WJ IV Clinical Use and Interpretation: Scientist-Practitioner Perspectives

USA

Preface

Dawn P. Flanagan and Vincent C. Alfonso

The Woodcock-Johnson IV (WJ IV) is an extensive revision of its predecessor, expanded in depth, breadth, cognitive complexity, and online scoring. It is widely used for assessing the cognitive, academic, and oral language abilities of children, adolescents, and adults. The WJ IV includes extensive examiner and technical manuals, but little else has been published to date on this new battery. Therefore, a need exists for documenting its clinical utility, particularly from a scientist-practitioner perspective. To address this need, WJ IV Clinical Use and Interpretation presents a wide variety of exemplary clinical applications of the WJ IV from its authors as well as numerous leading experts in assessment-related fields, including learning disabilities, school psychology, and neuropsychology.

The WJ IV is introduced in Part I of this book, with emphasis on how to interpret the range of scores and composites, as well as variation and comparison procedures, that are available. Additionally, Part I addresses the instructional implications of the diverse range of tests comprising the WJ IV. Ding and Alfonso describe the organization, content, and psychometric properties of the WJ IV in Chapter 1 and Dumont, Willis, and Walrath provide comprehensive coverage of how to interpret scores, composites, and intra-individual analysis options for the WJ IV in Chapter 2. Following these chapters, Niileksela, Reynolds, Keith, and McGrew present the results of a special validity study using the standardization data of the WJ IV, demonstrating that broad cognitive abilities referenced by CHC theory are important for explaining broad and narrow aspects of academic achievement. In Chapter 4, Decker, Wright, and Vetter provide detailed instruction on how to use the new WJ IV online scoring. Next, Maricle and Johnson (Chapter 5) and Mather and Wendling (Chapter 6) describe instructional implications from the WJ IV Tests of Cognitive Abilities and Tests of Academic Achievement, respectively. Part I concludes with a thoughtful and jocular summary of the strengths and weaknesses of the WJ IV tests of cognitive abilities (Chapter 7) by Schneider.

The clinical and diagnostic utility of the WJ IV is discussed in Part II of this book. In Chapter 8, McDonough and Flanagan provide a research-based framework for using and interpreting the WJ IV within the context of a referral for suspected learning disability in school-age children, with emphasis on the pattern of strengths and weaknesses (PSW) approach. Diagnosis of learning disabilities in adulthood using the WJ IV is described in detail by Lovett and Spenceley in Chapter 9. While McDonough and Flanagan’s approach to learning disability identification is in line with IDEIA and its attendant regulations, Lovett and Spenceley’s focus is on use of the DSM-5 criteria for diagnosing learning disorder and understanding disability as reflected in the ADA. The most up-to-date information on diagnosis of Intellectual Disability and assessment of Giftedness using the WJ IV is described by Floyd, Woods, Singh, and Hawkins (Chapter 10) and Pfeifer and Yarnell (Chapter 11), respectively.

Use of the WJ IV in evidence-based assessment approaches is presented in Part III of this book. In Chapter 12, Ortiz, Ortiz, and Devine tackle the complex issues surrounding the use of the WJ IV in the assessment of students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. Next, Miller, McGill, and Johnson review the application of the WJ IV from a neuropsychological perspective (Chapter 13). Specifically, these authors present a re-classification of the WJ IV tests into a neuropsychological conceptual framework, which allows for additional interpretive options. This section and book concludes with a well thought out and ready-for-implementation approach for use of the WJ IV in an RTI service delivery model by Apgar and Potts (Chapter 14).

As editors, we thank all those who contributed to this volume for their expertise, time, and adherence to the scientist-practitioner model. In addition to the chapter authors, we are also grateful to the staff at Academic Press for their expertise, guidance, and pleasant and cooperative working style, most especially Barbara Makinster, Caroline Johnson, and Nikki Levy. These individuals helped to develop what we believe is a volume of the finest quality possible. Finally, we express sincere gratitude to Kristine Lin for her editorial assistance as well as her dedication and commitment to this project.

Chapter 1

Overview of the Woodcock-Johnson IV

Organization, Content, and Psychometric Properties

Yi Ding¹ and Vincent C. Alfonso²,    ¹Graduate School of Education, Fordham University, New York, NY, USA,    ²School of Education, Gonzaga University, Spokane, WA, USA

Abstract

This chapter included an overview of the organization, content, and psychometric properties of the Woodcock-Johnson IV (WJ IV). We reviewed the CHC (Cattell–Horn–Carroll) theory and theoretical underpinnings of the WJ IV. The description of WJ IV tests and composition of WJ IV clusters was also presented.

Keywords

Woodcock-Johnson IV; organization; content; psychometric properties

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the organization, content, and psychometric properties of the Woodcock-Johnson IV (WJ IV; Schrank, McGrew, & Mather, 2014a). The WJ IV family of instruments is composed of the WJ IV Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ IV COG; Schrank, McGrew, & Mather, 2014b), WJ IV Tests of Achievement (WJ IV ACH; Schrank, Mather, & McGrew, 2014a), and WJ IV Tests of Oral Language (WJ IV OL; Schrank, Mather, & McGrew, 2014b). These revised instruments provide a comprehensive set of norm-referenced and individually administered tests of cognitive, academic achievement, and oral language abilities, respectively.

According to Mather and Wendling (2014b), there are several factors to consider in order to summarize the significant advances in the WJ IV family of instruments. First, the WJ IV assessment system used a theory-based approach to design state-of-the-art instruments. Specifically, the WJ IV allows examiners to explore the strengths and weaknesses of individuals through the measurement of their cognitive, academic, and linguistic abilities via the Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) theory of abilities (Carroll, 1993; Horn & Noll, 1997; Schneider & McGrew, 2012). Second, it complements the response to intervention (RtI) approach, which was not emphasized in the Woodcock-Johnson III (WJ III; Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2001a). Third, the WJ IV enhances the methodology to examine variations and ability/achievement comparisons. Fourth, the WJ IV focuses on the important broad CHC abilities and narrow CHC abilities that are important for academic success, whereas the WJ III focused primarily on the broad CHC abilities. Fifth, the WJ IV family of instruments was designed with ease of administration and scoring as well as flexibility in mind. Thus, novice examiners can use the tests with confidence, especially those who are familiar with the WJ III. The WJ IV also allows experienced examiners access to a wide range of interpretive options to enhance and individualize their evaluations based on the needs of their examinees (see Dumont, Willis, & Walrath, in this volume, and McDonough & Flanagan in this volume, for more information on interpretive options available on the WJ IV). Examiners can use the cognitive, achievement, and oral language batteries as independent batteries or use them in conjunction with one another.

Theoretical Underpinnings of the WJ IV

The WJ IV was designed based on the structure of abilities known as CHC theory. The CHC theory of abilities is based on the integration of two independently derived theories; namely, the Cattell–Horn Gf–Gc theory (Horn & Noll, 1997) and Carroll’s three stratum theory (Carroll, 1993). A brief overview of CHC theory is provided next. The interested reader is referred to Alfonso, Flanagan, and Radwan (2005), Flanagan, Ortiz, and Alfonso (2013), McGrew (2005), and Schneider and McGrew (2012) for detailed discussions on the history of CHC theory.

The Gf–Gc theory is a model that has been developed and enhanced by Cattell, Horn, and their research associates over the past 60 years. Cattell’s early contribution to Gf–Gc theory concluded that Spearman’s g could be best explained by dividing the general g factor into fluid intelligence (Gf) and general crystallized intelligence (Gc) (Cattell, 1941, 1943). The Gf factor has been described as fluid reasoning (Cattell–Horn) or fluid intelligence (Carroll) and is a measure of the abilities to reason, form concepts, and solve problems (using unfamiliar information or novel procedures). Fluid reasoning/intelligence requires basic reasoning processes (deductive and inductive reasoning); manipulation of abstract concepts, rules, and logical relations; demands mental flexibility (shifting mental gears); and requires deliberate and flexible control of attention. It also involves adaptive and new learning capabilities and is related to mental operations and processes. Fluid reasoning/intelligence is more dependent on the physiological structures (e.g., cortical and lower cortical regions) that support intellectual behavior than is crystallized intelligence. Finally, fluid reasoning/intelligence increases until sometime during adolescence and then it slowly declines.

The Gc factor has been described as acculturation knowledge (Cattell–Horn) or crystallized intelligence (Carroll). It is a measure of the breadth and depth of knowledge of culture, understanding of social norms, and the storage and retrieval of previously acquired knowledge. Gc is the ability to communicate one’s knowledge, particularly in verbal format, and includes the use of declarative and procedural knowledge. The development of acculturation knowledge or crystallized intelligence involves overlearned and well-established cognitive functions and is related to mental products and achievements. Gc is highly influenced by formal and informal educational factors.

From 1965 to the early 1990s, the original Gf–Gc model was extended by Horn (1965, 1991) with new factors such as short-term acquisition and retrieval or short-term memory (SAR or Gsm), visual perception or processing (Gv), auditory processing (Ga), tertiary storage and retrieval or long-term storage and retrieval (TSR or Glr), and speed of processing (Gs) (Alfonso et al., 2005). In addition, Horn described correct decision speed or Gt, quantitative ability (Gq), and broad reading/writing (Grw) as the Cattell–Horn model became an eight-factor model (including Gf and Gc) (Alfonso et al., 2005; Horn & Blankson, 2005).

Carroll’s three stratum theory (1993) was developed based on exploratory factor analyses of more than 400 different datasets that included the important and classic factor-analytic experiments of abilities. In short, Carroll developed a three-tier model of cognitive abilities that are differentiated from general to narrow domains. The broadest level (stratum III) corresponds to a general intelligence or g. The broad level (stratum II) includes the following broad abilities: fluid intelligence (Gf), crystallized intelligence (Gc), general memory and learning (Gy), broad visual perception (Gv), broad auditory perception (Gu), broad retrieval ability (Gr), broad cognitive speediness (Gs), and decision/reaction time/speed (Gt). The narrow level (stratum I) includes a large number of narrow abilities such as inductive reasoning and lexical knowledge. Carroll’s work provides a content and hierarchical structure to organize the mass of literature on abilities since Spearman’s contribution (McGrew, 2009).

Based on mutual consensus, the integration of the two independently and empirically supported theories was named CHC theory. McGrew (2005) provided historical details of the origin of CHC theory, and the CHC taxonomic umbrella has increasingly obtained public recognition and influence since 1999 (Alfonso et al., 2005; McGrew, 2009). Today, CHC theory encompasses 16 broad abilities and more than 80 narrow abilities (Flanagan, Alfonso, Ortiz, & Dynda, 2013; Flanagan, 2013; Schneider & McGrew, 2012). The WJ IV was developed based on the most recent iteration of CHC theory and moves test development beyond CHC theory as it was conceived in the WJ III. In addition to the emphasis on broad CHC abilities, the WJ IV also addresses the narrow CHC abilities. Some tests are designed to reflect specific cognitive complexity through the influence of two or more narrow abilities, which allows in-depth clinical interpretations and customization of evaluations (see McGrew, LaForte, & Schrank, 2014, for a thorough review of the theoretical underpinnings and cognitive complexity of the WJ IV). Table 1.1 provides broad and narrow CHC ability classifications offered by the test authors and independently by Ortiz, Flanagan, and Alfonso (2015). In general there is a high level of agreement between the broad and narrow CHC classifications offered by the test authors and those by Ortiz et al. (see also Maricle & Johnson, in this volume; Mather & Wendling, in this volume; Miller, McGill, & Johnson, in this volume; Niileksela, Reynolds, Keith, & McGrew, in this volume; and Schneider, in this volume, for additional discussions regarding the abilities measured by the WJ IV).

Table 1.1

Broad and Narrow CHC Classifications of WJ IV Tests by the Authors and Ortiz et al. (2015)

Notes: Gf = fluid reasoning; Gc = crystallized intelligence; Gkn = domain-specific knowledge; Gv = visual processing; Gwm = short-term working memory; Gsm = short-term memory; Glr = long-term storage and retrieval; Ga = auditory processing; Gs = processing speed; Gq = quantitative knowledge; Grw = reading and writing; RQ = quantitative reasoning; I = induction; RG = general sequential reasoning; VL = lexical knowledge; LD = language development; K0 = general (verbal) knowledge; LS = listening ability; K1 = general science information; K2 = knowledge of culture; A5 = range of geography knowledge; MV = visual memory; Vz = visualization; SS = spatial scanning; MW = working memory; WM = working memory capacity; AC = attentional control; MS = memory span; MA = associative memory; FI = ideational fluency; NA = naming facility; LA = speed of lexical access; FW = word fluency; MM = meaningful memory; PC = phonetic coding; UM = memory for sound patterns; P = perceptual speed; N = number facility; A3 = math achievement; RD = reading decoding; RS = reading speed; SG = spelling ability; RC = reading comprehension; V = verbal (printed) language comprehension; WA = writing ability; WS = writing speed; EU = English usage knowledge. McGrew et al. (2014) replaced Gsm with Gwm because they believe that Gwm is a broad cognitive ability, consistent with current neuroscience research that posits a dynamic system for both temporary storage and manipulation of information in human cognition, p.4. The interested reader is referred to McGrew et al. for details regarding the decision to replace Gsm with Gwm.

Organization of the WJ IV COG, WJ IV ACH, and WJ IV OL

WJ IV COG

The WJ IV COG tests are included in two batteries: the Standard Battery (Tests 1–10) and the Extended Battery (Tests 11–18) (Mather & Wendling, 2014b). The WJ IV offers the flexibility for examiners to use the Standard Battery alone or in conjunction with the Extended Battery. Table 1.2 lists the WJ IV COG tests that compose the standard and extended batteries as well as the cognitive composites, CHC factors, and narrow ability and other clinical clusters that can be derived from each battery. The CHC factors, narrow ability clusters, and other clinical clusters provide the primary interpretative information for examiners to identify an individual’s strengths and weaknesses. Most CHC factors and clinical clusters are composed of two tests. Additional tests are required to create an extended version of some of the CHC factors and one clinical cluster listed in Table 1.2. For example, in order to create an extended Gf cluster the examiner must administer Test 15: Analysis-Synthesis. In order to create an extended Gc cluster, the examiner must administer Test 1: Picture Vocabulary from the WJ IV OL. Table 1.3 provides brief descriptions of the WJ IV COG tests.

Table 1.2

WJ IV COG Batteries/Tests, Cognitive Composites, CHC Factors, and Narrow Ability and Other Clinical Clusters

Table 1.3

WJ IV COG Test Descriptions

Adapted from Mather and Wendling (2014b).

Mather and Wendling (2014b) indicated that the WJ IV COG includes several changes from the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ III COG; Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2001b). First, the WJ IV COG includes six new or modified tests measuring information-processing abilities such as Test 1: Oral Vocabulary, Test 3: Verbal Attention, Test 4: Letter-Pattern Matching, Test 5: Phonological Processing, Test 7: Visualization, and Test 12: Nonword Repetition. Second, the WJ IV COG provides narrow ability clusters such as Number Facility and Perceptual Speed. Third, some tests from the WJ III COG have been moved to the WJ IV OL including Rapid Picture Naming and Sound Blending. Fourth, several tests from the WJ III COG are no longer included in the WJ IV such as Visual-Auditory Learning-Delayed, Auditory Attention, and Planning. Fifth, name changes have been applied to some tests to address better the task requirements (e.g., Visual Matching was renamed Number-Pattern Matching and Spatial Relations was renamed Visualization). Sixth, broad and narrow CHC abilities are included to facilitate more in-depth diagnostic evaluation. Seventh, there are three options to measure general intellectual ability. The General Intellectual Ability (GIA) can be derived from a core set of tests (Tests 1–7, see Table 1.2) and provides the foundation for the intra-cognitive variation procedure. The Brief Intellectual Ability (BIA) can be derived from Tests 1–3 (Table 1.2) and the new Gf–Gc composite is composed of Tests 1, 2, 8, and 9 (Table 1.2) and allows examiners to recapture the ability-achievement discrepancy model.

WJ IV ACH

The WJ IV ACH is a revised and expanded version of the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement (WJ III ACH; Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2001c). According to Mather and Wendling (2014a), there are several features of the WJ IV ACH that were not part of the WJ III ACH. First, the WJ IV ACH has three parallel forms of the Standard Battery to reduce examinees’ familiarity and over-practice with specific test items and one form of the Extended Battery, whereas the WJ III ACH only had two parallel forms of the Standard Battery. Second, in comparison to the WJ III ACH, the WJ IV ACH has seven new tests, such as Test 8: Oral Reading, which increases coverage of assessment and provides more options for interpretation. Third, some of the oral language tests that were previously included in the WJ III ACH (i.e., Picture Vocabulary, Oral Comprehension, Understanding Directions, and Sound Awareness) are now included in the WJ IV OL. Fourth, the procedures related to ability/achievement comparisons have been simplified and have enhanced flexibility for examiners. Finally, the scholastic/achievement comparison procedure has replaced the achievement/achievement discrepancy procedure. There are six aptitude clusters: two for reading, two for math, and two for writing.

Table 1.4 illustrates the academic areas, batteries/tests, and clusters included in the WJ IV ACH. The Standard Battery is composed of 11 tests (Tests 1–11) and the Extended Battery is composed of 9 tests (Tests 12–20). The Extended Battery can be used in conjunction with any form of the Standard Battery. The Standard Battery provides a set of scores for broad domains, whereas the Extended Battery allows in-depth diagnostic evaluation of an individual’s strengths and weaknesses. Table 1.5 provides brief descriptions of the WJ IV ACH tests.

Table 1.4

WJ IV ACH Academic Areas, Batteries/Tests, and Clusters

Table 1.5

WJ IV ACH Test Descriptions

Adapted from Mather and Wendling (2014a).

The WJ IV ACH allows for flexible use of different sets of tests to yield clusters in Reading, Written Language, Mathematics, Academic Skills, Academic Applications, and Brief Achievement, which provide the basis for intra-achievement variation comparisons (Mather & Wendling, 2014a). An examiner does not have to administer all of the tests or complete all of the assessment options for a given examinee. Rather, examiners should be guided by the referral questions, interview data, observations, previous assessment data, and the like to determine what WJ IV tests to administer. Indeed, the WJ IV ACH offers a tool chest whereby examiners can use different combinations of tools to individualize and customize the evaluation based on the needs of the examinee. There are 22 clusters listed in Table 1.4 and they are the primary sources of interpretative information to determine inter- and intra-individual strengths and weaknesses, to assist progress monitoring, and to facilitate appropriate educational placement.

WJ IV OL

The WJ IV OL is a new addition to the WJ family of instruments. However, many of the tests found on the WJ IV OL were included in the WJ III COG or the WJ III ACH. Several characteristics of the WJ IV OL include the following: (i) the WJ IV OL has been co-normed with the WJ IV COG and the WJ IV ACH; (ii) the tests included in the WJ IV OL offer measures of various areas of oral language, such as listening comprehension, oral expression, and auditory memory span; (iii) the WJ IV OL includes English and Spanish tests; (iv) Tests 1–4 of the WJ IV OL provide the basis for the intra-oral language variations procedure; and (v) the WJ IV OL provides an oral language ability/achievement procedure to determine the discrepancy between oral language ability and predicted achievement (Mather & Wendling, 2014c). Table 1.6 lists the tests and clusters included in the WJ IV OL and Table 1.7 provides brief descriptions of the WJ IV OL tests. The WJ IV OL provides three Spanish tests that are parallel to the English versions. The Spanish test format has the same test format as the English test format; however, the test items are different.

Table 1.6

WJ IV OL English and Spanish Tests and Clusters

Table 1.7

WJ IV OL Test Descriptions

Adapted from Mather and Wendling (2014c).

Content of the WJ IV COG, WJ IV ACH, and WJ IV OL

Brief Description of Broad and Narrow CHC Abilities and Composition of WJ IV COG Factors and Clusters

The WJ IV COG includes indicators of broad and narrow CHC abilities and other clinical clusters. Although broad abilities are important, narrow abilities and other clinical clusters are emphasized because of their clinical utility, predictive values of academic achievement, and alignment with contemporary advances in neurocognitive studies (McGrew, 2012; McGrew & Wendling, 2010).

Comprehension-Knowledge (Gc) includes indicators of the breadth and depth of one’s acquired knowledge, verbal communication, and the ability to apply and reason using previously learned experiences and knowledge (Cattell, 1941, 1943). The Gc factor is believed to include declarative and procedural knowledge. Declarative knowledge refers to acquired facts, understanding of rules, concepts, social norms, and relationships and is often presented through the verbal modality (Mather & Wendling, 2014b). Procedural knowledge refers to specific skills such as those used in driving, drawing, and playing musical instruments. The Gc factor on the WJ IV COG includes Test 1: Oral Vocabulary and Test 8: General Information which are measures of declarative knowledge (Mather & Wendling, 2014b).

Fluid Reasoning (Gf) is the broad ability involved in reasoning, forming concepts, and solving problems using unfamiliar information or in novel situations (Cattell, 1941, 1943). It includes inductive, deductive, and quantitative reasoning and is considered as a mixture of many mental operations, such as identifying relations, forming concepts, and recognizing patterns (Horn, 1991). Fluid Reasoning involves minimal effects of learning and acculturation and often requires deliberate and flexible control of attention and concentration to solve problems. The Gf factor on the WJ IV COG includes Test 2: Number Series and Test 9: Concept Formation. When Test 15: Analysis-Synthesis is administered, a Fluid Reasoning-Extended cluster is obtained.

Long-Term Retrieval (Glr) refers to the ability to store information and fluently retrieve it minutes, hours, days, or even years later (Schneider & McGrew, 2012). The efficiency of Long-Term Retrieval is determined by the amount of information that can be stored and the rate and fluency that one can retrieve and access the information and is the processing mechanism that transfers information from immediate awareness to the stores of declarative and procedural knowledge (Carroll, 1993; Horn, 1965, 1991). The Glr factor on the WJ IV COG includes Test 6: Story Recall and Test 13: Visual-Auditory Learning.

Visual Processing (Gv) pertains to the ability to perceive, analyze, synthesize, and think with visual patterns and involves the ability to store and recall visual representations via visual imagery and visual memory (Carroll, 1993; Horn, 1965, 1991). This broad ability includes a number of specific, narrow, visual, or spatial abilities, such as the ability to manipulate objects and patterns mentally, visual imagery, and visual memory (Schneider & McGrew, 2012). The Gv factor on the WJ IV COG includes Test 7: Visualization and Test 14: Picture Recognition.

Auditory Processing (Ga) refers to the ability to encode, synthesize, and discriminate auditory stimuli and to process and discriminate speech sounds (Carroll, 1993; Horn, 1965, 1991). Ga tasks often tap phonological awareness, phonological processing, phonological sensitivity, and coding at the phoneme level (Schneider & McGrew, 2012). The Ga factor on the WJ IV COG includes Test 5: Phonological Processing and Test 12: Nonword Repetition.

Tasks that require examinees to perform automatic, simple, and repetitive cognitive tasks with sustained attention and concentration are indicators of Cognitive Processing Speed (Gs) (Carroll, 1993; Horn, 1991; Horn & Blankson, 2005). Typically, these tasks require rapid processing without much thinking. Gs is one aspect of cognitive efficiency. The Gs factor on the WJ IV COG includes Test 4: Letter-Pattern Matching and Test 17: Pair Cancellation.

Short-Term Working Memory (Gwm) includes indicators of the ability to apprehend and hold information in immediate awareness and then use or manipulate that information to carry out a task within a short period of time (Carroll, 1993; Horn, 1965, 1991). Gwm is believed to be very limited and information is typically held for a few seconds before it is forgotten. The Gwm factor on the WJ IV COG includes Test 3: Verbal Attention and Test 10: Numbers Reversed. When Test 16: Object-Number Sequencing is administered, a Short-Term Working Memory-Extended cluster is obtained.

The WJ IV COG provides additional narrow CHC ability clusters and other clinical clusters for examiners to provide in-depth information for clinical diagnostic purposes. The WJ IV COG includes five narrow CHC ability clusters and one clinical cluster (i.e., Cognitive Efficiency).

The narrow ability Perceptual Speed (Gs:P) is emphasized in the WJ IV COG because of its clinical relevance. Perceptual Speed refers to the ability to work on simple and mechanical clerical tasks that use visual symbols as the stimuli, such as matching numbers and letters (Schneider & McGrew, 2012). It is related to orthographic processing, visual scanning, visual decoding, and encoding. The Perceptual Speed cluster on the WJ IV COG includes Test 4: Letter-Pattern Matching and Test 11: Number-Pattern Matching.

The narrow ability Quantitative Reasoning (Gf:RQ) includes indicators of inductive and deductive reasoning skills that involve numbers, mathematical relations, and numerical operations (Carroll, 1993; Cattell, 1941, 1943). The Quantitative Reasoning cluster on the WJ IV COG includes Test 2: Number Series and Test 15: Analysis-Synthesis.

Auditory Memory Span (Gwm:MS) is a narrow ability of working memory and refers to the ability to hold auditory information in immediate format (Carroll, 1993; Horn, 1991). Auditory Memory Span tasks often require examinees to hold verbal information in immediate memory and then repeat the information in the sequence presented (McGrew et al., 2014). This cluster on the WJ IV COG includes Test 18: Memory for Words from the WJ IV COG and Test 5: Sentence Repetition from the WJ IV OL.

Number Facility (Gs:N) is a narrow ability that involves fluency with numbers, such as number pattern comparison or manipulation of numbers in working memory (Schneider & McGrew, 2012). This cluster on the WJ IV COG includes Test 10: Numbers Reversed and Test 11: Number-Pattern Matching.

Vocabulary (Gv:VL) is lexical knowledge or knowledge of the definitions of words and the concepts that underlie them (Carroll, 1993; Cattell, 1941, 1943). There are two tests that measure Vocabulary including Test 1: Oral Vocabulary from the WJ IV COG and Test 1: Picture Vocabulary from the WJ IV OL.

The Cognitive Efficiency cluster on the WJ IV COG involves Cognitive Processing Speed (Gs) and Short-Term Working Memory (Gwm). The combination of these abilities provides a diagnostic index that assesses one’s sustained attention, the ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious awareness to problem solve, and the automaticity to perform tasks rapidly and accurately (Mather & Wendling, 2014b; McGrew et al., 2014). Deficits in the area of cognitive efficiency might result in constrained performance on complex cognitive tasks. The Cognitive Efficiency standard cluster on the WJ IV COG includes Test 4: Letter-Pattern Matching under the Gs factor and Test 10: Numbers Reversed under the Gwm factor. The administration of Test 3: Verbal Attention (Gwm) and Test 11: Number-Pattern Matching (Gs) yields a Cognitive Efficiency-Extended cluster.

Brief Description of Additional Broad CHC Abilities and Composition of WJ IV ACH Clusters

The WJ IV ACH includes two broad CHC abilities that are not found or measured on the WJ IV COG; namely, Quantitative Knowledge (Gq) and Reading-Writing (Grw). Quantitative Knowledge was recognized as a distinct CHC ability after Horn’s work (1988, 1989) and refers to the ability to comprehend quantitative concepts and relationships and to manipulate numerical symbols (Carroll, 1993; Cattell, 1943). Tasks addressing Gq often tap elements of mathematics (e.g., addition and subtraction) and applications of mathematical thinking (e.g., word problem solving, measurement, and statistics). WJ IV ACH tests that tap Gq include Test 2: Applied Problems, Test 5: Calculation, and Test 10: Math Facts Fluency.

Grw was the latest addition to the broad CHC abilities (Carroll & Maxwell, 1979; Woodcock, 1998), although consistent with Cattell’s (1943) thinking regarding Gc. This ability includes tasks that require examinees to decode words, spell words, read and comprehend text, and write sentences, paragraphs, and stories. WJ IV ACH tests that tap Grw include Test 1: Letter-Word Identification, Test 3: Spelling, Test 4: Passage Comprehension, Test 6: Writing Samples, Test 7: Word Attack, Test 8: Oral Reading, Test 9: Sentence Reading Fluency, Test 11: Sentence Writing Fluency, Test 16: Reading Recall, Test 14: Editing, Test 15: Word Reading Fluency, Test 16: Spelling of Sounds, and Test 17: Reading Vocabulary.

Reading Clusters

The WJ IV ACH includes seven reading clusters, four of which use tests from the Standard Battery and three of which require additional tests from the Extended Battery (Mather & Wendling, 2014a). The Reading cluster provides a measure of reading achievement via an individual’s ability to decode words and the ability to comprehend meaning of text while reading. It is composed of Test 1: Letter-Word Identification and Test 4: Passage Comprehension. The Broad Reading cluster yields a measure of overall reading achievement and taps into the areas of reading decoding (Test 1: Letter-Word Identification), reading comprehension (Test 4: Passage Comprehension), and reading speed (Test 9: Sentence Reading Fluency). The Basic Reading Skills cluster includes indicators of sight vocabulary, phonics, and structural analysis skills. This cluster includes Test 1: Letter-Word Identification and Test 7: Word Attack. The Reading Comprehension cluster is a broad measure of reading comprehension and taps reading comprehension, vocabulary, and reasoning and includes Test 4: Passage Comprehension from the Standard Battery and Test 12: Reading Recall from the Extended Battery. Examiners who would like to generate the Reading Comprehension-Extended cluster must also administer Test 17: Reading Vocabulary from the Extended Battery.

The Reading Fluency cluster is a measure of several aspects of reading fluency including prosody, automaticity, and accuracy. It includes Test 8: Oral Reading and Test 9: Sentence Reading Fluency. Finally, the Reading Rate cluster is a measure of automaticity with reading at the word and sentence levels. It includes Test 9: Sentence Reading Fluency from the Standard Battery and Test 15: Word Reading Fluency from the Extended