A Text Book Metallurgy

Preface

Material selection is very important phase of development of new product. The person should know the basic knowledge of material properties while selecting it for the particular application. It gives us an immense pleasure to present the second e-edition of A Text Book of Metallurgy. This ebook could be a quick reference to those who are involving in the process of product development and want to select a metallic material for their application. This ebook is also helpful for the students of Mechanical, Production and Metallurgy and the students who are preparing the competitive examinations.

This ebook contains nine chapters, viz., Introduction of metallurgy, Iron- carbon equilibrium diagram, Plain carbon steels, Heat treatment of steels, Alloy steels, Cast Irons, Non-ferrous alloys, Powder metallurgy and Destructive and Non-destructive testing.

We hope that entire manuscript of this ebook will serve the purpose and reach to the students as a ready text as well as reference book.

Avinash Kamble

Vaibhav Kulkarni

Contents

Chapter1.

Introduction

1.1 Mechanical properties of material

1.2 Criteria for Selection of Material for the Given Application

1.3 Classification of Engineering Materials

1.4 Classification of Metallic Materials

1.5 Concept of Alloying

1.6 Solution

1.7 Solid Solution

1.8 Gibb’s Phase Rule

1.9 Solidification of Pure Metal

1.10 Types of Cooling Curves

1.11 Equilibrium Diagram

1.12 Lever Arm Principle OR Lever Rule

1.13 Equilibrium Phase Diagrams

Chapter2.

Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram

2.1 Cooling of Pure Iron

2.2 Iron- Iron Carbide Equilibrium Diagram or Fe-C or Fe-Fe3c Equilibrium Diagram or Fe-C or Fe-Fe3c Phase Diagram

2.3 Transformations in Fe-Fe3C Diagram

2.4 Critical Temperatures

2.5 Steels and Cast Irons Regions on Fe-Fe3C Diagram

2.6 Proeutectoid Ferrite

2.7 Microstructures of Hypoeutectoid Steels

2.8 Pro-eutectoid Cementite

2.9 Microstructures of Hypereutectoid Steels

Chapter3.

Plain Carbon Steels

3.1 Classification of Plain Carbon Steels

3.2 Effect of Carbon on the Properties of Steel

3.3 Effect of Minor elements on the properties of steel

3.4 Low Carbon Steels

3.5 Medium Carbon Steels

3.6 High carbon steels

3.7 Killed Steels

3.8 Semi-killed Steels

3.9 Rimmed Steels

3.10 Specifications of Steels

Chapter4.

Heat Treatment of Steels

4.1 Objectives of Heat Treatment

4.2 Tools used for Heat Treatment

4.3 Transformation Products of Austenite

4.4 Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Curves or Isothermal Transformation (IT) Diagram or S- Curve or C- Curve

4.5 Heat Treatment Process

4.6 Annealing

4.7 Normalizing

4.8 Difference between Annealing and Normalizing

4.9 Hardening

4.10 Hardening Methods

4.11 Retained Austenite

4.12 Tempering of Steel

4.13 Surface Hardening or Case Hardening

4.14 Induction Hardening

4.15 Flame Hardening

Chapter5.

Alloy Steels

5.1 Properties of Alloy steels

5.2 Effects of Alloying Elements

5.3 Classification of Alloying Elements

5.4 Alloying Elements and Their Effects on Properties of Steel

5.5 Some Important Alloy Steels

Chapter6.

Cast Iron

6.1 Characteristics of Cast Irons

6.2 Effects of Alloying elements on the properties of Cast Irons

6.3 White Cast Irons

6.4 Grey Cast Iron

6.5 Chilled Cast Iron

6.6 Mottled Cast Irons

6.7 Spheroidal Grey (SG) Cast Iron

6.8 Malleable Iron

6.9 Alloy Cast Iron\

6.10 Mehanite

Chapter7.

Study of Non-ferrous Metals and Alloys

7.1 Copper

7.2 Copper Alloys

7.3 Aluminum

7.4 Aluminum Alloys

7.5 Lead and Lead Alloys

7.6 Fusible Alloys

7.7 Introduction to Nano-materials

7.8 Introduction to Composites

Chapter8.

Powder Metallurgy

8.1 Importance of Powder Metallurgy

8.2 Powder Metallurgy Process

8.3 Advantages of Powder Metallurgy

8.4 Metal Powders

8.5 Characteristics of Metal Powders

8.6 Methods of Powder Production

8.7 Shapes of Powder

8.8 Applications of Powder Metallurgy

8.9 Flowcharts of Some Typical Powder Metallurgy Applications

Chapter9.

Destructive and Non-destructive Testing

9.1 Destructive Testing

9.2 Hardness Test

9.3 Tensile Test

9.4 Impact Test

9.5 Creep

9.6 Fatigue Test

9.7 Non-destructive Testing

9.8 Dye Penetrant Test

9.9 Magnetic Particle Test

9.10 Ultrasonic Test

9.11 Radiographic Test

9.12 Eddy Current Test

Chapter1.

Introduction

Metallurgy is the branch of science which deals with the study of physical and chemical behaviour of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds and their mixtures which are called alloys.

1.1 Mechanical properties of material

1.Strength

It is the ability of the material to resist deformation under the action of tensile, compressive or share stress. The strength of the component is usually based on the maximum load that can be allowed before failure.

2.Hardness

It is the ability of the material to offer resistance to penetration or indentation. It is also the ability to resist wear, abrasion, scratch, or cutting. The common tests for hardness are the Brinell hardness test, Rockwell hardness test and Vicker’s hardness test.

3.Toughness

It describes a material’s resistance to fracture under impact loading. It is often expressed in terms of the amount energy a material can absorb before fracture. Tough material absorb considerable amount of energy while brittle material absorb very little. The materials with high yield strength and high ductility have high toughness. The most common test for toughness is the Charpy impact test.

4.Brittleness

It is that property of material by virtue of which a material breaks easily under the action of shock load without appreciable deformation. It indicates the lack of ductility.

Examples of brittle materials are glass, ceramics, cast iron etc.

5.Ductility

It is a measure of the amount of deformation a material can withstand before breaking. It is the ability of the material by which it can be drawn into wires.

6.Malleability

It is the ability of the material by which it can be rolled into sheets. Malleability is the ability of a material to exhibit large deformation subjected to compressive force whereas ductility is the ability of a material to deform upon the application of a tensile force. Aluminium, copper, and gold have good malleability.

7.Elasticity

It is the property of the material to regain its original shape after removal of load. It is said that a body is perfectly elastic if it recovers its original shape completely after unloading; it is partially elastic if the deformation produced by the external forces does not disappear completely after unloading. The degree of elasticity is called modulus of elasticity.

8.Plasticity

It the property of a material by virtue of which it undergoes permanent deformation. Plasticity is opposite of elasticity.

9.Rigidity (Stiffness)

It is the property of a material by virtue of which the material resists elastic or plastic deformation under applied loads.

10.Machinability

It refers to the ease with which a material can be removed during various machining operations.

It describes the property of the material when it is cut. Material with good machinability requires relatively less power, good surface finish and longer cutting tool life.

11.Hardenability

It indicates the degree of hardness that a material can acquire through hardening process. It is the capability of the material to get hardened by heat treatment. To test hardenability of a ferrous alloy, a Jominy test is used.

12.Fatigue

It is the strength of material when subjected to cyclic or rapidly fluctuating load conditions. The material subjected to fatigue fails at a stress much below the ultimate stress. The maximum stress to which the material can be subjected without fatigue failure is known as the endurance limit.

13.Creep

It the progressive deformation of the material under a constant static load maintained for a long period of time. Generally creep occurs at high temperature. But it can also occurred at room temperature.

1.2 Criteria for Selection of Material for the Given Application

The quality, performance and life of an engineering product are affected by material being used for manufacturing that product. Hence, it becomes necessary to select a suitable material for a successful engineering product. For selection of suitable materials for any engineering application, following factors should be considered.

1) Availability

2) Cost

3) Mechanical Properties

4) Manufacturing considerations

1.Availability

The material should be readily available in the market, in large enough quantities to meet the requirement.

2.Cost

To make the engineering product commercially successful and profitable, it should be reasonable and competitive in market. The price value of any product is governed by factors such as material cost, labour cost, processing cost etc. Hence, to keep the price of product low, it becomes necessary that the material cost, labour cost and processing cost should be as minimum as possible. Therefore, the cost of engineering material selected for engineering product must be low.

3.Mechanical Properties

Depending upon the service conditions and functional requirement, different mechanical properties are considered and suitable material is selected.

4.Manufacturing Considerations

The manufacturing processes such as casting, forging, extrusion, welding and machining may govern the selection of material.

1.3 Classification of Engineering Materials

Engineering materials are classified in three broad groups according to their nature:

1.Metals and Alloys

Metals are familiar objects with a characteristic appearance. They are capable of changing their shape permanently. They have good thermal and electrical conductivity. An alloy is a combination of more than one metal.

Examples- Steels, Aluminium, Copper, Silver, Gold, Brasses, Bronzes, invar, manganese, Superalloys, Boron, rare earth magnetic alloys.

2.Ceramics and glasses

Ceramics and glasses are non-metallic inorganic substances. They are brittle and have good thermal and electrical insulating properties.

Examples- Magnesium oxide, Cadmium sulphide, Al2O3, SiC, BaTiO3, Silica, Soda-lime-glass, concrete, cement, Ferrites and garnets, Ceramic superconductors.

3.Organic polymers

Organic polymers are relatively inert and light. They have high degree of plasticity

Examples- Plastics: PVC, PTFE, polyethylene. Fibres: Terylene, nylon, cotton. Natural and synthetic rubbers, Leathers.

Fig1.1Organic Polymers

1.4 Classification of Metallic Materials

Fig1.2Classification of Metallic Materials

Fig1.2 shows detailed classification of metallic materials. Metals are mainly classified into two types.

1) Ferrous metals

2) Non-ferrous metals

Ferrous metals are mainly composed of iron and having magnetic properties mostly. Ferrous metals are further classified into;

1) Steel

2) Cast iron

3) Wrought iron

Steels are alloys of iron and carbon or iron, carbon and other metals in small quantity. Low carbon steel contains approximately 0.05 -0.15 % Carbon. Medium carbon steel contains approximately 0.25- 0.6% Carbon. High carbon steel contains approximately 0.9- 2.5 % Carbon. Alloy steel is steel that is alloyed with other metal such as nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, silicon, boron etc., in addition to carbon in total amounts between 1.0% and 50% by weight to improve its mechanical properties. Cast iron is iron or a ferrous alloy which has been heated until it liquefies, and is then poured into a mould to solidify. Carbon and silicon are the main alloying elements, with the amount ranging from 2.1–4 % and 1–3 %, respectively. Wrought iron is a soft, ductile, fibrous variety that is produced from a semi fused mass of relatively pure iron globules partially surrounded by slag. It usually contains less than 0.1 percent carbon and 1 or 2 percent slag. Non-ferrous metals are the metal or alloys of metals other than ferrous. Aluminium, copper, zinc, etc. are non-ferrous metals.

1.5 Concept of Alloying

A substance that possesses metallic properties and is composed of two or more elements, of which at least one is metal, is called an alloy. The metal present in the alloy in largest proportion is called the base metal. All other elements present in the form of metal or non-metal, are called alloying elements. Alloying elements are added intentionally to get certain desirable properties which are not found in the base metal. The structure resulting from addition of alloying elements to a base metal determines the properties of the alloy as a whole. The type and extent of change of properties depend on whether the alloying elements are insoluble in, dissolve in or form a new base with the base metal. Each constituent of an alloy is called a component. A pure metal comprises of a one-component. But alloys may be binary or