter 26

Chapter 27

Chapter 28

Chapter 29

Chapter 30

Chapter 31

Credits

Published in Madrid and Barcelona on 1861 and written by Romualdo M. de Velazquez,

Translation by Salvatore Pastorello

Introduction

The author of this work does not share the widespread view that seems to be rooted in a lot of people, according to which it is possible to write about the contemporary history in relation to the events, as they occur, without any historical guide, if not the only partial information reported by the newspapers from their interested correspondents. Instead, he finds it impossible that we can achieve a satisfactory job in these conditions, a literary work that deserves to call such. This is confirmed by the numerous publications about historical events that took place in Europe for some years now that have flooded Madrid, sponsored by unscrupulous publishers, eager to profit taking advantage of the curiosity and interest of the moment.

We can ask ourselves, why to make the same mistake that they condemn in the others.

Why to undertake to tell the infamous bombing who have suffered and are still suffering in Naples justice and decorum?

Why to expose the own errors and the feats of the other, when they are still shrouded in mystery many of the causes and circumstances that generated and accompanied them?

What a literary crime!

Because the interests of culture, precious and high as they are, aren’t as much as the interest of morality and justice, because the principles of common sense are in antithesis with the distorted scope that claims to give to the people ideas, to whom are essentially directed the publications that we have criticized. That is why among the many lives of Garibaldi and so many histories of the events in Italy, it is necessary that at least one that, although it contains the same literary defects of the other, let to hear the voice of truth, to establish a defense of justice against arbitrariness and arrogance.

This explains our work. However, if we had to be wrong, the intention is worthy, hoping to forgiven, by virtue of a principle valid for all, that the rules of good sense, of the reason and the common sense, unfortunately, have not been neglected.

Salvatore Pastorello

Chapter 1

Death of Ferdinand II of Bourbon - Proclamation of his son Francesco II - The political situation in Italy - Crossing the Ticino by the Piedmontese and French - Battles of Magenta and Solferino - Crossing of the Mincio.

On May 22, 1859, few days after the resounding roar of the cannon on the hills of Montebello, in Caserta died only 49 years old, after nineteen years of his reign, Ferdinand II of Bourbon, the King of the Two Sicilies. It was as Providence had intended to deprive the Naples’s kingdom of the terrible tests that will await it. The brave monarch should know avert them. Ferdinand II of Bourbon so slandered and vilified by opponents. He was a great king and it is probably that in Europe if there hadn’t been a state of deterioration, such as the one that still it stands today and if his enemies were not so powerful to want impose ancient rights, he should have been the King of France or Austrian Emperor instead of King of the Two Sicilies.

The riots of 1848 were unable to wrest him the throne, and his people saw him as the brave guardian of its honor against foreign claims and staunch defender of peace and tranquility, against the utopias of the innovators.

However, he had the consolation to leave the kingdom in a state of prosperity and happiness: a disciplined army, a large navy, finances among the most robust in Europe and an administration model. Who should have imagined that after about one year not everything should longer existed, that a foreign government should dominate his people and his son forced to take refuge in a fortress with a handful of braves? Those men that he has won now besmirch his memory with ridiculous slander, but history will do justice.

The monarch's death gave rise to strange rumors. There were rumors that a slow poison had put an end to his life, that his many enemies, because of recent events, they wanted to get rid of a big obstacle. However, nothing of all of this was ever confirmed, but it is certain that the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the whole Italy lost a distinguished and valiant ruler just when there was most needed of him.

Francesco II, his eldest son, been born by the marriage with Maria Cristina of Savoy, succeeded to the throne at the age of twenty-three years. His ascent to the throne fed many hopes as many fears: the one and the other confirmed in part. The betrayal of some, the weakness of others, the infidelity of all cost the loss of the throne and the independence of the people, but neither abandonment nor the obstacles, or the inexperience could diminish the great value of his dynasty, which offered an extraordinary show to the world.

Let us look about the political situation of Italy to the death of Ferdinand II.

Napoleon III, preying on the historical ambitions of the House of Savoy, taking advantage of the anomalies that the revolutionary politics had produced in the Peninsula, had put in evidence the problem of the Revolution in the lowlands of Ticino. Neither can it attributed to Austria the responsibility of the 1859 bloody war that is due only to the Emperor of French. He was responsible for the aggressive attitude of Piedmont towards its neighbors, since the Crimean War; his the unexpected and outrageous solution resulted from the Paris Congress that, met to protect the Turks by the Tsar, without hearing the parties, ended to turn his attentions against other sovereigns also them weak and independent: the Pope and the King of Naples. He was the one to raise the issue and to neutralize the efforts of Lord Cowley when they were about to be rewarded with success. It was his the idea to announce a congress, also thinking that probably it shouldn’t be held, and it was him who rejected, at the last moment, the English proposals that Austria had already accepted, and finally, by his own admission, he began the war against the advice of Europe.

That the situation of Italy was critical, the peninsula in the throes of a great malaise, that its governments, with the exception of that of Naples, the Emperor and the King of Sardinia, were in need of foreign aid in order to survive, are facts that we all took note and that no one can doubt. However, what was the cause? At what thing they were due. Only to the revolutionary spirit, and it is surely a folly to try to correct the evil, giving vigor to the cause that generated it. Let us look to Italy at the end of the last century, before the French Revolution. The genius of one man, Napoleon I, had made to become European the governments of the Peninsula independent by foreign subjugation. In Italy, there were not others than Italians. The struggles of the past brought by the armies of all nations, almost always caused by conspiracies, had eliminated a major cause of the ancient quarrels and the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily ruled by an own dynasty recognized and loved by its people. The Dukes and the Pope did not need foreign aid; the Republic of Venice was independent and free, and even if the Lombardy still belonged to the Imperial house, it was more in name than in fact. Lombardy already led an existence entirely distinct from the Empire, it was holding on local institutions, enjoyed by a complete freedom in the management of its interests and definitely it wasn’t far from the day when, under the government of an archduke of the Austrian house, should have achieved its right of independence, as in fact it had already. In effects the French Revolution, with its expansion force and the ambitious target that brought the new revolutionary government, had conquered and destroyed the Republic of Venice. The General Bonaparte sold it to the Emperor in exchange of Lombardy, making sure that it and most of Italy became a fief of France and should contribute to the heavy support of the first empire.

Dethroned the Pope, ousted the King of Naples, deposed the Dukes, destroyed the freedom of Venice, almost traded the independence of Lombardy for the fervor rigorous and vexatious of the new government, Italy found itself in a completely new situation, whose conditions still persist, having been ineffective all the efforts to save it from injury.

The Restoration of 1815, besides to commit the error to compromise on the crime consumed in Venice by the Revolution, it could not avoid to resort to the weapons to mitigate the destabilizing elements (which in great turmoil that had passed through European society, it had spread on its territory, less in Italy than in other European countries). Then it succeeded to establish for more or less time the material order, but not the moral. In addition, in the Peninsula there was a reason of political disturbance more to animate the Liberals who did not disturb any other European country, as well as the new theories on the power, fatal legacy of the Revolution, which attracted the restless and progressive. meaning the thought spread among intellectuals, of national unity, as it always happened after every political upheaval that had passed through Italy in the Middle Ages and even in the successive ones. The memories of ancient Rome, of the power of its citizens, of the universal dominion of the eternal city have always confused the opinions of some leaders and strongly influenced on the destiny of the country.

The illusion of converting Italy in what was in other times Rome, in the Middle Ages had driven many to the Emperor, whereas the Popes fought to expel foreigners from the Peninsula, it is a demonstration of the groundlessness of that utopia. An idea that has lasted for centuries and has never fully rooted in the popular sentiment; heritage of a few politicians, has never been accepted by the people and, even today, is defended only by a few ambitious utopian and others that want to achieve their particular purposes.

We can say that the idea of the Restoration has returned in vogue mixed with the new theories, it has become a weapon of these to achieve that and of that to achieve the triumph of these. Italian governments threatened by innovators, not so much for their ideas, but because it was in danger their same existence, they had to employ rigorous methods of preventing and the weakest governments asked the help of the strongest, which in that case for Italy was the emperor of Austria. From that moment, the revolutionaries made many followers, with their proclamations on systems of government. To their unitary theories, that had never aroused the interest of the people, they could add the discontent that always moves the deepest aspirations of men, protesting against foreign oppression. There were no generous minds who didn’t deplore it, without taking into account that it was not fair to attribute it to the governments, because its only cause was the aggressive attitude of the revolutionaries, strengthened by the influence of this or that foreign nation.

The ambition of Piedmont to expand its borders is a constant in the history. Since 1849 it seemed determined to use it to their advantage and to the detriment of all other governments and the conservative interests of the Peninsula, the elements of disintegration that were made shield of the noble banner of the patriotism outraged. Furthermore pretended to affirm in Italy the known ideas of unity and criteria of government; comparable to those sustained in Europe by the movements who call themselves progressives. The court of Turin, where they found asylum all those professed the new doctrines, was not long in becoming the focal point from which they were thrown to the entire Peninsula lightning of rebellion. Not yet satisfied, the King of Sardinia, converted in the lawyer of the oppressed Italy, sent a division in Crimea, to fight together with the Anglo-French, with the sole aim of being able to raise his voice in the peace conferences that should held. In effect it was just so. With great scandal on the part of the moderates in Europe, the conferences held to put a stop to the Czar. He claimed to exercise by force rights incompatible with the sovereignty of the Sultan, closed with a ridiculous lie by Great Britain and France, which had the power to instigate the Kingdom of Sardinia against the powerful monarchs Ferdinand II and Pope Pius IX. From that moment Napoleon III, was the only real inspirer of what called Italian question, preparing the public opinion through the press; now turning towards the Pope imperious and naughty advices; now suspending any diplomatic relations with the two Sicilies ruler, whose only crime was not wanting in his own kingdom what Louis Napoleon had destroyed in his. Then, you could see Victor Emmanuel to start the series of humiliations in front of his powerful ally, to the liberals of Turin, to the supporters of new ideas, to the defenders of all rights of the citizen, bursting into praise for the new Caesar, who the rights had violated all.

Being so the things, January 1, 1849 came and the scene organized in the palace of the Tuileries announced to Europe that prepared the actors and the theater, it was begun the show. He started with some sincere efforts to keep the peace on the part of the Tory government, which then headed the British politics, and it is almost certain that he would have reached the purpose. Austria wanted nothing more than to avoid the war, but that was not what others wanted. Therefore, it found a way to postpone any conclusion, to put everything in question through a project of conference that Russia, eager to charge the conduct of Austria in 1853, undertook to present the bill. What they wanted to achieve was clear: diplomacy is never inventiveness neither creative. The congresses follows and ratify only accords that the events have concretely determined, without any initiative, neither have they preceded the same accords. The stipulation always delayed because of the so many footnotes; in the negotiations that held before the accord thousand difficulties are contrived and it comes really to believe that the authors of the delay hoped in all this.

Austria agreed to the guidelines proposed by England for the next congress, and in doing so, it showed to be ready to satisfy every note that had asked for what happened up to then. That is why; keen to avoid the war and the consequent huge expenses that the attitude of France and Sardinia required it, to give to the peace strength and stability. In any case, to verify the extent to which it was the good faith of its enemies, presented as an alternative the obligation of a general disarmament before the opening of the congress.

England, sincere lover of peace, welcomed the idea with favor as a guarantee that it should not come to an explosion of hostilities. However, it did not happen so for France and Sardinia. This is completely dependent by the will of Napoleon III, refused to disarm. Rejecting it, although manifested to the eyes of history the goal that it was proposed, it was the best way to get it. In addition, in fact it got it. Austria, irritated by such behavior, and believing that sooner or later it should have been in conflict with enemies, which was what they expected, sent an ultimatum for disarm to Sardinia and, in anticipation of a negative response of Turin, communicated the order to their troops in Lombardy to penetrate into Piedmont. Great Britain, that performed so fairly and constantly efforts in favor of the peace, it was stated as spokesperson for the European public opinion for its aversion manifested against the war. It did not even win the match to the opponents and, discarding the unfortunate intention of Russia, offered itself as a mediator in the resumption of negotiations from the point where he had left them Lord Cowley, to the condition of an immediate, total and simultaneous disarmament. Austria agreed the proposal, even though it was already in enemy territory with the outposts of its army, but this caused it to lose precious time in vain. Napoleon III, who had seen so close to the fulfillment of his plan would not give it up and rejected the mediation. Fighting started with all their devastation and horrors.

We held back on purpose in the narrative of the facts because to evidence the truth on what we said at the beginning, that is, that Sardinia was a docile instrument of Napoleon, or rather, that this one is the only responsible of the war of 1859 and of disasters that have followed it. So it proved, and we must not forget it.

However, why Napoleon III, who had destroyed the political freedom in France, why the new Caesar showed him so stubborn to promote the ideas of freedom in the neighboring nation? Why, descent and executor of the policy of Napoleon I proved him so zealous for the independence of Lombardy and Venice, when it was due to the disastrous imperial politics the slavery reduction and the destruction of the Adriatic republic? How was it possible that he, the enemy of the press and the forums, while his government based on the suppression of all aspirations, could favor the cause of outraged patriotism, to gain the generous hearts, in the absence of a deep conviction? He could not ignore the Revolution with all its faults, with all its injustices, with all its theories. It was impossible, as unfortunately after the reality has shown.

Many reasons drove the French emperor to sponsor and direct the Italian movement. Although not all has, it considered and deepened by the history. The first and foremost is that Napoleon III, an emanation, like his uncle, of the Revolution, of what's more offensive about this, established himself betraying his most important collaborators, trampling each oath; he was by his own nature the enemy of the powers that recognized in themselves a different origin from his. The European governments, not admitting this truth, in 1852 committed the grave error to recognize the new power, and so, neither those could live in peace with him, neither him with them. The power that lays its foundations in good principles, and the people that doesn’t recognize the ambition and audacity of a few or many, such as titles sufficient to govern men, will be always a constant danger for the government that cannot express other, and this, in turn, it will be for the power based on the good principles. The one will complain constantly against each other because they depart by opposing principles, as well as the promoters of the ancient right in comparison to who professes the modern right, because the conservative principles lack the force of expansion that have those revolutionary. Each government not founded on universal suffrage represented a risk for Napoleon and his democratic caesuras, and for this reason, he began his work by making wear to Victor Emmanuel the popular purple. Moreover, he obtained to break the treaties of 1815, that offended so much the pride of France, and to appear to the eyes of the people as the glorious continuer of his military traditions. Not to mention that with an ally as weak and docile as the Piedmont he could earn very much and lose little. For the expansion of France, the natural frontiers could have fixed toward the claimed territory without danger, and it happened just like that: redeeming a province from foreign domination, in return they could get another. At the same time, that Lombardy ceased to be Austrian to become of Piedmont, Savoy and Nice could cease to be Italian to become French.

Keep in mind that, even if the assumptions leaned on nothing certain, although Napoleon III had not been an enemy of those governments which are based on something more worthy, stable and logic of the universal suffrage. The very character of his power and that of French people would have obliged to promote non-stop riots in the world, so that France would address the attention elsewhere averting its eyes from his person. With an irrelevant government, it does not avert a danger. Being inactive the Municipalities, inactive Departments and highest organs of the State, France it would seem to be a corpse among the European nations if it had its soldiers in China, Syria and Italy. What should be of Napoleon the day when, retiring France in its borders, realizes that the feverish agitation that transmit foreign issues deplete, debilitate and attract the enemies that eventually they win? The answer lies in the consciousness of the whole Europe.

The second Bonaparte, like the previous one, represented the Revolution in Italy. This thought over many after that the French crossed the Alps in 1859, and this made it clear the subsequent events. The question of patriotism, that for a moment can blind generous men, totally disappeared. Therefore, in the Italian question now only allowed seeing, as acknowledged by his own followers, the cause of the arbitrariness and of force against the justice and law. The cause of the idea that was born against the idea that dies, as they say in their high-sounding language the innovators. That also die to the betimes, the freedom of the world will not die with it!

On April 29, 1859, the Austrians crossed the Ticino invading the Piedmont region, while the Sardinian army was becoming strong on the line of Dora Baltea waiting for the rescue of its allies. Up to May 19, the Imperials remained on the territory making unnecessary raids on the plain limited almost parallel to the rivers Ticino and Sesia and closed at south by the Po; and finally, retreating themselves they defensively waited the attack of the French-Sardinian. On 20 the hostilities took more decided in Montebello: the allies moved forward and the fighting of Palestro, on May 30 and 31, favored the march fearlessly of the bulk of the French army performed to move to the left bank of the river Ticino. In those days the general Gyulai gave proof of competence and valor and, without being discouraged by the failure of his previous attacks, he threw his soldiers towards the flank of the French army succeeding, after a bloody struggle, to maintain his columns for few hours in Boffalora and Magenta.

On the four of June, ended the bloody battle, lost by the imperials, who took the name of the above small town, they had to change their war strategy. The immediate result of that event was their escape from Milan and Lombardy. On June 8, the allied sovereigns entered in the capital, while the Austrians retreated in perfect order, without their disciplined army had lost nothing of the primitive energy.

The French-Sardinian subsequently crossed the rivers Adda, Oglio and Chiesa, while the Austrian columns, from all directions making a rapid movement of concentration, fell back on the left bank of the Mincio. On June 24, they brought back on the right bank and they launched the biggest battle that ever took place on that land irrigated by the blood of all nations: the Battle of Solferino. They took part 400.000 men and more than 30.000 the number of fighters dead and wounded. The Austrians lost their positions and retreated again on the left bank of the Mincio, where the winners pursued them without hindrance, on June 29.

Chapter 2

Previous events results occurred in Tuscany, Parma and Modena duchies and the Papal State - Peace of Villafranca - Consequences of the peace.

It was impossible that such important events did not arouse an immense echo in the states of southern Italy, where the Kingdom of Sardinia had already made its plans for the Revolution. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany was the first chosen for the fulfillment of its wicked purposes and in the last days of April, the Austrian ultimatum to the court of Turin was the signal for the dethronement of Duke Leopold. The diplomatic annals demonstrate indisputably, with a series of documents, the sordid intrigues and plots hatched by the Sardinian government to start the revolution in the country and also prove, others repulsive shows that Europe witnessed in Italy from some time: the ambassador Buoncompagni, accredited to Florence in a friend court, became head of the conspirators against the legitimate government. The Grand Duke Leopold, which after the lesson received in 1848, knew that in Italy the question of patriotism was not only the shield, the cover with which they were hidden illusory and criminal plans. He refused to participate to a war to which he was not directly concerned; then, given the expectations of a part of the population and believing in the good faith of the Liberal-moderate party, on April 27 decided to effect the concessions. It was a fatal path, which often leads to the defeat and usually to the dishonor. He commissioned to form a new government the Marquis of Lajatico, head of the supporters of the movement’s faction and intimately linked to the Sardinian ambassador; he declared to be willing to the alliance with Piedmont and to the war against Austria, and promised to grant the constitution to his people. It was useless. This was not what they wanted, and the revolutionaries, without losing heart, required to persisting in their intent, on 18 they went to the Sardinian ambassador's palace to expose the new claims submitted to the Grand Duke, in consideration of his conciliatory disposition. The requests were very explicit: to Leopold was asked to abdicate in favor of his son; deprived of all sovereignty, he was obliged to submit immediately the command of the troops to the General Ulloa, stating that the organization of the country should conform to the general of Italy.

This time the Piedmontese party reached its objective without resorting to new measures. The Grand Duke did not want to sign his own shame; protested in front of the diplomatic corps for the violence that he had been subject and abandoned his state. Meanwhile, in Florence were hoisted Sardinian insignias; acclaimed Victor Emmanuel dictator and protector of the country, the ambassador Buoncompagni uttered speeches and proclamations to the mutineers gathered under his balcony, and the Sardinian government invested him of all powers to direct the affairs of the duchy. An unprecedented scandal began the shameful acts of which the Italian peninsula has been the scene. The conquest carried out in a cowardly manner, with creeping methods, without the courage to take the field, to challenge the enemy, to expose them to the risks of the fight. The cowardice of the thief replaced to the dangers of conqueror!

If this pits our intent, we could fill many pages with the report of the machinations, of the intrigues that used the Piedmont, to snatch the crown to the Grand Duke Leopold and independence to Tuscany. The relations occurred between the court of Turin and the ambassador Buoncompagni, turned into the head of the conspirators, cannot envied by any nation that aspires to be defined civil. However, we cannot dwell over. Instead we will have the reason to be ashamed that in our time are allowed and applauded many iniquity, and this report is nothing more than an early review to let understand subsequent events.

Proclaimed in Florence Victor Emmanuel's dictatorship, he did not dare even to make manifest their plans in front of Europe. A unitary feeling pervades all his proclamations and he argues that his duty imposed to organize and direct the forces of the nation. However, he promises that it is necessary to establish an Italian army, he promises solemnly, that will be very soon denial, that at the end of the war he will return as a sacred relic the State that now is entrusted to him.

The unitary ideas of Turin found support in some exalted men, but by the time the moderate-liberal party, supported by the majority of public opinion, that saw with regret the peace lost and dismissed with the decision the loss of its national identity, tried to maintain to their minds the elements annexationists. Even the Prince Napoleon, who for this reason had landed at Leghorn as the head of the 5th Army Corps, tried to temper the impatience of the first not to lose all the favor of the latter and to not discover the plans set against the independence of the duchy in a time not yet propitious.

The fifth Army Corps, organized with the French and Tuscan troops and a division of volunteers of the Papal States, on June 12 marched toward the theater of war. The role that they had cannot be a source of pride for the soldiers who took part in it because they returned to their homes without ever having met the enemy. Without a doubt, Victor Emmanuel owes more to Prince Napoleon to those who fought at Magenta and Solferino: thanks to him, he could dominate in Tuscany, thanks to him led to the Revolution in the duchies of Parma and Modena, thanks to him, finally, it was begun the annexation movement that would allow him to assume the crown of Italy.

Even Parma, another independent State, governed by the Duchess Louise of Bourbon in name of his son the Duke Robert I, in juvenile age, suffered the sordid machinations of Piedmont. An uprising prepared from so much time forced the duchess to abandon her territory on April 30, but the troops remained loyal in Parma managed to choke it, because it had been promoted only by a few hired. On May 5, the duchess returned to Parma, acclaimed by the people and the army. Only a few days she could stay there. The defeat of the Austrians at Magenta, their exit from the territory bordering the duchy, the military successes of the Allies and the intentions of Piedmont to do not respect their neutrality, forced Lady Luisa of Bourbon to seek asylum in Switzerland.

In Parma occurred then the replicate of what happened in Florence: protectorate of Victor Emmanuel, the appointment of a commissioner, the excesses of the mob, the struggle between the Unitarians of Turin, which still didn’t dare reveal their projects, and the inhabitants of the duchy, to whom wasn’t enough that the patriotic cause insistently invoked was darkened.

In Modena, the scandal was even greater. Piedmont, without hostility or previous declaration of war, without the Duke Francis V had committed any act against his neighbors, declared annexed to its territory the city of Massa and Carrara, while the general Ulloa’s Tuscan troops opened fire on those of the Este that tried to bring back the two cities at the ducal domain. The retreat of Austrians after Magenta, the progressive march of the allies and the menacing activities of the 5th Army Corps, convinced the Grand Duke that it would be impossible to resist or remain neutral and, with his army of 4.000 men, left the duchy and retreated to the Austrian camp.

The Sardinians occupied the duchy in a few hours, as they had occupied the one of Parma. Victor Emmanuel declared himself his protector and appointed a commissioner that ruled in his name.

All events that occurred in name of the patriotism, and the war to foreigners were only a pretext to justify them. It has to agree that they managed to deceive so many men of good faith that glimpsed no patriotism in the principle with which they could legitimize all the expropriations. The voices that rose in defense of the Holy See and of the Neapolitan monarchy fell silent. Perhaps then even celebrated the triumphs of the French-Sardinians; the expulsion of the Grand Dukes was considered, if not as an act of justice, as a necessary fact, whose consequences wouldn’t be the turmoil in the world and the momentary triumph of the Revolution.

Even in Rome, began the farce that we could call ridiculous, if it had not been compromised the most intimate feelings and deepest convictions of all Catholics. Farce still ongoing and that will end, if God does not remedy it, with the end of the temporal power of the Holy See. It was then that the Emperor of the French, in documents and speeches, proved to be prodigal of promises to the Pope, the clergy and the entire world. The temporal power of the Pope is not in danger, he said, and France defends it, France warrants it, France will oppose by force to anyone looks to destroy it. In fact, the General Goyon, head of the French troops in the capital of the Catholic world, threaten to apply strict penalties to the offenders and those who wanted to imitate what happened in Tuscany, Parma and Modena. What an absurd cowardice! The prince Napoleon in central Italy and Napoleon III in Milan threw fuel on the fire, they exploited the patriotism of those who had laid their legitimate governments and had delivered to the King of Piedmont their independence. They encouraged in Turin the movement for unification of Italy and their general in Rome threatened with harsh punishment those who tried to deserve their praise. What a very strange thing! Such behavior didn’t arouse the indignation of anyone, as if, despite the great upheaval that would have caused in the Catholic world and the attacks against the rights of the Pope, that Victor Emmanuel was a more legitimate King of the dukes of Tuscany and Modena and the Duchess of Parma. However, this was the worst thing. Surely, it can be in contradiction being in good faith, to be in compromise contrary to own principles, or to make promises without the intention to grant them. Only to weaken the forces of whom is wanted to annihilate, waiting for the propitious moment; forget them, without the hassle of justify it; attribute everything to the circumstances, to causality, pulling the coup de grace when the danger has passed at all. Everywhere everything evaluated in a thousand ways, each one more benevolent than that we will not express here. This is what made who governs the destinies of France.

Lost by the Austrians the battle of Magenta and abandoned Lombardy, they had to leave the territories occupied in the Papal States. From this incident arose the farfetched idea expressed by a minister of Napoleon that of the attacks committed against the Pope were responsible only the Austrians. The garrison of Bologna left the city on June 12, and the agents of Piedmont, at the head of some mutineers, expelled the cardinal delegated, removed the papal insignia from the public buildings, hoisted the Sardinian flag and proclaimed the sovereignty of Victor Emmanuel. The other towns in the pontifical legation, contaminated by the same influences, imitated that example, but surprising they found that the king-dictator of Tuscany, Parma and Modena, did not want to be it of the Papal States. In the current situation, - he said, - every reckless solution could compromise the cause of independence. His Holiness, the real leader of the faithful, remains the same for his people, and we must respect not only his temporal authority, but also to consolidate it.

It was natural to speak so; the fight was still in progress and uncertain the victory. When shall be signed the peace with treaties that are or no compiled, according to our convenience, when it will not necessary to raise the Catholic consciences, then it will be different, then we will say yes.

For everything, there is a remedy when the honor and conscience are silent. The king had rejected the dictatorship, but his minister, while reiterating his respect for His Holiness, he could accept the direction of the forces that organized in the country to cooperate in the war of independence (1), appoint a special commissioner who entrusted him of the territorial government and order that the Piedmontese bersaglieri could occupy it militarily. Therefore, it happened. Never before as now, for the discredit of the winners and the satisfaction of the losers, might cite the words of Manin: Those are means that the moral sense disapproves, even when they were useful materially, they kill morally: no victory deserves to be placed in the balance with despise of oneself.

The Pope Pius IX could not remain silent in front of the seditious movement that removed to his obedience and authority part of the Church property, and then raised his voice to hear from the holy wrath of the Church against the men who were the cause of the scandal that soured Christianity. He hurled the maximum excommunication against those that with projects, tips, acquiescence, in any other way have usurped his power and the temporal jurisdiction, and invited the princes of Europe that, as in other periods, they should hasten in aid of the Holy See (2). Unfortunately, his voice, even arousing a great echo in the hearts of all Catholics, found deaf all other kings!

The amendments and annexations could not take place without the European powers took actions of it; in fact, they were directly involved in the distribution of the territory and to not to alter the established equilibrium. Great Britain declared (3) to consider provisional those annexations of territory, and the government of Napoleon III, always condescending to the pronouncements of London, it was prepared to make an identical declaration (4).

After crossed the Mincio by the allied armies, the Sardinians who formed the right wing of the formation received the order to attack Peschiera, and the French occupied Monzambano, Valeggio and Goito, while the Austrians, which barricaded in their fortifications, kept the troops advancing when were about 2 km from Villafranca. Were they expecting the attack in Verona or wanted to try the luck in a new battle? On the morning of July 7, believed for a moment that they would take the second solution; one day before their departments had taken a position on the plain without order, but in the new day, everything changed.

In that moment an unexpected event, followed by another even more unforeseen announced to Europe by Napoleon III in the following terms: "By the emperor to empress.

Between the Emperor of Austria, and me it was agreed a truce. Commissioners will appointed to establish the terms and their duration. On the 12th day of the same month in Villafranca was established the peace under the following terms:

- Italian Confederation under the presidency of the Pope.

Austria assignment of Lombardy

Restoration of the Dukes".

Europe for the amazement was astonished in front of such unexpected event, and as so happened always for Napoleon III enterprises, no one was satisfied for the obtained result.

To report here the events that accompanied the peace of Villafranca it would deviate too much from our purpose and, on the other hand, to say what everyone already knows. Nobody ignores the initiative taken by the French emperor, his insistence because Francis Joseph should consent to the armistice, the interview of the two kings and the disappointing role, not to mention anyone, that played in this event, the future King of Italy. That forgotten the according to which Italy had to be free until to the Adriatic Sea. Napoleon III would have forgotten many other things.

Words carried by the wind.............

In Venice, the nephew had proven himself worthy of his uncle. Now let see as Napoleon III announced to his army what would happen.

Soldiers, with the Emperor of Austria have agreed how the peace will be based; achieved the main goal of the war, Italy becomes a nation for the first time. A Confederation of all the states of Italy, under the honorary presidency of His Holiness, will gather the members of the same family; and of course the State of Venice remains under the rule of Austria, it will be in fact an Italian province but being part of the Confederation. The annexation of Lombardy to Piedmont in this part of the Alps creates a powerful ally that will recognize us the merits of its independence; the governments that have remained outside of the movement and that have returned in possession of their lands will understand the need of healthy reforms. A general amnesty will erase the traces of civil differences and Italy, in the future owner of its destiny, only itself could to blame if it can’t continue regularly on the road of order and freedom".

Soon you will come back in France and the grateful homeland welcomes with enthusiasm his soldiers that had raised the glory of our weapons in Montebello, Palestro, Turbigo, Magenta, Marignano and Solferino. In two months they have freed the Piedmont and Lombardy and they content themselves just because the armed struggle was assuming proportions that anymore they were not compared to the interests of France in this extraordinary war.

Make proud you for triumphs, of the obtained results, especially make proud you to be the beloved children of this France, which will be always a great people, up to when it will have a heart to understand the noble causes and men like you to defend them.

Therefore, what it seems to have pushed Napoleon to the sign the peace treaty was the set out of the war assuming proportions that anymore they were not compared to the interests of France in this extraordinary war. With a clear reference to Germany, because, even if everything can seem strange, not to use another name, in those events, Franz Joseph justifies his attitude with the isolation in which his allies left him. How to find out the truth between the contradictory statements of both emperors, was Germany or not to take part in to the contest, was imminent the intervention of Germany in the war fought by France and Sardinia? We do not hesitate to say no, for the latest military measures taken by the Diet, but more than us say it the diplomatic communications at that time occurred between the governments of Vienna, Berlin, London and St. Petersburg.

If the reason given by Napoleon III is not exact, if it is almost certain that, at the point where things were, Venice should conquered and forced the quadrangle before that the governments of Germany, divided in their formal intentions and slow as always, they decided to join them, why did they reconcile. Because his work although it was not yet complete, however, had been planned; because he knew that once started the Revolution, it alone would have arrived at the designated point; because it was convenient to study other solutions for central Italy, Naples and Rome.

Therefore, the peace interested him materially and few cared to sign a treaty that would not have fulfilled in any of its parts, if not in that which was available for him. Because in bringing the great battles he had in mind against the law of nations, against as established and respected in the world, in attacking the consciences and the statutes of justice, he wished not to have in front of him 200 thousand combatants. This is why was made the peace of Villafranca; because the intrigue on Rome couldn’t be hidden for a long time, because central Italy was now plunged into anarchy, because it had to carry out the plan of annexations, for this it was necessary that the Austria depose weapons. Therefore, it was. Napoleon III promised what they wanted, Franz Joseph thought he had got from the war the advantages that he did not enjoy before and then the peace signed. If men without honor may exalt those who can realize their plans with similar means, between the one who makes the joke and the mocked, the choice is clear for the men of honor.

Generally, it believed that Napoleon III has always worked in Italy forced by circumstances. He started the war of 1859 provoked by Austria. He signed a peace treaty threatened by Germany. Against his wish, he built the annexation of the duchies, making it appear in front of Europe as a perjurer of agreements already signed. Against his will invaded the Marche, Umbria and the Kingdom of Naples. His highest aspiration was that the Pope retains its temporal power: in a word, that he does not command anything, but adapts himself to everything. Moreover, it is so much remarkable that men who think this about Louis Napoleon give him a great talent. Call him a genius, forgetting that if it was true what they suppose, if it could believed in good faith what Napoleon says and promises, the emperor of the French would be the man most vulgar and inept that you can imagine. The talent, the genius is never the slave of circumstances these are his slaves. However, this is not the opinion that we have on Napoleon III. If he seeks a purpose, he pursues it without any deviation from it, favored by blindness or impotence of