Angels Of Armageddon: The Royal Air Force In The Battle Of Megiddo [Illustrated Edition]
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Egypt and Palestine offered the British an opportunity to fight a war of movement. Unlike the Western Front, Egypt and Palestine were undeveloped with wide expanses of land. It was ripe for the development of maneuver warfare using the mechanical products of the industrial age: motor cars, machine guns, tanks and aeroplanes. In particular, the use of aeroplanes proved vital to the successful British defense of the Suez Canal by providing reconnaissance of enemy formations and early warnings of attack. This role of the Royal Flying Corps expanded in this theater to cover the breadth and depth of British efforts at the tactical, operational and strategic levels. The strategic success of the Royal Air Force in wrestling air superiority from the Germans was the key that allowed the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) to prepare and conduct its campaign against the central powers across the plains surrounding Megiddo. It provided the EEF intelligence of enemy positions, freedom to maneuver forces undetected, and the depth to attack and rout the retreating Turkish forces to the point of annihilation. The evolution of local air superiority in Palestine, properly coordinated with the ground offensive, was the deciding factor for victory in that theater.
Major Gary J. Morea
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Angels Of Armageddon - Major Gary J. Morea
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ANGELS OF ARMAGEDDON: THE ROYAL AIR FORCE IN THE BATTLE OF MEGIDDO
by
GARY J. MOREA, MAJ, USA
ABSTRACT
ANGELS OF ARMAGEDDON: THE ROYAL AIR FORCE IN THE BATTLE OF MEGIDDO, by Gary J. Morea.
Egypt and Palestine offered the British an opportunity to fight a war of movement. Unlike the Western Front, Egypt and Palestine were undeveloped with wide expanses of land. It was ripe for the development of maneuver warfare using the mechanical products of the industrial age: motor cars, machine guns, tanks and aeroplanes. In particular, the use of aeroplanes proved vital to the successful British defense of the Suez Canal by providing reconnaissance of enemy formations and early warnings of attack. This role of the Royal Flying Corps expanded in this theater to cover the breadth and depth of British efforts at the tactical, operational and strategic levels.
The strategic success of the Royal Air Force in wrestling air superiority from the Germans was the key that allowed the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) to prepare and conduct its campaign against the central powers across the plains surrounding Megiddo. It provided the EEF intelligence of enemy positions, freedom to maneuver forces undetected, and the depth to attack and rout the retreating Turkish forces to the point of annihilation. The evolution of local air superiority in Palestine, properly coordinated with the ground offensive, was the deciding factor for victory in that theater.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
ABSTRACT 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS 5
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 6
ACRONYMS 7
ILLUSTRATIONS 8
TABLE 9
CHAPTER 1 — INTRODUCTION 10
Allenby Enters Jerusalem, 1917 10
Significance of Megiddo 10
Translation of the Name 10
Geography of Megiddo 11
Pharaoh Thutmose III 12
Importance of Airpower 14
Reconnaissance 15
Air-Ground Integration 17
Artillery spotting 17
Bombing 19
Ground Attack 20
Deny Enemy Air Capabilities 20
Overall Effect 22
The Road To War In Palestine 22
CHAPTER 2 — PHASE I: AUGUST 1914 TO FEBRUARY 1916 24
Leadership 24
Commander-in-Chief Egypt, Lieutenant-General Sir John Maxwell 24
Initial Flight Commander, Captain S. D. Massey 25
Lieutenant-Colonel W. G. H. Salmond 26
Equipment 28
British 28
German 28
Training and Tactics 29
Organization and Operations 30
Summary 33
CHAPTER 3 — PHASE II: MARCH 1916 TO APRIL 1917 35
Leadership 35
Commander, Mediterranean Expeditionary Force, Lieutenant-General Sir Archibald Murray 35
Commander, Middle East Brigade, RFC, Brigadier General Geoffrey Salmond 37
Equipment 37
British Aeroplanes 37
German Aeroplanes 37
Training and Tactics 38
The Training Brigade in Egypt 38
Organization and Operations 39
Australian Flying Corps arrives in Egypt 39
Defense of Suez in August 1916: the Battle of Romani 41
Advance into Palestine 42
Cavalry Raid on Bir El Mazar 42
1st Battle of Gaza 43
2nd Battle of Gaza 44
Summary 45
CHAPTER 4 — PHASE III: APRIL 1917 TO NOVEMBER 1918 47
Leadership 47
Commander, Egyptian Expeditionary Force General Sir Edmund H. H. Allenby 47
Equipment 50
British 50
German 50
Training and Tactics 50
The Gosport School 50
The Formation of the Training Group in Egypt 52
Organization and Operations 53
Bloody April
1917. 53
Reorganization of EEF 53
Capture of Beersheba 53
Capture of Gaza 56
Capture of Jerusalem 57
Summary 58
CHAPTER 5 — THE BATTLE OF MEGIDDO 59
Airpower Before the Battle 59
Airpower During the Battle 64
Airpower in Pursuit 67
CHAPTER 6 — THE LEGACY OF MEGIDDO 70
APPENDIX A — HISTORIC MEGIDDO 77
Solomon 77
Pharaoh Necho II 77
Saladin 82
Mamluke Sultan Qutuz 83
APPENDIX B — EQUIPMENT DEVELOPMENT 85
Phase I: August 1914 to February 1916 85
British Aircraft 85
Maurice and Henri Farmans (Maurice Farman S.11 Shoehorn
) 85
French Nieuports (80 hp) 86
B.E. 2 (Bleroit Experimental version 2) 86
German Aircraft 87
Rumpler C-I 87
Fokker E I 88
Phase II: March 1916 April 1917 89
Machine Guns 89
Lewis Gun 89
Parabellum gun 89
Vickers Gun 90
Hotchkiss 90
Spandau 90
British Aeroplanes 91
DeHaviland DH2 91
Bristol F2 91
Martinsydes 92
German Aeroplanes 92
Halberstadt Fighters 93
Fokker E III 93
Phase III: April 1917 to November 1918 95
British Aircraft 95
Handley Page Bomber O/400 95
Sopwith Camels 96
R.E.8 96
S.E.5a 97
Vickers Bullets 97
German Aircraft 98
Halberstadts D.II 98
Albatross D III 98
APPENDIX C 99
REQUEST FROM THE PUBLISHER 100
GLOSSARY 101
WORLD WAR ONE IN THE DESERT ILLUSTRATION PACK 102
ILLUSTRATIONS 102
MAPS 192
AEROPLANES OF THE DESERT WAR 213
Phase I: August 1914 to February 1916 213
British Aircraft 213
German Aircraft 215
Phase II: March 1916 April 1917 217
Machine Guns 217
British Aeroplanes 219
German Aeroplanes 220
Phase III: April 1917 to November 1918 223
British Aircraft 223
German Aircraft 225
SOURCES 227
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My first extension of gratitude goes out to my Committee members: Mr. Bradbeer, Mr. Faulkner and Dr. Bourque whose guidance, mentoring and patience provided me focus and clarity throughout the year. I also want to thank the staff of the Combined Arms Research Library for maintaining such a rich source of material as well as a friendly and accommodating climate. To Ms. Helen Davis, for saving me hours of agonizing formatting corrections. You are an institution unto yourself. Finally, I want to thank my bride, Michelle, for your patience, understanding and encouragement over the past year. I could not have done this without you.
ACRONYMS
ANA—Arab Northern Army
CIGS—Chief of the Imperial General Staff
CTC—Camel Transport Corps
DMC—Desert Mounted Corps
EEF—Egyptian Expeditionary Force
ELC—Egyptian Labor Corps
GOC—General Officer Commanding
LOCs—Lines of Communications
RAF—Royal Air Force
RFC—Royal Flying Corps
RNAS—Royal Naval Air Service
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 1. The Jezreel Valley, Megiddo, and the Via Maris
Figure 2. Map of the Battle of Megiddo 1457 B.C.
Figure 3. Map of EEF Area of Operations, 1914-1918
Figure 4. Aircraft at Ismailia prepared for Reconnaissance Work
Figure 5. Aerial View of Ismailia and Lake Timsah from a Farman Aircraft
Figure 6. Map of the Eastern Desert from Cairo to Gaza
Figure 7. The Gaza-Beersheba Line
Figure 8. Map of Megiddo, 1918
Figure 9. Photo of Maurice Farman Aeroplane
Figure 10. Photo of Henry Farman Aircraft
Figure 11. Photo of Nieuport 4G with Float Gear
Figure 12. Photo of B.E.2a Aircraft
Figure 13. Photo of Rumpler C-I German Aircraft
Figure 14. Sketch of Fokker E-I Monoplane
Figure 15. Sketch of Lewis Gun (Aerial Version)
Figure 16. Sketch of German Parabellum Gun (Aerial Version)
Figure 17. Sketch of Vickers Machine Gun
Figure 18. Sketch of Hotchkiss Machine Gun
Figure 19. Sketch of German Spandau Machine Gun
Figure 20. Sketch of DH 2 Aeroplane
Figure 21. Sketch of Bristol F2 Fighter
Figure 22. Sketch of Martinsyde Bomber
Figure 23. Photo of Halberstadt Fighter
Figure 24. Photo of Eindecker E-III Monoplane
Figure 25. Sketch of British Handley Page Bomber
Figure 26. Sketch of Sopwith Camel Fighter
Figure 27. Sketch of R.E.8 Reconnaissance Aeroplane
Figure 28. Sketch of S.E.5 Reconnaissance Aeroplane
Figure 29. Sketch of Vickers Bullet Fighter
Figure 30. Sketch of German Halberstadt Fighter
Figure 31. Sketch of German Albatross D-III Fighter
TABLE
Table 1. WWI AIRCRAFT IN MIDDLE EAST COMPARISON TABLE
CHAPTER 1 — INTRODUCTION
Allenby Enters Jerusalem, 1917
By the end of 1917, the Allies were facing a dark period. The Italian offensive was reversed at Caporetto; the communist revolution caused the Russians to abandon the war; Romania withdrew; and the Germans launched a successful counteroffensive at Cambrai.{1} Yet in a separate corner of the world, there was another front of the Great War that was raging. The area was Palestine and a triumphant leader was driving the allies from victory to victory against the Turko-German forces defending there. His name was Sir Edmund Allenby and his force was the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF).
In stark contrast to the gloom enshrouding the allies in Europe, Sir Edmund Allenby walked through the Jaffa gate into the historic city of Jerusalem on 11 December 1917. The capture of Jerusalem was a definitive point for the Palestinian front as it represented an important operational victory for Allenby and placed his forces at the doorstep of the Turko-German Force Headquarters. The victory also had a heartening effect on the morale of the Allies.
Egypt and Palestine offered the British an opportunity to fight a war of movement. Unlike the Western Front, Egypt and Palestine were undeveloped with wide expanses of land and low density of people and material. It was ripe for maneuver warfare using the mechanical products of the industrial age: motor cars, machine guns, tanks and aeroplanes. In particular, it was the use of aeroplanes that proved vital to the successful British defense of the Suez Canal by providing reconnaissance of enemy formations and early warnings of attack. This role of the Royal Flying Corps expanded in this theater to cover the breadth and depth of British efforts at the tactical, operational and strategic levels of war.
Thesis: The actions of the Royal Air Force at the Battle of Megiddo were the culmination of three phases of development. Driven by capable leadership, and fueled by an ever-evolving aircraft manufacturing industry, the RAF quickly evolved as a learning organization able to capitalize on the emerging third dimension of warfare. What the RAF achieved at Megiddo was a systematic dominance of battlespace which contributed directly to the victory of Allied Forces in the Palestinian theater.
Significance of Megiddo
Translation of the Name
The name Armageddon
connotes biblical references to the end of the world but it is also a location on the globe. The name Harmageddon or Armageddon derives from the Hebrew Har,
meaning tell or hill, and Mageddon,
referring to the ancient city of Megiddo. Therefore the name quite literally refers to the ruins of the ancient city of Megiddo-a city with a history of military significance. This significance was not lost on the forces arrayed in Palestine in September 1918. In fact, General Allenby’s decisive Palestine campaign so closely resembled the strategy used by the Pharaoh Thutmose in 1457 B.C. that many historians debate whether Allenby was in fact replicating the ancient strategy. According to author and archaeologist Eric H. Cline, Allenby was aware of the history if Megiddo and of the campaign waged by the Pharaoh Thutmose III. Furthermore, according to Cline, Allenby was offered the honor to add of Armageddon
to his title, but refused believing it to be too sensational. Instead, he accepted the more benign title: Allenby of Megiddo,
thereby demonstrating his understanding of Megiddo’s significance.
Geography of Megiddo
Megiddo sat upon key terrain in the ancient world. It is located at the mouth of the Musmuss Pass, half-way between the great cities of Nablus and Haifa, and twelve miles Southwest of Nazareth. It sits at the entrance to the vast Plain of Esdraelon (the Greek translation of Jezreel) and has a vantage of the pass and the plain all the way to Haifa some fifteen miles to the Northwest.{2} Most significant, though, is that Megiddo sat astride a great road intersection, connecting the coastal road from Egypt to Damascus and Mesopotamia. This road, known as the Via Maris (way of the sea), was one of the most important communication and trade routes of the ancient world{3} (see figure 1).
There were many famous and infamous historic figures associated with Megiddo: Solomon, Pharaoh Necho II, Saladin, and the Mamluke Sultan Qutuz (see appendix A). Yet of the many battles that were recorded to have been fought in the vicinity of Megiddo, there was one that bears the most significance to the actions of Allenby and the Egyptian Expeditionary Force of the First World War-Pharaoh Thutmose III. It was the details of this battle which bore the controversy over Allenby’s decisions during his Palestine Campaign. Was he conscious of Thutmose III’s victory at Megiddo and did he try to recreate it?