Natural Gas Measurement Handbook

Natural Gas Measurement Handbook

James E. Gallagher

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

List of Tables

List of Figures

Preface

Symbols

Unit Conversions

CHAPTER ONE: Introduction

1.1 Transportation System

1.2 Measurement

1.3 Fluid Classification, Commercial

1.4 Material Quality

1.5 Risk Management

CHAPTER TWO: Composition and Quality

2.1 Assay

2.2 Quality Parameters and Tolerances

2.3 Potential Impacts of Gas Quality

2.4 Typical Streams

CHAPTER THREE: Physical Properties and Process Conditions

3.1 Natural Gas

3.2 Fluid Classification: Technical

3.3 Phase Envelope

3.4 Fluid Properties

3.5 Process (or Operating) Conditions

3.6 Typical Natural Gas Physical Properties

CHAPTER FOUR: Measurement Concepts

4.1 Applicable Fluids

4.2 Base Conditions

4.3 Flowmeters (or Primary Devices)

4.4 Flowmeter Calibration Concepts

4.5 Law of Similarity

4.6 Single-Phase Fluid Flow in Pipes

4.7 Multiphase Fluid Flow in Pipes

4.8 Secondary Devices

4.9 Tertiary Device

4.10 Uncertainty

4.11 Total Cost of Measurement

CHAPTER FIVE: Orifice Flowmeter

5.1 General Principles

5.2 Mass Flow Equation

5.3 Artifact Calibration

5.4 Uncertainty Roadmap

5.5 Sources of Error

5.6 Risk Management

CHAPTER SIX: Ultrasonic Flowmeter

6.1 General Principles

6.2 Mass Flow Equation

6.3 Central Facility Calibration

6.4 In Situ Calibration

6.5 Uncertainty Roadmap

6.6 Sources of Error

6.7 Risk Management

CHAPTER SEVEN: Turbine Flowmeter

7.1 General Principles

7.2 Mass Flow Equation

7.3 Central Facility Calibration

7.4 In Situ Calibration

7.5 Uncertainty Roadmap

7.6 Sources of Error

7.7 Risk Management

CHAPTER EIGHT: Rotary Displacement Flowmeter

8.1 General Principles

8.2 Mass Flow Equation

8.3 Central Facility Calibration

8.4 In Situ Calibration

8.5 Uncertainty Roadmap

8.6 Sources of Error

8.7 Risk Management

CHAPTER NINE: Calculations

9.1 Base Conditions

9.2 Physical Properties

9.3 Natural Gas Density

9.4 GPA 2172 versus A.G.A.8

9.5 Mass Flow Rate in Pipes

9.6 Mass Flow Rate for Orifice Flowmeter

9.7 Mass Flow Rate for Ultrasonic Flowmeter

9.8 Mass Flow Rate for Turbine Flowmeter

9.9 Mass Flow Rate for Rotary Displacement Flowmeter

9.10 Volumetric Flow Rate at Base Conditions

9.11 Energy Flow Rate at Base Condtions

9.12 Quantities

CHAPTER TEN: Secondary and Tertiary Devices

10.1 General

10.2 Differential Pressure (dP)

10.3 Static Pressure

10.4 Temperature

10.5 Multivariable Transmitter

10.6 Online Densitometer

10.7 Moisture Analyzer

10.8 Online Gas Chromatograph

10.9 Other Analyzers

10.10 Flow Computers

10.11 Gas Sampling Systems

CHAPTER ELEVEN: Electronic Gas Measurement

11.1 Description of an Electronic Gas Measurement System

11.2 System Accuracy

11.3 Definitions

11.4 Sampling Flow Variables

11.5 Low Flow Detection

11.6 Averaging Techniques

11.7 Compressibility, Density, and Heating Values

11.8 Hourly and Daily Quantity Calculations

11.9 Data Availability

11.10 Audit and Reporting Requirements

11.11 Equipment Verification, Calibration, and Certification

11.12 Security

CHAPTER TWELVE: Uncertainty

12.1 Uncertainty Terms

12.2 Measurement Uncertainty

12.3 Examples of Flowmeter Uncertainties

12.4 Statistical Weighting

CHAPTER THIRTEEN: Measurement System Design

13.1 Targeted Uncertainty

13.2 Fluid Physical Properties

13.3 Operating Design Data

13.4 Other Process Conditions

13.5 General Equipment Redundancy

13.6 Site Requirements

13.7 Structures

13.8 Piping Requirements

13.9 Pressure Regulation and Control

13.10 Flare and Vent Facilities

13.11 Overpressure Protection

13.12 Thermal Relief Valves

13.13 Headers

13.14 Strainers

13.15 DB&B Valves

13.16 Check Valves

13.17 Pulsation Control

13.18 Primary Device

13.19 Secondary Devices

13.20 Tertiary Device (Flow Computer)

13.21 Control Valves

13.22 Wiring and Grounding

13.23 Measurement Control Panel

13.24 Power Supplies

13.25 Satellite Panels

13.26 Supervisory Control and Leak Detection

13.27 Security

13.28 Factory Acceptance Testing

13.29 Dewatering, Cleaning, and Drying

13.30 Commissioning

CHAPTER FOURTEEN: Orifice Flowmeter Design

14.1 General

14.2 Velocity and Piping Insulation

14.3 Strainers

14.4 Flowmeter Assembly

14.5 Flowmeter, Mechanical

14.6 Piping Spools, Mechanical

14.7 Secondary and Tertiary Devices

CHAPTER FIFTEEN: Ultrasonic Flowmeter Design

15.1 General

15.2 Velocity and Piping Insulation

15.3 Acoustic Filter

15.4 Flowmeter Assembly

15.5 Flowmeter, Mechanical

15.6 Piping Spools, Mechanical

15.7 Flowmeter: SPU, Electrical, and Software

15.8 Secondary and Tertiary Devices

CHAPTER SIXTEEN: Turbine Flowmeter Design

16.1 General

16.2 Velocity and Piping Insulation

16.3 Strainer and Lubrication

16.4 Flowmeter Assembly

16.5 Flowmeter, Mechanical

16.6 Piping Spools, Mechanical

16.7 Flowmeter: SPU, Electrical, and Software

16.8 Secondary and Tertiary Devices

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: Rotary Displacement Flowmeter Design

17.1 General

17.2 Velocity and Piping Insulation

17.3 Filtration and Lubrication

17.4 Flowmeter Assembly

17.5 Flowmeter, Mechanical

17.6 Piping Spools, Mechanical

17.7 Flowmeter: SPU, Electrical, and Software

17.8 Secondary and Tertiary Devices

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN: Inspection, Testing, Verification, Calibration, and Certification

18.1 Inspection

18.2 Testing

18.3 Verification

18.4 Calibration

18.5 Certification

18.6 Equipment

18.7 Equipment Information

18.8 Records

APPENDIX: Standards, Publications, and Regulations

Glossary

Index

Copyright

Copyright © 2006 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas.

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Gulf Publishing Company

2 Greenway Plaza, Suite 1020

Houston, TX 77046

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed in the United States of America.

Printed on acid-free paper.

Text design and composition by Ruth Maassen.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Gallagher, James E.

Natural gas measurement handbook / James E. Gallagher.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 1-933762-00-4 (acid-free paper)

1. Natural gas—Measurement. 2. Gas-meters—Handbooks, manuals, etc.

I. Title.

TH6870.G35 2006

665.7′4—dc22

2006016759

Dedication

To my wife Patricia, my sons Ryan and Daniel, and my parents

List of Tables

2 Composition and Quality

2-1 Typical Assay 21

2-2 Additional Information 22

2-3 Quality Parameters and Tolerances 23

2-4 GOM Production Sales Gas Composition 30

2-5 GOM Inlet to Gas Plant Composition 32

2-6 GOM Outlet of Gas Plant Composition 33

2-7 Outlet of LNG Plant Composition 35

4 Measurement Concepts

4-1 Multiphase Classifications, Horizontal and Vertical Pipes 103

5 Orifice Flowmeter

5-1 Mass Flow, Reynolds Number, and Expansion Factor Equations 122

5-2 Errors in Orifice Flowmeters 130

6 Ultrasonic Flowmeter

6-1 Sensitivity Analysis Due to Buildup and Decay 150

6-2 Chordal Path Angle Error 152

6-3 Reflective Timing Measurements, 4-in. (100 mm) Flowmeter 154

6-4 Reflective Timing Measurements, 12-in. (300 mm) Flowmeter 155

6-5 Nonreflective Timing Measurements, 4-in. (100 mm) Flowmeter 156

6-6 Nonreflective Timing Measurements, 12-in. (300 mm) Flowmeter 157

9 Calculations

9-1 GPA 2172 versus A.G.A.8, GOM Production Sales Gas 210

9-2 GPA 2172 versus A.G.A.8, GOM Inlet to Gas Plant 211

9-3 GPA 2172 versus A.G.A.8, GOM Outlet of Gas Plant 212

9-4 GPA 2172 versus A.G.A.8, Outlet of LNG Plant 213

12 Uncertainty

12-1 Summary of Flowmeter Uncertainty Calculations for a Pf of 1385 psig and a Tf of 100°F 308

12-2 Summary of Flowmeter Uncertainty Calculations for a Pf of 985 psig and a Tf of 70°F 309

12-3 Summary of Flowmeter Uncertainty Calculations for a Pf of 585 psig and a Tf of 100°F 310

12-1 Summary of Flowmeter Uncertainty Calculations for a Pf of 185 psig and a Tf of 70°F 311

13 Measurement System Design

13-1 Components Analyzed by the Gas Chromatograph 342

List of Figures

1 Introduction

1-1 Transportation System 3

1-2 Simple Gas Gathering System 3

1-3 Complex Gas Gathering System 5

1-4 Gas Processing Plant 6

1-5 Transmission Pipeline System 8

1-6 Distribution System 9

1-7 Phase Envelope: Raw Material and Finished Product 15

3 Physical Properties and Process Conditions

3-1 Multicomponent Gas Stream, PR EOS Phase Envelope 44

3-2 Typical Gulf Coast Gas, Phase Diagram 45

3-3 Predicted PhasePro Retrograde Generation, GOM Production Sales Gas 46

3-4 Predicted PhasePro Envelope 46

3-5 Hydrate Disassociation Curves for Natural Gas 53

3-6 GOM Production Sales Gas: ρb, ρtp, μ, SOS, κr 67

3-7 GOM Production Sales Gas: Mass Density versus Pressure for Various Isotherms 68

3-8 GOM Production Sales Gas: Absolute Viscosity versus Pressure for Various Isotherms 68

3-9 GOM Production Sales Gas: Speed of Sound versus Pressure for Various Isotherms 69

3-10 GOM Production Sales Gas: Real Isentropic Exponent versus Pressure for Various Isotherms 69

3-11 GOM Inlet to Gas Plant: ρb, ρtp, μ, SOS, κr 71

3-12 GOM Inlet to Gas Plant: Mass Density versus Pressure for Various Isotherms 72

3-13 GOM Inlet to Gas Plant: Absolute Viscosity versus Pressure for Various Isotherms 72

3-14 GOM Inlet to Gas Plant: Speed of Sound versus Pressure for Various Isotherms 73

3-15 GOM Inlet to Gas Plant: Real Isentropic Exponent versus Pressure for Various Isotherms 73

3-16 GOM Outlet of Gas Plant: ρb, ρtp, μ, SOS, κr 75

3-17 GOM Outlet of Gas Plant: Mass Density versus Pressure for Various Isotherms 76

3-18 GOM Outlet of Gas Plant: Absolute Viscosity versus Pressure for Various Isotherms 76

3-19 GOM Outlet of Gas Plant: Speed of Sound versus Pressure for Various Isotherms 77

3-20 GOM Outlet of Gas Plant: Real Isentropic Exponent versus Pressure for Various Isotherms 77

4 Measurement Concepts

4-1 Classification of Flowmeters 82

4-2 Classification of Calibration Concepts 83

4-3 Calibration Systems, Central Facility and In Situ 83

4-4 SwRI’s Metering Research Facility 85

4-5 CEESI’s Iowa Facility 86

4-6 TransCanada Calibrations’ Winnipeg Facility 86

4-7 Fully Developed Velocity Profiles, Laminar and Turbulent 94

4-8 Fully Developed Turbulent Velocity Profile (Hinze), Pipe Flows at Various Downstream Pipe Diameters 97

4-9 Developing Flows, Swirl Free, Nonsymmetrical Pipe Flows at Various Downstream Pipe Diameters 98

4-10 Developing Flows, Moderately Swirling, Nonsymmetrical Pipe Flows at Various Downstream Pipe Diameters 99

4-11 Developing Flows, High Swirling, Symmetrical Pipe Flows at Various Downstream Pipe Diameters 100

4-12 Multiphase Flow for Horizontal Pipes 104

4-13 Sources of Uncertainty for Flowmeters 109

5 Orifice Flowmeter

5-1 Classification of Orifice Flowmeters 112

5-2 Dual-Chamber Orifice Fitting 114

5-3 Orifice Plate 115

5-4 Sources of Uncertainty for Orifice Meters, a Broad Overview 126

5-5 Sources of Uncertainty Using Artifact Compliance Calibration 126

5-6 Sources of Uncertainty for Orifice Meters, a Detailed Overview 127

5-7 Deficiencies of Geometric Similarity 128

5-8 Deficiencies of Dynamic Similarity 128

6 Ultrasonic Flowmeter 135

6-1 Classification of Ultrasonic Flowmeters 136

6-2 Multipath Ultrasonic Flowmeters 138

6-3 Sources of Uncertainty for Ultrasonic Meters, a Broad Overview 144

6-4 Sources of Uncertainty Using Central Facility Calibration 144

6-5 Sources of Uncertainty Using In Situ Calibration 145

6-6 Sources of Uncertainty for Ultrasonic Meters, a Detailed Overview 146

6-7 Deficiencies of Geometric Similarity 147

6-8 Deficiencies of Dynamic Similarity 147

7 Turbine Flowmeter

7-1 Gas Turbine Flowmeter 164

7-2 Sources of Uncertainty for Gas Turbine Meters, a Broad Overview 169

7-3 Sources of Uncertainty Using Central Facility Calibration 169

7-4 Sources of Uncertainty Using In Situ Calibration 170

7-5 Sources of Uncertainty for Gas Turbine Meters, a Detailed Overview 171

7-6 Deficiencies of Geometric Similarity 172

7-7 Deficiencies of Dynamic Similarity 172

8 Rotary Displacement Flowmeter

8-1 Rotary Displacement Flowmeter 179

8-2 Sources of Uncertainty for Rotary Displacement Meters, a Broad Overview 183

8-3 Sources of Uncertainty Using Central Facility Calibration 184

8-4 Sources of Uncertainty Using In Situ Calibration 185

8-5 Sources of Uncertainty for Rotary Displacement Meters, a Detailed Overview 186

8-6 Deficiencies of Geometric Similarity 186

8-7 Deficiencies of Dynamic Similarity 187

9 Calculations

9-1 GOM Production Sales Gas Phase Envelope 200

9-2 GOM Production Sales Gas Retrograde Generation, PR 201

9-3 GOM Production Sales Gas Retrograde Generation, SRK 202

9-4 A.G.A.8’s Detailed Method, Uncertainties and Limitations 206

9-5 A.G.A.8’s Gross Characterization Method, Uncertainties and Limitations 208

9-6 Orifice Calculations of GOM Production Sales Gas 221

9-7 Orifice Calculations for GOM Outlet of a Gas Plant 221

9-8 Ultrasonic Calculations for GOM Outlet from a Gas Plant 225

9-9 Turbine Calculations for GOM Outlet of a Gas Plant 228

9-10 Rotary Displacement Calculations for GOM Outlet of a Gas Plant 232

10 Secondary and Tertiary Devices

10-1 Differential Pressure Transmitter 249

10-2 Static Pressure Transmitter 252

10-3 Temperature Transmitter 254

10-4 Multivariable Transmitter 256

10-5 Online Gas Chromatograph 264

10-6 Flow Computer 270

10-7 Sampling System Overview 272

10-8 Automatic Flow-Weighted Sampling System 276

10-9 Manual (or Spot) Sampling System 277

12 Uncertainty

12-1 Roadmap of Sources of Uncertainty for Flowmeter Estimations 304

12-2 Interlaboratory Results of a MUSM Flowmeter Assembly (Artifact) 305

12-3 Statistical Weighting Example 315

13 Measurement System Design

13-1 Header Configurations 332

14 Orifice Flowmeter Design

14-1 Orifice Flowmeter Assembly 356

15 Ultrasonic Flowmeter Design

15-1 Ultrasonic Flowmeter Assembly 364

16 Turbine Flowmeter Design

16-1 Turbine Flowmeter Assembly 374

Preface

Measurement is the basis of commerce between producers, royalty owners, transporters, process plants, marketers, state and federal government authorities, and the general public. In fact, accurate measurement of hydrocarbon fluids and materials has a significant impact on the Gross National Product of exporting and importing countries, the financial performance and asset base of global companies, and the perceived efficiency of operating facilities. The need for accurate fiscal measurement is obvious.

Given the present or future levels of the cost of natural gas, one can quickly quantify the material and economic value unaccounted for that is associated with each ±0.01% of systematic uncertainty that might unknowingly exist in the measurement systems.

Measurement errors can have both immediate and long-term impacts on profits. Inaccurate measurement may result in loss of customers, adverse publicity, potential penalties, and legal liabilities. In short, equitable and accurate measurement is essential to business. It affects the validity of financial and operating reports as well as the corporate reputation (cash flow, profit and loss, balance sheet, royalties and taxes).

For reasons such as these, it is essential that material quantity measurements be precise and accurate with minimal bias errors. Furthermore, it is incumbent on those involved in custody transfer to establish and maintain the traceability chains that link their measurements to appropriate domestic and international standards. In this manner, fiscal transfers can be done equitably with the confidence of both seller and buyer alike.

The capital and operating resources (CAPEX, OPEX) applied for fiscal transfers must be commensurate with the total cost of measurement: the capital cost of technology, the operating cost of technology, industry practice or standards, regulatory compliance and the total fiscal exposure or risk (commodity value times throughput), the strategic and tactical business direction, and competitors’ strategy. The amount of uncertainty is governed by the investment of resources (CAPEX and OPEX) combined with the inherent uncertainty associated with the method of measurement (primary, secondary, and tertiary devices) and the fiscal exposure or risk.

Measurement is a technically demanding, complex, state-of-the-art field with a significant impact on the profitability of any business. As such, the field of measurement demands a highly technical language of definitions, acronyms, and symbols that must be fully understood and embraced by managers, supervisors, engineers, technicians, and operating personnel.

The combination of the roadmaps (sources of uncertainty) for each flowmeter technology, the uncertainty estimations (U⁹⁵), and the statistical weighting method are tools that can

• Identify error types and magnitude for the primary, secondary, and tertiary devices.

• Identify areas of improvement for existing facilities (upgrade or replacement).

• Set achievable loss performance based on the invested resources (CAPEX).

• Identify OPEX requirements for each flowmeter technology.

• Set priorities on OPEX resource allocation for each location.

• Set priorities on the loss investigation process.

The author’s desire is that the information contained in this handbook provides a clear presentation of the measurement principles, state-of-the-art technology, and its applications in the real world.

Symbols

Terms

Units of Measure

Subscripts

Powers

Unit Conversions

The following unit conversions have been found useful for measurement engineers, technicians, and operating personnel.

Length

m = ft × 0.3048

mm = in. × 25.4

mm = m × 1E –03

Flowing Temperature (Tf)

°C = (°F – 32) × (5/9)

°F = [(9/5) × °C] + 32

°K = °C + 273.15

°R = °F + 459.67

Flowing Pressure (Pf)

MPa = psi ×× 6.894 757E –03

KPa = psi × 6.894 757E +00

bar = psi × 6.894 757E –02

mbar = bar × 1E –03

KPa = Pa × 1E +03

MPa = Pa × 1E +06

Absolute Pressure (Pf)

psia = psig + Patm

bara = barg + Patm

kPaa = kPag + Patm

MPaa = psig + Patm

Differential Pressure (dP)

psid = in H2O at 60°F/27.707 271

psid = in H2O at 68°F/27.729 760

mbard = in H2O at 60°F × 2.488 429

kPad = in at 60°F × 0.248 842 9

Pad = in H2O at 60°F × 248.842 9

Mass (m)

kgm = lbm × 4.535 924E –01

grain= lbm/7.0E +03

Mass Density (ρ)

kgm per m³ = 1bm per ft³ × 1.601 846E +01

Volume (ρ)

m³ = ft³ × 2.831 685E –02

Energy Content (H)

J = BtuIT × 1.055 056E +03

Calorie = BtuIT/3.968 3E –03

Calorie = Joule/4.1869E +00

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Measurement is the basis of commerce among producers, royalty owners, transporters, process plants, marketers, state and federal government authorities, and the general public.

In fact, measurement of hydrocarbons has a significant impact on the Gross National Product of exporting and importing countries, the financial performance and asset base of global companies, and the perceived efficiency of operating facilities. Given the present or future levels of the cost of these critical resource materials, one can quickly quantify the material and economic value unaccounted for that is associated with each ±0.01% of systematic uncertainty that might unknowingly exist in the measurement systems. The need for accurate fiscal measurement is obvious.

Measurement errors can have both immediate and long-term effects on profits. Inaccurate measurement may result in loss of customers, adverse publicity, potential penalties, and legal liabilities. In short, equitable and accurate measurement is essential to business. It affects the validity of financial and operating reports as well as the corporate reputation.

For these reasons, it is essential that material quantity measurements are precise with minimal bias errors. Furthermore, it is incumbent on those involved in custody transfer to establish and maintain the traceability chains that link their measurements to appropriate domestic and international standards. In this manner, fiscal transfer of materials can be done equitably with the confidence of all parties.

The capital and operating resources (CAPEX and OPEX) applied for fiscal transfers must be commensurate with the total cost of measurement: the capital cost of technology, the operating cost of technology, industry practice or standards, regulatory compliance, and the total fiscal exposure or financial risk (commodity value times throughput).

1.1 Transportation System

The natural gas transportation system (shown in Figure 1-1) covers the gas gathering systems, the gas processing plants, the gas transmission systems, the gas distribution systems, and the various end users.

Figure 1-1 Transportation system.

Gas Gathering Systems

The natural gas transportation system begins at the natural gas producing properties. A grid of pipelines throughout the gas producing field gathers the raw material from producing properties or at connecting points of other gathering systems. Compressor stations are located where needed throughout the gird to move the raw material to the gas processing plants. The gas gathering system terminates at the inlet of the gas processing plants. A simplified gas gathering system is shown in Figure 1-2.

Figure 1-2 Simple gas gathering system.

At the production measurement facility, the fluid is a singlephase gas. A gas gathering system contains liquid pipeline condensate (retrograde and injected condensate). As the gas is transported through the first 5 miles of the system, the system equilibrates to the seabed (or ground) temperature. When the pressure and temperature of the gathering system falls to below the hydrocarbon dew point curve, retrograde condensate is created, forming a two-phase fluid.

Retrograde condensate originates from the drop in gas temperature and pressure due to seabed (or ground) temperatures and pipeline hydraulics. The fluid cannot suspend the same amount of hydrocarbons in the gas phase, resulting in retrograde condensation of liquid hydrocarbons.

One source of injected condensate originates from the processing of the crude oil by the producer to conform to the true vapor limitations contained in the federal environmental regulations. A second source of injected condensate originates from the gas producing properties, which have certain amounts of field condensate.

The measurement of injected condensate into of the gas gathering system uses liquid measurement technology (static or dynamic) in accordance with appropriate industry standards.

Gas gathering systems, by their physics, exhibit multiphase flow due to the presence of liquid pipeline condensate, free water, and liquid methanol (hydrate prevention).

For gas gathering systems, the frequency of pigging dictates the amount of pipeline condensate received into the slug catcher and coalescer separator. A rigorous pigging program is required to ensure the liquid quantities do not exceed the design capacity of the system.

The pipeline condensate may be processed by the gas plant or transported to other industrial customers (refineries and chemical plants) as an intermediate product (field condensate).

At the inlet to the gas processing plant, the best practice is to install slug catchers in combination with coalescer separators immediately followed by a single-phase gas measurement facility. This capital-intensive equipment ensures the presence of singlephase gas for the custody transfer.

At the end of the gas gathering system, the pipeline condensate (retrograde and injected condensate) employs liquid measurement technology (static or dynamic) in accordance with the appropriate industry standards. For small pipeline condensate throughputs, tank trucks are employed to transport the raw material to other consuming and processing plants. For large pipeline condensate throughputs, liquid pipelines transport the raw material to other consuming and processing plants.

Complex gas gathering systems (see Figure 1-3) involve gathering pipeline interconnections upstream of the gas processing plant.

Figure 1-3 Complex gas gathering system.

Interconnections without Pipeline Condensate Injection

For complex systems involving pipeline interconnections that do not allow the injection of pipeline condensate, the best practice is to install a slug catcher followed by a liquid-gas separator immediately followed by a single-phase gas measurement facility. This ensures the presence of single-phase gas for the custody transfer.

The pipeline condensate (liquids from the slug catcher and liquid-gas separator) is returned to the originating gas gathering system.

Interconnections with Pipeline Condensate Injection

For complex systems involving pipeline interconnections that allow the injection of pipeline condensate, the best practice is to install a slug catcher followed by a liquid-gas separator immediately followed by a single-phase gas measurement facility. This ensures the presence of single-phase gas for the custody transfer.

The pipeline condensate (liquids from the slug catcher and liquid-gas separator) is measured using liquid dynamic technologies and practices.

Gas Processing Plants

Gas processing plants (see Figure 1-4) take the raw material (natural gas, pipeline condensate, water, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur) and generate intermediate products (raw make, plant condensate, natural gasoline, and ethane-propane streams) and finished products (transmission quality natural gas, butane, and propane).

Figure 1-4 Gas processing plant.

Gas processing plants employ fractionation processes to convert the raw material (gas gathering system) to intermediate and finished products.

The intermediate products are transported to other processing plants (refineries and chemical plants) through dedicated pipelines between the gas processing plant and the industrial consumers.

Gas plant economics are based on the price of intermediate and refined products. As such, the composition of the intermediate and finished products exiting the plant vary due to their market-driven commodity values.

Two finished liquid products (propane and butane) are transported to the market through refined product pipelines.

An originating gas plant is a gas plant located at the origin of a transmission pipeline that processes a gas gathering system and injects transmission-quality natural gas into the transmission pipeline. A straddle plant is a gas plant located on a transmission pipeline (not at its starting point) that processes a gas gathering system and injects transmission-quality natural gas into the transmission pipeline. A liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant processes the raw material (gas gathering system) for export to another country or region using marine vessels. LNG plants use a cryogenic process in light of plant efficiency and gas quality parameters. At the exit of the LNG plant, the processed natural gas is stored and transported at cryogenic temperatures.

Transmission Systems

At the exit of the gas processing plant, the transmission quality natural gas (finished product) enters a national grid of gas transmission pipelines (see Figure 1-5). This national grid is connected to natural gas storage facilities, liquefied natural gas import and export terminals, large industrial consumers (power plants, steel mills, refineries, chemical pants,