Circular Economy and Sustainability: Volume 2: Environmental Engineering

Chapter 1: Circular economy approach in the water and wastewater sector

Marzena Smol    Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Cracow, Poland

Abstract

Water management is an important element of an economy, due to many industries depending on water, and limited access to clean water resources can limit both production capacity and profits. Water issues are a significant part of a circular economy (CE), which assumes more sustainable management of raw materials (including water) and waste (including wastewater). One of the possible methods for transformation toward CE in water and wastewater sector is usage of already existing tools in order to adapt them to the specific conditions of this sector. Based on this approach, the CE model framework for the water and wastewater sector has been developed. The CE model framework includes six core actions (6R): reduction, reclamation (removal), reuse, recycling, recovery, and rethink. This chapter presents an inventory of examples showing good practices in each element of the CE model framework. The presented examples are indicated as recommended solutions in the transformation toward CE in the water and wastewater sector.

Keywords

Circular economy; Water; Wastewater; Sewage; Water management; Waste management

Funding

This work was funded by the Polish National Agency for Academic Exchange (NAWA) as the part of the project Monitoring of water and sewage management in the context of the implementation of the circular economy assumptions (MonGOS), project no. PPI/APM/2019/1/00015/U/00001/ZU/00002 (2020 − 2022).

Conflict of interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

1: Introduction

Water is an essential resource for human survival and wellbeing. It is a renewable resource since the amount on Earth always remains the same as water continuously works its way through the water cycle. Water is a key element not only in the life of the planet’s inhabitants, but also plays a significant role in many sectors of the economy, such as agriculture, production, heating and cooling, tourism, and other service sectors. As it is an extremely valuable resource, it must be used in a sustainable way (EC, 2013). However, as a consequence of human activity and economic development, water resources are under pressure (Voulvoulis, 2018). Moreover, the disposal of wastewater is one element of water management, since 56% (2212 km³ per year) of global freshwater (3928 km³ per year) is released into the environment as wastewater in the form of municipal and industrial effluent and agricultural drainage water. The remaining 44% (1716 km³ per year) of this water is mainly consumed by agriculture through evaporation in irrigated cropland (UNWWDR, 2017). The protection of water resources has become an important topic of many environmental debates and is indicated in several documents and strategies for development, which have been officially adopted on global, national, regional, and even local levels.

Rational management of water resources is an integral part of the implementation of the United Nation’s 2030 Agenda for sustainable development (SD). Among 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) adopted in 2015 (UN, 2015), many are directly related to water, e.g., SGD2—Zero hunger (objectives: end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture), SDG6—Clean water and sanitation (objectives: ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all), SGD7—Affordable and clean energy (objectives: ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all), and SGD14—Life below water (objectives: conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable development). The sustainable management of water resources should include integration of economic, environmental, and social aspects, which are the foundation of sustainability.

On the European level, sustainable management of resources and wastes is indicated as a strategic element in the transition toward the circular economy (CE), which is current European Union economic policy (COM no. 29, 2018; COM no. 98, 2020). This approach assumes that water resources as well as wastewater (sewage) management will be of key importance in the process of transformation toward CE model. The CE focuses on more efficient use of available natural resources, optimal use of water, and more efficient use of energy resources. According to information provided by the European Commission (EC), the CE (COM no. 398, 2014), which aims to achieve more efficient use of resources and waste, may bring significant economic benefits for the European Union (EU) member states. In 2015, the EC presented an ambitious first CE Action Plan (COM no. 614, 2015) underlining that water scarcity has worsened in selected regions of the EU in recent decades, with damaging effects on the European environment and economy. Next to water-efficiency measures, the reuse of treated wastewater in safe and cost-effective ways is strongly recommended, but not fully realized in the EU. Water reuse in agriculture creates the possibility of substitution of solid fertilizers by nutrients recycling. In the second CE Action Plan published in 2020 (COM no. 98, 2020), the EC indicates that the new Water Reuse Regulation will deepen the implementation of CE in water reuse in agriculture. The premise for defining specific actions for Europe in the field of transformation toward CE was the intention to increase global competitiveness, support sustainable economic growth, and create new jobs. The packages on CE are a clear signal to member states that the EU is using all available tools to transform the European economy, creating new business opportunities and increasing competitiveness (COM no. 398, 2014).

Despite the fact that water is a key resource for many sectors of the economy, at the moment there are no clear steps (except water reuse and nutrients recycling from water-based waste) to implement CE principles in the water and wastewater sector indicated by the EC. However, issues of transformation of the water and wastewater sector to the CE model are one of the tasks of the scientific institutions and organizations dealing with sustainable water and wastewater management as well as development of solutions for the implementation of CE in various branches of the economy. In 2016, the International Water Association (IWA) (2016), which is one of the most important global organizations gathering many experts and organizations dealing with water and sewage, proposed a framework that may help the water and wastewater utility operators in the identification of opportunities that can boost their progress along the pathway to the CE (Herzel et al., 2016). Moreover, in 2018, the White Paper presenting the theoretical basis that can be used to develop a framework to identify opportunities for application of CE principles to water systems and incorporate sustainable water and wastewater management assumptions in the CE initiatives in other sectors was published as a joint achievement of Antea Group, Arup, and the Ellen MacArthur Foundation (MacArthur, 2018). The presented CE approach assumes that the water cycle needs to be managed from catchment to consumer and back to catchment, and the transformation to the CE model has to consider both the production and consumption of resources across this whole value chain. This holistic approach takes into account not only water management, but also waste generated in water, and the wastewater sewage sector including sewage, sewage sludge, sewage sludge ash, and others.

One of the possible approaches in the transformation toward CE in the water and sewage sector is use of already existing tools in order to adapt them to the specific conditions of given sector. In the international project Monitoring of water and sewage management in the context of the implementation of the circular economy assumptions (MonGOS), which is financed by the Polish National Agency of Academic Exchange (NAWA), the CE model framework for the water and wastewater sector has been developed. The proposed CE model framework in the European water and wastewater sector includes six core actions (Smol et al., 2020a): reduction, reclamation (removal), reuse, recycling, recovery, and rethink. In the current chapter, an inventory of examples of good practices in each element of the presented CE model is provided. The presented practices are indicated as the recommended solutions in the transformation toward CE in the water and wastewater sector. The structure of the chapter is as follows:

•clarifying the importance of the water and wastewater sector in the transformation toward the CE model (introduction);

•research framework (methods used in this chapter);

•characteristics of the CE model framework for the water and wastewater sector;

•inventory of good practices of CE implementation in the water and wastewater sector; and

•conclusions.

2: Research framework

In the current chapter, a desk research method was used in order to provide examples of good practices in the field of activities indicated in the CE model framework in the European water and wastewater sector (6R: reduction, reclamation/removal, reuse, recycling, recovery and rethink). The desk research, which included the detailed literature review, was divided into five stages:

•preliminary search—identification of a research problem (lack of summarized examples of good practices in the CE model framework in the water and sewage sector), identification of keywords (Table 1), identification of databases with review publications in which information can be obtained (full-text databases such as Elsevier Scopus, Elsevier ScienceDirect, Web of Knowledge, Wiley Online, Google Scholar, EUR-lex, Eurostat, and available online publications);

Table 1

•search in databases—searching all databases using specific keywords, identification of synonyms that can be used in the search, identification and review of additional sources of data, such as EU official documents (communications, EU Directives, and regulations), specialist reports;

•search through bibliography—reaching those positions that were left out of search in databases using keywords, checking so far obtained bibliographic literature, and manual searching of publications in key journals in the field (in electronic or traditional versions);

•verification—consultation of the list of included positions with specialists in a given field, the possibility of obtaining additional sources for review, including unpublished sources; and

•documentation—detailed analysis of the collected list of items that meet all the criteria for inclusion in the review, a description of the best examples.

The description and structure of the analyzed model is provided in the next section of the chapter.

3: Results

This section provides a description of the CE model framework for the water and wastewater sector and examples of the good practices in each elements of the model.

3.1: Description of the CE model framework in the water and wastewater sector

In the project MonGOS, the CE model framework for the European water and wastewater sector (Smol et al., 2020b) has been developed, based on the six following actions:

•reduction—prevent wastewater generation in the first place by the reduction of water usage and pollution reduction at source;

•reclamation (removal)—an application of effective technologies for the removal of pollutants from water and wastewater;

•reuse—reuse of wastewater as an alternative source of water supply (nonpotable usage),

•recycling—recovery of water from wastewater for potable usage;

•recovery—recovery of resources such as nutrients and energy from water-based waste; and

•rethink—rethinking how to use resources to create a sustainable economy, which is free of waste and emissions.

The scheme of the model is presented in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 The CE model framework in the water and wastewater sector ( Smol et al., 2020b).

The novelty of the presented CE model framework is that it provides possible ways of implementing CE principles in the water and wastewater sector, taking into account not only technological and environmental, but also organizational and societal changes. The structure of this model is in line with CE principles, but also with waste management hierarchy (Council Directive 2008/98/EC, n.d.), therefore, the proposed CE actions are ordered from the most desirable solution to the least recommended. Detailed description of the model is provided in the publication by Smol et al. (2020b).

3.2: Examples of good practices in the water and wastewater sector

There are many good examples of solutions (technological, organizational, environmental, etc.) that have been implemented in recent years in the water and sewage sector.

3.2.1: Reduction

The first part of the model is related to reduction, which focuses on the prevention of waste generation (wastewater) by the reduction of water use at source and reduction of pollutants content at source. Reduction of water consumption should apply primarily to industry, because it uses about 90% of the water used for human activities, whereas only 10% is used in individual households (Reduce Water Consumption at Home, 2019). There are more and more studies providing results showing the possibility of reduction in water usage in different branches of industry. Ferraciolli et al. (2018) presented possible reduction in water consumption and liquid effluent generation at a fish processing plant. The obtained findings confirmed that there is a possibility to reduce the water consumption by 10.3%, after applying the principles of minimization. With recycling or reusing of the effluent, the reduction could be increased to 15.92%. The authors indicated that the sustainability of the process can be intensified when there is the separation of streams, integrated with the practices of reduction of water consumption and recycling or reusing of effluents after submission to the appropriate treatment (Ferraciolli et al., 2018). In the work of Hosnar and Kralj (2016), the MINLP (mixed-integer nonlinear programming) model was proposed as a tool supporting the optimization of reduction of water usage in industry. The research conducted by Pina et al. (2017) showed that heat integration in sugar and ethanol production from sugarcane promoted a reduction in water consumption (water collecting requirement) by 24% and 13%, respectively, in comparison to the conventional cases without heat integration. Further research in the reduction of water consumption in different industries is being conducted, which is particularly important in industrial plants that depend on water consumption (Smol et al., 2020b).

Individual households are the smallest consumers of water resources; however, they have a large potential impact as they can experiment with strategies to develop water saving habits that can be implemented outside the home (Reduce Water Consumption at Home, 2019). Due to the increasing importance of water resources management, there are more and more water saving tips intended for citizens. Mainly, these tips meet with a friendly reception, but there are still problems with the implementation of the proposed solutions in daily life. There are significant benefits arising from the reduction of water consumption, for example, a decrease in individual expenses, energy usage, and time spent acquiring water. Of key importance is the environmental attitude and behavior of residents. The good practices of water savings at home should be transferred to workplaces. An inventory of selected water saving tips are indicated in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Water saving tips. (Based on EarthEasy, 2020. Ways to Conserve Water in the Home and Yard. Available at learn.eartheasy.com/guides/45-ways-to-conserve-water-in-the-home-and-yard/)

Increasing the use of recommended water saving methods can be accelerated through further raising people’s awareness of the importance of making changes in every aspect of life, both in households and in the workplace. Currently, society is becoming more and more environmentally aware and it could be assumed that people would try to adopt some changes in their households and workplaces in the near future, as a consequence of the zero waste fashion (Smol et al., 2020b).

3.2.2: Reclamation (removal)

Reclamation (removal) focuses on the application of highly effective technologies for the removal of pollutants from wastewater. In practice, a number of technologies have been developed and implemented in order to remove contaminants from the liquid phase. A considerable saving of water resources can be achieved through effective removal of pollutants from wastewater. Currently, physical, biological, chemical (Tchorzewska-Cieslak et al., 2017), and a combination of those methods are applied in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (Kwarciak-Kozłowska, 2019) in order to meet specific water quality objectives provided in national regulations (Salgot and Folch, 2018).

Physical techniques such as sedimentation, straining, flotation, and filtration are used as the initial treatment in order to remove solid impurities from wastewater. Then the biological processes are applied, which result from the life activity of microorganisms, including bacteria, as well as algae and plants (Bouju et al., 2016). Biological techniques are used to remove colloidal and dissolved organic and inorganic impurities from effluents and to process sewage sludge into a form convenient for final disposal (Goswami et al., 2018). These methods include activated sludge and biological trickling filters. In many cases, biological processes are unable to remove a number of contaminants and most of them remain soluble in the liquid phase (Carboneras et al. 2018; Kwarciak-Kozłowska et al., 2018). Therefore, chemical processes are used, mainly to treat industrial wastewater (rich in heavy metals and chemical organic compounds), as well as to remove biogenic compounds from domestic wastewater. Chemical treatment consists of a precipitation of some soluble compounds or their neutralization by means of coagulation, neutralization, extraction, electrolysis, distillation, or sorption on activated carbon.

Moreover, physicochemical processes such as flocculation and lime softening can be used; however, they can be insufficient in the removal of different endocrine disruptor compounds (EDCs) and pharmaceutical compounds. The use of chlorination provides residual protection against regrowth of bacteria and pathogens; however, it can contribute to undesirable odors or tastes and to the formation of various disinfection by-products (DBPs) in portable water. There is also the possibility of using ozonation, but it is indicated as a less attractive alternative due to high costs and short lifetime. Other advanced types of treatments, like ultraviolet (UV) photolysis and ion exchange, are not feasible alternatives for removal of micropollutants (Amin et al., 2014). In order to effectively remove pollutants from wastewater, membrane techniques are recommended (Konieczny et al., 2019), such as microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF), and reverse osmosis (RO). Currently, nanotechnology can be considered as an effective solution in water and wastewater treatment (Madeła et al., 2018), as it can solve water problems related to quality and quantity. The effective use of all above technologies can reduce problems related to water shortages, energy, health, and climate change; however, their implementation requires analysis of the specific aspects, which will indicate which solutions are efficient, cost-effective, and reliable (Amin et al., 2014). The use of selected methods also depends on the specifics of the facility (Grobelak et al., 2019).

3.2.3: Reuse

In the current model, reuse is defined as reuse of wastewater as an alternative source of water supply (nonpotable usage). This solution is at the center of environmental debates on the European, international, and national levels. Significant environmental, social, and economic benefits can be achieved through water reuse. It can improve the status of the environment both quantitatively (alleviating pressure by substituting abstraction) and qualitatively (relieving pressure of discharge from urban WWTPs to sensitive areas). Comparing to the alternative sources of water supply such as desalination or water transfer, water reuse often turns out to require lower investment costs and energy, also contributing to reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.

It should be underlined that reuse of treated wastewater can produce a reliable water supply, quite independent from seasonal drought and weather variability and more able to cover peaks of water demand. This creates important opportunities for the farming activities that rely on reliable continuity of water supply, especially during the irrigation period, consequently reducing the risk of crop failure and possible income losses. Moreover, nutrients present in treated wastewater (used in agriculture) could also reduce the use of additional fertilizers, which could benefit the environment, farmers, and WWTPs (EC, 2018).

The possibility of usage of water for specific applications depends on its quality and usage requirements (De Sanctis et al., 2017). The main factors determining the suitability of recycled water, for example, for agricultural irrigation are heavy metals, salinity, and pathogens, which cause adverse effects on human, plants, and soils (Tran et al., 2016). There are several studies focused on the water reuse for nonpotable usage (Jaramillo and Restrepo, 2017). In the work of Chekli et al. (2017), the performance of the fertilizer-drawn forward osmosis (FDFO) process to achieve simultaneous water reuse from wastewater and production of nutrient solution for hydroponic application was examined and proven as the recommended solution. Cho and Kim (2019) proposed the estimation method of irrigation water amount for sewage treated water reuse, also for agricultural purposes. Authors indicated that assuming an irrigation efficiency of 80%, the irrigation water requirement was calculated as 36.05 m³/day/ha and 84.45 m³/day/ha, respectively, when annual mean and maximum potential evapotranspiration were applied. The actual irrigation water amount can be calculated by applying the crop coefficient and cropping days for the study area based on the developed irrigation water amount estimation program in this study (Cho and Kim, 2019).

A summary of the good practices with respect to urban wastewater treatment and effluent reuse in agricultural production is provided by Dolores et al. (2016). The reuse of treated wastewater reuse as an alternative source for nonpotable usage is strongly recommended (Lavrnić et al., 2017), especially in areas threatened by water scarcity for agricultural purposes (Ashu and Lee, 2019; Woltersdorf et al., 2016). Currently, crops and green areas are irrigated with reused water widely in Israel, California, Australia, and Singapore. Approx. 1.1 billion m³ of recovered water is used in Europe for agriculture, which is about 2.4% of treated urban wastewater. This method is used primarily in Mediterranean countries such as Greece or Italy (Avisar and Ronen-Eliraz, 2018). According to EC estimates, the use of recovered water should increase in the coming year, and it is assumed that by 2025, the amount of treated wastewater used in agriculture should reach 6.6 billion m³.

3.2.4: Recycling

Recycling in the presented model is related to the recovery (or reclamation) of water from sewage for potable usage. The recovered water can be supplied back to the water system either directly or indirectly (AWA, 2019). This option should be applied only for sewage that cannot be reduced or reused (IISD, 2019). Water recycling can be possible only if highly effective technologies for the removal of pollutants are applied (Kizinievič et al., 2018), as in this approach, it is assumed that the recovered water will be directed for drinking usage. Examples of these methods include the membrane techniques (Naidu et al., 2017; Kudlek and Dudziak, 2018), such as nanofiltration (NF), reverse osmosis (RO), or forward osmosis (FO) (Smol and Włodarczyk-Makuła, 2017), and other methods such as ozonation (Wang et al., 2017).

In work by Ahmad et al. (2003), membrane technology was used for water recycling from palm oil mill effluent. It was shown that this solution creates high potential for eliminating the environmental problems and offers water recycling. The treated effluent was a crystal-clear water that could be used as the source of drinking water production or as boiler feed water. In work by Marron et al. (2019), advanced water treatment systems that are capable of converting municipal wastewater sewage into drinking water were proposed. This solution, which presents potable water recycling, was based on the RO treatment followed by exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light and addition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). These two-step treatment processes individually are capable of controlling many of the chemical and microbial contaminants in sewage, however, a few chemicals may still be present after treatment at concentrations that affect water quality. Therefore, in order to provide a high quality and safe product to consumers who rely upon potable water reuse systems, new policies are required to prevent chemicals that are problematic to remove during advanced treatment from entering the sewer system.

Based on the comprehensive knowledge on composition of municipal sewage and the mechanisms through which pollutants are removed during treatment process, it should be possible to recycle municipal wastewater for potable usage (Marron et al., 2019). In selected regions (e.g., Santa Clara and Orange County), an interesting program related to water recycling, so-called toilet to tap, was proposed in recent years. It allows water, which has been flushed or washed down the drain, to be reclaimed and safely used for potable consumption, under certain conditions (Bansal, 2017). There are also good examples of water recycling in Australia, where indirect potable reuse involves getting effluent (treated wastewater) further treated at existing treatment plants before entering the recycling plants. The recycled water is mixed with the natural water supply, and then returns to use for drinking purposes. The highly effective methods of contaminants removal used there are: first microfiltration, and then RO, oxidation, and disinfection with the use of hydrogen peroxide and intense UV light (Nguyen, 2019).

Solutions focused on water recycling for potable usage are particularly important in regions that face water scarcity. In research by Biswas et al. (2019), environmental and economic benefits from the use of potable water from a desalination plant and treated sewage effluent for nonpotable reuse in Lusail, Doha (Qatar), were presented. The use of treated sewage effluent as a replacement for potable water in a district cooling plant could significantly reduce the overall carbon footprint (34%–40%) of this closed loop decentralized water supply system. Based on the life cycle analysis (LCA), it was shown that these options can also reduce the electricity consumption, conserving Qatar’s natural gas resources whilst reducing GHG emissions. Water recycling was indicated as a recommended solution for this region (Biswas et al., 2019).

It should be strongly underlined that recycling of water for potable usage requires maintaining the highest precautions due to the protection of human life and health. Further requirements in this area are indicated by the World Health Organization (WHO) in the publication Potable reuse: guidance for producing safe drinking-water (WHO, 2017). Advantages and challenges of potable recycling of water are presented in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Advantages and challenges of water recycling for potable usage ( WHO, 2017).

3.2.5: Recovery

Recovery is related to the recovery of materials and resources. The possible recovered materials include inorganic nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen), organic fertilizers, biopolymers, biogas, cellulose, heavy metals, pharmaceutical products, and energy (kinetic, thermal, biothermal) (MacArthur, 2018).

Recovery of nutrients from water-based waste, such as sewage, sewage sludge, sewage sludge ash, and others (Smol et al., 2020a), has a positive impact on the environment by the reduction of the demand for conventional fossil-based fertilizers and thus reduces the consumption of energy and water (Neczaj and Grosser, 2018). In the field of technology for the recovery of nutrients from wastewater, many studies have been conducted in recent years, some of which have been completed on a technical scale (Amann et al., 2018). The most important nutrient is phosphorus, which is a critical raw material (CRM) for the European economy (COM no. 490, 2017). From the perspective of its recovery from water-based waste, in fact, it can be recovered from every phase of the waste generated in the WWTP—liquid phase, solid state, and sewage sludge ash (Egle et al., 2016; Havukainen et al., 2016). There are several technologies for P recovery, some of which have been presented in Table 2. The products obtained in the presented processes can be used in the chemical and fertilizer sectors (Herzel et al., 2016), such as phosphoric acid, ammonium phosphate, calcium phosphate, struvite, mineral fertilizer, single superphosphate, and others (Cieślik and Konieczka, 2017).

Table 2

Another important aspect of the recovery option is the possibility to recover energy in the water and sewage sector. Energy recovery strategies could balance the electricity consumption of the water and sewage sector and represent possible areas for sustainable energy policy implementation (Stillwell et al., 2010). The possible methods for energy recovery in the water and sewage sector have been summarized by the IWA and presented as energy pathways in the implementation of the CE principles in the sector (Herzel et al., 2016). Examples of good practices, including the regulatory and market levers, are presented in Table 3. It should be noted that energy consumption for water is greatest in private houses, for heating and domestic usage. Globally, water networks and treatment plants consume approx. 10%–15% of national power production. Moreover, untreated sewage also has a negative impact on the environment through greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, in the CE model, the energy (and also carbon) strategies focus on the cost reduction for customers and impact minimization on the environment. Sustainable energy policy should aim to reduce energy consumption that is based on carbon usage, increase energy consumption from renewable sources, increase renewable energy production, and make a positive contribution to development of zero-carbon cities (Herzel et al., 2016).

Table 3

The drivers to recover both materials and energy in the water and sewage sector are typically economic factors and sustainability and, in many cases, these two drivers are often at odds with each other. Therefore, the recovery of materials and energy always has to be incorporated into a long-term sustainability plan. In the case, e.g., of phosphorus recovery from waste generated in WWTPs, it is possible to reduce operating costs by selling commercial fertilizer products, e.g., struvite (Hermann et al., 2018). There are also costs associated with the implementation of CE solutions that may make these options nonviable, at least in the short term. Thus, it is important to identify the real economic limitations and sustainability goals in a community so that long-term sustainability visions can be balanced with short-term financial constraints (Walters and Rainbird, 2007).

3.2.6: Rethink

Rethink is indicated as the last option, however, it takes into account all the previous elements, and promotes the creation of a sustainable economy with the circular usage of resources and waste. This economy should be free of waste and emissions. The concept of CE, which is the basis of current European Union economic policy, is based on changing the approach to managing resources and waste, and circularity is assumed as a rethinking device, which can be a powerful new frame, capable of developing creative solutions and stimulating innovation (MacArthur, 2013). In the various branches of industry, rethinking can also be viewed as increasing the intensiveness of product use through sharing or multifunctionality. Moreover, companies operating in the water and sewage sector that decide to implement CE principles are advised to implement new business models based on the rethinking of their supply chains, including the way they create and deliver value through their business models (Lüdeke-Freund et al., 2019).

In order to increase the implementation of CE solutions in the water and sewage sector, it is important to spread public awareness in this area, as well as conducting ecological education. New CE-related educational and promotional campaigns can significantly increase the level of public knowledge of the importance of water protection and thus change the behavior of consumers, who are one of the strategic stakeholders in the transformation process from a linear to a CE. The implementation of CE principles in the water and sewage sector has to consider an integrated approach to water and sewage management by increasing the scope and division of responsibilities incumbent on administrations and integration with other fields, including energy, transport, agriculture, forestry, fishing, navigation, nature protection in the broad sense, spatial planning, tourism, and social communication, as well as regional policy (Smol et al., 2020b).

4: Conclusions

The implementation of CE principles in water and sewage sector requires a holistic approach. Possible pathways for implementation can be inspired by solutions already developed, such as those presented in the current chapter. Considering the use of the presented solutions in the water and sewage sector, attention should be paid not only to the availability of technology, but also to other factors, including economic estimations (investment costs, operating costs, environmental profits associated with reducing emissions to the environment), and also social aspects such as public opinion. Introducing solutions in the field of CE requires environmental education and understanding of its principles by residents. It is also important to determine the risks arising from the quality of the recovered raw material, generation of other waste in the recovery process, and energy balance. The implementation of circular and sustainable solutions in water-addicted companies and wastewater operators should contribute to the acceleration of transformation toward a CE model. CE is an irreversible global trend on a large scale; therefore, further actions should be taken by the decision-makers in the water and sewage sector.

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