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    Mathematical Methods in Elasticity Imaging
    Mathematical Methods in Elasticity Imaging
    Mathematical Methods in Elasticity Imaging
    Ebook419 pages2 hours

    Mathematical Methods in Elasticity Imaging

    By Habib Ammari, Elie Bretin, Josselin Garnier and

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    This book is the first to comprehensively explore elasticity imaging and examines recent, important developments in asymptotic imaging, modeling, and analysis of deterministic and stochastic elastic wave propagation phenomena. It derives the best possible functional images for small inclusions and cracks within the context of stability and resolution, and introduces a topological derivative–based imaging framework for detecting elastic inclusions in the time-harmonic regime. For imaging extended elastic inclusions, accurate optimal control methodologies are designed and the effects of uncertainties of the geometric or physical parameters on stability and resolution properties are evaluated. In particular, the book shows how localized damage to a mechanical structure affects its dynamic characteristics, and how measured eigenparameters are linked to elastic inclusion or crack location, orientation, and size. Demonstrating a novel method for identifying, locating, and estimating inclusions and cracks in elastic structures, the book opens possibilities for a mathematical and numerical framework for elasticity imaging of nanoparticles and cellular structures.

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherPrinceton University Press
    Release dateApr 5, 2015
    ISBN9781400866625
    Mathematical Methods in Elasticity Imaging

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      Mathematical Methods in Elasticity Imaging - Habib Ammari

      Introduction

      Elasticity imaging is used to determine the characteristics of structures inside an elastic body based on observations of the displacement fields made on a part of the boundary surface or inside the body. The aim is to recover certain material and geometric parameters characteristic to these structures.

      The main motivations of elasticity imaging are non-destructive testing of elastic structures for material impurities, exploration geophysics, and medical diagnosis, in particular, for detection of potential tumors of diminishing size.

      Elasticity imaging for medical diagnosis aims at providing a quantitative visualization of mechanical properties of human tissues using the relation between the wave propagation velocity and the tissue viscoelastic properties. Different imaging modalities can be used to measure the displacement field in the interior of tissue in response to a time-harmonic or a dynamic excitation. The two major techniques are based on magnetic resonance imaging and on ultrasound. When magnetic resonance imaging is used, the excitation is at a relatively low frequency, and then the time-harmonic elastic response of the tissue is measured. On the other hand, when ultrasound is used, the excitation is dynamic and broadband. However, even in this case, the dynamic displacement field is resolved into its time-harmonic components via a Fourier transform. The time-harmonic displacement in the interior of the tissue offers a wealth of information that may be used to characterize the tissue viscoelastic properties by solving an imaging problem. These properties in turn carry information about the tissue composition, micro-structure, physiology, and pathology. Changes in tissue elasticity are generally correlated with pathological phenomena such as weakening of vessel walls or cirrhosis of the liver. Many cancers appear as extremely hard nodules because of the recruitment of collagen during tumorigenesis. It is therefore very interesting and challenging for diagnostic applications to find ways for generating resolved images that depict tissue elasticity or stiffness.

      Elasticity imaging plays also an essential role in a wide range of industrial areas and at almost any stage in the production or life cycle of many components. It is important to determine the integrity of a structure, quantitatively measure some characteristic of an object or ensure a cost effective operation, safety and reliability of a plant, with resultant benefit to the community. As a number of infrastructures currently in service reach the end of their expected serviceable life, elasticity testing methods to evaluate their durability, and thus to ensure their structural integrity, have received gradually increasing attention. Concrete structures are designed, in particular, on the basis of the compression strength of the concrete. Concrete often degrades by the corrosion of the embedded steel-reinforcing bars, which can lead to internal stress. When reinforcing bars in concrete become corroded (i.e., rusted), rust is generated on the surface of the bars, and small cracks begin to grow as the rusting expands. A change in the physical properties of the concrete due to degradation of a concrete structure affects the concrete’s compression strength. Elasticity imaging, which uses the direct relationship between the velocities of the elastic waves and the elastic properties of the material through which they are propagating, is the method of choice for estimating the compression strength of concrete.

      In environmental sciences, a major application of elasticity imaging is the monitoring of potentially dangerous structures like active fault zones prone to damaging earthquakes or volcanic edifices. Oil reservoir monitoring is also of primary interest for the oil industry in order to get insight into the depletion dynamics of a reservoir. Quantitative elasticity imaging of elastic properties of the subsurface is essential for oil- and gas-reservoir characterization and for monitoring carbon dioxide sequestration with time-lapse acquisitions. Indeed, fluids and gases have significant effects on the elastic properties of the subsurface in terms of Poisson’s ratio anomalies. This quantitative imaging is also required for near-surface imaging in the framework of civil engineering applications because the shear properties of the shallow weathered layers strongly impact the elastic wavefield.

      Many challenging mathematical problems arise in elasticity imaging techniques and pose interesting mathematical riddles that often lead to the investigation of fundamental problems in various branches of mathematics.

      This book covers recent mathematical, numerical and statistical approaches for elasticity imaging of inclusions and cracks with waves at zero, single or multiple non-zero frequencies. The inclusions and cracks of small size are believed to be the starting point of fatigue failure in elastic materials. An inclusion or a crack is called small when the product of its characteristic size with the operating frequency is less than one while it is called extended when this factor is much larger than one. There are two interesting problems: one is of finding small elastic inclusions and the other is of reconstructing shape deformations of an extended elastic inclusion. In both situations, we are interested in imaging small perturbations with respect to known situations.

      Recently, there have been important developments on asymptotic imaging, stochastic modeling, and analysis of both deterministic and stochastic elastic wave propagation phenomena. The aim of this book is to put them together in a coherent way. An emphasis is laid down on deriving the best possible imaging functionals for small inclusions and cracks in the sense of stability and resolution. For imaging extended elastic inclusions, we design accurate optimal control methodologies and evaluate the effect of uncertainties of the geometric or physical parameters on their stability and resolution properties. We also provide an asymptotic framework for vibration testing. Localized damage to a mechanical structure affects its dynamic characteristics. The modification is characterized by changes in the eigenparameters, i.e., eigenvalues and the associated eigenvectors. Considerable effort has been spent in obtaining a relationship between the changes in the eigenparameters, the damage location, characteristics, and size. In this book, we relate the measured eigenparameters to the elastic inclusion or crack location, orientation, and size. We design a method that can be used to identify, locate, and estimate inclusions and cracks in elastic structures by measuring their modal characteristics.

      The book is organized as follows. In Chapter 1, after reviewing some well-known results on the solvability and layer potentials for static and time-harmonic elasticity equations, we proceed to prove representation formulas for solutions of the elasticity equations. Then we establish Helmholtz-Kirchhoff identities. These formulas are our main tool in later chapters for analyzing the resolution of elastic wave imaging approaches. Chapter 2 collects some recent results on the elasticity equations with high contrast coefficients. Chapter 3 covers the method of small-volume expansions. It provides the leading-order terms in the asymptotic expansions of the solutions to the static and time-harmonic elasticity equations with respect to the size of a small inclusion. We also introduce the concept of elastic moment tensor associated with an elastic inclusion and present its main properties. The results of Chapter 2 are used in Chapter 3 in order to show that the asymptotic expansion of the solution in the presence of small inclusions holds uniformly with respect to material parameters. The results of this chapter can be extended to anisotropic inclusions. Chapter 4 deals with the perturbations of the displacement (or traction) vector that are due to the presence of a small crack with homogeneous Neumann boundary conditions in an elastic medium. An asymptotic formula for the boundary perturbations of the displacement as the length of the crack tends to zero is derived. It carries information about the location, size, and orientation of the crack. Chapter 5 is devoted to direct imaging of small inclusions and cracks in the static regime. It focuses on MUSIC- and migration-type algorithms for detecting the small defects. Chapter 6 introduces a topological derivative based imaging framework for detecting elastic inclusions in the time-harmonic regime. Based on a weighted Helmholtz decomposition of the topological derivative based imaging functional, we achieve optimal resolution imaging. Its stability properties with respect to both medium and measurement noises are investigated. Chapters 8 and 9 discuss imaging techniques for extended elastic inclusions. We start with inverse source problems and introduce time-reversal techniques. Then we focus on reconstructing shape changes of an extended target. We introduce several algorithms and analyze their resolution and stability for the linearized reconstruction problem. Finally, we describe optimal control approaches for solving the nonlinear problem. Chapter 9 extends time-reversal techniques for imaging in viscoelastic media. Chapter 10 is to propose efficient methods for reconstructing both the shape and the elasticity parameters of an inclusion using internal displacement measurements. Chapter 11 is on vibration testing. Following the asymptotic formalism developed in this book, we derive asymptotic formulas for eigenvalue perturbations due to small inclusions, cracks, and shape deformations. We propose efficient algorithms for detecting small elastic inclusions and cracks or perturbations in the interface of an inclusion from modal measurements. In Appendix A we review useful probabilistic tools for elastic imaging in the presence of noise. In Appendix B we derive, based on the stationary phase theorem, asymptotics of the attenuation operator. In Appendix C we recall the main results of Gohberg and Sigal in [100] concerning the generalization to operator-valued functions of classical results in complex analysis.

      The book opens a door for a mathematical and numerical framework for elasticity imaging of nano-particles and cellular structures.

      Some of the material in this book is from our wonderful collaborations with Elena Beretta, Yves Capdeboscq, Elisa Francini, Pierre Garapon, Wenjia Jing, Vincent Jugnon, Eunjoo Kim, Kyoungsun Kim, Mikyoung Lim, Jisun Lim, Graeme Milton, Gen Nakamura, Kazumi Tanuma, and Habib Zribi. We feel indebted to all of them. We would also like to acknowledge the support of the European Research Council Project MULTIMOD and of Korean ministry of education, science, and technology through grants NRF 2010-0004091 and 2010-0017532.

      Chapter One

      Layer Potential Techniques

      The asymptotic theory for elasticity imaging described in this book relies on layer potential techniques. In this chapter we prepare the way by reviewing a number of basic facts and preliminary results regarding the layer potentials associated with both the static and time-harmonic elasticity systems. The most important results in this chapter are on one hand the decomposition formulas for the solutions to transmission problems in elasticity and characterization of eigenvalues of the elasticity system as characteristic values of layer potentials and on the other hand, the Helmholtz-Kirchhoff identities. As will be shown later, the Helmholtz-Kirchhoff identities play a key role in the analysis of resolution in elastic wave imaging. We also note that when dealing with exterior problems for harmonic elasticity, one should introduce a radiation condition, known as the Sommerfeld radiation condition, in order to select the physical solution to the problem.

      This chapter is organized as follows. In Section 1.1 we first review commonly used function spaces. Then we introduce in Section 1.2 equations of linear elasticity and use the Helmholtz decomposition theorem to decompose the displacement field into the sum of an irrotational (curl-free) and a solenoidal (divergence-free) field. Section 1.3 is devoted to the radiation condition for the time-harmonic elastic waves, which is used to select the physical solution to exterior problems. In Section 1.4 we introduce the layer potentials associated with the operators of static and time-harmonic elasticity, study their mapping properties, and prove decomposition formulas for the displacement fields. In Section 1.5 we derive the Helmholtz-Kirchhoff identities, which play a key role in the resolution analysis in Chapters 7 and 8. In Section 1.6 we characterize the eigenvalues of the elasticity operator on a bounded domain with Neumann or Dirichlet boundary conditions as the characteristic values of certain layer potentials which are meromorphic operator-valued functions. We also introduce Neumann and Dirichlet functions and write their spectral decompositions. These results will be used in Chapter 11. Finally, in Section 1.7 we state a generalization of Meyer’s theorem concerning the regularity of solutions to the equations of linear elasticity, which will be needed in Chapter 11 in order to establish an asymptotic theory of eigenvalue elastic problems.

      1.1 SOBOLEV SPACES

      Throughout the book, symbols of scalar quantities are printed in italic type, symbols of vectors are printed in bold italic type, symbols of matrices or 2-tensors are printed in bold type, and symbols of 4-tensors are printed in blackboard bold type.

      The following Sobolev spaces are needed for the study of mapping properties of layer potentials for elasticity equations.

      Let ∂i denote ∂/∂xito denote the gradient and the Hessian, respectively.

      Let Ω be a smooth domain in Rd, with d = 2 or 3. We define the Hilbert space H¹(Ω) by

      where ∇u is interpreted as a distribution and L²(Ω) is defined in the usual way, with

      The space H¹(Ω) is equipped with the norm

      , the set of infinitely differentiable functions with compact support in Ω, in H, such that

      Furthermore, we define H²(Ω) as the space of functions u ∈ H, for i, j = 1, …, d, and the space H³/²(Ω) as the interpolation space [H¹(Ω), H²(Ω)]1/2 (see, for example, the book by Bergh and Löfström [49]).

      It is known that the trace operator u ↦ u|∂Ω is a bounded linear surjective operator from H¹(Ω) into H¹/²(∂Ω), where H¹/²(∂Ω) is the collection of functions f ∈ L²(∂Ω) such that

      We set H−1/2(∂Ω) = (H¹/²(∂Ω))∗ and let 〈, 〉1/2,−1/2 denote the duality pair between these dual spaces.

      , in two dimensions. Let

      This weighted norm is introduced because, as will be shown later, the solutions of the static elasticity equation behave like O(|x|−1) in two dimensions as |x| → ∞. For convenience, we set

      is the usual Sobolev space.

      We also define the Banach space W¹,∞(Ω) by

      where ∇u is interpreted as a distribution and L∞(Ω) is defined in the usual way, with

      We will need the following Hilbert spaces for deriving the Helmholtz decomposition theorem

      equipped with the norm

      and

      equipped with the norm

      Finally, let T1, …, Td−1 be an orthonormal basis for the tangent plane to ∂Ω at x and let

      denote the tangential derivative on ∂Ω. We say that f ∈ H¹(∂Ω) if f ∈ L²(∂Ω) and ∂f/∂T ∈ L²(∂Ω)d−1. Furthermore, we define H−1(∂Ω) as the dual of H¹(∂Ω) and the space Hs(∂Ω), for 0 ≤ s ≤ 1, as the interpolation space [L²(∂Ω), H¹(∂Ω)]s or, equivalently, as the set of functions f ∈ L²(∂Ω) such that

      see again [49].

      1.2 ELASTICITY EQUATIONS

      Let Ω be a domain in Rd, d = 2, 3. Let λ and µ be the Lamé constants for Ω satisfying the strong convexity condition

      The constants λ and µ are respectively referred to as the compression modulus and the shear modulus. The compression modulus measures the resistance of the material to compression and the shear modulus measures the resistance to shearing. We also introduce the bulk modulus β := λ + 2µ/d. We refer the reader to [122, p.11] for an explanation of the physical significance of (1.5).

      In a homogeneous isotropic elastic medium, the elastostatic operator corresponding to the Lamé constants λ, µ is given by

      If Ω is bounded with a connected Lipschitz boundary, then we define the conormal derivative ∂u/∂ν by

      where ∇u is with ui being the i-th component of u, the superscript t denotes the transpose, and n is the outward unit normal to the boundary ∂Ω.

      Note that the conormal derivative has a direct physical meaning:

      The vector u is the displacement field of the elastic medium having the Lamé coefficients λ and µ, and the symmetric gradient

      is the strain tensor.

      In Rd, d = 2, 3, let

      with (e1, …, ed) being the canonical basis of Rd and ⊗ denoting the tensor product between vectors in Rd. Here, I is the d × d identity matrix or 2-tensor while I is the identity 4-tensor.

      for Rd by

      which can be written as

      With this notation, we have

      and

      where σ(u) is the stress tensor given by

      Now, we consider the elastic wave equation

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