Insect Management for Food Storage and Processing

INSECT MANAGEMENT for Food Storage and Processing

Second Edition

Jerry W. Heaps

General Mills, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Contributors

Preface to the Second Edition

Foreword to the First Edition

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Second Edition

PEST IDENTIFICATION

HOLISTIC PEST MANAGEMENT

PREVENTION

SUMMARY

Chapter 2: Integrated Pest Management Strategies for the Food Industry

RAW-MATERIAL SUPPLIER

FOOD-PROCESSING FACILITY

POTENTIAL INSECT-CONTROL STRATEGIES UNDER DEVELOPMENT FOR THE FOOD INDUSTRY

CONCLUSIONS

Chapter 3: Role of the Pest Management Professional in Food-Processing Pest Management

THEN AND NOW

DECISIONS

ROLE OF THE PEST MANAGEMENT PROFESSIONAL

SUMMARY

Chapter 4: Inspection Techniques

WHERE TO BEGIN

EXTERIOR GROUNDS

ROOF AREAS

PLANT INTERIOR

Chapter 5: Facility Inspections: Supporting Insect Pest Management in the Food-Manufacturing Environment

PLANT GROUNDS: THE IMMEDIATE PLANT-EXTERIOR ENVIRONMENT

BUILDING(S): CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS AND MAINTENANCE

CLEANING PROGRAMS AND PRACTICES

Chapter 6: Insect-Resistant Packaging

HISTORY OF FOOD PACKAGING

IMPORTANCE OF INSECT-RESISTANT PACKAGING

INSECT RESPONSE TO FOOD ODOR

INSECT PESTS OF PACKAGED FOODS

TESTING FOR INSECT RESISTANCE

METHODS TO REDUCE INFESTATION

CONCLUSION

Chapter 7: Stored-Product Insect Behavior

EXPLOITATION OF PATCHY ENVIRONMENTS

RESPONSE TO STIMULI

CONCLUSIONS

Chapter 8: Insect Light Traps

HISTORY

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

TRAP CONSTRUCTION

REGULATION AND COMPLIANCE CONCERNS

SYSTEM DESIGN

MISCELLANEOUS FACILITY MANAGEMENT FOR FLYING-INSECT CONTROL

CONCLUSION

Acknowledgments

Chapter 9: Biological Control of Stored-Product Pests

ADVANTAGES OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

DISADVANTAGES OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

APPROACHES OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

NATURAL ENEMIES

BULK GRAIN STORAGE

MILLS, BAKERIES, WAREHOUSES, AND RETAIL STORES

FUTURE OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL IN STORED PRODUCTS

Chapter 10: Temperature Modification for Insect Control

BACKGROUND AND HISTORY OF HEAT TREATMENTS

EFFECTS OF HEAT ON INSECTS

CALCULATING HEAT ENERGY REQUIREMENTS

DELIVERY OF HEAT TREATMENTS

HEAT-TREATMENT CASE STUDIES

SUMMARY

Acknowledgments

Chapter 11: Modified Atmospheres for the Control of Stored-Product Insects and Mites

OVERVIEW

EFFECTS OF MA ON STORED-PRODUCT INSECTS AND MITES

EFFECTS OF MA ON PRODUCT QUALITY

GENERATION AND APPLICATION OF MA

SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS OF MA

ECONOMICS OF TREATMENT

CURRENT USAGE OF MA

RESEARCH NEEDS

Chapter 12: Irradiation

IRRADIATION EFFECTS ON PESTS

RADIATION EFFECTS ON STORAGE PESTS

IRRADIATION EQUIPMENT FOR DISINFESTATION: REALITY AND CONCEPTS

SO, WHAT’S NEW IN IRRADIATION?

PEST CONTROL IN AN IRRADIATION FACILITY

Chapter 13: Pheromones for Stored-Product Protection

A WORLD OF ODORS

HISTORY OF PHEROMONE STUDY

PHEROMONES OF STORED-PRODUCT INSECTS

PHEROMONES (AND LURES) ARE NOT CREATED EQUAL

USING PHEROMONE TRAPS

TIPS FOR USING PHEROMONE TRAPS

TRAPPING STORED-FOOD MOTHS

TRAPPING STORED-FOOD BEETLES

CAPTURING MULTIPLE STORED-PRODUCT INSECT SPECIES WITH A PHEROMONE PITFALL TRAP

SUMMARY

Chapter 14: Insect Management with Residual Insecticides

CLASSES OF RESIDUAL INSECTICIDES

FACTORS AFFECTING RESIDUAL INSECTICIDE PERFORMANCE

CONCLUSION

Chapter 15: Insecticide Space Treatments in Food Plants

THE CONCEPT OF SPACE TREATMENTS

TYPES OF EQUIPMENT FOR AEROSOL SPACE TREATMENT

COMPOUNDS USED FOR SPACE TREATMENTS

Insecticides

SAFETY PRACTICES

MANAGING SPACE TREATMENT PROGRAMS

FUTURE RESEARCH

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Chapter 16: Commodity and Space Fumigations in the Food Industry

WHEN TO CHOOSE FUMIGATION

PHYSICAL CONDITIONS THAT AFFECT FUMIGATION

MOVEMENT OF GASES

DOSAGE AND EXPOSURE PERIODS

GOOD SEALING IS VITAL

PLACARDING OF FUMIGATED AREAS

CHOICE OF FUMIGANTS

METHYL BROMIDE

Before Methyl Bromide: Hydrogen Cyanide

PHOSPHINE (HYDROGEN PHOSPHIDE)

SULFURYL FLUORIDE

PREPARATION FOR FUMIGATION OF A FOOD-HANDLING FACILITY WITH PROFUME

FUMIGATION MANAGEMENT PLAN

FUTURE TRENDS IN FUMIGATION

Chapter 17: Insecticides and Occupational Health in the Food Industry

BACKGROUND

TYPES OF INSECTICIDES FOUND IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY

USAGE IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY

HAZARDS OF INSECTICIDES

ROUTES OF ENTRY AND PROTECTION TECHNIQUES

THE RESPIRATORY PROTECTION PROGRAM

TOXICOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

SAFE INSECTICIDE USAGE

DETERMINING INSECTICIDE EXPOSURE CONCENTRATIONS

MEDICAL EXAMINATIONS

FIRST AID TREATMENT

EMERGENCY TREATMENT FOR INSECTICIDE POISONING

GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS

SUMMARY

Chapter 18: The Science and Technology of Postharvest Insect Control: Challenges, Accomplishments, and Future Directions

CHALLENGES

RESEARCH ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND PROSPECTS

Index

Copyright

Cover: Insect images from the editor’s collection. Background photo of grain storage facility courtesy of USDA NRCS

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2005936471

ISBN-13: 978-1-891127-46-5

ISBN-10: 1-891127-46-2

©2006 by AACC International

All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, including photocopy, microfilm, information storage and retrieval system, computer database or software, or by any means, including electronic or mechanical, without written permission from the publisher.

Reference in this publication to a trademark, proprietary product, or company name is intended for explicit description only and does not imply approval or recommendation of the product to the exclusion of others that may be suitable.

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

AACC International

3340 Pilot Knob Road

St. Paul, Minnesota 55121, U.S.A.

Contributors

Frank H. Arthur,     USDA ARS, Grain Marketing and Production Research Center, Manhattan, Kansas

Jay Bruesch,     Plunketts Pest Control, Fridley, Minnesota

James F. Campbell,     USDA-ARS, Grain Marketing and Production Research Center, Manhattan, Kansas

Ole Dosland,     Quality Centered Consulting Services, Kansas City, Missouri

Daryl L. Faustini,     Philip Morris, USA, Richmond, Virginia

Paul W. Flinn,     USDA-ARS, Grain Marketing and Production Research Center, Manhattan, Kansas

Matthew J. Grieshop,     Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas

Jack E. Harris,     Insect-O-Cutor, Stone Mountain, Georgia

Jerry W. Heaps,     General Mills Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota

Rizana Mahroof,     Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas

Michelle Marcotte,     Marcotte Consulting Inc., Glenn Dale, Maryland

Linda Mason,     Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana

Sharon V. Mowery,     Entomolgist, Bryan, Texas

David K. Mueller,     Insects Limited Inc., Westfield, Indiana

Michael A. Mullen,     M. A. Mullen Pest Management Consultant, Statesboro, Georgia

Shlomo Navarro,     Department of Food Science, Agricultural Research Organization, Bet Dagan, Israel

Gary W. Olmstead,     General Mills, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota

Tom Osterberg,     General Mills, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota

Pamela S. Peckman,     The Industrial Fumigant Company, Olathe, Kansas

Thomas W. Phillips,     Department. of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma

Matthias E. Schöller,     Biologische Bertung Berlin, Germany

Ken Sheppard,     Pepsico Beverages and Foods, Chicago, Illinois (Retired)

Alfred J. St. Cyr,     American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, Kansas

Bhadriraju Subramanyam,     Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas

Alain VanRyckeghem,     Insects Limited Inc., Westfield, Indiana

Vern Walter,     W. A. W. Inc., Leakey, Texas

Eva Žd’árková,     Research Institute of Crop Protection, Prague, Czech Republic

Preface to the Second Edition

Since you’re reading this, thank you! For what? you may ask. For taking the time from your busy schedule to at least pick up this book and have a look at it. I’m confidant you will not be disappointed. The first edition was published in 1984 and edited by Fred J. Baur. As good a reference book as the first edition was, the second edition is even better. It has been completely revised and expanded to include the most current technical information available as of press time. Sincere efforts have been made to contact the leading subject experts and get them to tell their own stories of actual scientific research results in their areas as well as real-world experiences in dealing with stored-product insect pests. We want the reader to pull both technical and practical information from every chapter and be able to immediately go onto the food plant floor or into a warehouse and apply the information.

The book has been arranged in a specific sequence to help the reader through the thought process that one responsible for food-plant pest management may use. Chapter 2 introduces the concepts of integrated pest management (IPM) as well as basic stored-product insect control. The information in Chapter 3 is critical to a food-plant employee responsible for making the decision on whether or not to do pest control in-house or hire an outside pest-control firm. Chapters 4 and 5 go into how one would do a detailed inspection of a food plant or warehouse and highlight key items to focus on. Chapters 6 and 7 discuss, respectively, how food packaging may be made more resistant to insect penetration and how the behavior of stored-product insects determines how one may attack an infestation problem.

Chapters 8 through 13 detail the methods by which one can manipulate the food plant or warehouse environment to achieve not only stored-product insect management but possibly the elimination of such pests with the right mix of long-term environmental controls. Chapter 14, a new one in this edition, is focused on retail pest management, as many foods are infested after they leave the control of food plants or warehouses and enter the retail distribution system and marketplace.

Chapters 15 through 17 cover chemical control and strategies one needs to know when facing the task of eliminating food-plant or warehouse infestations. Food companies must protect their brands. Chemicals are not the only answer to a problem, but they must be considered in many cases as a supplement to nonchemical approaches.

Chapters 18 and 19 are critical as they focus on the human safety and environmental health concerns resulting not only from the insects covered in this book but also from the chemicals one may be exposed to in food-plant insect-pest management. Human safety takes priority over anything else we may cover in this book!

Chapter 20, the last chapter, is intended to summarize all previous chapters as we focus on the future of insect-pest management in food-storage or -processing facilities.

As editor, I’ve assembled a group of authors who are both nationally and internationally recognized as experts in their respective areas of work. Collectively, these authors have over 500 years of experience in the laboratories of food-processing plants and warehouses worldwide. Their experiences are brought to life on the pages of their chapters.

We do caution, though, that information can change quickly, especially in the area of regulatory recommendations for chemical insecticides. When such products are referred to, the user must be aware that the current insecticide label is the law. Mention of such products is by no means meant as an endorsement from AACC International or the editor. Insecticide users must read the label before use to be sure it is legal and applicable in the manner desired. Such products should not be used by themselves but in combination with other effective integrated pest management practices to provide a holistic approach.

History has shown that, if our industry cannot police itself, Washington, DC will do so. One has only to look back over the past 50 years and see what has happened to insecticide recommendations, use, and availability to realize the truth of this statement. We can only expect the future continuation of the trend toward fewer chemical insecticides being available and more restrictions being put on the use and application of those that are available. We must use all of the tools available in our pest-control toolbox to do our job effectively. Examples include, but are not limited to, sanitary design; inspection; good manufacturing practices (GMPs); control of the raw material supply chain; personnel practices; temperature/environment modification; use of pheromones and insect growth regulators; sanitation; exclusion; the knowledgeable, prudent, and legal use of insecticides; and, most importantly, making sure that the aforementioned items are carried through to the retail end of the food chain. As food manufacturers, storers, and shippers, we are often blamed for food contamination at the retail level, an area that we can minimally control or influence. Recent work has indicated that this may be changing, as companies realize that they must protect their brands from devaluation due to insect contamination.

As editor, I bring to this second edition well over 20 years of experience with food manufacturing, storage, sanitation, inspection, and pest control work. This experience has come from working on the actual plant floor as well as doing literally thousands of GMP/sanitation/pest control inspections. Experience teaches us well, if we would only listen. I have also been very, very fortunate to have met, worked with, and been supported by many outstanding teachers during those 20 plus years. Many are chapter authors in this second edition. Three come to mind immediately: Phil Harein (retired from the University of Minnesota), Bhadriraju (Subi) Subramanyam (Kansas State University), and Bill Pursley (American Institute of Baking). The food industry is small. Even smaller is the current number of stored-product entomologists able to do the funded research that we so desperately need to keep ahead of the insect pests. I urge you to trumpet the cause of research here, and to keep, grow, and fund research positions as, once gone, this vital link between science and industry may not be retrievable!

I want to thank the all the authors, who worked hard to make my deadlines, as well as the AACC International staff and the entire AACC International Book Committee for their patience and confidence in me as we worked through putting this second edition together. It has indeed been an honor and a privilege for me to be involved in this project.

Jerry W. Heaps

Foreword to the First Edition

The number of species of living things on earth is estimated at 4–10 million and higher, with insect species constituting by far the majority. The estimate of insect species runs as high as 6 million, with the number of described beetles alone exceeding 500,000. Science and history have yet to note the disappearance of a single insect species, which attests to their aptitude for survival.

It has been said by some entomologists that flour beetles are the number one insect pest to the food industry in the United States of America. The key basis for this belief is that population explosions are possible within a short period of time. If one assumes each female can lay 400 eggs and that 60% of these eggs live to maturity, then in a four-month period under favorable environmental conditions, a population of almost 2 million beetles can result. The German cockroach is capable of comparable reproductive efforts. It has been estimated that the insect population of the earth is one billion billion or 1,000,000,000,000,000,000. If the average weight of an insect is 2.5 mg, less than 0.0001 oz, the weight of the insect population exceeds man’s by a factor of about ten.

The potentially large numbers of any given species and the large numbers of species with their attendant variability in behavior are but two reasons why insect control is difficult. A third factor is the size of insects. The insects of greatest risk to industry, the stored-products or infesting types, generally are less than one-seventh of an inch in length with some as small as one-tenth of an inch. This makes detection difficult, particularly in the ever present cracks and crevices of buildings and equipment.

This book results from the desire of the American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) and the editor to make available to consumer products industries a text that will provide readily available information on how to do a better job of avoiding insect problems and eliminating such problems when they arise. Insects are the largest visible pest load; industry can and should do a better job of control; and the literature lacks a publication which attempts to treat completely the need for information on avoidance, detection, and elimination of insects.

The AACC has long been a concerned, professional, scientific society. In 1950, it formed a committee to deal with sanitation, including cleanup and associated benefits such as insect control. In 1960 AACC assumed sponsorship of a check sample program which has been extremely important in training and certifying microanalytical entomologists for the running of F&E (foreign and extraneous) analyses, most of which are insect related. It is not surprising that AACC has this interest. The raw materials used by the food industry that are most attractive to insects are those produced by segments of the food industry active in the AACC. Also, many of the finished food products marketed by AACC corporate members are among the most attractive to insects. A partial listing of the primary market coverage of AACC membership will serve to illustrate these two points: flour and other grain mill products; dog, cat, and other pet food; prepared feed and feed ingredients; bread and other bakery products; malt; macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli, and noodles; and other food preparations such as prepared baking mixes.

A more recent demonstration of AACC’s interest in pest control has been the sponsorship at its annual meetings of symposia on insects. Eight of the papers presented in 1982 are included in this publication.

The editor brings to this effort a background of over 20 years of experience in sanitation, product protection, and quality assurance/Good Manufacturing Practices. This experience was with a company that had few problems, with products and raw materials highly attractive to insects and other pests. The reason for the good track record was that prevention—the key word—was practiced. However, because insects are ubiquitous, problems occasionally arose. As the editor’s knowledge grew on how to handle these problems, his awareness grew about how little he understood insects and how difficult it was to find in the literature information that was of practical value for a given need. Consultation with experts continuously disclosed that some facts were available but had to be dug out.

The aim of this book, therefore, is to present in one volume information for the consumer products industries, with emphasis on foods, on how to avoid, control, and eliminate insects.

F.J. Baur,     Cincinnati, Ohio

December 1983

Chapter 1

Introduction to the Second Edition

Jerry W. Heaps,    General Mills Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota

We are often told, To know the future, we must look to the past and learn from our mistakes. How prophetic. This common phrase is so often quoted—and equally ignored. This is certainly true in the food storage and processing industry with respect to our knowledge of stored-product insect pests and how to control them. Why don’t we say eliminate? Here we are in the twenty-first century still battling basically the same insects that our colleagues fought at the beginning of the twentieth century. Our foes have not been eliminated. Not even close. As an entomologist, I would have to say that insects are the most adaptable and ever-present creatures we’ll ever come across. They have survived and are thriving, always appearing to be a step ahead. We do know that, to thrive, insects need food, warmth, harborage, and water. Eliminate any one of these, or better yet, all of them, and we stand a good chance of keeping these critters out of our food chain.

Yet, the food-storage and processing industry has not learned from its mistakes. Many facilities still look for quick fixes to pest problems by using insecticides and fumigants.¹ Short-term decisions are made based on dollar amounts. Such facilities fail to think long-term and take advantage of the vast amounts of information about proper sanitary design of equipment and buildings to build out insect pest harborages. Yes, to do it right the first time may cost more money, but to do otherwise only prolongs the steps needed in the future to stop problems. We need to think long-term and be proactive instead of reactive.

The industry has indeed taken giant strides forward in making food plants and warehouses less tolerable for stored-product pests. Designs are better, as is the focus on running a clean operation, because customers are less tolerant of having insects in their food. Additionally, the lightning-fast manner in which bad news travels through the media/Internet has put upward pressure on food companies to do it right the first time. Nevertheless, food companies still must be ever-vigilant and knowledgeable about how to keep pests out of food-contact zones and packaged or stored food. A few insects can quickly become many due to their ability to reproduce in large numbers over a short period.

PEST IDENTIFICATION

What this second edition is not intended to be is a stored-product insect-pest identification book. To do justice to this topic would require the use of color pictures, which can make a book of this depth and length cost-prohibitive to our audience. It is to be hoped that professionals working in the areas discussed throughout the book already have their personal libraries stocked with such insect-identification guides. If not, or for additional help with such insect identification, one can go to a computer and access the many search engines on the World Wide Web. Examples are given in Table 1. This list is by no means inclusive nor does it have any commercial endorsements connected with anyone associated with this book.

TABLE 1

List of Websites to Assist in Identification of Stored-Product Insect Pests

Additionally, each state in the United States has a land grant university available to its residents, and each of these schools has an Extension Service Entomology Department available to be contacted about identification of stored-product insect pests and questions about control through integrated pest management (IPM). Additionally, within each state, there are individual county extension agents available to county residents and equipped with the same information. These agents, an extension of the university-based personnel, funnel information from that source down to the county level. To contact these offices for current and unbiased technical information, simply look in the phone directory or go to the university’s website.

Insect identification questions can also be asked of local pest control operators who do commercial pest control as a business. These people are required to be licensed by the state in which they’re doing business, and they receive extensive training. The best suggestion would be to seek out as many sources of information as possible to gain as much knowledge about your insect-pest problem as is needed in order to make a fact-based decision about how to proceed.

HOLISTIC PEST MANAGEMENT

What is most important, though, is to know the insect first! This step cannot be skipped by always assuming you know what the insect is. Before one can begin any insect-control measure, the insect must be properly identified so that you know its biology and habitat requirements. Only then can you embark on a truly IPM course by utilizing such tactics as habitat modification (e.g., sealing cracks and crevices), environmental manipulation (e.g., using heat, cold, and modified atmospheres), chemical controls (e.g., insecticides, desiccants, insect baits, or growth regulators), or nonchemical controls (e.g., pheromone traps, insect light traps, glueboards or sticky traps, sanitary design of buildings and equipment, and inspection techniques). All of these solutions and more are fully explained in this book. This is holistic pest management. It takes time, knowledge, and persistence and may cost a few dollars, too. It’s much more than just applying an insecticide spray or a gas fumigant. Only when you know the insect you’re battling can you know what it will take to eliminate it.

All insects need food, warmth, and a harborage to survive and reproduce well. If you eliminate these in part or as a whole, you stress that insect population. Insects under stress do not survive well, if at all. Not all insects need water to drink as people do. Nevertheless, the elimination of free-standing water or other moisture sources greatly enhances your ability to control an insect-pest population. Most stored-product insects can do quite well on metabolic water that’s generated from the food they eat and their internal body processes. This allows them to thrive in environments free of standing water or a direct moisture source. However, an insect like the cockroach does need a readily available moisture source to thrive. Heat changes this moisture availability, which is one reason why heat is so effective in killing insects. It drives the moisture from the air and makes insects rapidly lose internal body moisture, which together cause the insects to dehydrate. This is one way that manipulation of the environment can kill insects.

With holistic pest management in mind, here are several key points you need to know to be well on your way to achieve it.

PREVENTION

Prevention is number 1! Stop the problem from ever occurring in the first place. Pest control is a reaction to a failure to prevent! What are some examples of how to prevent?

Sanitation

If pests of any kind have no food source, they cannot survive well. In fact, research by Jim Campbell, author of the Insect Behavior chapter in this book (Chapter 7), has shown that the red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum) can detect small, discrete patches of food. The size of these patches influences how many offspring of this insect pest will survive. Female red flour beetles were able to evaluate the size of flour patches. They increased the number of eggs laid in relation to increasing patch size. The number of eggs laid was close to the optimal number of eggs needed to produce the most adults from the patch size.

These findings further support the importance of sanitation programs in controlling insect-pest populations. So there is a reason why plant sanitarians constantly badger plant personnel to clean up after themselves. Keep it clean and be sure to clean down to the original hard surface of the soiled substrate. Leave no accumulated residues. I have found such residue around equipment leg bases that had been there for so long it was painted white like the floor! When I loosened this with a scraper, I found flour beetles that were living quite nicely under this crust. A good reference on food plant sanitation is called Food Plant Sanitation (Hui et al, 2003)

Inspection

Get out there in the plant and inspect every area and piece of equipment on a periodic basis! Normally, this is at least monthly, based on the life cycles of stored-product insects under optimum conditions. Get high; get low; and don’t just inspect straight ahead or at eye level. Start on the outside of the plant and work to the inside. Don’t forget the roof areas. Be sure employees have the right tools to do their jobs properly. Any good manufacturing practices (GMP) deficiencies observed during an inspection must be documented so that appropriate corrective action can be taken to eliminate repeat deficiencies. Find the root cause of the problem and eliminate that, versus just correcting the deficiency observed. Continual citation of the same deficiency over several inspections indicates the need for further employee training because the system has broken down. No third-party inspector should come into your plant and find an area that has not been inspected or identified as a potential insect-pest harborage. For tips on how to inspect, I urge you to read the chapters in this book by Al St. Cyr (Chapter 4) and Tom Osterberg (Chapter 5) as they share their knowledge with you, knowledge picked up by doing thousands of food-plant or warehouse sanitation inspections.

Monitoring

Pest monitoring can be done by using insect light traps (e.g., bug lights), insect pheromone traps (e.g., sticky traps with insect-specific chemical scents to attract specific insects), or simple sticky traps or glueboards placed in their areas of activity. These topics are covered by Jack E. Harris (Chapter 8) and Dave Mueller (Chapter 13). Don’t forget that using your eyes is also a valuable pest-monitoring tool.

Engineering

This is called sanitary design. Equipment must be designed and installed in such a manner that people can easily access it for inspection, disassembling, and cleaning on a regular basis. If you’re designing or installing a piece of equipment, a good rule of thumb is this: if you were assigned to inspect and clean this equipment, could you do it efficiently and effectively? If you clean the equipment and remove soil accumulations in a timely manner, insect-pest populations should never get entrenched in it. The premier reference book on sanitary design is called Engineering for Food Safety and Sanitation (Imholte and Imholte-Tauscher, 1999).

Good Manufacturing Practices

These mandatory rules for food plant or warehouse operations are detailed in the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 21, Part 110. Following these regulations is not optional. Food must be made and stored under compliance with strict GMPs. This not only assists you in the prevention of insect-pest problems but also helps ensure that the foods you produce are not adulterated with other foreign materials (e.g., glass, wood, metal, plastic, paint, rust, microbes, allergens, rodents, or birds). There can be lots of contamination besides bugs!

Businesses have an economic and public relations stimulus to follow GMPs. It is the threat of regulatory action from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The presence of insects, or their pieces and parts, above certain allowable levels, in food raw material or finished products makes the food adulterated, or illegal to distribute. Adulteration is described as filth, as listed under Section 402(a)3 of the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938. Another section of the act, which is more frequently cited in regard to insect problems, is Section 402(a)4. This states that a food is adulterated if it has been prepared, packed, or held under conditions where it may have become contaminated—that is, if the infestation in the area in question is such that product contamination is likely to occur unless prompt corrective action is immediately initiated. An FDA inspector, upon finding excessive externally visible insects, will or can seek to find products that are internally infested with insects, but such a finding is not required nor mandatory for regulatory action to occur!

We’re all aware of how lightning quick bad news can travel with our current methods of communications. Our goal as food safety professionals must be to protect our company’s food brands at all costs. We do not want to hear or read about how food made or stored in one of our companies’ plants or warehouses has been found to contain bugs! It’s headline material, and science quickly loses out to emotions when the thought of eating bugs comes up for discussion. No one wants to hear that, in the vast majority of cases, if this were to happen, there would be no health problems. Even so, this book includes a chapter by Linda Mason titled the Health Hazards of Insects and Mites (Chapter 17).

Keeping our food supply clean and wholesome also makes good business sense. The financial bottom line suffers if we pay out money as a result of food-contamination or consumer-injury lawsuits. There will always be lawyers waiting for such suits. Food recalls due to defective product also cost money. Food company data have shown that a food recall costs at least a million dollars, not including the public relations damage done to the food brand and the company itself in the marketplace.

Keep it simple! Most of the time, many insect-pest problems can be avoided by using common sense and GMP compliance. Examples are keeping unattended doors or windows closed or properly screened if left open for ventilation; mounting lights away from the building to shine back on it versus mounting them directly on the building; using halide or sodium vapor lights versus mercury vapor, as mercury lights are the most attractive to night-flying insects; practicing first in-first out stock rotation of raw materials; doing thorough and periodic cleaning on a daily and deep-cleaning basis; having well-run personnel practice policies in the plant; scheduling inspections; and adhering to the basic principles of sanitary design of equipment.

SUMMARY

In summary, remember that prevention is the number one priority! Once an insect is encountered, be sure to positively identify it. Throughout this edition, all aspects of truly integrated and holistic pest management are covered. This management is much more than chemical insecticide spraying-and-forgetting or insecticide gas fumigation. It requires modifying or eliminating the food supply or harborage of the insect pests, which may include modifying the temperature of the insect-pests’ environment. By doing these, you’ll be well on your way to eliminating the problem. Also, identify the root cause for the presence of the pest. Corrective action, follow-up, and attention to detail are keys to problem solving. Think outside the box by using your imagination. Many times, there is no one right or wrong answer but instead many ways to get the job done effectively. Follow all federal, state, and local pesticide application laws. The pesticide label is the law. Seek all the advice you can from people who make their living and careers out of this work. It is a passion, not merely a job.

References Cited

Hui Y.H., Bruinsma B.L., Gorham J.R., Nip W.-K., Tong P.S., Ventresca P., eds. Food Plant Sanitation. Marcel Dekker: New York, 2003:745.

Imholte, T. J., Imholte-Tauscher, T. Engineering for Food Safety and Sanitation. In A Guide to the Sanitary Design of Food Plants and Food Plant Equipment, 2nd ed., Woodinville, WA: Technical Institute of Food Safety; 1999:382.

¹Mention of any commercial product in this second edition is purely for informational purposes and not for commercial endorsement.

Chapter 2

Integrated Pest Management Strategies for the Food Industry

Daryl L. Faustini,    Philip Morris, USA, Richmond, Virginia

The direction and breadth of pest-control strategies in the food industry has changed significantly over the past few years. This change includes more-restrictive regulatory positions on the reduction of residual pesticide chemicals, more-sophisticated methods for measuring pesticide chemicals analytically in food, greater professionalism through training and education of members of the pest-control industry, and reduced reliance on pesticides within the food-processing and -storage areas. In connection with these changes, the food industry has undertaken the integration of policies and procedures to better manage pest populations within its domain. Examples include having an acceptable-pesticide list (which limits the number and types of pesticides used by the facility); a pest-management plan (which is the template for who, what, why, where, and when a given pesticide is to be used, i.e., both an action plan for the company and a guidance document for the pest-control applicator to follow); and an insect-monitoring report that directs control practices.

Despite these developments, the subject of pest control should be reviewed as it applies to the industry. In spite of common thought, pest management is not just the reliance on pesticides for control but involves becoming proactive in the use of effective design features affecting building structure, processing equipment, product packaging, waste handling, lighting, grounds and maintenance, sanitation practices, and storage and movement of the final product (i.e., by truck, rail, or sea). There are numerous points where pest invasion and damage can occur, from the receipt of raw materials to the retail shelf and all areas in between. Pesticides and allied chemicals will always be employed as part of the pest-control strategies. However, the goal is to limit their use and still control the target pests to acceptable levels to provide the highest-quality goods to the consumer.

The integration of these aspects from many disciplines has brought the management of pests to a new level. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a systematic and ecological approach to pest-population regulation in which a variety of techniques is consolidated into a unified program and which promotes improved decision making so that control costs are reduced and social, economic, and environmental benefits are maximized while economic damage is minimized (Luckmann and Metcalf, 1982). IPM concepts are now being integrated into the decision tree, using benefit-vs.-cost principles to guide pest-control decisions in food manufacturing and warehousing (Rajotte, 1993). An attempt is made to bring these features together within this chapter.

RAW-MATERIAL SUPPLIER

Often, infestations within a food plant arise from the supply channel. Many of the currently manufactured foods contain dried fruits, nuts, spices, herbs, cocoa, and seasonings, all of which are susceptible to stored-product pests. Although a supplier may have control measures in place to control these pests within its own facility, a failure in its program can result in contaminated feedstock being shipped through the supply channel to the product manufacturer.

The types of stored-product insects one might encounter vary depending upon the dry products being utilized. For example, many pasta products now provide a seasoning packet within the box to be mixed by the consumer. If the seasoning was contaminated at the supplier facility, it will contain insect life stages when it is sealed in the packet along with the pasta. Even though temperatures during the manufacture of pasta are sufficient to kill all life forms of insects, the fact that the seasoning is breeding insects creates the environment for cross-contamination. The consumer who finds insect parts in his cooked spaghetti will contact the product manufacturer and not the supplier!

The same example can be used for dried fruits in cereal or granola products. Occasionally, moth eggs survive fumigant treatments at the supplier due to gas leakage, poor product penetration, a short fumigation duration, or possible insect resistance to the fumigant. If the dried fruit or nuts are shipped to the manufacturing plant, they become breeding grounds for the insect at that plant. Depending on the duration of storage before use, the facility temperature and sanitation conditions within the raw-material storage area will dictate the severity of insect infestation.

Programs should be established to monitor the supplier’s pest-management plan. This should include periodic audits of monitoring programs, pesticide application frequencies, processing equipment inspections, overall plant sanitation, and conditions of any shipping containers. If the raw product is being fumigated, the buyer should be sure to review records of gas-concentration monitoring, ambient and product temperatures, and the length of the fumigation, which is paramount in achieving insect kill. All stored-product insect eggs are barely visible to the naked eye. Therefore, during an audit or examination of processing or manufacturing equipment, it is highly unlikely that an insect egg will be visible. Usually the observation of larval trails in the fine, powdery dust on horizontal beams is a clue of insect activity. A productive investigative technique is to invert a sticky board over the dust and examine the material that adheres to the board with a magnifying lens or stereomicroscope for insect feces or cast-off larval skins. This method can be used in suspect areas where it is difficult to ascertain insect infestations with the casual eye.

Note the condition of the packaging containers used to hold the final raw product. Make sure that the supplier is following your product specification guidelines. As you move through the plant, be observant of lighting, off-odors, personnel practices, and general sanitation practices. Remember, it is extremely difficult to do anything about infested finished product. Being proactive with the supplier can provide some insurance on the quality of your final product.

FOOD-PROCESSING FACILITY

Insect infestations within the food plant can arise from a myriad of sources (Scott, 1991). Points of access are open doors and windows, sewers and drains, and interplant shipments. Factors that affect how attractive the plant is to insects include odor plumes emitted from the plant, temperature gradients, and interior and exterior lighting. The facility can become an ecological potpourri of insect harborages. Nonetheless, depending upon the age of the facility, its construction materials, the exterior vegetation, and the geographical location, the pest invasion can be limited by drawing upon the strategies discussed here. Generally speaking, stored-product insects flourish in warmer climes rather than colder. If the facility is heated for employee comfort, insect populations will most likely not be dormant.

Insect-Monitoring Devices

The literature is replete with various devices used to monitor and measure insect populations (Burkholder, 1974; Faustini, 1990; Burkholder and Faustini, 1991; Phillips, 1997). All of these have their advantages and disadvantages. For example, electric light traps are used to kill flying insects that are attracted to a wavelength band or range. These traps are effective in killing house flies, mosquitoes, moths, beetles, and even small outdoor-plant-feeding insects. It has been suggested that the candlepower of these lights be checked annually to verify the light strength. In addition, these lights must be placed in areas where the greatest flight activity occurs. The devices are good tools for monitoring, not controlling, the flying insect species that are attracted to them. However, they are not target-species specific for many of the common stored-product insects encountered in a food manufacturing or storage facility. On the other hand, insect pheromone traps are specific to a target pest. These devices can be used as population-monitoring tools. The traps can be placed closer to the processing equipment and flow of the product. The odor plumes emitted from the lure within the trap can draw a sexually active insect to an adhesive surface. These traps are ideal for pinpointing infested areas in a relatively timely way. However, they have their disadvantages as well. The development of a satisfactory trap for most of the major stored-product beetle pheromones has been inadequate for the intended use. The short life span of the lure requires frequent changing of the traps, which can be costly for the end user. Since the lure is a simulated insect odor, the ambient temperature has an affect on the lure’s volatility. Nonetheless, some food plants and processing facility sanitarians have gained an excellent understanding of how to use these tools to better manage their target insect populations.

Insect monitoring reports allow the sanitarian and pest control applicator to more efficiently address insect infestations within a facility. Generally, when the annual monitoring report is summarized, insect trap catches are found to parallel environmental temperature profiles. The warmer the ambient air, the greater the number of insects recorded. Whatever monitoring device is employed, one should remember that these tools provide only a snapshot of insect activity during any given period. In many instances, when a sanitarian observes high insect activity in a trap, a considerable amount of product has been produced to the finished form and is en route to the customer.

Processing Equipment as a Control Strategy

The repertoire of insect-control tools should be as broad as possible within a food-processing facility. Frequently, during the manufacture of food, heat or cold is used to produce the final product (Sheppard, 1984; Fields, 1992). The equipment for this can be dryers, ovens, heating cylinders, blast freezers, grinders, tanks, etc. Depending upon the temperature, product duration within the device, and the bed or thickness, the heat can and will impart adequate insect kill. Raising the temperature a few degrees will increase the probability of killing insects in or around the product. Many cereal-food plants and bakeries utilize permanently mounted space heaters to provide insect kill on a routine basis. The concept is to raise the temperature above 140–150°F (∼60–66°C) for three days to break the life cycle of any resident insects in harborages within a given confined area. A structural plant engineer should be consulted before incorporating this type of control strategy. Heat sinks, paint integrity, electrical components, computer stations, microswitches, tile, etc. should all be evaluated for heat tolerances.

Numerous recording devices are available to measure the temperature and humidity in the processing equipment. These devices can be downloaded to the computer via a docking station. Thermal validation is performed to create documentation that a sterilization process is working and was done according to specification. The data can provide process engineers with an accurate and reliable measurement of the internal temperatures that the food product experiences in the dryer, oven, etc. If any major deviations from the process-control specifications are shown, the equipment set-points can be reprogrammed to meet the specifications.

Some food manufacturers use coldness to protect finished product before export. Product is loaded into a room or chamber and held for six weeks at 37–40°F (∼3–5°C). The six-week duration was established to kill all life stages (i.e., larva, pupa, and adult) of the target insects to ensure that potential propagation during shipment is eliminated.

Packaging Design Strategy

A major weak link for insect invasion into the final product is the packaging materials (Highland, 1991). Sealing of these products usually involves either cold or hot-melt food-grade adhesives. Since these materials tend to be costly, efforts are made by manufacturers to limit adhesive application on the clayboard box surface. As a result, a partial seal may occur, resulting in a point of invasion for the target pest. Some products (e.g., cereals) are buffered by packaging that has a bag in the box, whereas others (e.g., pasta products) are introduced directly into the box without an additional packaging protectant. Stored-product insect larvae gain entry into these products by following odor plumes emitted through the microgaps within these seals. In addition, many of the food-grade adhesives are composed of carbohydrates, which act as attractants and a temporary food source for the larvae, especially Trogoderma species. In a similar vein, the final product is packaged within a cardboard case before shipping. Again, some manufactures economize on production costs by shaving the top and bottom side flaps, which leaves gaps in the cardboard cases. These gaps then become points of insect invasion during storage at the plant, wholesale warehouse, and retail holding areas. Most stored-product insects can invade these containers within a few weeks if population pressures are high.

Packaging companies have designed packaging materials (e.g., paper and paperboard, coatings, adhesives, and polymers) impregnated with an insect repellent. One type of repellent (currently being reviewed under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act) contains the active ingredient methyl salicylate, a synthetic version of naturally occurring wintergreen oil (Code of Federal Regulations, 1998). The concept is that this form of control strategy may function as an alternative to more costly methods and lead toward reduced applications of pesticides in food-storage facilities and retail establishments. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency refers to natural and synthetic versions of naturally occurring active ingredients that have a nontoxic mode of action as biochemicals. Of major concern when implementing this type of strategy is receiving assurance that the repellent will not migrate into the finished product, where it might impart an off-taste displeasing to the consumer.

Sanitation Strategies

One of the most critical aspects in maintaining a pest-management program in a food plant is establishment of a sanitation policy and procedures. Without a set of established policies and guidelines for the employees and contractors to follow, personnel and operational practices often become the weak link in the fight against product contamination by insects. Through well-defined and understood guidelines, supervisors and employees can be eliminated as threats to the plant’s product-safety program and become a major control tool in ensuring that not only the safety, but the quality, of the food product is maintained.

Although sanitation is discussed in greater detail later in this book, some minutia regarding sanitation as it relates to insect harborages should be mentioned. For example, brooms and mops are often employed as cleaning tools in a food facility. The bristles on the broom and tentacles on the mop are ideal insect-harborage areas. Periodically, bounce the broom head on a clean floor surface and carefully observe what falls out. The bristles retain floor sweepings through static charge, providing a food source for larvae and adults. When these tools are moved from one plant location to another, they inoculate other locations of the plant with insects. Therefore, these tools should be cleaned routinely.

Another point source for insect contamination and migration throughout a food plant is mobile equipment. Tool carts, forklifts, scissor lifts, and personnel lifts, if contaminated with food dust or debris, provide harborages where larvae and adults can feed. Most stored-product insects tend to emigrate when disturbed by vibration or movement. Once the equipment comes to rest in the new area, the adult insects fly off and potentially contaminate their new location. Mobile devices should be routinely inspected and put on a cleaning schedule.

Developing a checklist to use when conducting an audit or inspection is paramount for reducing potential insect infestations. As new insect harborages are discovered, these areas can be added to the checklist to eliminate repeat offenses. Breaking the life cycle of the insect by routine cleaning prevents insect population buildups from occurring. When old equipment is replaced with new equipment, have the sanitarian present to witness the dismantling. If insect harborages exist in the old equipment, they can give key information to pass on to the equipment manufacturer so that the problems can be addressed or eliminated by new design features.

Many facilities still use pneumatic air for cleaning as part of the sanitation program. These devices, although effective in displacing much of the settled material, do move eggs from one location to another. When employing this method of cleaning, make sure that containers, boxes, and product-movement belts are not exposed to dust generated by the air movement. Food particles can be very small and, when displaced by air, tend to settle out on horizontal surfaces and/or fill small openings in equipment, walls, and floors. Only a few grams of dust is sufficient to sustain stored-product larvae through complete development to the adult stage.

Product Distribution and Transport

Distribution offers another key and major potential for insect invasion. When the finished product leaves the plant, it becomes subject to invasion. If the transport container is contaminated with stored-product insects, adulteration can occur. Many of these insects can live a considerable period of time without ingesting food by living off stored body fat. If an unsatisfactory sanitation condition exists in a truck trailer, sea-land container, or railcar, each poses a risk of product contamination while in transit. Furthermore, this issue becomes even more complex when the product is off-loaded at a wholesale warehouse. Many of these facilities have salvage or recoup areas holding old or damaged product. The shelf life of this product, the location of the salvage area, and the facility sanitation program will dictate the risk it poses to any new finished material. In addition, when shipments occur in the warmer months of the year, product exposure to temperature fluctuations increases the potential of insect life-cycle development. For example, railcars taking a more southern route for transport are more prone to temperature extremes than those taking a more northern route. Temperatures within these cars can reach well over 100°F (∼38°C), which is ideal for insect development. Railcars that are refrigerated or insulated reduce the risk for this type of infestation.

The same holds true for open-sea transport of food products. If these products are infested and are transported above deck rather than in ship holds, they present a greater risk for insect population growth and development. Again, programmable temperature-monitoring devices can periodically be used to measure the temperatures to which products are exposed during shipment.

POTENTIAL INSECT-CONTROL STRATEGIES UNDER DEVELOPMENT FOR THE FOOD INDUSTRY

Finally, we are in a period when new technologies are on the horizon that might augment our current food-pest-management control strategies. Irradiation of finished, packaged food products safeguards health by reducing or eliminating potential unwanted organisms. Food irradiation with electron beams offers benefits to food processors, distributors, and consumers by reducing or eliminating the threat of product spoilage or contamination from insects. The electron beam utilizes an effective and efficient cold process in which energy from an electron gun attacks the DNA of insects or bacteria, destroying their ability to reproduce and thus rendering them harmless over time. This simple process eliminates any chemical additives, leaves no residue, and does not change the product integrity or alter its appearance or its packaging.

Another technology is the use of microwave heating (Radio Frequency Company, Millis, MA). Conventional heating relies on conduction to transfer heat to the center of the material and, therefore, can be a slow process. By contrast, radio frequency occurs instantly throughout the thickness of the material, providing fast and uniform heating. In the case of insects, the energy heats the water content of the insect, thus killing the organism. This method of heating is also used for post-baking drying and moisture control of biscuits and crackers and other food products, heat treating and sterilizing of bagged materials, and multiple other uses. The radio frequency is actually a very sensitive moisture meter ideal for process control.

CONCLUSIONS

IPM is an important fundamental approach that should be incorporated into the quality-control system of any food plant, warehouse, or food facility to reduce the potential of food contamination from insects. The concept behind a strong IPM program is that no single tool in the box provides the remedy for control. Each tool plays a role in the success of the overall program, whether it consists of chemical pesticides, biocides, monitoring traps, process equipment, physical devices, or a rigid sanitation program.

References Cited

Burkholder, W. E. Programs utilizing pheromones in survey or control: Stored product pests. In: Birch M.C., ed. Pheromones. New York: American Elsevier; 1974:449–452.

Burkholder, W. E., Faustini, D. L. Biological methods of survey and control. In: Gorham J.R., ed. Ecology and Management of Food Industry Pests. Arlington, VA: Association of Official Analytical Chemists; 1991:361–372. [FDA Tech. Bull. 4].

Code of Federal Regulations. 40 CFR Part 180. Pesticides; FFDCA jurisdiction over food packaging impregnated with an insect repellent transferred to FDA. Fed. Register. 1998; 63(42):10717–10721.

Faustini, D. L. How to use Tribolium pheromone traps. Assoc. Oper. Millers Bull. 1990; 5715–5717.

Fields, P. G. The control of stored-product insects with extreme temperatures. J. Stored Prod. Res.. 1992; 28:89–118.

Highland, H. A. Protecting packages against insects. In: Gorham J.R., ed. Ecology and Management of Food Industry Pests. Arlington, VA: Association of Official Analytical Chemists; 1991:345–350. [FDA Tech. Bull. 4].

Luckmann, W. H., Metcalf, R. L. The pest management concept. In: Metcalf R.L., Luckmann W.H., eds. Introduction to Insect Pest Management. New York: Wiley; 1982:1–31.

Philips, T. W. Semiochemicals of stored-product insects: Research and applications. J. Stored Prod. Res.. 1997; 33:17–30.

Rajotte, E. G. From profitability to food safety and the environment: Shifting the goals of IPM. Plant Dis.. 1993; 77:296–299.

Scott, H. G. Design and construction: Building out pests. In: Gorham J.R., ed. Ecology and Management of Food Industry Pests. Arlington, VA: Association of Official Analytical Chemists; 1991:331–343. [FDA Tech. Bull. 4].

Sheppard, K. O. Heat sterilization (superheating) as a control for stored-grain pests in a food plant. In: Bauer F.J., ed. Insect Management for Food Storage and Processing. 1st ed. St. Paul, MN: Am. Assoc. Cereal Chem.; 1984:193–200.

Recommended Reading

Phillips, T. W., Berberet, R. C., Cuperus, G. W. Post-harvest integrated pest management. In: Francis F.J., ed. Encyclopedia of Food Science and Technology. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.; 2000:2690–2701.

Phillips, T. W., Cogan,