Essentials of Advanced Composite Fabrication & Repair

Essentials of Advanced Composite Fabrication and Repair

Second Edition

by Louis C. Dorworth • Ginger L. Gardiner • Dr. Greg M. Mellema

© 2009 – 2019 Abaris Training Resources, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder. While the authors have made every effort to ensure accuracy of the information in this book, the information herein is sold without warranty, either implied or expressed.

Published 2019 by Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.

First Edition published 2009 by Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. (First eBook edition published 2013.)

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CompositesWorld.com

ASA-COMPOSITE-2-EB

ISBN 978-1-61954-763-6

Cover and back photo credits: TLaoPhotography/Shutterstock.com; Wuttichok Panichiwarapun/Shutterstock.com; photos courtesy of Carbon Conversions, Mubea Carbo Tech, Voith Composites, SGL Carbon/Brembo (for more information on these companies, see Bibliography and Acknowledgments).

Photography note: Credit and copyright information for photographs other than those owned by Abaris are acknowledged throughout the text, stated adjacent to the printed photographs, and also in the Bibliography and Acknowledgments section at the back of the book. All photos not so noted are copyright Abaris 2019. Illustrations note: All drawn illustrations created by ASA Staff, unless otherwise noted.

Preface

Nearly doubling the content of the first edition, this second edition of Essentials of Advanced Composite Fabrication & Repair covers a wider range of contemporary technical material and is designed to function as both a textbook for Abaris Training and other technical schools teaching composites, and as an essential resource for everyone else, from novice to professional, involved in the advanced composites industry.

Initially produced as a spiral-bound composition of excerpts from various technical documents gleaned from the Lear Fan, Ltd. program and other pioneer leaders of the early 1980s, the original text was used to support a single Abaris course, Inspection and Repair of Composite Structures. Over the next twenty years, the book expanded and developed as more innovative materials and technologies emerged and as Abaris added relevant new courses. By 2005 the authors realized the need for a real textbook and began a collaborative effort with the publisher to formalize the content. In 2009, the first edition textbook was published and put to use throughout the industry.

The composites industry moves fast, and by 2015 the authors once again realized the need for a thorough update of the content, thus beginning a new journey to identify what had changed in the past decade and how to include it in this new edition. It turned out that much had changed and much had remained the same. Over countless days and nights the authors spent time taking it all in from industry sources, purging content no longer relevant, and weaving together new content and illustrations in a logical order that the reader can easily follow and understand.

Like the first edition, this book starts with an introduction to composites and then takes a deep dive into the constituent materials such as fibers, matrix resins, nano, and core materials, and the cure or processing of them. This is followed by chapters that cover basic design considerations, molding methods and practices, tooling, testing, bonding, machining and drilling, repair, and much more. In addition, the publisher maintains an updatable webpage for the textbook, as a collection point for future downloadable materials and further notes the authors want to share with readers (www.asa2fly.com/composite).

It is the sincere desire of the authors that readers gain a deeper knowledge and a better understanding of the subject and are empowered to put this information to use immediately on their projects, and in their workplace and career.

About the Authors

Editor’s Note

The design of this textbook takes advantage of visual elements to aid the reader’s navigation through the narrative: a yellow dot helps identify the numbered Figures referred to in the text, as well as, in most cases, a gray bar along the outside edge of the page to differentiate between illustration content and the narrative content. Tables are numbered separately to distinguish them from the drawn and photographic illustrations. Footnotes are contained at the bottom of pages where they fall in the text, and further bibliographic references are listed at the back of the book. In addition, a short main-topic contents list is added to the chapter-start pages.

Chapter 1:

Composite Technology Overview

Composites vs. Advanced Composites

Composites are comprised of two or more materials working together, where each constituent material retains its unique identity within the composite and contributes its own structural properties, yet upon combination the resulting material has superior properties to those of its constituents. A good example of an everyday composite material is concrete. Concrete is made with select amounts of sand, aggregate, and perhaps even glass fiber mixed with cement to bind it together. If the concrete were broken open, the individual constituents would be visible. The type and quantities of these individual constituents can also be adjusted to give the resulting concrete different properties depending on the application.

This textbook is focused on composite laminates, which combine fibers and a matrix material that binds the fibers together. There are many different types of composite materials in use today. One example is fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) composites made with short glass fibers in a polymer resin or plastic matrix. These materials are used in bath tubs, showers, pools, doors, car fenders, and a variety of construction materials including wall panels, corrugated sheet, profiles, and skylights. (Figure 1-1)

Figure 1-1. Fiber-reinforced composite

Highly loaded composite structures typically use continuous or long-fiber reinforcement that transfers load along bundles or layers (plies) of fibers arranged to run the length and width of the structure, much like the layers in a sheet of plywood. This type of composite laminate is used in the manufacture of boats, bridges, snowboards, bicycle frames, race cars, aircraft and spacecraft structures, to mention a few.

❱ Advanced Composites

Advanced composites are generally considered to be those that use advanced reinforcements such as carbon, aramid and S2 glass fibers that exhibit high strength-to-weight ratios.¹ They are typically more expensive, with more precisely tailored properties to achieve a specific objective.

¹ASM Handbook Volume 21, Composites (pg. 1113) defines advanced composites as: Composite materials that are reinforced with continuous fibers having a modulus higher than that of fiberglass fibers. The term includes metal matrix and ceramic matrix composites, as well as carbon-carbon composites. Material Park, Ohio; ASM International, 2001.

Fiberglass vs. Advanced Composites

Some composites are generally referred to as fiberglass due to their use of randomly-oriented, chopped glass fiber (E-glass) and polyester resin, whereas most aerospace structural parts are made using precisely-laid plies of carbon fiber/epoxy prepreg, an example of advanced composites. (Figure 1-2)

Figure 1-2. Fiberglass vs. advanced composites

[a] To fabricate an aerospace structural component, technicians carefully lay down each ply of carbon-fiber prepreg prior to vacuum bagging and autoclave cure. Green templates of light are accurately projected from a 3D laser projector to ensure precise positioning of the ply. (Photo courtesy of Assembly Guidance)

[b] Chopped fiberglass and resin are sprayed onto a gel-coated mold to form the outer shell of a Class 8 truck hood. However, this is a more advanced and higher performance example of spray-up fiberglass because the shell is cured in an oven at 130°F and then reinforced with structural members made using RTM, which are secondarily bonded in-place using methacrylate adhesive. (Photo courtesy of Marine Plastics Ltd.)

Examples of Typical Applications

Large components of commercial airliners — such as the vertical and horizontal tail plane (stabilizer) on the Airbus A320, A330/340, A380 and Boeing 777, the wing, center wing box and fuselage for the Boeing 787 Dreamliner and Airbus A350, and various structures on many smaller craft such as the wings for the Bombardier C Series airliners. (Figure 1-3)

FIGURE 1-3. A350 forward fuselage [a]; prototype center wing box for future A320-type aircraft [b]; A350 lower wing cover [c]. (Photos courtesy of Airbus) Bottom diagram: Boeing 787 Dreamliner composite components.

Large primary structures on military aircraft — such as the wing and cargo doors for the Airbus A400M transport, fuselage/wing for the B-2 Spirit Stealth Bomber, rotor blades and aft fuselage for the V-22 Osprey tilt-rotor, as well as the most of the fuselage and wings for the F-22 Raptor and F-35 Joint Strike Fighter. (Figure 1-4)

Figure 1-4. The F-35 Lighting II Joint Strike Fighter features vertical tail feathers and horizontal stabilators made from carbon fiber-reinforced bismaleimide composite. (Photo courtesy of Lockheed Martin)

Many other components on modern airliners — such as radomes, control surfaces, spoilers, landing gear doors, wing-to-body fairings, passenger and cargo doors, trailing edges, wingtips and interiors. (Figure 1-5)

Figure 1-5. Airliner components

[a] J-nose thermoplastic composite leading edge for the Airbus A380 made by Stork Fokker. Note the stamped thermoplastic stiffeners, which are attached using resistance welding. (Photo courtesy of Stork Fokker)

[b, c, d] FACC is a leading Tier 1 supplier with composite structures on every commercial aircraft in production, including carbon fiber/epoxy flaps for the Airbus A321 [b], translating sleeves for the Boeing 787 [d], and bypass ducts for Rolls-Royce aircraft engines [c] (Photos upper right and bottom, courtesy of FACC)

Large marine vessels and structures including hulls, decks and superstructure of military and commercial vessels, as well as composite masts (one of the largest carbon fiber structures in the world is the M5 sailing yacht’s 290-foot mast), wing masts and foils, rigging, propellers and propeller shafts. (Figure 1-6)

Figure 1-6. Marine structures

Left to right, top to bottom: The M5 (previously the Mirabella V) is the world’s largest composite ship. (Photo courtesy of Select Charter Services)

• The Visby class of corvettes is built using carbon-fiber-reinforced composite sandwich construction. (Photo courtesy of Kockums AB)

• Placid Boatworks’ 3.6m long, 8-kg Spitfire Ultra canoe uses carbon fiber biaxial (±45°) and quasi-isotropic (0°/+60°/-60°) braided fabrics in the hull and biaxial braided carbon and aramid sleeving wrapped around Divinycell foam in the gunwales. (Photo courtesy of Placid Boatworks)

• The lightweight composite construction for CMN Group’s 43.6m Ocean Eagle 43 Ocean Patrol Vessel (OPV) was built by H2X using glass fiber/epoxy/foam core sandwich and resin infusion. (Photo courtesy of H2X)

• The ECsix composite rigging on this sailing yacht is made from a bundle of 1-mm pultruded carbon fiber/epoxy rods encased in an abrasion-resistant braided synthetic fiber jacket. Able to cut rigging weight by 70%, ECsix has been used on over 500 yachts, sailing more than 1 million miles without a single failure. (Photo courtesy of Composite Rigging/Southern Spars)

• The 48m Palmer Johnson SuperSport yacht features all-carbon fiber composite construction made using vacuum infusion. (Photo courtesy of Brødrene Aa)

Primary components on helicopters including rotor blades and rotor hubs have been made from carbon fiber (CF) and glass epoxy composites since the 1980s. Composites can make up 50 to 80% of a rotorcraft’s airframe by weight, including radomes, tail cones and large structural assemblies. (Figure 1-7) For example, Bell Helicopter Textron’s 429 corporate/EMS/utility helicopter features composite structural sidebody panels, floor panels, bulkheads, nose skins, shroud, doors, fairings, cowlings and stabilizers, most made from CF/epoxy.

Figure 1-7. Airbus helicopter components

Airbus Helicopter’s H160 twin-engine medium helicopter features an all-composite airframe, new composite Biplane Stabilizer™, Blue-Edge® composite main rotor blades with double-swept tips, a CF/PEKK thermoplastic composite rotor hub and a double-canted tail incorporating the largest-ever composite Fenestron® shrouded tail rotor (inset). (Photos courtesy of Airbus Helicopter)

Wind turbine rotor blade manufacturers use glass fiber and resin—epoxy, polyester or polyurethane are often used—plus a core material such as balsa wood or foam to create a lightweight yet stiff sandwich structure. The blades are made using resin infusion or prepreg; carbon fiber is increasingly used in spar caps as blades get longer. For example, LM Wind Power makes the 88.4-meter-long blades used on the Adwen 8 MW turbine and is planning a 107-meter-long blade for GE’s Haliade-X 12 MW turbine. Blades have also become more slender and may feature aeroelastic tailoring, with airfoils optimized for specific wind conditions. (Figure 1-8)

Figure 1-8. Wind turbine blades

[a] The various composite materials used in wind turbine blades. (Diagram courtesy of Gurit)

[b & c] Siemens 6MW offshore wind turbine featuring a 154m diameter rotor uses its 75m long glass fiber, epoxy resin and balsa core blades made using its IntegralBlade technology. (Courtesy of Siemens Renewable Energy)

[d] SSP Technology, in partnership with Samsung Heavy Industries, built the 83.5m blade for SHI’s prototype 7MW offshore wind turbine. (Photo courtesy SSP Technology)

Missiles and space vehicles rely heavily on carbon fiber composite construction due to its high strength- and stiffness-to-weight ratios as well as its negative linear coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), which gives dimensional stability in the extreme temperatures of space. The Delta family of launch vehicles have used carbon fiber and epoxy construction in more than 950 filament-wound motor cases and are in their sixteenth year of production. The Pegasus rocket is the first all-composite rocket to enter service. Its payload fairing, which is 4.2 feet/1.3 meters in diameter and 14.2 feet/4.3 meters in length, is comprised of carbon/epoxy skins and an aluminum honeycomb core.

The Chandra X-ray Observatory spacecraft features numerous composite structures, including the optical bench assembly, mirror support sleeves, instrument model structures and telescope thermal enclosure. The next generation James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) uses a carbon fiber reinforced cyanate ester backplane structure, deployable sunshield booms, and other composites in the design of its primary structures. [Figures 1-9 and 1-10]

Figure 1-9. Space structures

The James Webb Space Telescope (artist’s rendition) uses a carbon-fiber-reinforced cyanate ester matrix backplane support [inset]. (Photos courtesy of NASA)

Figure 1-10. A robot places composite fibers on an 8-ft diameter cryogenic fuel tank, tested as part of development of even larger tanks for future heavy-lift launch vehicles. (Photo courtesy of NASA)

Automotive applications range from carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) monocoque chassis and driveshafts in race cars and high-end sports cars, to selected structural and aesthetic carbon composite applications in lower-volume luxury models, to applications in higher-volume models such as glass-fiber-reinforced polyurethane leaf springs and GF/epoxy coil springs. (Figure 1-11)

Figure 1-11. Mubea Carbo Tech has produced CFRP seat components [a] and other structural parts for Porsche; side sills, front and rear spoilers for Bentley; visual rear wing and blades (air intakes) for the Audi R8; rear sills and other parts for General Motors. MCT has also produced over 10,000 monocoques, including serial production for the McLaren P1/MP4 [b], Volkswagen XL1 and Porsche 918 Spyder—as well as all-CF and CF/aluminum hybrid wheels [c]. (Photos courtesy of Mubea Carbo Tech)

Selected applications in production automobiles include roofs for BMW’s M3 and M6 models, the hood and fenders for Corvette’s LeMans Commemorative Edition Z06, the inner deck lid and seats for the Ford GT, composite coil springs for the 2015 Audi A6 Avant 2.0 TDI ultra, and front and rear axles (actually termed multi-function suspension blades because they integrate suspension, steering, anti-vibration/noise and anti-roll) for the Peugeot 208 FE. There is also a significant market in carbon fiber composite parts sold as aftermarket enhancements to production automobiles, including a number of companies mass-producing all-carbon-fiber wheels. (Figures 1-12 and 1-13)

Figure 1-12. [a] The BMW i3 and i8 feature CF/epoxy passenger cells made with non-crimp fabrics, RTM and HP-RTM (BMW i8 sideframe).

[b] Audi uses a CFRP rear wall in the A8 luxury sedan, made by Voith Composites.

[c, d] The BMW 7 Series uses 16 different CFRP parts in its Carbon Core body in white (BIW), including tunnel and C pillar. (Photos courtesy of BMW, Audi and Voith Composites)

Figure 1-13. [a] The glass fiber/polyurethane leaf spring for Volvo’s Scalable Product Architecture is used in its S60, S90, V60, V90, XC60 and XC90 models, requiring up to 500,000 parts per year.

[b] This hybrid carbon fiber/aluminum suspension knuckle increases stiffness by 26% vs. all-aluminum. (Photos courtesy of Volvo, SGL Carbon, Saint Jean Industries)

Sporting goods, such as bikes, tennis rackets and golf clubs have taken advantage of carbon fiber for decades. The majority of tennis rackets, golf club shafts and hockey sticks are made using carbon fiber. Composites are also common in bats, arrows, snowboards and skis, and gaining widespread use in helmets and protective shoulder and shin pads. Latest trends in sporting goods include use of spread-tow reinforcements, nanomaterials and biomaterials, as well as added multi-functionality such as vibration damping for increased performance and control. (Figure 1-14)

Figure 1-14. Sporting goods applications

[a] Dylan Groenewegen of the Netherlands won two stages of the 2018 Tour de France racing this Oltre XR4 engineered with Bianchi’s CV vibration-canceling system: Countervail®’s unique fiber architecture and viscoelastic resin, and CV tuning process that reduces cyclist muscle fatigue and increases control, for top performance on bumping roads and cobblestone sections. (Source: Bianchi)

[b] Innegra high modulus polypropylene fiber provides toughness, durabilty and vibration damping in carbon fiber composites such as this standup paddleboard and paddle, and BAUER hockey sticks and goalie masks. (Photos courtesy of Innegra Technologies and BAUER*)

[c] Lingrove’s Ekoa biocomposite materials reduce mass and increase vibration damping in skis, skateboards, paddles and other sporting goods. They also improve sustainability, including drastic reductions in energy usage and greenhouse gas emissions during manufacture. (Photo courtesy of Lingrove) The TeXtreme Warrior 107 tennis racquet by Prince uses TeXtreme spread-tow carbon fiber fabric. (Photo courtesy of TeXtreme)

[d] Cevotec’s carbon fiber patch preforms (the black arcs in the right-hand photo) improve board control via asymmetric torsion stiffness and board flex in a North Kiteboarding freestyle board. (Photos courtesy of North Kiteboarding)

*© 2016 BAUER Hockey, Inc. and its affiliates. All rights reserved. NHL and the NHL Shield are registered trademarks of the National Hockey League. NHL and NHL team marks are the property of NHL and its teams. © NHL 2016. All Rights Reserved.

Medical devices continue to spur the advancement of new composites, such as ENDOLIGN™ continuous carbon fiber/PEEK thermoplastic biomaterial from Invibio Biomaterial Solutions, which is being used as an alternative to metals in the development of implantable load-bearing applications in orthopedic, trauma, and spinal implants. Other carbon fiber composites are used in medical imaging tables and accessories because they offer high stiffness and light weight, while helping to minimize imaging issues such as signal attenuation. Composites are also gaining applications in prosthetics, orthotics and surgical tools via 3D printing. (Figure 1-15)

Figure 1-15. Medical applications

[a] The HematoCare portable hyperbaric chamber weighs only 125 kg (275 lbs), thanks to a composite pressure vessel made using filament winding and Kevlar aramid fiber but with a special resin that provides flame resistance and high strength to meet pressure loads and flexibility. This enables the device to be folded like an accordion for easy transport. (Photo courtesy of Groupe Médical Gaumond)

[b] Ferno’s iNX patient transport cot uses carbon fiber/SMC legs to minimize weight and reduce risk of injury to EMTs. Each leg is designed for a load of up to 590 kg, twice the load rating of the entire cot. (Photo courtesy of Ferno)

[c] These aramid fiber-reinforced nylon orthotics produced by the Mark One 3D composite printer enable customization to the individual without a cost or time penalty, as well as added functionality via embedded pressure sensor and/or RFID tag inserts. (Photo courtesy of Markforged)

[d] Invibio’s ENDOLIGN composite is used in the development of orthopedic, trauma and spinal implants, such as these from icotec AG. Icotec develops and produces parts using high continuous fiber content composites and thermoplastic matrices. (Photo courtesy of Invibio)

Civil engineering structures are progressing steadily in their use of composites. Carbon fiber wraps for repair and strengthening of columns, beams, concrete slabs and bridge structures have become increasingly common. They offer an alkaline-resistant repair, which is quicker and less costly to install due to its light weight. Carbon fiber in bridge cable stays is also progressing, offering high strength and stiffness at minimal weight as well as excellent resistance to temperature contraction and expansion due to its negative coefficient of thermal expansion. (Figure 1-16)

Figure 1-16. Civil engineering and construction

[a] The San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (SFMOMA) expansion uses over 700 fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) composite panels totaling 7,804 m2 on a 10-story curved facade. The lightweight integrated water barrier/insulation/façade panels—which passed the rigorous NFPA 285 fire test, allowing their use on a high-rise exterior—saved three construction passes around the building and 1 million pounds of steel secondary structure. (Photo courtesy of Felix Weber, Arup and SFMOMA)

[b] The Utah Department of Transportation (UDOT) strengthened 76 columns using carbon fiber-reinforced polymer wraps. (Photo courtesy of Sika Corporation)

[c] Composite Panel Systems’ EPITOME brand composite foundation wall system offers residential and other construction applications thinner walls (7 inches vs. 12 for traditional stud-framed and concrete) for more usable space, energy efficiency (R-16.5 insulation value) and fast, easy installation (a foundation can be constructed in less than 2 hours). (Photo courtesy of Composite Panel Systems)

Composite structures using a wide range of additive manufacturing processes are offering a cost-effective means to produce structural parts with complex geometry using thermoplastic compounds reinforced with short fibers or continuous filaments. (Figure 1-17)

Figure 1-17. [a] A continuous carbon-fiber reinforced wing (length ≈20 cm) is 3D printed using 9T Labs’ additive fusion technology which enables high fiber volume, low-void content, continuous fiber composites. (Photo courtesy of 9T Labs)

[b] Continuous glass-fiber-reinforced epoxy archery bow riser, printed using moi composites’ CFM technology, weighs 700 g vs. 1.5 kg for conventional aluminum risers and 800 – 900 g for Olympic composites versions, yet is simpler to manufacture and customized to the athlete’s needs. (Photo courtesy of Moi Composites)

[c] The continuous fiber-reinforced 3D printing technology developed by McNAIR Center for Aerospace Innovation and Research, funded by TIGHITCO and available through Ingersoll Machine Tools, enables highly complex structures difficult to achieve with other composites manufacturing methods. (Photo courtesy of McNAIR Center)

[d] Arevo Labs uses a 6-axis robot to control a carbon fiber-reinforced high-performance thermoplastic FDM nozzle with state-of-the-art thermal management technology and software control, to produce truly 3D reinforced composite parts such as this crane component. (Photo courtesy of Arevo Labs)

[e] Stratasys is 3D-printing tools using Ultem 1010 PEI for making composite prepreg parts that can deliver very fast turnaround and complex shapes not economically possible in traditional tooling materials. (Photo courtesy of Stratasys)

[f] Markforged’s Mark One and Mark Two printers use continuous carbon, glass or aramid filament-reinforced nylon in a modified fused deposition modeling (FDM) process to produce a wide range of complex-shaped composite parts with the same or better strength vs. aluminum, such as this aramid-fiber-reinforced impeller. (Photo courtesy of Markforged)

Advantages of Composites

Strength and stiffness. Composites typically exhibit high strength and stiffness-to-weight ratios. Composite structures can attain ratios 4 to 10 times better than those made from metals. However, lightweight structures are not automatic. Careful engineering is mandatory, and many tradeoffs are required to achieve truly lightweight structures.

Optimized structures. Fibers are oriented and layers are placed in an engineered stacking sequence to carry specific loads and achieve precise structural performance. Matrix materials are chosen to meet the service environment for which the structures are subjected. (The matrix generally determines the temperature capability of the part.)

Multi-functionality. Composite materials are being developed that not only provide lightweight, load-bearing structures, but also integrate additional functions such as structural health monitoring, thermal and/or electrical conductivity, energy harvesting/storage, impact resistance, acoustic damping, self-healing, and morphing or shape-changing.

Fatigue resistance. Composite structures do not suffer from fatigue like their metallic counterparts. High fatigue life is one reason composites are common in helicopter rotor blade construction; however, composites do exhibit some fatigue behavior, especially around fastener and pin locations. Careful design and good process controls are required to ensure long service-life of both adhesively bonded and mechanically fastened composite joints.

Corrosion issues. Composites themselves do not corrode, hence their popularity within the marine industry. This is also pertinent to chemical plants, fuel storage and piping, and other applications that must withstand chemical attack.

Part geometry. Composite materials are easily molded to shape. Composites can be formed into almost any geometry, usually quite easily and without costly trade-offs in structural properties. Truly monocoque structures are possible with proper tooling.

Reduced parts count. Integrated composite structures often replace multi-part assemblies, dramatically reducing part and fastener count as well as procurement and manufacturing costs. Sometimes adhesively bonded or welded thermoplastic assemblies can almost completely eliminate fasteners, further reducing part count and production time.

Lower tooling costs. Many composites are manufactured using one-sided tools made from composites or Invar, versus the more expensive multi-piece metal closed cavity, machine-tooling or large two-sided die sets that are normally required for injection molding of plastics and metal forming processes.

Aerodynamically smooth surfaces. Adhesively bonded structures offer smoother surfaces than riveted structures. Composite skins offer increased aerodynamic efficiency, whereas large, thin-skinned metallic structures may exhibit buckling between frames under load (i.e. oil-canning).

Low observable (LO) or stealth characteristics. Some composite materials can absorb radar and sonar signals and thereby reduce or eliminate observation by electronic means. Other materials are transparent to radar and work well as a radar window in radome applications.

Disadvantages of Composites

Material cost. High performance composite materials and processes typically cost more than wood, metal and concrete. The cost of oil and petroleum-based raw-material products often drives the price of these materials.

Storage and handling. Many materials such as film adhesives and prepregs have a limited working time (out-time), usually measured in days. Most prepregs also require frozen storage, and may have a limited shelf life of a few months to a year. Material management is critical with these materials. Some fibers and core materials also require special storage to prevent moisture absorption and/or must be oven-dried before use to prevent volatization of moisture during processing.

Recyclability. Although thermoplastic composites offer the easiest recycling, the supply chain for dry carbon fiber textile waste and carbon fiber-reinforced thermoset composites is growing. Still, in general, recycling of composites is not as straightforward as with metals, wood, or unreinforced plastics. Research continues in this area.

Labor-intensive. Tailoring of properties ordinarily requires exact material placement, either through hand layup or automated processes. Key developments include automated manufacturing and inline inspection processes.

Capital equipment. Ovens, autoclaves, presses, controllers and software are expensive to buy and to operate. Automated machines and programming costs can be a considerable investment.

Damage tolerance. Thin-skinned sandwich panels are particularly susceptible to damage from low-energy impacts. Such impacts can produce delaminations, disbonds, or other structural damage that may not be readily apparent during a visual inspection. Moisture intrusion is a special problem in honeycomb sandwich panels, which is also not apparent by visual inspection. Sometimes water intrusion can occur during manufacturing.

Training requirements. A high degree of knowledge and skill is required to properly fabricate and repair advanced composite structures. Robust initial training as well as recurrent training in this area is mandatory.

Corrosion issues. Carbon fiber reinforcements can cause galvanic corrosion. Metals at the anodic end of the galvanic scale, such as aluminum and magnesium, will corrode if in direct contact with carbon fiber reinforced structures. A conductive path is all that is required for corrosion to begin, so it is important that these metals be electrically insulated from any adjoining or adjacent carbon fiber structure.

Health and safety. Health issues from working with composite materials may include dermatitis from exposure to resins, complications from inhaling respirable fibers, and exposure to suspected carcinogens in some uncured matrix systems. Other safety concerns include transport, storage and disposal of solvents and other materials classified as hazardous.

Composites Development Timeline

Chapter 2:

Matrix Technology

Matrix Systems Overview

A composite matrix acts to bond and/or encapsulate the fiber reinforcement, enabling the transfer of loads from fiber to fiber. It also moderately protects the fibers from degradation due to environmental effects, including moisture, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, chemical attack, abrasion and impacts. Matrix materials can be molded, cast, or formed to shape. Types include: polymeric (plastic), metallic, and ceramic. Matrix-dominated structural properties include compression, interlaminar shear, and ultimate service temperature.

Selection of a matrix material has a major influence on the shear properties of a composite laminate, including interlaminar shear and in-plane shear. The interlaminar shear strength is important for structures functioning under bending loads, whereas the in-plane shear strength is important under torsion loads. The matrix also provides resistance to fiber buckling in a laminate under compression loads and therefore is considered a major factor in the compressive strength of a composite.

Thermoset resins are primarily used for highly loaded structures because of their high strength and relative ease of processing. Thermoplastic resins are utilized where toughness or impact resistance is desired, or when high-volume production dictates the need for a fast processing material. Metallic and ceramic matrices such as titanium and carbon are primarily considered for very high temperature applications (> 650°F/343°C).

Thermosets

With thermoset