Dust Explosion Dynamics

Dust Explosion Dynamics

Russell A. Ogle

Exponent, Inc., Warrenville, IL, United States

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

List of Figures

List of Tables

Nomenclature

Roman Letters

Greek Symbols

Superscripts

Subscripts

Special Symbols

Preface

Liability Disclaimer

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1. Introduction to combustible dust hazards

Abstract

1.1 Historical Perspective on Combustible Dust Hazards Research

1.2 An Introduction to Combustion Phenomena

1.3 Seven Key Differences Between Combustible Dusts and Flammable Gases

1.4 Combustible Dust Hazard Parameters

1.5 Combustible Dust Testing

1.6 Combustible Dust Hazard Scenarios

1.7 Prevention and Control of Dust Fires and Explosions

1.8 Challenges in Modeling Dust Fires and Explosions

1.9 Overview of This Book

References

Chapter 2. The key physical properties of combustible dust

Abstract

2.1 Particle Size, Shape, and Surface Area Measurement

2.2 Particle Size Statistics

2.3 Physical Properties of Single Particles

2.4 Physical Properties of Particulate Materials in Bulk

2.5 Sampling of Particulate Materials

2.6 The Significance of Particle Size on Combustible Dust Hazards

2.7 Summary

References

Chapter 3. Thermodynamics of dust combustion

Abstract

3.1 Chemical Mixture Relations

3.2 Mass and Energy Balances

3.3 Stoichiometry of Combustion

3.4 Thermochemistry of Combustion

3.5 Flames and Constant Pressure Combustion

3.6 Explosions and Constant Volume Combustion

3.7 Relation Between Burn Fraction and Fractional Pressure Rise

3.8 When is a Deflagration a Flash Fire?

3.9 Thermodynamic Model for Secondary Dust Explosion Pressures

3.10 Summary

References

Chapter 4. Transport phenomena for dust combustion

Abstract

4.1 Equations of Change for Laminar Reacting Flows

4.2 Chapman–Jouguet Analysis of Combustion Waves

4.3 Premixed Flame Analysis of Gaseous Fuels

4.4 Diffusion Flame Analysis for a Liquid Droplet

4.5 Transport Phenomena in Porous Media

4.6 Dispersed Multiphase Flow

4.7 Thermal Radiation

4.8 Turbulence

4.9 Summary

References

Chapter 5. Smoldering phenomena

Abstract

5.1 Physical Description of Smoldering

5.2 Ignition by Self-Heating and Thermal Runaway

5.3 Theories of Smolder Wave Propagation

5.4 Confined Smoldering

5.5 Transition from Smoldering to a Flaming Fire or an Explosion

5.6 Controlling Smoldering Hazards

5.7 Summary

References

Chapter 6. Dust particle combustion models

Abstract

6.1 Single Particle Combustion Phenomena

6.2 Noncatalytic Gas–Solid Reaction Models

6.3 Single Particle Combustion Models for Organic Solids

6.4 Single Particle Combustion Models for Metallic Solids

6.5 The Relevance of Single Particle Combustion to Combustible Dust Hazards

6.6 Summary

References

Chapter 7. Unconfined dust flame propagation

Abstract

7.1 The One-Dimensional Laminar Dust Flame

7.2 Scaling Analysis for Heterogeneous Flame Propagation

7.3 Thermal Theories of Laminar Dust Flame Propagation

7.4 Ballal’s Theory of Dust Flame Propagation

7.5 Models Based on Activation Energy Asymptotics

7.6 Ignition and Quenching of Dust Flames

7.7 Survey of Heterogeneous Flame Propagation Behavior

7.8 Combustible Dust Flash Fires

7.9 Controlling Flash Fire Hazards

7.10 Summary

References

Chapter 8. Confined unsteady dust flame propagation

Abstract

8.1 Flame Propagation in Closed Vessels

8.2 The Flamm–Mache Temperature Gradient

8.3 The Fractional Pressure Rise Relation

8.4 Time Scale Analysis for Confined Unsteady Dust Flame Propagation

8.5 Integral Models

8.6 Dust Explosion Testing: Calibration, Igniter Strength, and Turbulence

8.7 Survey of Confined Dust Deflagration Behavior

8.8 Explosion Concentration Limits

8.9 Controlling Dust Explosion Hazards

8.10 Summary

References

Chapter 9. Dust flame acceleration effects

Abstract

9.1 Dust Flame Acceleration and Shock Waves

9.2 Dust Cloud Suspension and Secondary Dust Explosions

9.3 Confined Dust Flame Acceleration

9.4 Pressure Piling

9.5 Preventing or Controlling Secondary Dust Explosions

9.6 Summary

References

Chapter 10. Comprehensive dust explosion modeling

Abstract

10.1 CFD for Combustible Dust Problems

10.2 CFD Studies of Unconfined Dust Flame Propagation

10.3 CFD Studies of Confined Dust Deflagrations

10.4 CFD Studies of Dust Flame Acceleration

10.5 CFD Studies for Accident Investigation and Safety Analysis

10.6 Summary

References

Appendix 1. Conversion Factors and Physical Constants

Appendix 2. Table of Atomic Numbers and Masses

Index

Copyright

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Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

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ISBN: 978-0-12-803771-3

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Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India

Dedication

To Donna,

…I love you just the way you are.

—Billy Joel, The Stranger (1977)

List of Figures

List of Tables

Nomenclature

Roman Letters

A Arrhenius pre-exponential factor

Specific surface area

Speed of sound in a gas

Rosseland mean absorptivity

B Spalding’s transfer number

Bradley–Mitcheson model

Shvab–Zeldovich variable based on fuel mass fraction and enthalpy values

Shvab–Zeldovich variable based on oxidizer mass fraction and enthalpy values

Shvab–Zeldovich variable based on fuel and oxidizer mass fraction values

Heat capacity of condensed phase material

Drag coefficient

Molar concentration of species i

Local dust concentration in a flammability tube, mass units

Heat capacity at constant pressure

Heat capacity at constant volume

Speed of light

Da Damkohler number

Diameter or distance

nth moment of the particle size distribution

Particle diameter

Mean particle diameter

Flame quenching distance

Sauter mean diameter

Activation energy

Ignition energy

Radiation view factor from the flame to the ambient environment

Cumulative distribution function for a particle size distribution

Fuel–air ratio

Stoichiometric fuel–air ratio

Fraction of fuel mass burnt

Frequency distribution function for a particle size distribution

Incident radiation on solid surface

Height

Enthalpy of species i

Convective heat transfer coefficient, Planck’s constant

Specific enthalpy of species i

Higher heating value

Radiation intensity per unit wavelength per unit solid angle

Variable for gravitational settling in the transition regime

Thermal conductivity, Boltzmann’s constant, kinetic rate constant

Kinetic rate constant

Film mass transfer coefficient

Overall rate coefficient

Burn rate coefficient

Characteristic length

Lewis number

Lower flammable limit, mass concentration

Lower flammable limit, upward flame propagation, mass concentration

Lower flammable limit, downward flame propagation, mass concentration

Lower heating value

Lewis–von Elbe model

Mach number

Total mass, complex index of refraction

Mass of species i

Mass flow rate of species i

Molar mass of species i

Nagy–Conn–Verakis model

Nusselt number

Moles of species i

Number concentration of particles

Pressure

Dust explosibility parameter, maximum explosion pressure

Heat interaction; enthalpy of combustion per unit mass of fuel

Dimensionless absorption efficiency coefficient

Dimensionless extinction efficiency coefficient

Dimensionless scattering efficiency coefficient

Black body hemispherical emission

Black body spectral radiant heat flux

Volumetric heat interaction

Prandtl number

Reynolds number

Universal gas constant=8314.5 J/(kmol-K)

Radial coordinate in cylindrical or spherical geometry

Instantaneous radius of particle, radius of dust cloud

Radius of flame surrounding a fuel particle

Particle surface radius

Radius of spherical vessel

Initial radius of particle

Flame speed of a premixed flame

Laminar burning velocity of a premixed flame

Path length for radiative intensity

Schmidt number

Sherwood number

Temperature

Time

Time scale for a deflagration wave

Half-life

Internal energy of species i

Specific internal energy of species i

Volume

Volume of burnt mixture

Velocity

Terminal settling velocity for a single particle

Smolder wave velocity

Velocity component in the x-direction

Time averaged velocity component in the x-direction

Instantaneous velocity fluctuation in the x-direction

Work interaction

Mole fraction of species i

Spatial coordinate direction, size parameter for Mie scattering theory

Fractional conversion of species B

Mass fraction of fuel, unburnt condition

Mass fraction of species i

Zeldovich number

Greek Symbols

Absorptivity in thermal radiation

Volume fraction of enclosure filled with a combustible dust cloud

Volume fraction of phase i

Thermal diffusivity

Density ratio for gas-solid reaction in Chapter 6

Defined constant in

Extinction coefficient

Ratio of heat capacities

Premixed flame thickness, Frank–Kamenetskii number

Thickness of accumulated dust layer

Smolder wave thickness

Turbulent dissipation rate

Emissivity

Flame curvature

Wavelength of electromagnetic radiation

Dimensionless temperature, flame cone angle on Bunsen burner flame

Dynamic viscosity

Specific volume of species i

Dimensionless ratio of type i

Mass density

Reflectivity in thermal radiation

Mass density of chemical species i

Mass concentration of dust–air mixture

Mixture density

Solid phase density

Stefan–Boltzmann constant=5.67×10−8 W/m²-K⁴

Standard deviation

Optical thickness, transmissivity in thermal radiation, burnout time for a single particle

Burnout time for a dust cloud

Time scale for process x

Shear stress at bounding wall or surface in Chapter 9

Equivalence ratio

Velocity potential in acoustics

Mass ratio of carbon to oxygen for the stoichiometric condition

Solid angle

Chemical reaction rate per unit volume for species i

Superscripts

Standard state for energy value

Gas phase

Mixture

Solid phase

Shock-fixed coordinate system

Dimensionless quantity for turbulent boundary layer

Subscripts

Actual value

Adiabatic value at constant pressure

Burnt mixture

Chapman–Jouget detonation

Combustion

Dust

Explosion, adiabatic value at constant volume

Liquid–vapor phase transition

Species i

Inflow of material

Mixture value

one-film combustion model

Outflow of material

particle

Reference state

Solid

Stoichiometric value

two-film combustion model

Threshold value in Chapter 9

Unburnt mixture

Coordinate direction

Initial condition

Free stream property in Chapter 9

Special Symbols

Molar value of quantity A

Flow rate of quantity A

Dimensionless value of A

Radiative absorption per unit wavelength per unit solid angle

Effective diffusivity in a porous medium

Diffusivity of species i

Oxygen to fuel mass ratio

Aerodynamic drag force

Radiative emission per unit wavelength per unit solid angle

Characteristic length scale of flow

Integral microscale

Kolmogorov microscale

Markstein length

Interparticle spacing in dust cloud

Molar mass of species i

Stoichiometric coefficient, mass of oxidizer per unit mass of fuel

Preface

Combustible dust is both an explosion and a fire hazard. Over the last 300 years, coal mines, grain elevators, and numerous manufacturing facilities have experienced catastrophic accidents resulting in thousands of deaths and injuries and destroying hundreds of structures. The investigation and control of combustible dust hazards has been the subject of intense effort between two primary groups: industrial safety experts and research scientists. The industrial safety experts have concentrated on evaluating the magnitude of the hazard for a given dust and developed various methods for protection. The research scientists have devoted their efforts to understanding the fundamental physical and chemical factors underlying combustible dust behavior. Both groups have produced a large volume of literature that suits the needs of their peers, but there seems to be little interaction or communication between these two groups. I believe that industrial safety experts could benefit greatly from the insights and knowledge produced by combustion scientists. My goal is for this book to help bridge that gap by demonstrating how a deeper understanding of combustible dust hazards can be achieved through combustion science.

Dust explosion dynamics is the investigation of the physical and chemical phenomena that govern dust explosions and related combustible dust hazards. This text explores the use of fundamental principles of combustion science to evaluate the magnitude of combustible dust hazards in a variety of settings. Models are developed to describe dust combustion phenomena using the principles of thermodynamics, fluid dynamics, transport phenomena, and chemical kinetics. Simple, tractable models are described and compared with experimental data when possible. The purpose of these simple models is to give the reader insight into the complex phenomena involved in dust explosions. Later, more sophisticated models are introduced to help the reader gain an appreciation for the challenges yet to be tackled.

Some excellent books have been written on dust explosions. But for the most part, books on dust explosions emphasize the industrial safety perspective. The serious student of combustible dust hazards should consult the following texts:

• Amyotte, P. An Introduction to Dust Explosions.

• Bartknecht, W. Dust Explosions: Course, Prevention, Protection.

• Barton, K. Dust Explosion Prevention and Protection.

• CCPS/AIChE. Guidelines for Safe Handling of Powders and Bulk Solids.

• Cheremisinoff, N.P. Dust Explosion and Fire Prevention Handbook: A Guide to Good Industry Practices.

• Eckhoff, R. Dust Explosions in the Process Industries, Third Edition.

• Frank, W.L. and S.A. Rodgers. NFPA Guide to Combustible Dusts.

• Nagy, J. and Verakis, H.C. Development and Control of Dust Explosions.

The texts cited above are largely devoted to the prevention of and protection from dust explosions. Three of these books do take a more fundamental approach. The book by Dr. Amyotte offers many conceptual insights into the physical and chemical phenomena involved in combustible dust hazards. The book by Dr. Eckhoff is especially noteworthy and in that he has done a masterful job of summarizing both the pragmatic industrial investigations and the scientific research on combustible dust. The book by Mssrs. Nagy and Verakis summarizes the extensive work performed by the U.S. Bureau of Mines and does a particularly good job of describing and deriving integral models for explosion development and venting. But none of these books provides the foundation in combustion science that can assist the reader interested in gaining a deeper understanding of the scientific research on combustible dusts.

This book is different in that it focuses on exploring the combustion science underlying combustible dust hazards. Using simple models and detailed examples, it demonstrates how the fundamental principles of combustion science can be applied to better understand dust explosion phenomena. The intent of the book is to eliminate some of the empiricism used to explain dust explosions and to give the reader insight into the physical and chemical phenomena involved. To accomplish this goal, I will introduce you to just enough combustion science so that you can read, interpret, and use the scientific literature on combustible dusts.

One of the elements of hazard analysis is the evaluation of hazard severity or consequences. This book is about consequence analysis for combustible dusts. Consequence analysis uses mathematical models to make predictions about the severity of hazardous outcomes. There are four primary hazards of combustible dust: smoldering, flash fires, dust explosions, and flame acceleration effects (shock waves or detonations). The consequences of these hazards are addressed in this book through mathematical models based on combustion science. The models developed herein are simplified versions of more reliable, and strongly empirical, methods that are presented in the safety literature. It is my hope that the insight derived from simple models will give the reader a better appreciation for the strengths and limitations of the more empirical design methods. There are a number of worked examples throughout the text. These are mostly straightforward calculation exercises designed to give the reader an appreciation for the relative magnitude of physical quantities important to dust explosion dynamics.

The plan of this book reflects my philosophy for mathematical model building: start with a simple model, challenge it with empirical data, and improve the model as guided by the data. Thus, we will begin with models based solely on thermodynamics and neglect finite rate processes. Next finite rate processes are introduced through formulations using a burning velocity for the dust flame. Models based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) will complete the presentation. CFD models offer the opportunity to introduce important concepts from multiphase flow, turbulence, thermal radiation, and chemical kinetics.

There is no question that CFD models are the most powerful and comprehensive formulations, but they are also the most complex to use. CFD models impose a burden on the user to specify a number of model inputs that must either be measured or be estimated. Many CFD codes are proprietary and can be expensive to purchase or lease, and are therefore not always readily available to the analyst. The emphasis on simpler models offers an opportunity to extract physical insight with less investment of resources. Similarly, in addition to the current literature, the reader will notice many citations to the older technical literature. In many of these older citations, one can find clever conceptual approaches and analytical techniques which offer deep insight into dust explosion phenomena. With the onset of robust numerical methods and fast, yet inexpensive, digital computers, one finds that much of the current combustion literature turns immediately to CFD simulations. While CFD is a powerful tool, it requires a great deal more effort to develop results and may not be available to all analysts interested in dust fires and explosions.

This book is written at a level suitable for both students and practicing professionals in the engineering and scientific fields. My objective is to introduce the reader to specific concepts from combustion science that will lead to deeper insight into the behavior of combustible dusts. I hope you will not be deterred by the over 600 equations in this book. There is a large number of equations because I have worked out many derivations in detail so that the you, the reader, will not spend endless hours trying to retrace the footsteps of so many combustion scientists before you. I have purposefully omitted many topics from combustion science because they are not germane to my immediate goals. For the reader desiring a broader introduction to combustion phenomena, I recommend the following books:

• Glassman, I., Yetter, R.A., and Glumac, N.G. Combustion, Fifth Edition.

• Kuo, K. Principles of Combustion, Second Edition.

• Law, C.K. Combustion Physics.

• Linan, A. and Williams, F.A. Fundamental Aspects of Combustion.

• McAllister, S., Chen, J-Y., and Fernandez-Pello, A.C. Fundamentals of Combustion Processes.

• Turns, S.R. An Introduction to Combustion, Third Edition.

• Williams, F.A. Combustion Theory, Second Edition.

• Zeldovich, Ya.B., Barenblatt, G.I., Librovich, V.B., and Makhviladze, G.M. The Mathematical Theory of Combustion and Explosions.

A brief word about the references cited in this book. I have made no attempt to comprehensively review the scientific literature on combustible dust. I have been selective and have focused mostly on papers, reports, and books which I have found useful in my consulting practice. This is not to say that the omitted works are of an inferior quality, far from it. Eckhoff has presented an excellent survey of the scientific literature in his text on dust explosions. For the interested reader seeking a broader, more balanced introduction to the scientific literature, I strongly recommend his Dust Explosions in the Process Industries, Third Edition.

It is my hope that you will find this book useful in your efforts to manage combustible dust hazards. If you have any comments, criticisms, suggestions, or if you discover any typographical errors, I will be most grateful if you would send me an email at dustexplosiondynamics@gmail.com.

Liability Disclaimer

Although the information in this book is believed to be factual and accurate, no warranty or representation, expressed or implied, is made with respect to any or all of the content thereof and no legal responsibility is assumed therefore. The equations, methods, and examples used are for illustrative purposes only and may not be suitable for engineering design. The reader assumes all liability in the application of the material in this book.

Acknowledgments

In some ways, this book has been 30 years in the making. My doctoral research project, published in 1986, was an investigation of aluminum dust explosions with a 20-L sphere. I have been interested in the combustion science of dust explosions ever since. Fiona Geraghty, acquisitions editor at Elsevier, opened the door for me to begin this project. Maria Convey and Laura Jackson at Elsevier have guided me through the writing and production process with both grace and patience. I am grateful to Fiona, Maria, and Laura for all of their efforts.

I would like to thank my attorney, Karen Shatzkin (Shatzkin & Mayer, New York), for her professional guidance. I thank my colleague, Timothy Myers, who voiced his support and encouragement on this book project from its inception. I have benefited greatly from the support of my friends and colleagues at Exponent over the years, and I am especially grateful for the guidance and encouragement I have received from my mentor and supervisor Harri Kytomaa. I must also acknowledge the technical assistance of Brenton Cox, Sean Dee, and Stephen Garner, my colleagues at Exponent. They checked my mathematical derivations, corrected errors, and suggested a number of lucid edits to the text. With their assistance, I have made every effort to eliminate errors in the text. Any errors that remain are mine alone.

I am grateful to my parents, Jim and Dorothy, for their love and guidance throughout the years. While writing this book my adult children-Laura (and her husband, Scott), Andrew, and Peter-provided some desperately needed distraction and encouragement.

And finally, I thank my wife, Donna, for her love and support. She makes all good things possible.

Chapter 1

Introduction to combustible dust hazards

Abstract

Dust fire and explosion dynamics is the investigation of the physical and chemical phenomena that govern combustible dust hazards. This chapter explores the use of fundamental principles of combustion to evaluate the magnitude of combustible dust hazards in a variety of settings.

This chapter begins with a brief history of dust explosion research and introduces some basic aspects of combustion behavior. Seven important differences between combustible dusts and flammable gases are established. These differences will be a continuing theme throughout this book. Common parameters used to evaluate combustible dust hazards are defined and the typical test methods currently in use are described. A description of common combustible dust hazard scenarios is presented. A brief review of dust explosion prevention and control strategies completes this chapter.

Keywords

Combustible dust; deflagration; smoldering; flash fire; combustion; dust explosion; flame acceleration; detonation; flame; fire; hazard scenario

Finely divided solid matter plays an irreplaceable role in modern technology. It has been estimated that three-quarters of all raw materials used in the chemical and process industries and half its products, on a weight basis, are particulate solids. At least 1% of the world’s electrical power is consumed in crushing and grinding operations. Particulate solids are an eminently useful form of solid matter. They are especially well suited for storage, handling, transportation, and processing operations. However, simply converting a bulk solid material into a particulate material introduces new hazards. For example, a large block of quartz is relatively inert. But as a finely divided solid (sand) poured into a silo, the quartz becomes an engulfment hazard to personnel who enter the silo.

Any oxidizable material with a sufficiently small particle size is, under the right circumstances, potentially capable of combustion. In general, the finer the particle size, the faster the rate of combustion and thus the greater the hazard. Easily oxidized, finely divided material is called combustible dust.¹ Combustible dust presents three types of combustion hazards: smoldering fires, flash fires, and dust explosions. A dust explosion is the most severe of these hazards.

A dust explosion begins when a cloud of combustible dust is ignited. The ignition event can be thought of as a ball of flame. The flame creates a high temperature volume of gas which tends to expand into the unburnt portion of the dust cloud. As the surface of the flame expands it consumes fuel creating a larger volume of combustion products. The continued expansion of the burnt gases accelerates the flame causing it to consume fuel faster and faster. If the dust cloud is confined in a vessel or structure, the high temperature of the combustion products leads to a rise in pressure. If the rising pressure exceeds the strength of the confinement, the vessel or structure will rupture allowing the high pressure gas to expand into the surroundings.

Dust explosion dynamics is the study of the physical and chemical phenomena that govern the fire and explosion hazards of combustible dust. This book is written for the student or the expert who is interested in seeing how simple combustion models can yield insight into the physical and chemical phenomena that govern combustible dust hazards. From the perspective of safety risk assessment, these simple models will help the investigator gain a deeper understanding of the consequences of combustible dust hazards. However, this is not a book devoted to the important subjects of explosion protection, safety standards, or risk assessment. These topics are covered in several books cited in the references.

This book assumes the reader has taken undergraduate level courses in thermodynamics, fluid dynamics, heat and mass transfer, and some chemical kinetics. These are the foundation subjects for combustion. I will introduce certain fundamentals and key results from combustion science as needed to develop the elements of dust fire and explosion dynamics. Citations to combustion textbooks and the literature are given for additional reading and investigation. The combustion behavior of flammable gases and vapors tends to occupy the majority of attention in combustion texts. The unique hazards of combustible dusts garner less attention in these books.

To gain an appreciation for the science behind combustible dust hazards, a brief history of dust explosion research will be presented from the perspective of combustion science. Some basic aspects of combustion behavior are introduced and key terms are defined. I then establish seven important differences between combustible dusts and flammable gases. These differences will become the basis for organizing many of the empirical observations and combustion models to be discussed later in this book.

The goal in studying the combustion behavior of combustible dust is to better manage its hazards. Safety management has three basic components: hazard identification, evaluation, and control. The first two components, identification and evaluation, are based on laboratory testing. In a very brief fashion, I next define the common parameters used to evaluate combustible dust hazards and describe the typical test methods for characterizing combustible dusts. The task of hazard control requires some sense of how the hazards of combustible dust can reveal themselves in the real world. I describe some common hazard scenarios to provide a conceptual framework for thinking about these hazards. Finally, some of the basic dust explosion prevention and control strategies are summarized. These sections are exceptionally brief as there are many good books and review papers available for further study.

1.1 Historical Perspective on Combustible Dust Hazards Research

When speaking of an awareness of combustible dust hazards, there are two groups to consider: the technical community and the industrial community. Unfortunately, the knowledge of combustible dust hazards has been slow to diffuse beyond specialists in both communities. Even today, combustible dust accidents surprise unsuspecting victims. This may be due in part to the fact that dust explosions are (thankfully) a rare occurrence when compared to the incidence rate of similar hazards like structural fires.

There have been several information campaigns in the 20th century to educate the industrial community about combustible dust hazards, and there have been further efforts in the 21st. These information campaigns have been accompanied by a tremendous growth of technical information regarding the properties and hazards of combustible dust. But while the recognition of combustible dust hazards spans almost three centuries, the understanding of dust explosion phenomena based on the application of fundamental scientific principles is a more recent development. As often happens with the investigation of new phenomena, progress was made on several fronts in a somewhat nonlinear fashion. Occasionally, these independent efforts would intersect, and at other times they diverged. Coal and agricultural grains proved to be the early focal points of investigation. Eckhoff has presented a very comprehensive literature review on all aspects of dust explosion research (Eckhoff, 2003). This brief historical review focuses on the development of the conceptual underpinnings of dust explosion phenomena.

The awareness of combustible dust hazards in the technical community has been traced back to the late 18th century with a publication by the Italian natural philosopher Count Morozzo (Morozzo, 1795). Morozzo’s description of a grain dust explosion at a bakery in Turin, Italy, included the identification of the key elements necessary for a dust explosion: finely divided fuel, creation of a dust suspension in air, confinement of the dust cloud, and the presence of an ignition source. In the same publication, Morozzo discussed examples of chemical reactivity hazards (eg, mixing nitric acid with fat oils) and self-heating and spontaneous ignition involving oil-impregnated sail cloth, linen rags, and hay stacks. However, not all of the article was founded on reliable empirical observation as he also described the phenomenon of spontaneous human combustion! Notwithstanding this minor criticism, Morozzo