Pressure Retarded Osmosis: Renewable Energy Generation and Recovery
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About this ebook
Pressure Retarded Osmosis: Renewable Energy Generation and Recovery offers the first comprehensive resource on this method of generating renewable energy. Dr. Khaled Touati and the team of editors combine their expertise with contributions from other leaders in the field to create this well-rounded resource, which discusses and analyses this novel method of creating a controllable renewable energy.
The promises of the PRO technique are first clearly presented and explained, and the authors then provide a comprehensive analysis of the issues that remain such as Concentration Polarization, Membrane Deformation, and Reverse Salt Diffusion. Possible solutions to these issues which often restrict industrial implementation are then discussed to mitigate these detrimental effects, and there is also an emphasis on the recovery of energy from desalination processes using PRO, which is able to reduce energy consumption and make it more economically and environmentally efficient.
- Combines research with experience to deliver a complete resource on Pressure Retarded Osmosis
- Discusses all areas of PRO in detail
- Offers solutions to problems commonly experienced and summarizes each method with a clear and concise conclusion
- Includes case studies from the Great Salt Lake (U.S.A) and Dead Sea (Asia), as well as other rivers from America, Europe, and Asia
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Pressure Retarded Osmosis - Khaled Touati
Pressure Retarded Osmosis
Renewable Energy Generation and Recovery
Editors
Khaled Touati
Fernando Tadeo
Sung Ho Chae
Joon Ha Kim
Oscar Alvarez-Silva
Table of Contents
Cover image
Title page
Dedication
Copyright
Preface
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Chapter One. Pressure Retarded Osmosis as Renewable Energy Source
1. Introduction
2. Salinity Gradient Energy
3. Pressure Retarded Osmosis
4. Development of Pressure Retarded Osmosis
5. Integration of Pressure Retarded Osmosis With Desalination Processes
6. Pressure Retarded Osmosis Limitations and Suggested Solutions
7. Pressure Retarded Osmosis Energy Cost
8. Environmental Impact
9. Final Considerations and Conclusions
Chapter Two. Water and Salt Fluxes in Pressure Retarded Osmosis
1. Introduction
2. Modeling
3. Materials and Methods
4. Experimental
5. Effect of the Operating Conditions on the Reverse Salt Flux
6. Theoretical Discussion of the Ratio Js/Jw
7. Implications on Full-Scale Power Plant
8. Conclusions
Chapter Three. Effects of the Temperatures on PRO
1. Introduction
2. Model of the Temperature Profile Through the Membrane
3. Theory
4. Effect of the Operating Temperature on the Feed and Draw Solution Chemistry
5. Effect of the Bulk Temperatures on the Membrane Temperature Distribution
6. Effect of the Bulk Temperatures on the Membrane Parameters
7. Effect of the Operating Temperature on the Hydrodynamics Parameters
8. Effect of the Temperature on the Specific Salt Flux Js/Jw
9. Conclusion
Chapter Four. Integration of PRO into Desalination Processes
1. Introduction
2. Energy Consumption of the Desalination Processes
3. Energy Recovery From Seawater Reverse Osmosis
4. Energy Recovery From Two-Staged Seawater Reverse Osmosis
5. Energy Recovery From Thermal Desalination Processes
6. Conclusion
Chapter Five. Implementing Salinity Gradient Energy at River Mouths
1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Energy From Mixing Freshwater and Seawater
3. Environmental Constraints
4. Reliability of the Energy Exploitation
5. Efficiency of the Energy Conversion
6. Effects of the Salinity Structure on the Potential
7. Fouling: A Major Challenge
8. Final Remarks and Prospective
Index
Dedication
To our families, who supported us with patience while we wrote this book
For my little girl Mariah
(Khaled Touati)
Copyright
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Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
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Preface
The demand for renewable sources that provide affordable, clean and sustainable energy is currently one of the world's biggest challenges. This book presents pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) as a promising sustainable energy source that may contribute to green economic growth in the near future. Energy is created in PRO from the difference in salt concentrations between two water sources: freshwater and seawater in river mouths, or brines in desalination plants are the main sources, but industrial wastewaters, saline aquifers, or salt lakes are also potential sources. It is both reliable and controllable, the main requirements for competiveness.
This renewable energy is being actively researched and tested worldwide, with numerous results published in the scientific literature. This amount of literature can be daunting for newcomers to the field, so it is the aim of this book to provide the state of the art in a single source, emphasizing some new results. The focus is on those aspects that are critical to practical implementations at industrial level, from providing a detailed understanding of the main process variables to the issues around the adequate selection of the PRO plants' location.
Acknowledgments
Khaled Touati and Fernando Tadeo were funded by Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (Spain) under grant DPI2014-54530-R.
We would like to thank Prof. Thomas Schiestel and the members of the INES network, for many helpful discussions.
Introduction
1. Pressure Retarded Osmosis
Energy demand is increasing, because of economic development and population growth. In fact, primary energy demand has more than doubled since 1971. The world is thus facing unprecedented challenges for energy supply because of the decrease in the availability of inexpensive fossil fuels and the detrimental effects of the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs).
These concerns provide sufficient motivation for drastically replacing fossil fuels with affordable, clean, secure, and renewable energy sources. This is one of the world's biggest contemporary challenges. The need for renewable energy sources to meet world's energy demand and progressively divert fossil energy sources is on the increase and many research efforts are concentrating on their development, testing, and upscaling. Nonetheless, the uneven availability of energy sources, the complex implementation, and/or comparatively high installation costs are still preventing them from being widely used.
This motivates the development of alternative sources of renewable energy, such as the pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) studied in this book, which uses the energy generated by differences in salt concentrations between two fluids, commonly freshwater and salt water. The power produced can then be controlled and scaled, adapting it to the demand, making this an attractive alternative renewable energy source for cities, industrial zones, or remote communities lacking centralized energy access. Moreover, if extraction factors ensuring ecological stability are considered, it is a sustainable energy source.
2. This Book
This book revises the current state of the art in PRO.
First, Chapter 1 reviews PRO as a source of controllable, renewable energy. To understand and predict the power production, several models derived from physical and chemical properties are presented. Moreover, it is shown, using laboratory results, that these models provide a good correlation with experimental results, making it possible to predict performance and power production in PRO plants. The cost competitiveness of PRO is also discussed briefly in Chapter 1.
Then the operation of PRO is discussed in Chapter 2, studying the main factors affecting performance, in particular, the water and salt fluxes. In particular, the effect of the internal concentration polarization is quantified using the structural parameters of the support layer (thickness, tortuosity, and porosity), as it might reduce significantly the performance if it is not correctly compensated. The effect of the temperature on the process parameters and the resulting power production are discussed in Chapter 3, as it is known to significantly affect the performance: proper control of these temperatures could improve energy production by PRO.
Chapter 4 discusses the applications of PRO in desalination processes: PRO could bring additional power into the system by recovering the osmotic energy available from the brine, at the same time, reducing the salinity of the brine, which minimizes its environmental impact.
Finally, Chapter 5 analyzes the sustainability, reliability, and technical suitability of PRO plant implementation at river mouths, where the availability of abundant freshwater and seawater makes it possible to conceive PRO plants that adapt to the required demand, from small systems for local renewable energy production to large utility-scale installations.
Chapter One
Pressure Retarded Osmosis as Renewable Energy Source
Khaled Touati¹, and Fernando Tadeo² ¹Technopark Borj Cedria, Soliman, Tunisia ²University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain
Abstract
This chapter presents a novel renewable energy source (pressure retarded osmosis), which uses the energy generated by differences in salt concentrations between two fluids, commonly freshwater and saltwater. Compared with other renewable energy sources, it has the advantage of controllability. An overview of the state of the art of this technique is presented, discussing also its basic operation principles and main challenges.
Keywords
Draw solution; Energy cost; Environmental impact; Feed solution; Membrane permeability; Osmotic power; Pressure-retarded osmosis; Renewable energies; Reverse salt diffusion; Salinity gradient energy
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Salinity Gradient Energy
2.1 Free Energy of Mixing
3. Pressure Retarded Osmosis
3.1 Osmotic Processes
3.1.1 Reverse Osmosis
3.1.2 Forward Osmosis
3.1.3 Pressure Retarded Osmosis
3.2 Reversible Mixing in Pressure Retarded Osmosis
3.3 Nonreversible Mixing in Pressure Retarded Osmosis (Pressure Retarded Osmosis Under Constant Applied Pressure)
3.4 Basic Concept of Pressure Retarded Osmosis
3.5 Water and Salt Fluxes Across a Pressure Retarded Osmosis Membrane in Ideal and Real Cases
3.5.1 Ideal Membrane With Perfect Hydrodynamics
3.5.2 Realistic Membrane With Reverse Salt Flux and Concentration Polarization
3.5.3 Concentration Polarization in Pressure Retarded Osmosis
3.6 Pressure Retarded Osmosis Power Density
4. Development of Pressure Retarded Osmosis
4.1 Chronological Evolution of the Pressure Retarded Osmosis Process
4.2 Pressure Retarded Osmosis Models' Progress
4.2.1 Loeb Model
4.2.2 Lee Model
4.2.3 Achilli Model
4.2.4 Yip Model
4.2.5 Sivertsen Model for a Hollow Fiber Pressure Retarded Osmosis Membrane
4.2.6 Touati Model
4.3 Pressure Retarded Osmosis Membranes Development
4.3.1 Flat-Sheet Membrane Development
4.3.2 Hollow Fiber Pressure Retarded Osmosis Membrane
5. Integration of Pressure Retarded Osmosis With Desalination Processes
6. Pressure Retarded Osmosis Limitations and Suggested Solutions
6.1 Membrane Fouling
6.2 Membrane Scaling
6.3 Concentration Polarization
6.4 Membrane Deformation
7. Pressure Retarded Osmosis Energy Cost
8. Environmental Impact
9. Final Considerations and Conclusions
References
Further Reading
1. Introduction
Energy demand is increasing worldwide, following economic development and population growth [1]. In fact, primary energy demand has more than doubled since 1971, which mainly relies on fossil fuels [2]. The world is thus facing unprecedented challenges for energy supply because of the decrease in the availability of inexpensive fossil fuels [3], and the detrimental effects of the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) [4], which generate climate change [5].
These concerns should provide sufficient motivation for drastically reducing the use of fossil fuels: providing affordable, clean, secure, and adequate energy sources remains one of the world's biggest challenges. The need for renewable energy sources to meet world energy demand and progressively divert fossil energy sources is on the increase [6]. Thus, many research efforts are concentrating on developing efficient alternative energy sources [7]: solar, wind, tidal, wave, and biomass are being extensively studied to provide secure and sustainable energy sources. Nonetheless, the uneven availability of energy sources, complex logistics, or high installation costs are still preventing them from being widely used.
This book concentrates on pressure retarded osmosis (PRO), which is an alternative source of renewable energy currently in development: it is part of the so-called osmotic power or salinity gradient energy (SGE) sources, which use the energy generated by differences in salt concentrations between two fluids, commonly freshwater and saltwater. When a river runs into a sea, spontaneous mixing of freshwater and saltwater occurs: if the mixing is done reversibly (at least partially), work can be obtained from the mixing process [7]. It is estimated that approximately 0.70–0.75 kWh is dissipated for each cubic meter of freshwater that flows into the sea [8], meaning that 1 m³/s of freshwater can potentially generate up to 2.7 megawatts (MW). The global potential for salinity gradient power is then estimated to be around 647 gigawatts (GW), which is 23% of electricity consumption [8]. In fact, Kachan & Co. claimed that the SGE potential is three times that of solar and wind power generation combined, with the additional advantage of controllability [9]. Of the SGE sources, this chapter concentrates on PRO, which is based on the transport of water through semipermeable membranes, as it is the most studied and has a large potential for producing energy in different applications [10].
The purpose of this chapter is to present an overview of the development of the PRO evolution and process, discussing its viability and environmental impact. The expected progress and the main limitations are also discussed.
2. Salinity Gradient Energy
SGE is the energy created from the difference in salt concentration between two fluids, commonly freshwater and saltwater. When a river runs into a sea, spontaneous mixing of freshwater and saltwater occurs. This natural process is irreversible; no work is attained from it. However, if the mixing is done (partly) reversibly, work can be obtained from the mixing process [7]. Approximately 0.70–0.75 kWh (2.5–2.7 MJ) is dissipated when 1 m³ of freshwater flows into the sea [7], meaning that 1 m³/s of freshwater can potentially generate 2.5–2.7 MW. Helfer et al. [11] gave some estimation about the maximum energy that could be theoretically produced from the mixing of freshwater with saline water from five different sources (summarized in Table 1.1). The total technical potential for salinity gradient power is estimated to be around 647 GW globally (compared to a global power capacity in 2011 of 5456 GW), which is equivalent to 5177 terawatt-hours (TWh), or 23% of electricity consumption in 2011 [2]. The report elaborated [9] by Kachan & Co. pointed out that the SGE generation is potentially worth three times more than solar and wind power generation combined. Osmotic power reportedly could generate up to 1700 TWh of electricity each year by 2030 that is around 50% of Europe's total energy demand.
Table 1.1
Theoretical Extractable Energy From the Mixing of Freshwater With Saline Water From Different Sources [11]
SWRO, seawater reverse osmosis.
2.1. Free Energy of Mixing
:
(1.1)
, the mixing of concentrated and diluted solutions gives [12]:
(1.2)
where the subscripts c, d, and b correspond, respectively, to the concentrated, the dilute, and the