Map Librarianship: A Guide to Geoliteracy, Map and GIS Resources and Services

(ESU).

Chapter 1

Introduction to Maps and Librarians

Abstract

Maps serve to orient lives and navigate landscapes. The historic progression of map-making cultures and collectors may date back as far as 12 millennia. Map librarianship as a career track is a mid-20th century phenomenon. Librarians managing cartographic collections must be geo-literate and have adequate academic library school coursework to design effective map and geospatial services. 21st century cartographers and geographers have gained new importance in documenting natural disasters through the use of global social media channels, maps, and geographic information systems. For librarians to be essential liaisons they must assure maps and geospatial data are freely available. As NeoGeography and NeoCartography have become commonplace, it is time library school programs support NeoMap Librarianship and join the Geospatial Revolution.

Keywords

Geography; NeoGeography; Cartographer; NeoCartography; Crisis mapping; Compass; Spatial; NeoMap Librarianship; Maps; Crowdsourcing; Participatory cartography; Geo-literacy; Geo-literate; Geospatial Revolution.

1.1 Maps: Our Spatial Compass

Maps are ubiquitous and can record a sense of place in life. Maps situate the reader to a location on Earth through cardinal points of a compass providing the direction in space. Stephen Hall (2004) assumed that we travel with maps neatly folded and tucked away in the glove compartment of memory; we orient ourselves back and forth between time and landscapes, emotion and geography, and it all happens in the span of a few moments (p. 15). In fact, three-dimensional compass cells have been identified in bats, used to perform complex flight without disorientation (Finkelstein et al., 2015, p. 159). Costandi (2014) summarized research that suggests all mammals, which likely include humans, have head-direction cells or an internal global positioning system used to create these mental maps of the environment. Aber (2012) found that with short exposures to a novel place, individuals can recall the spatial layout of an environment to some degree, with a few capable of creating an incredibly accurate mental map of the space. Consequently, maps play a role in the place in which we were raised and reside, serving as our internal spatial compass.

Maps are pervasive and people rely on numerous types of maps daily. Maps are produced in print or electronic formats, accessed in print books and single sheets or via mobile phone and computer devices. Planimetric or topographic maps may be used for navigation. Reading and interpreting maps help to create a route to travel from point A to B, whether driving unfamiliar roads or hiking over new trails. Likewise, interpreting digital data via electronic maps in real-time helps to anticipate traffic delays and predict changing weather conditions. Professional politicians might study past voting patterns on choropleth maps or cartograms while observing data on electronic maps showing present election results as polling stations report. Geologic maps are used to locate and interpret rock layers and tectonic structures when prospecting for valuable natural resources from coal to diamonds.

More recently, humans in the wake of natural disasters have benefited with quicker disaster response when participating volunteers come together to monitor social media channels and share information regarding infrastructure destruction and human-injury levels. These efforts result in maps, which provide emergency aid officials with valued current, yet ephemeral, information for a focused response. Subsequently, maps have become second nature. This is especially true when accessing and displaying mobile, electronic versions.

In Oct. 2013, American politicians disrupted our traditional spatial compass. The Legislature forced a Federal Government shutdown by refusing to pass a national budget for 16 days in order to stop implementation of legislation that created affordable health care insurance opportunities (The White House, Office of Management and Budget, 2013; Roberts, 2013). This political tactic cut off the world’s access to one of the primary sources for maps and geospatial data by closing nearly all of the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA), and other federally funded science groups (Rosenberg, 2013). The only USGS web sites remaining online were those deemed necessary to protect lives including maps of disease, earthquakes, volcanoes, erosional hazards, landslide hazards, geomagnetism, and water, see Figure 1.1. Likewise, NOAA maintained some capability for weather forecasts and warnings, while NASA satellites currently in orbit were allowed to operate (Freedman, 2013).

Fig. 1.1 Screenshot showing the USGS website during the 2013 U.S. government shutdown.

These same legislators went even further and restricted access to information and data at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. However, in the nation’s capital, the mayor declared public libraries and librarians as essential, and the District of Columbia libraries defied the restrictions and remained open (Chant, 2013; DeBonis, 2013). In addition, some private companies, such as the Environmental Systems Research Institute (Esri), continued to provide access to existing federal government geospatial data resources through ArcGIS Online (Szukalski, 2013). Although our use of maps is so natural, the right to free access of maps, information, and data is in fact a privilege, which can be taken away.

Nevertheless, the value of mapping natural disasters by volunteers using social media has driven change in access and map making. In the past, printed or electronic maps were created using traditional geographic methods, where one map maker or professional cartographer created the finished map used by many. Now, maps may be produced with crowdsourced, shared data, and a new geographic method (Goodchild & Glennon, 2010). This participatory cartography, or NeoCartography, is where many come together to create one map.

These grassroots efforts and the need to bypass disruptions in the public’s access to maps and data have reinforced the value of libraries and the role librarians can play. Many libraries serve as Federal Depositories of print maps and may have created resource collections and services that included access to electronic maps and spatial data. However, not all librarians have map and geography educational backgrounds and may benefit by gaining a higher level of geo-literacy to be effective. If librarians have content knowledge, then they can adopt a collection development policy that promotes geography and cartography resources and creates effective instructional services.

1.2 What is Geography?

Geography as a word has its origins in the Greek scholar Eratosthenes' writings (Roller, 2010). It combines geo, meaning Earth and graphy, which refers to art or science and the process or form of representing and describing, or in other words, writing about the Earth. While some assume that geography is a field concerned with memorizing political capitals, in reality it is a holistic approach to studying Earth and the people living there. Geography is considered to have four traditional areas of study: the spatial tradition, analyzing where things are; the area studies tradition, looking at what makes regions distinct; the earth science tradition, which covers many natural topics of geology, hydrology, atmospheric studies, etc.; and the man-land tradition, which looks at links between the natural and human-built environments (Pattison, 1990). This last tradition has become more and more important in recent decades as we increasingly come to understand the impact our actions have on the environment.

These four traditions together cover a great deal of human understanding of the world, which suits geography’s holistic approach to knowledge well. For example, a geographer would not look at the natural component of a mountain without considering how those elements are affected by those who live on the mountain; likewise, a geographic study of the people living on the mountain would be incomplete without considering the impact of the natural environment on their lives. These traditional geographic approaches are visible through the multitude of techniques and topics on display in maps.

Cartography is the study and tradition of map making. A cartographer makes maps by combining geographic data with scientific, technical, and artistic principles of that time period to model and communicate visual, spatial information. Although traditional map making is being superseded by digital technologies, crowd-sourcing methods, and cloud storage/retrieval, there is merit in reviewing the early tangible map-making techniques using formats from rock to paper. A brief historic summary follows. For more information, refer to: The History of Cartography Series, a definitive collection of articles with global coverage (Harley & Woodward, 1987, 1992, 1994; Woodward & Lewis, 1998; Woodward, 2007; Monmonier, 2015). Two additional volumes are forthcoming in The History of Cartography Series, Cartography in the European Enlightenment, volume 4, by Edney & Pedley (Eds.) and Cartography in the Nineteenth Century, volume 5, by Kain (Ed.). Other bibliographies include Ristow (1997) and Karrow (1997).

1.3 Historic Progression of Maps and Cartographers

Discussions on the history of maps and cartography usually begin with ancient civilizations some 4 millennia in the past when maps were preserved on Babylonian clay tablets (Dilke, 1987). Yet, some consider the earliest map examples to be traced back 8–12 millennia and are those carved on rock or painted murals on walls (Barras, 2013; Choi & Brahic, 2009; Clarke, 2013; Meese, 2006; Siebold, n.d.; UNESCO, 1979; Utrilla, Mazo, Sopena, Martínez-Bea, & Domingo, 2009) (see Fig. 1.2). Regardless of the age, dissemination of the map was limited given fixed geographic locations of rock outcrops and buildings. As map making progressed from carvings on rocks to etchings on clay tablets, cartographers also advanced from hand-carved or hand-drawn maps to reusable map printing methods. Thus, printing techniques and lighter-weight formats increased dissemination as materials used for making maps went beyond a fixed stone or