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    Woodwork for Beginners: With Instructions and Illustrations on Basic Woodworking Skills, Including Information on Tools, Timber and Simple Joints - The Handyman's Book of Woodworking
    Woodwork for Beginners: With Instructions and Illustrations on Basic Woodworking Skills, Including Information on Tools, Timber and Simple Joints - The Handyman's Book of Woodworking
    Woodwork for Beginners: With Instructions and Illustrations on Basic Woodworking Skills, Including Information on Tools, Timber and Simple Joints - The Handyman's Book of Woodworking
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    Woodwork for Beginners: With Instructions and Illustrations on Basic Woodworking Skills, Including Information on Tools, Timber and Simple Joints - The Handyman's Book of Woodworking

    By Paul N. Hasluck

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    About this ebook

    “Woodwork for Beginners” is a comprehensive guide to woodwork designed for those with little previous experience. This fantastic introduction covers all of the basic skills and techniques related to the subject, with chapters on the proper use and care of tools, types of timber, the fundamental joints, and much more. Profusely illustrated and full of expert tips, this classic handbook is not to be missed by those looking for an introduction to woodworking and related subjects. Paul Nooncree Hasluck (1854 – 1916) was an Australian engineer and editor. He was a master of technical writing and father of the 'do-it-yourself' book, producing many books on subjects including engineering, handicrafts, woodwork, and more. Other notable works by this author include: “Treatise on the Tools Employed in the Art of Turning” (1881), “The Wrath-Jobber's Handy Book” (1887), and “Screw-Threads and Methods of Producing Them” (1887). Many vintage books such as this are increasingly scarce and expensive. It is with this in mind that we are republishing this volume now in an affordable, modern, high-quality edition complete with a specially-commissioned new biography of the author.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherOld Hand Books
    Release dateJul 14, 2020
    ISBN9781528766654
    Woodwork for Beginners: With Instructions and Illustrations on Basic Woodworking Skills, Including Information on Tools, Timber and Simple Joints - The Handyman's Book of Woodworking
    Author

    Paul N. Hasluck

    Paul Hasluck (1854–1931) was an Australian-born writer and engineer, who moved to the United Kingdom before the 1880s. Hasluck was a leading writer of do-it-yourself guides and wrote technical handbooks. Alongside authoring 40 of his own works, Hasluck also edited many texts.

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      Woodwork for Beginners - Paul N. Hasluck

      GEOMETRICAL TOOLS.

      TOOLS FOR MARKING AND SCRIBING.

      THE simplest of these is the lead pencil, which is of a flat oval section sharpened to a chisel edge; if sharpened to a point, the pencil wears away quickly and is capable of marking a fine, solid line for only a few minutes together. There is a greater body of lead in the chisel edge, which therefore lasts some time before requiring to be re-sharpened. Steel scribing and marking tools are illustrated by Figs. 1 to 3. The chisel end marking awl (Fig. 1) and the striking knife (Fig. 2) are used for all purposes of scribing and marking smooth work, where an indented line answers the purpose better than a black line, the scratch providing a good starting point for edge tools. It is advisable to use a pencil for rough surfaces. A home-made striking knife (Fig. 3) commonly used in workshops is ground down from an old table knife.

      Fig. 1.—Chisel-end Marking Awl.

      STRAIGHT-EDGE.

      A straight-edge 15 ft. long, 6 in. wide, and 1 1/4 in. thick is large enough for all practical purposes of the joiner, mason, bricklayer, engineer, millwright, etc. The best material is pine, it being the least affected (permanently) by change of temperature or weather. The pine board must be cut from a straight-grown tree, as a board from a crooked trunk will not keep parallel and straight for any length of time, owing to the grain crossing and recrossing its (thickness) edge. Straight-edges are made from all parts of boards cut from whole logs, but they cannot be relied upon to keep perfectly straight and true for any length of time. A strip that has been made without regard to the position it had in the whole tree will have to be trued up occasionally, and it therefore can never be relied upon unless tested each time it is required to be used, which is a great annoyance.

      Fig. 2.—Striking Knife and Marking Awl.

      TESTING STRAIGHT-EDGE.

      To test the truth of a straight-edge having the above measurements, get a clean board 1 ft. longer and about 7 in. or 8 in. wide. Lay the straight strip at about the centre of the board, and with a sharp pencil draw a line on the board along the trued edge of the strip, keeping the side close to the board, and making the line as fine as possible. Now turn the strip over, placing the edge on the other side of the line, and if the trued edge is perfectly straight the line also will appear so. If the line is wavy, the edge must be planed until only one line is made when marked and tested from each side; mark a fresh line for each test, otherwise there will be confusion and inaccuracy. One edge now being perfectly true, proceed with the other edge. Set a sharp gauge to the required width, and mark the second edge lightly on each side of the rule, working the gauge from the true edge; then the wood is planed off to the gauge marks, and the second edge tested as to its being true with the first one, using the pencil line, as before. A still more delicate test than the gauge line for parallelism is by the use of a pair of callipers. The points of the callipers are drawn along the edges, and if they are perfectly parallel there will be no easy or hard places, the presence of which might possibly not be detected by the pencil line. If the edges will stand both these tests, the strip is perfectly straight and parallel.

      Fig. 3.—Home-made Striking Knife.

      Fig. 4.—Whitworth method of Testing Straight-edges.

      WHITWORTH METHOD OF TESTING STRAIGHT-EDGES.

      Sir J. Whitworth’s famous method of trueing engineers’ straight-edges should interest the woodworker. Three straight-edges are prepared singly, and each is brought to a moderate state of accuracy; two of them, A and B (Fig. 4), are compared with each other by placing them edge to edge, and any irregularities found are removed, the process being repeated until A and B fit each other perfectly. The third straight-edge, C, now is compared with both A and B, and when it fits perfectly both these two, then there is no doubt whatever that the three are straight, approximating to the truth in proportion to the labour that has been spent upon them. Why this is so is obvious when it is remembered that though A may be rounded instead of being straight, and B may be hollow sufficiently to make them fit each other perfectly, yet it is impossible for C to fit both the rounded and the hollow straight-edge.

      Fig. 5.—Testing Surface with Straight-edges.

      TESTING SURFACES WITH STRAIGHT-EDGES.

      How surfaces are tested for winding with straight-edges is shown by Fig. 5, from which it is obvious that if the work has warped ever so slightly a true straight-edge must disclose the fact, as it could not then lie flat on its edge across the work. If the board is in winding, each straight-edge will magnify the error. If the winding is wavy, the edges will touch at certain points, and in other places light will be seen between them and the work. Taking a sight from one straight-edge to the other is another test.

      Fig. 6.—Two-ft. Four-fold Rule.

      RULES.

      A 2-ft. four-fold boxwood rule (Fig. 6) is the best for the all-round purposes of the joiner; and for those who can use the slide rule, the tool shown by Fig. 7 would be handy. A simple 2-ft. two-fold rule (Fig. 8) is cheaper, but it is the greatest economy to buy the best tools, and for that reason perhaps the rule with double arch joints shown by Fig. 9, though costing more than twice as much as the one illustrated by Fig. 6, will be found the best and cheapest in the end. The average worker will find a simple rule preferable to an elaborate one. Fig. 10 shows a combined rule and spirit level, the rule joint also being set out to serve as a protractor. This tool may prove useful in special circumstances, but its use as a spirit level is not recommended, it being preferable to have rule and level two quite distinct tools.

      Fig. 7.—Rule with Brass Slide.

      Fig. 8.—Two-ft. Two-fold Rule.

      DIVIDING A BOARD WITH A RULE.

      A reliable method of dividing a board of any given width into any number of parts is illustrated by Fig. 11. Suppose a board 9 in. wide is to be cut into six equal parts; place the 1-ft. rule so that its ends touch the opposite edges of board, as shown in Fig. 11; draw a line right across, and upon this line mark off from the rule every 2 in., as 2, 4, 6, etc. Remove the rule, and draw lines parallel with the edge of the board, intersecting with the marks upon the oblique line, thus obtaining six parts, each really 1 1/2 in. wide. The principle of this is simple: 2 in. is the one-sixth part of 1 ft., and whatever be the slant of the rule across the board (and the narrower the board the greater will be the slant) each 2-in. mark must denote a one-sixth part of the width. Say a board anything less than 24 in. in length or width is to be divided into eight parts; then as 3 in. is one-eighth of 2 ft., use a 2-ft. rule in the same manner as before, and mark off at every 3 in.

      Fig. 9.—Rule with Double Arch Joints.

      Fig. 10.—Rule with Spirit Level.

      SQUARES AND BEVELS.

      The woodworker constantly uses squares for setting out and testing work, as will be described in detail later. The simplest is the try square (Fig. 12), which has a stock of rosewood or ebony. In the square shown by Fig. 13, the stock is so shaped that it is of service in setting out and testing mitres, a proper mitre square which has an ebony stock being shown by Fig. 14. Another combination try and mitre square is shown by Fig. 15, and this has an iron stock. hollowed out to lower its weight to that of a wooden one. This is a useful and cheap tool, very unlikely to get out of truth. A patent adjustable try square is illustrated by Fig. 16. The set screw clamps the blade in the stock just where it may be most convenient for such awkward work as putting butts, locks, and other fittings on doors and windows. The graduated blade is very useful. The sliding bevel is a handy appliance for setting off angles in duplicate, as by means of the set screw the blade can be made to assume any angle with the stock. Fig. 17 shows a bevel with a simple ebony stock, and Fig. 18 one with an ebony stock framed in brass, this protection keeping the edges true for an almost unlimited period. The joiner’s steel square is a mere right angle of steel, sometimes nickel plated, graduated in inches, 1/4 in., and 1/16 in. Squares with other graduations can be obtained.

      Fig. 11.—Dividing Board with Rule.

      Fig. 12.—Try Square.

      Fig. 13.—Combination Square and Mitre.

      TESTING AND CORRECTING TRY-SQUARE.

      A carpenter’s try-square that is thought to be untrue may be tested in the following way. Get a piece of board whose edge has been proved to be quite straight, apply the square as shown at A (Fig. 19), and draw a line; then turn the square as at B, and if it is true the blade should fit the line; if it is less than a right angle it will be as shown at C D (Fig. 19), and if more than a right angle the defect will be as indicated at E F (Fig. 19). If the blade has moved or has been knocked out of truth through a fall, it should be knocked back into its proper position, and, when true, the rivets should be tightened by careful hammering. If the blade is too fast in the stock to be knocked back, the blade must be filed true.

      Fig. 14.—Mitre Square.

      Fig. 15.—Iron Frame Try Square.

      CRENELATED SQUARES.

      A crenelated square has a tongue in which there is a series of crenelations or notches at the graduations. It is especially useful in marking off mortises, etc., though it is available for all other ordinary applications. Three sides of a piece of timber can be set out without moving the work. To use this square, say in marking out a mortise or tenon, take it in the left hand and lay its tongue upon the surface of the work, as in Fig. 20. The lower end of the main arm is lowered for 2 in. or so from the surface to get a better purchase, and then an awl, held in the right hand, is placed in a notch at the correct distance from the edge to mark the left-hand edge of the mortise or left-hand face of tenon as the case may be. Then push the square forward, pressing it down gently upon the work, and one mark will have been made. Replace the square, and with the awl in another notch at the thickness of the tenon or width of the mortise make a second mark. Horizontals are drawn by means of the smooth edge of the tongue (see Fig. 20).

      Fig. 16.—Adjustable Try Square.

      Fig. 17.—Ordinary Sliding Bevel.

      Fig. 18.—Brass Frame Sliding Bevel.

      MARKING WORK FOR SAWING.

      The chalk line, pencil and rule, and scribe are variously used for the marking of the lines by which the saw is guided. The first-named is used for long pieces of timber, the second for ordinary and roughly approximate work, the third for the most accurate sawing. Lining off a plank or board for ripping, when rough on the edges, is commonly done with a straight-edge or chalk line. If square-edged it can be done by the rule and pencil, as explained in Fig. 21. The rule is held in the left hand, measuring off on the board the breadth to be ripped, and the forefinger placed against the edge to act as fence. The pencil is held in the right hand to the end of the rule on the board. Both hands are then moved simultaneously, and the required line is traced backward or forward, as may be desired. Lines for cross-cutting, when square across or at right angles to the edge, are readily obtained by the square, keeping its blade flat on the board or plank and its stock hard to the edge (see Fig. 22). For lines at a right angle to the edge use the mitre square (see Fig. 23), and for other angles, set and apply the bevel-stock in the same way (see Fig. 24). For this and similar purposes the bevel-stock differs from the square only in having the blade movable, and capable of being adjusted at any desired angle with the stock by means of a screw. In the chalk line method of marking (see Fig. 25) a piece of fine cord is whitened with chalk, and being strained taut between two points whose positions are marked to correspond with the terminations of the line of cut, the chalk line is lifted vertically at or near the centre, and, being suddenly released, chalks a perfectly straight and fine line upon the timber, and furnishes a correct guide to the saw. Lines are marked with the timber scribe in such cases as squaring the ends of planed stuff and in marking dovetails and tenons. The saw may then be made to cut close outside the scribed line, allowing just sufficient margin of material to be removed with the plane; or the saw may pass right along the scribed line, as in cutting dovetails and tenons, no after-finish being required. In either case the scribed line is preferable to the pencil-marked one, because the cutting can be done much more accurately in the first case than in the latter. Also, when the end of a piece of timber has to be squared with the plane, there is, besides the greater accuracy, much less risk of spalting or breaking out of the grain occurring with scribed lines than with pencil-marked lines. In the case of planed ends, a careful workman will also contrive to saw extremely close to the scribed lines, in order to diminish as much as possible the labour of planing.

      Fig. 19.—Testing Try Squares in Truth.

      Fig. 20.—Marking Mortise with Crenelated Square.

      Fig. 21.—Lining Board with Rule and Pencil.

      Fig. 22.—Squaring Line on Board.

      Fig. 23.—Marking Mitre Line on Board.

      Fig. 24.—Using Sliding Bevel.

      Fig. 25.—Using Chalk Line.

      Fig. 26.—Pencil Gauge with Round Stem.

      MARKING AND CUTTING GAUGES.

      The carpenter draws a line at a short distance from, and parallel to, the edge of a board by means of a rule and pencil, the method being made clear by Fig. 21, p. 9. The use of the pencil or marking gauge would be found an advantage over this method. It will be seen from Figs. 26 and 27 that there are two ways of making the pencil gauge. It can be made of any hard wood, preferably beech. The stem may be round (Fig. 26) or square (Fig. 27) in section, and the head may be round or octagonal. The head must slide up and down the stem easily, but without sideplay. The gauge may be made to use up odd pieces of lead pencil, and these should be sharpened (with a chisel) to a wedge-shaped point. Figs. 28 and 29 show a pencil gauge made from a broken rule fitted into a block so as to run easily, and secured at any distance (as indicated by the rule’s edge) by means of a thumbscrew. A is a block of birch, 1 1/2 in. by 1 in. by 1 in., mortised so as to receive the rule. B is a 5-in. length of an ordinary rule, with a slot C just large enough to admit the screw D, which is fixed in the block A. The thickness of the wood between the washer and the rule should be only 1/8 in., to allow a little pliability. A cutting or scratch gauge may be made similarly by inserting a pin at E, exactly over the first 1/16 in., that distance always being allowed for. Shop-bought marking and cutting gauges are illustrated by Figs. 30 to 35. A beechwood pencil gauge is shown by Fig. 30, a marking gauge having a steel point by Fig. 31, an improved cutting gauge for scribing deep lines by Fig. 32, and mortise gauges for scribing mortise holes and tenons by Figs. 33 to 35. The mortise gauges are of ebony and brass, the one illustrated by Fig. 35 having a stem of brass. The ordinary marking gauge is shown by Fig. 36, and the use of mortise gauges will come later.

      Fig. 27.—Pencil Gauge with Square Stem.

      Fig. 28.—Rule Pencil and Cutting Gauge.

      Fig. 29.—Section through Rule Gauge.

      Fig. 30.—Improved Pencil Gauge.

      Fig. 31.—Ordinary Marking Gauge.

      Fig. 32.—Cutting Gauge.

      Fig. 33.—Square Mortise Gauge.

      PANEL GAUGES.

      A panel gauge (Fig. 37) is used to mark a line parallel to the true edge of a panel, or of any piece of wood too wide for the ordinary gauge to take in. The stock (of which Figs. 38 to 42 give four alternative patterns) is of maple, beech, or similar wood. It is 1 in. thick, and has a 3/8-in. by 3/8-in. rebate at the bottom. A mortise is made for the stem to pass through, and another one at the side for the wedge. The edges of the stock are shown square, but it is an improvement to have them rounded. The wedge (Fig. 43) should be made of box-wood or ebony if possible, and is a bare 1/4 in. thick. The taper of the mortise in the stock must be made to correspond with it. The stem should be about 2 ft. 6 in. long, and may be made of a piece of straight-grained mahogany. It should fit the mortise, not too tightly, but so that it can be moved with the hands without tapping, and is held in position by the wedge when set. A piece is dovetailed in the end, as shown, to bring the marking point level with the bottom of the rebate. The stem may be made square if preferred, or if the rounded mortise presents a difficulty. The stock should be well finished and nicely polished.

      Fig. 34.—Oval Mortise Gauge.

      Fig. 35.—Brass Stem Mortise Gauge.

      Fig. 36.—Using Marking Gauge.

      COMPASSES, DIVIDERS, AND CALLIPERS.

      The joiner and cabinet worker have a multitude of uses for the above tools, which are of the simplest construction. The ordinary form of wing compasses is shown by Fig. 44, in which the wing (the curved side projection) forms one with the left leg, whilst the right leg has a slot by means of which it slides up and down the wing, the set screw being tightened when the legs are to be fixed at a certain distance apart. For very accurate work, compasses with the sensitive adjustment at side, as shown in Fig. 45, are found to be useful. Compasses can be used very conveniently as simple dividers, but these cost very little. They are used for stepping off a number of equal distances, for transferring measurements, and for scribing. Callipers are used for measuring diameters of round pins, circular recesses, etc.; for the former purpose outside callipers (Fig. 46) and for the latter purpose inside callipers (Fig. 47) are used. Callipers are subject to great variation in shape, but those used in woodworking should be the simplest obtainable.

      Fig. 37.—Panel Gauge.

      Fig. 38.

      Fig. 39.

      Figs. 38 and 39.—Elevation and Section of Panel Gauge Stock.

      SHOOTING-BOARDS.

      The shooting-board is used for trueing up the edges of square stuff. The ordinary shooting-board (Fig. 48) is made of two pieces of plank, the lower one wider than the other, to support the plane, and the upper to form a base on which to hold the wood. This sometimes is not altogether satisfactory, because the board is likely to warp, and the grain of the wood, being all in the same direction, renders the board likely to split at, or near, the place where the pieces are joined. The shooting-board shown by Figs. 49 to 53 is a desirable improvement. Fig. 49 shows the elevation, in which A is the board on which the work rests; B, the ledge or rail on which the plane moves; C being rails fixed to B, as shown in the other figures; D, the stop. Fig. 50 is a plan. Reference letters are the same in each figure. Fig. 51 shows the edge of B. Fig. 52 shows the frame on which A is fixed; the dotted lines indicate the tenons and wedges. Fig. 53 shows end of completed board. Each of the cross-rails also acts as a ledge to the upper board, materially stiffening the whole; while advantage may be taken of the opportunity thus afforded to leave room for the powdery waste, produced in shooting the ends of the wood, to fall out of the way. A further improvement might be made by fixing a narrow piece of plate glass along the path on which the plane is to travel, to reduce friction.

      Fig. 40.—Stock of Panel Gauge.

      Fig. 41.—Stock of Panel Gauge.

      Fig. 42.—Stock of Panel Gauge.

      Fig. 43.—Wedge of Panel Gauge.

      Fig. 44.

      Fig. 44.—Wing Compasses.

      Fig. 45

      Fig. 45.—Compasses with Sensitive Adjustment.

      IMPROVED SHOOTING-BOARD GIVING OBLIQUE PLANING.

      A prominent fault of shooting-boards, as generally constructed, is that the plane used on the board loses its edge very quickly, especially on thin wood and when dealing with material of uniform thickness. The reason for this is that only a small part of the edge of the plane-iron is in use, and the same small portion constantly. All who have used edged tools know that an oblique movement cuts sweeter than a direct and forward movement; the edge employed in the actual cutting having a greater width than the shaving removed. The same thing is observable in a rebate plane. A skew-mouth plane not only keeps better up to its work, but the shaving seems to be more smoothly removed, and the cut surface has a better finish. In order to obtain these advantages, the shooting-board shown by Fig. 54 is offered. The planes used on a shooting-board should be sharpened squarely with a straight cutting edge; this is very important when shooting mitres, especially picture frames. If the iron of the plane is so sharpened, the distance between the surfaces on which rest the plane and the material worked upon need not exceed 3/8 in.; nearly the whole width of the plane-iron is then available for use. Supposing that a shooting-board is required to take advantage of the oblique cut and the employment of a larger part of the edge, the wood operated on may be taken to be not more than 3/4 in. thick (for thicker work is more independent of a shooting-board): then the difference in level at the two ends of the shooting-board may be possibly as much as 1 1/2 in. This board (Fig. 54) is not drawn to scale, but may be made of any size suitable for the purpose for which the maker intends it, and it might be improved by making the incline adjustable with a pair of thumbscrews, or perhaps, preferably, by hingeing the two parts together at one end and employing a movable wedge and bolts at the other end for the purpose of adjustment.

      Fig. 46.—Outside Callipers.

      Fig. 47.—Inside Callipers.

      Fig. 48.—Shooting Board.

      Fig. 49.

      Fig. 50.

      Figs. 49 and 50.—Elevation and Plan of Improved Shooting Board.

      APPLIANCES FOR MITRING.

      The technical term mitre is applied usually to the angle between any two pieces of wood or moulding where they join or intersect, as in the case of a picture-frame. In this instance the joint would be a true mitre—that is to say, it would be 45°, or half the right angle (90°) formed by the two inner edges of the frame. Although the term mitre is generally understood to apply to a right angle, yet any angle, acute or obtuse, may be called a mitre.

      Fig. 51.

      FIG. 52.

      Figs. 51 and 52.—Frame of Improved Shooting Board.

      MITRE BLOCKS.

      There are various appliances employed in cutting mitres, the simplest being known as the mitre block. The work is laid upon the rebate C (Fig. 55), and the saw kerfs A B serve as a guide for the tenon saw. The best form of mitre block is made from a piece of dry beech, about 16 in. long, 6 in. wide, and 3 in. thick. A rebate C is cut to about the size shown, care being taken that the angle is perfectly true. Lines A and B are set out to an angle of 45°, and they then are squared down the rebate and back of block. The lines are cut down with a tenon saw, and upon the accuracy of the sawing depends the value of the finished mitres. Fig. 56 is a section of the mitre block as commonly used by the joiner. This is merely two pieces of wood (deal, as a rule) planed up true and screwed or nailed together. This plan answers very well, as when it becomes worn and out of truth another can be made for a few pence. The block shown by Fig. 57 has a ledge on the bottom as shown; owing to the inward slant the work is more easily held.

      Fig. 53.—End Elevation of Improved Shooting Board.

      MITRE BOX.

      Fig. 58 shows a mitre box which answers the same purpose as the block. This is made with three pieces of deal about 1 in. thick, nailed together at the bottom as shown. Mitre boxes for heavy work require a strengthening piece on top to hold together the sides (see Fig. 59), or even three pieces may be necessary (see Fig. 60); both these illustrations show pieces of moulding in position for mitre-cutting.

      Fig. 54.—Shooting Board giving Oblique Planing.

      MITRE SHOOTING BLOCK.

      Figs. 61 and 62 show a mitre shooting block for shooting or planing the edges of stuff sawn in the mitre block or box. In Fig. 61 the bottom piece is of dry red deal, 2 ft. 6 in. long, and rebated. The top piece must be made of some hard material, such as mahogany or beech, by preference. It is planed up perfectly true, and cut at the ends to a true mitre (45°); it is firmly screwed to the bottom piece. It is an improvement to fix ledger pieces across the bottom, to keep the board from warping. In Fig. 62 the bottom piece is of two separate boards as shown.

      Fig. 55.—Mitre Sawing Block.

      Fig. 56.—Section of Mitre Block.

      Fig. 57.—Inclined Mitre Sawing Block.

      COMBINATION SHOOTING-BOARD.

      Notwithstanding the large number of patented mitring machines in the market, skilled joiners, when any particularly good piece of work is in hand, still prefer to use the ordinary home made wooden shoot. The machines, whilst new and in good condition, are undoubtedly the more expeditious in use, but if carelessly handled they are apt to get out of order, and then their work is far from satisfactory; whilst the wood shoot will stand a deal of rough usage, and is also easily repaired. Figs. 63 to 67 illustrate several improvements on the old form of shoot. A mitre-shoot, square-shoot, and joint-shoot are combined in the one board, which will prove very handy where these appliances are wanted only occasionally. The shoot consists of a top board of seasoned yellow deal 3 ft. by 9 in. by 1 1/2 in., slot-screwed to an under-frame of teak, made up of the plane bed B, 3 ft. by 2 3/4 in. by 1 1/2 in., into which are framed three cross rails 2 1/4 in. by 1 in. flush on the under-side. This frame is shown in plan and in section respectively in Figs. 65 and 66. In the centre of the top board is the mitre-block, a piece of dry oak 2 in. thick cut with two of its sides exactly square with each other, and at an angle of 45° with the third. This block, instead of being fixed in the usual way, is mounted on a pivot in its centre, as shown at B (Figs. 63 and 64), and is capable of adjustment either as a mitre-shoot, as shown in the full lines, or as a square-shoot, as indicated by the dotted lines in Fig. 63; it is firmly secured in either position by means of three 1/2-in. by 3-in. square-head screw bolts similar to Fig. 68. The grain of the block should run parallel with the plane bed, then shrinkage will not alter its shape. The board is arranged for jointing by removing the mitre-block and working the boards against the adjustable stop A. This stop, which is shown in perspective also at Fig. 69, works in an undercut groove, and is secured in any required position by the screw bolt; the projection at the end prevents the boards, slipping whilst being planed.

      Fig. 58.—Mitre Box.

      Fig. 59.—Mitre Box with Strengthening Piece.

      Fig. 60.—Mitre Box with Strengthening Pieces.

      Fig. 61.—Mitre Shooting Block with Solid Base.

      Fig. 62.—Mitre Shooting Block with made-up Base.

      Fig. 63.—Combination Shooting Board.

      Fig. 64.—End Elevation of Combination Board

      DONKEY’S-EAR SHOOTING BLOCK.

      A donkey’s-ear is used for mitreing or bevelling the edges of wide but thin material, with the cut at right angles to that adopted for stouter mouldings. Fig. 70 gives an idea of its form and construction. Fig. 71 shows another handy form of mitre-shoot for wide surfaces that have to be edge-mitred. This also is known as a donkey’s-ear, and it consists of a rest A for the material to be mitred, a bed B for the shooting plane, a guide C for the plane, and a frame D for the purpose of elevating the appliance to a convenient height by fixing it in the bench-screw or to the tail of the bench. The rest A is made of a piece of deal 1 ft. 3 in. long, 4 1/2 in. deep, and 3 in. thick, and has a rebate run along two of its edges (see the section), Fig. 72. The bed B should preferably be of teak, as this wood is of a greasy nature and does not cast. It should be about 2 ft. long, 3 in. wide, and 2 in. thick. The guides C are 1 in. thick, and project about 1/2 in. above the bed. The frame D is made up of 3-in. by 1-in. deal, and tenoned through the bed with barefaced tenons, with shoulders towards the rest.

      FIG. 65.

      FIG. 66.

      Figs. 65 and 66.—Frame of Combination Board.

      Fig. 67.—Elevation of Combination Board.

      Fig. 68.—Screw-bolt.

      Fig. 69.—Adjustable Stop.

      MITRE TEMPLATES.

      Of constant use as an aid in cutting mitres is a mitre template, which is made from a piece of hard wood, in the form shown by Fig. 73; it is usually about 4 in. long, 3 in. wide each way, and 1/2 in. thick. It is made by planing up true a square block of hard wood, cutting out a rebate B, and making a true mitre (458) upon each end, as shown. If an ordinary cupboard framing is examined at the junction of the rail with the jambs, it will be seen that each of the moulded edges has been mitred as shown in Fig. 74. To obtain this mitre, the template is used, as Fig. 75. Fig. 76 shows the template applied to the edge being held by the left hand, whilst the right guides the chisel A.

      Fig. 70.—Donkey’s-ear Shooting Block.

      Fig. 71.—Donkey’s-ear Block for Shooting Wide Surfaces.

      Fig. 72.—Rest of Donkey’s-ear Block.

      Fig. 73.—Mitre Template.

      Fig. 74.—Moulding with Mitred Joint.

      SPIRIT LEVEL.

      The spirit level is used for determining the plane of the horizon, that is the plane forming a right angle to the vertical plane. A frame firmly holds a closed glass tube nearly filled with anhydrous ether, or with a mixture of ether and alcohol. Good spirit levels are provided with a graduated scale engraved on the glass tube or on a brass or

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