Cement Industry Engineering-Holderbank Course (2 of 2)

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C01 - Power Supply / Power Supply / 8. STRUCTURE OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS IN A CEMENT PLANT
8.
STRUCTURE OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS IN A CEMENT PLANT
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C01 - Power Supply / Power Supply / 9. INVESTMENT COST OF A CEMENT PLANT
9.
INVESTMENT COST OF A CEMENT PLANT
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C01 - Power Supply / Power Supply / 10. POWER CONSUMPTION OF A CEMENT PLANT
10.
POWER CONSUMPTION OF A CEMENT PLANT
Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query:
6/30/2001 - 10:34:34 AM
Page 1
6/30/2001 - 10:34:35 AM
Page 2

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution
C02 - Power Distribution
6/30/2001 - 10:34:35 AM
Page 3

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution
Power Distribution
Fritz Richner 1. SUPPLY VOLTAGES 2. HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER STATION 3. MEDIUM VOLTAGE POWER DISTRIBUTION 4. DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS AND MOTOR CONTROL CENTRES (MCC) 5. HIGH VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT 5.1 Circuit Breakers 5.2 High Voltage Transformer 6. MEDIUM VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT 6.1 Medium Voltage Circuit Breakers 6.2 Medium Voltage Contactors 6.3 Medium Voltage Transformers 7. LOW VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT 7.1 Motor Control Centres 7.2 Motor Control Interface 8. CABLES 9. POWER FACTOR AND ITS IMPROVEMENT 9.1 General 9.2 Power Factor Correction 10. ENERGY- / POWER-METERING 10.1 10.2 Metering for energy invoice Metering for internal use only
11. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 Introduction Touch Voltage Step Voltage Safety Precautions in High Voltage Equipment Rooms Preventive Maintenance Precautions against Electric Fires Maintenance of Temporary Installations during Construction and Erection
6/30/2001 - 10:34:35 AM Page 4
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 11.8 12. ANNEXES 12.1 12.2 12.3 Power Supply Typical elements of a high voltage transformer station Power Distribution Protective relays Power Distribution Typical elements of a medium voltage power distribution First Aid
6/30/2001 - 10:34:35 AM
Page 5

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 1. SUPPLY VOLTAGES
1.
SUPPLY VOLTAGES
In the cement industry, the supply voltages from the utility power companies are in the range of: 11 kV up to 150 kV (for small plants) (for large plants)
In power distribution systems we distinguish between equipment for: high voltage low voltage > 50 kV 1 kV medium voltage 1-50 kV
The design of the equipment (e.g. circuit breaker) varies according to the requirements of the different voltage levels and power ratings. Note: The medium voltage range is very often also called high voltage, e.g. 6 kV high voltage motors.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 2. HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER STATION
2.
HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER STATION
Depending on the layout of the cement plant and on the type of switchgear installed this station is located on the periphery or in the centre of a cement plant. For safety reasons a cement plant is preferably fed by two incoming cables or overhead lines. The transmission, voltage can vary between 11 kV and 150 kV and is normally fixed by the power supplier. The high voltage will be transformed to 4 to 11 kV by means of preferably two transformers, one of as stand-by. For power distribution system-arrangement see Fig. 2.1. For power distribution single line diagram see Fig. 2.2. Figure 2.1 Example of a Power Distribution System-Arrangement
Figure 2.2
Example of a Power Distribution Single Line Diagram
6/30/2001 - 10:34:35 AM
Page 6
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 3. MEDIUM VOLTAGE POWER DISTRIBUTION
3.
MEDIUM VOLTAGE POWER DISTRIBUTION
The medium voltage power distribution is usually located in an electrical room in the centre of a cement plant, this is order to minimise cabling and installation costs (centralised MV-distribution). However, depending on the layout of the plant, the MV-power distribution may be arranged in a decentralised manner, i.e. the MV-distribution might be located in load centres common with the LV-distribution transformers and motor control centres. For comparison of centralised and decentralised arrangements refer to single line diagram Fig. 3.1. Decentralised arrangements may result in the application of a higher quantity of circuit breakers, control equipment, larger electrical rooms, a more sophisticated protection scheme and requires a somewhat more costly maintenance. Costs for MV-cabling may however be smaller. The medium voltage level normally ranges from 4 kV up to 11 kV. There is a strong tendency to use the higher voltage of 11 kV; 50 Hz, resp. 13.8 kV; 60 Hz, because a higher working voltage results in smaller cable cross-sections (i.e. lower investment costs) and less voltage drops (i.e. less energy losses). The distribution station is equipped with a main busbar, the incoming circuit breakers and the different outgoing circuit breakers to the distribution transformers and high voltage motors. Distribution transformer stations are located in the different load centres, namely the crushing plant, the raw meal grinding plant, the kiln plant, the cement grinding plant and the packing plant. All high and medium voltage equipment (transformers, cables and motors) has to be protected against overload, short circuit, earth fault, over voltage, etc. to guarantee a selective fault isolation. Figure 3.1 Centralised & de-centralised medium voltage distribution typical single-line-diagram
6/30/2001 - 10:34:35 AM
Page 7
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 4. DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS AND MOTOR CONTROL CENTRES (MCC)
4.
DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS AND MOTOR CONTROL CENTRES (MCC)
Distribution transformers and MCCs are located in the different load centres of the plant. The transformers have a capacity of 630 up to 2000 kVA depending on the power requirement and a low voltage level of 400 V up to 660 V. Distribution transformers are normally installed indoors in individual transformer cells. The low voltage switch gear and MCCs are located in electrical rooms of the respective plant buildings. Figure 4.1 Single line diagram Example of a load centre with distribution transformer and MCC
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 5. HIGH VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT
5.
HIGH VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT
The high voltage transformer station generally consists of following components:
6/30/2001 - 10:34:36 AM
Page 8
Lightning arrestors (protect the substation against over voltage such as lightning)
Current and voltage transformers (measure the amount of energy consumed)
Off-load isolator (isolate a circuit at no load e.g. for maintenance purposes)
6/30/2001 - 10:34:36 AM
Page 9
On-load isolator (disconnect a circuit at max. double-rated current)
Earthing switches (connect a circuit to the earth for safety reasons, during maintenance activities)
Circuit breakers (disconnect a circuit under load and in case of fault)
6/30/2001 - 10:34:36 AM
Page 10
Busbars (form the electrical power circuit)
Step-down transformer (transforms incoming voltage to the plant power distribution level e.g. 110 kV to 7 kV) The following 3 types of transformer stations are mainly used: Outdoor transformer station with conventional switch gear: Characteristics: biggest surface area required medium investment costs for high voltage switch gear time consuming for maintenance (cleaning)
Indoor transformer station with conventional switch gear: Characteristics: medium surface area required lowest investment costs for high voltage switch gear medium time required for maintenance
Indoor transformer station with metal-clad, SF6, gas insulated or vacuum type switch gear: Characteristics: smallest surface area required
6/30/2001 - 10:34:37 AM Page 11
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 highest investment costs for high voltage switch gear needs the least of maintenance
Figure 5.0.1 110 kV Outdoor Transformer Station Typical arrangement with conventional switch gear
Legend: 1 2,6 3 4 5 7 8 Busbar system Off-load isolator Circuit breaker Current transformer Voltage transformer Lightning arrestor Power transformer
Figure 5.0.2 110 kV Indoor Transformer Station Typical arrangement with conventional switch gear
Legend: 1, 2 Busbar systems (double busbars)

6/30/2001 - 10:34:37 AM Page 12
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 1, 2 Busbar systems (double busbars) 3, 7 4 5 6 8 9 Off-load isolator Circuit breaker Current transformer Voltage transformer Lightning arrestor Power transformer
Figure 5.0.3 110 kV Indoor Transformer Station Typical arrangement with metal-clad, SF6 gas insulated switch gear
Legend: F5, F6 F1, F7 F4 Incoming feeders consisting of off-load isolators, circuit breaker, earthing switches, current and voltage transformers Outgoing feeders consisting of off-load isolators, circuit breaker, earthing switches, current transformers Buscoupler (double busbars)
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 5. HIGH VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT / 5.1 Circuit Breakers
5.1
Circuit Breakers
In high voltage installations mostly SF6 gas circuit breakers are applied. The low oil content circuit breakers are still used but manufacturing will run out in the next years. Figure 5.1.1 SF6 Gas Circuit Breaker 3-pole circuit breaker with operating mechanism
6/30/2001 - 10:34:37 AM
Page 13
5.1.2
Schematic function of arc quenching mechanism of a circuit breaker pole
5.1.3
Metal-clad, SF6 Gas-Insulated Circuit Breaker
5.1.4
Cross section of double busbar cable feeder:
6/30/2001 - 10:34:37 AM
Page 14
Legend 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Busbar with combined disconnector/earthing switch Circuit breaker Current transformer Potential transformer Cable end unit with combined disconnector/earthing switch Fast acting earthing switch Control cubicle
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 5. HIGH VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT / 5.2 High Voltage Transformer
5.2
High Voltage Transformer
Large high voltage transformers have an efficiency of up to 99%. They are always filled with oil which still copes best with all insulation and temperature problems. To meet the requirement for a constant voltage level in the cement factory under various loads and with varying voltage levels of the utility power supply, the transformers should be equipped with a tap switch which automatically increases or decreases the secondary voltage in steps of about 1 to 1.5%. Large transformer are equipped with air or water cooling equipment (a 20 MVA transformer with an efficiency of 98% still produces a flow of 400 kW of heat). Temperature sensors and the so-called Buchholz-Relay protect the transformer against overload and insulation failures. The Buchholz-Relay detects gas bubbles which collect at the highest point of the transformer, and thus gives a good indication of insulation or local over temperature problems, in the transformer. The vector-group of a transformer is often Yd5, where Y stands for primary star connection, d for secondary delta connection, and 5 gives the phase relation between the two systems. Figure 5.2 High voltage transformer
6/30/2001 - 10:34:38 AM
Page 15
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 6. MEDIUM VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT
6.
MEDIUM VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT
Medium voltage power distributions consist mainly of the same components as described in paragraph 5. They are generally of the indoor type. Today draw-out type cubicles are commonly used. Different equipment can be mounted on identical trucks. The trucks are easy to handle and allow a quick replacement in case of a failure. The figure below shows a medium voltage distribution station. Figure 6.0.1 Medium voltage substation
Figure 6.0.2 Typical arrangement with metal-clad SF6 switch gear
6/30/2001 - 10:34:38 AM
Page 16

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 6. MEDIUM VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT / 6.1 Medium Voltage Circuit Breakers
6.1
Medium Voltage Circuit Breakers
Vaccum- and SF6 circuit breakers are normally installed in the medium voltage power distribution systems. Low oil content circuit breakers are still manufactured but are less used due to higher equipment costs. Figure 6.1.1 Truck mounted vacuum circuit breaker
6.1.2
Truck mounted SF6 circuit breaker
Properties of vacuum- and SF6 circuit breakers Application: Protection and switching operation for lines cables transformers motors
6/30/2001 - 10:34:38 AM Page 17
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 capacitors Criterias: Vacuum Interrupter service life Service interval 20000 to 30000 C-0 operations Lubrication of mechanism(max. 10 years) Interrupter to be replaced Well suited SF6 10000 to 20000 C-O operations Lubrication of mechanism (max. 10 years) Interrupter can be reconditioned Well suited
Overhaul of interrupter Switching of lines, cables, transformers, capacitors Switching of motors
Well suited but measures may be necessary to limit over voltages
Well suited normally no measures necessary to limit over voltages
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 6. MEDIUM VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT / 6.2 Medium Voltage Contactors
6.2
Medium Voltage Contactors
The psychical principles are similar to a circuit breaker, except that the contactor cannot interrupt short circuit currents. The contact system is optimised for high numbers of rated current operations. High rupture capacity current limiting fuses in conjunction with the contactor are therefore required for the short circuit protection. Overload protection is ensured by separate relays. Fused contactors can be used as motor and transformer feeders. Examples for max. fuse rating 250 A, 6 kV: distribution transformers max. 2000 kVA motor with max. starting current 1350 A and max. starting time 10 sec. - max. 1690 kW. Advantages of fused contactors: very compact design more economical than circuit breakers Disadvantages of fused contactors: tripping mechanism with auxiliary contact required for each fuse limited application (voltage, current) fuses to be replace Figure 6.2 Contactor panel (double tier)
6/30/2001 - 10:34:39 AM Page 18
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 6. MEDIUM VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT / 6.3 Medium Voltage Transformers
6.3
Medium Voltage Transformers
These transformers too are normally mineral oil-immersed. For special applications silicone oil is used which has less heat development during fire than mineral oil (10%). Figure 6.3.1 Oil-immersed three-phase distribution transformer with oil conservator (hermetically sealed transformers without conservator are normally used up to 1000 kVA, resp. up to 20 kV)
So called dry transformers which use a synthetic resign as insulation are built up to 10 MVA. They are more expensive than oil transformers. Figure 6.3.2 Dry-type three-phase distribution transformer
6/30/2001 - 10:34:39 AM
Page 19
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 7. LOW VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT
7.
LOW VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT
Low voltage switch gear is located in electrical rooms in the different load centres of the plant.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 7. LOW VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT / 7.1 Motor Control Centres
7.1
Motor Control Centres
The motor control centres comprise all equipment for the remote control of the low voltage consumers (motors etc.). A fuseless and standardised execution of the feeder is preferred. Figure 7.1 Motor control centre with outgoing feeders of the draw-out, fully-plugged design
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 7. LOW VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT / 7.2 Motor Control Interface
7.2
Motor Control Interface
The power- and control circuit wiring is normally standardised for each type of feeder. For maintenance and repair purposes start/stop push buttons and OFF/READY isolator switches are located near each individual drive. The DC-control circuits are connected via multi-core cables to the marshalling rack of the respective process stations.
Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query: 6/30/2001 - 10:34:39 AM Page 20
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Figure 7.2 Typical motor feeder circuit diagram
Legend: MG. MS: MU: MT: MR: MK: JZ: MD: Motor Local Go (Start) Motor Local Stop Motor Local Isolated Motor Thermal Overload Motor Run Motor OK Motor Power *) Option Motor Start DI: DO: AI: D1: C1: F1: F2: Digital Input Digital Output Analogue Input Interface Relay ... VDC Contactor Circuit Breaker Thermal Overload Device
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 8. CABLES
8.
CABLES
The cable installation is an important part in a cement plant. The investment costs are in the range of 10 to 15% of the total costs for electrical equipment. Types of cables Power cables for High voltage (e.g. 110 kV) for incoming feeder from power company Medium voltage (e.g. 6 kV) for medium voltage power distribution of the plant Low voltage (e.g. 400 V) for low voltage power distribution of the plant Control cables for Low voltage (e.g. 220 V) for control circuits Extra low voltage (e.g. 24 V=) for process control, instrumentation, communication. Figure 8.1 Medium voltage power cable (3-core)
6/30/2001 - 10:34:40 AM
Page 21
Figure 8.2
Low voltage power cable (4-core)
Figure 8.3
Extra low voltage cable (multi-core)
Polyethylene resp. cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) insulated cables are the most widely installed power cables today in a cement plant. Ethylene-propylene-rubber (EPR) insulated cables will in future replace the PE resp. XLPE-cables. Copper conductors are preferable to aluminium conductors due to the simpler installation method. For special applications, cables with flame retardant, non-corrosive sheath material (EVA) can be installed. Dimensioning of cables
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Power cables have to be carefully dimensioned in respect of Current carrying capacity by taking into account ambient temperature kind of installation (ground, air grouping)
Voltage drop (power loss) Thermal and dynamic short-circuits strength. Installation of cables In cement plants most of the cables are mounted on cable trays inside the buildings, on bridges, in walk-through cable tunnels or they are installed in pipe systems. Therefore, additional mechanical protection by armouring is generally not required.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 9. POWER FACTOR AND ITS IMPROVEMENT
9.
POWER FACTOR AND ITS IMPROVEMENT
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 9. POWER FACTOR AND ITS IMPROVEMENT / 9.1 General
9.1
General
The induction motor is the largest producer of reactive power in a cement plant and shall be used here as an example. The induction motor draws two power components from the supplying network, or as shown below, from the generator, i.e.: the active power is transformed by the motor into mechanical energy the reactive power is transformed by the motor into magnetic energy; but with every change of polarity (with the frequency of the supplying network), the magnetic energy is transformed back to electrical energy. in other words, it flows back and forth between the motor and the generator. It can easily be seen that the reactive power is a burden on the generator and the supplying cables. It appears as a current like the active current and causes losses in the cables, transformers and in the generator. Figure 9.1.1 Typical power flow in motor circuit
6/30/2001 - 10:34:40 AM
Page 23
Legend: S: Q: W: P: apparent power reactive power active power mechanical power kVA kVar kW kW
Figure 9.1.2 Vector diagram
Legend: OA: OB: OC: CD: Phi: Phi1 Cos phi: Active power W Inductive reactive power Q Apparent power S Capacitor reactive power Q Phase angle, uncompensated Phase angle, compensated W S (kW) (kVar) (kVA) (kVar)
The electricity authorities generally demand a minimum power factor (cos phi) to limit the losses in their own power distribution system. One of the most common tools used to improve the power factor is the capacitor. A capacitor transforms reactive power into electrostatic power and back to reactive power with the frequency of the network. The capacitor can be compared with an expansion tank.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 9. POWER FACTOR AND ITS IMPROVEMENT / 9.2 Power Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query: 6/30/2001 - 10:34:41 AM Page 24

Factor Correction
9.2
Power Factor Correction
The plant power factor is normally corrected in three different modes. For low voltage motors: They can be compensated through automatically regulated reactive current compensation plants situated at each low voltage power distribution. Figure 9.2.1 Automatically controlled capacitor bank with line reactors (to cope with the harmonic content)
For high voltage motors with constant speed: To correct the power factor, capacitor banks suitably sized for each individual high voltage motor can be connected and disconnected from the medium voltage power distribution with the respective motor circuit breaker. Figure 9.2.2 Direct compensated high voltage motor
For large variable speed drives: It is recommended to compensate large variable speed drive systems through central reactive power compensation plants, correcting the power factor as well as higher harmonics generated by the various kinds of converters (one plant per medium voltage busbar section). Prior to the installation of a compensation plant, a detailed network analysis must be carried out. Figure 9.2.3 Circuit diagram of a harmonic absorber and power factor compensation circuit (1
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 MVAr)
Legend: L: R: C1: C2: PROT: Inductance, Resistor Capacitor Capacitor Protection 14.1 mH 50 720 F 90 F (MCX 912)
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 10. ENERGY- / POWER-METERING
10.
ENERGY- / POWER-METERING
The power distribution scheme of a cement plant shall comply with the process requirements. Independent process departments receive independent power supplies and distributions. Therefore, metering equipment shall be installed at: the H.V. incoming feeder (metering for energy invoice) the M.V. outgoing feeders to the individual process departments the M.V. outgoing motor feeders the L.V. outgoing non-process feeders the L.V. outgoing main motor feeders This allows for detailed information such as:
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 10. ENERGY- / POWER-METERING / 10.1 Metering for energy invoice
10.1
Metering for energy invoice
total active energy consumption (kWh) total reactive energy consumption (kVarh) power factor (cos phi)
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 total power demand (kW)

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 10. ENERGY- / POWER-METERING / 10.2 Metering for internal use only
10.2
Metering for internal use only
energy consumption per department (kWh) specific energy consumption per department (kWh/t) power demand per department (kW) For a typical arrangement of metering equipment see Fig. 10.2. Figure 10.2 Energy-/power metering in a cement plant
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 11. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
11.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 11. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT / 11.1 Introduction
11.1
Introduction
The use of electrical equipment, from the main feed down to the hidden auxiliary servo-motor at the far end, spreads potential dangers all around the factory. The application of the safety precautions and regulations is the duty of all employees. All electrical systems are grounded to earth to reduce the shock hazard to personnel and to provide a path to ground for currents induced in the system by lightning strokes.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 11. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT / 11.2 Touch Voltage
11.2
Touch Voltage Equivalent circuit of a person exposed to touch voltage
Figure 11.2
6/30/2001 - 10:34:42 AM
Page 27
Touch voltage is defined as the potential difference between a grounded point and a point on the earths surface equal to a persons normal maximum horizontal reach. Fault current flowing into the earth via the grounded casing of the motor will develop a voltage drop across RE, representing total ground system resistance. A person touching the faulty motor will be safe as long as his body resistance RB and his contact resistance to the earth RC are much bigger than RE. The body resistance RB varies greatly, even on the same person, between approx. 1,300 Ohm on a hot day in a humid atmosphere and approx. 3,000 Ohm in dry weather and with dry hands. The maximum permissible voltage the body can be exposed to without immediate danger is 65 V. This corresponds under worst conditions to a maximum current of:
These values of 65 V and 0.05 A are laid down in the German VDE regulations. In many countries, however, the voltage considered to be safe is 50 V.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 11. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT / 11.3 Step Voltage
11.3
Step Voltage Equivalent circuit of a person exposed to step voltage
Figure 11.3
Step voltage is another hazardous condition caused by distributed voltage gradients. It is defined as the potential difference between two points on the earths surface separated by a distance of a persons pace (about 1 m). The figure above illustrates such a condition. Again, fault current flowing into the earth via the grounded pylon will develop a voltage drop across RE representing the total ground system resistance. Voltage appearing across portion U will determine the magnitude to which
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 the body will be exposed. Keeping the total ground system resistance low will reduce the value of U for safety purposes.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 11. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT / 11.4 Safety Precautions in High Voltage Equipment Rooms
11.4
Safety Precautions in High Voltage Equipment Rooms
The electrical equipment in the plant has to be protected in such a way that no one can touch any live parts. National as well as international safety codes have set up strict rules for all equipment, its insulation, wiring and earthing. In electrical rooms, strictly accessible to trained electricians only, different regulations apply which allow for live parts to be exposed. Special precautions therefore have to be taken in case of alterations and/or maintenance in such rooms. Under no circumstances should artisans of other trades (e.g. masons) be allowed to work in such rooms without the supervisions of an electrician. Temporary barricades may also be required to isolate work areas to prevent accidental contact with energised high voltage parts.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 11. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT / 11.5 Preventive Maintenance
11.5
Preventive Maintenance
Each cement plant has a variety of mobile equipment which is temporarily connected to the power or light network by means of cord connections. Such flexible connections are subjected to abnormal wear; the electrical staff must, therefore, pay special attention to proper maintenance and repair. The grounding system has to be measured at regular intervals to assure its low resistance and to detect any faulty or corroded connections. It is recommended to protect all plug sockets by differential current earth leakage breakers. In areas where flammable or potentially explosive goods are stored or handled, the electrical installations have to be flame-proof or explosion-proof. Such equipment may be necessary within sections of the oil treatment plant or near natural gas installations.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 11. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT / 11.6 Precautions against Electric Fires
11.6
Precautions against Electric Fires
An American factory insurance company has compiled statistics showing that wiring alone is responsible for almost half the electric fires, and that over half the losses could have been avoided by correcting minor wiring defects. Sufficient attention is normally paid to the proper protection of oil filled transformers, thus limiting damage because of fire. Wiring, however, covers large areas of every structure; it is attached to or part of all types of machinery, and is exposed to almost every conceivable environment; heat, cold, dust, moisture, oil, vibration, corrosive liquids and gases. Cables are grouped in large steel enclosures, floor trenches, junction boxes, pits, manholes, and tunnels. Fires in such places are often well-advanced before being discovered. The limited accessibility impedes the application of extinguishing agents. The almost universal use of PVC-covered and sheathed cables can increase the damage of such fires because of the extensive development of fumes of hydrochloric gases which combine to hydrochloric
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 acid in the presence of moisture. As a protection against such damages and prevention of plant interruption caused by wiring fires, the following means should be considered: installation of sprinklers division of long cable tunnels or trenches into partitions proper insulation of hot stream or oil pipes using the same tunnel proper protection against sparks during welding operations sufficient separation and ventilation of cables subjected to high loads marking of escape routes in trenches
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 11. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT / 11.7 Maintenance of Temporary Installations during Construction and Erection
11.7
Maintenance of Temporary Installations during Construction and Erection
Special attention has to be paid to the proper handling and maintenance of temporary installations. Cables suspended on steel structures are dangerous; if they tear they can set alive the whole structure. Mobile boom cranes, which can quickly change their working location, are frequently the cause of electrical accidents when they touch overhead lines or tear down suspended cables.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 11. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT / 11.8 First Aid
11.8
First Aid
First aid instruction posters are commonly available and prescribed in electrical rooms. Since quick and correct action in case of an electrical accident is of vital importance, first aid training should take place at regular intervals.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 12. ANNEXES
12.
ANNEXES
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 12. ANNEXES / 12.1 Power Supply Typical elements of a high voltage transformer station
12.1
Power Supply Typical elements of a high voltage transformer station
6/30/2001 - 10:34:42 AM
Page 30
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 12. ANNEXES / 12.2 Power Distribution Protective relays
12.2
Power Distribution Protective relays
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C02 - Power Distribution / Power Distribution / 12. ANNEXES / 12.3 Power Distribution Typical elements of a medium voltage power distribution
12.3
Power Distribution Typical elements of a medium voltage power distribution
6/30/2001 - 10:34:43 AM
Page 31

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems
C03 - Drive Systems
6/30/2001 - 10:34:43 AM
Page 32

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems
Drive Systems
Urs Resch 1. INTRODUCTION 2. MOTORS 2.1 Squirrel cage motor (induction motor) 2.2 Slip ring motor 2.3 Synchronous motor 2.4 Synchronous induction motor 2.5 DC motor (direct current motor) 2.6 Ring motor (gearless mill drive) 3. POWER ELECTRONICS 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Operating characteristics of power electronic elements 3.3 Application for power electronics in the cement industry 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Electrical variable speed drive system 4.3 Hydraulic variable speed drive system 5. CRITERIA FOR ASSESSMENT 5.1 Specifications 5.2 Reliability 5.3 Efficiency 6. CONCLUSIONS 7. MESSAGES
6/30/2001 - 10:34:43 AM
Page 33

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 1. INTRODUCTION
1.
INTRODUCTION
The power range of the drives in a cement work is very wide-spread. We normally find motors ranging from 0.2 kW up to 6 MW. Low voltage drives are fed with 380 V to 580 V. For direct feed of drives exceeding 250 kW, the voltage range of 3.6 kV to 6 kV (11 kV) is used (high voltage motors). The evaluation criteria of high or low voltage drives are additionally dependent on: the distance between the motor and the substation (cable costs) investment costs of the drive (including costs of switching elements). There is a certain tendency to raise high voltage to 10 KV and the low voltage to 660 V. With higher voltage, service currents and short-circuit currents are reduced, thus a number of advantages are attained, e.g.: smaller cable cross-sections (lower investment costs) full advantage can be taken of the 10 kV voltage by the switchgear low voltage motors can be used up to 500 kW. Fig. 1: Input/output diagram
The size and thus the investment cost of a motor is not only dependent on the power, but also on the speed of the motor: power = torque x speed To understand the operation of a drive it is very important to know the characteristic torque vs speed. The influence of the torque or speed on the size of a motor can also be explained by means of a mechanical example: truck (30 t payload) motor: 15 l > power = 200 kW formula 1 racing car motor: 2 l > power = 400 kW
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 The truck motor generates a much higher torque at a much lower speed. The very high degree of efficiency - up to 96% - of electrical drives should be mentioned. In spite of this high rate, the warming of large motors due to losses is remarkable. Thus, ventilation should never be neglected in the planning of electrical drives. Depending on the prevailing conditions, machines can be cooled in different ways: natural cooling by convection, heat by itself produces an air current forced cooling by fans and filters forced cooling by air-to-air or air-to-water heat exchanger (closed-circuit ventilation). The box-shaped casing makes the motor very versatile as regards its enclosure, so that it can be adapted to suit the wide range of environmental impacts encountered in cement works, most of which are far from favourable. For example, if a motor has to be installed outdoors, it can be fitted with a weather-proofing attachment. If the attachment is also lined with sound-absorbent material, it acts furthermore as an excellent silencer. The type of protection of a motor is very important in the cement industry. The different types of protection are characterized by the so-called IP (interelement protection) class, followed by two numbers which indicate the degree of protection (according to IEC). e.g. IP 44 means: protection against foreign bodies with a diameter above 1 mm protection against spray water from all directions. The cooling of a motor is closely related to its protection. The ideal solution of a completely closed, surface-cooled motor is problematic for big motors. Forced cooling with air filters or air/water heat exchangers are required. Figure 2 shows some examples. Fig. 2: Various alternatives for air-cooling and protection (for motors bigger than 1 MW)
a) separate ventilation, inlet and outlet through ducting b) machine fitted with fan and exhaust shroud c) machine fitted with through-draught ventilation unit with built-in filters
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 d) machine fitted with air-to-air cooling ventilation unit; the internal and external cooling air circuits are completely separate.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS
2.
MOTORS
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.1 Squirrel cage motor (induction motor)
2.1
Squirrel cage motor (induction motor)
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.1 Squirrel cage motor (induction motor) / 2.1.1 Construction
2.1.1
Construction
The squirrel cage motor is in its construction the simplest motor used in the cement industry. The main feature is a rotor without external connections (no slip rings, no brushes). Its two bearings are the only parts exposed to wear and tear. It is furthermore economic in price. Fig. 3: Typical connection diagram of a squirrel cage motor
Fig. 4: Typical starting characteristics of a squirrel cage motor
a: c:
starting torque break-down torque
b: I:
saddle torque current

6/30/2001 - 10:34:44 AM Page 36
"Holderbank" - break-down torque I : Cement Course 2000 c: M: cos : P: torque power factor load n: :
current speed efficiency
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.1 Squirrel cage motor (induction motor) / 2.1.2 Operating Characteristics
2.1.2
Operating Characteristics
The squirrel cage motor has a high starting current of 3.5 to 7 times full load at relatively constant speed. The torque changes with the square of the voltage. Fig. 5: Operating characteristics of a squirrel cage motor (abbreviations see Figure 4)
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.1 Squirrel cage motor (induction motor) / 2.1.3 Application
2.1.3
Application
For almost any drive with a constant speed requirement and not too long a starting time. From a fraction of a kW to thousands of KW.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.2 Slip ring motor
2.2
Slip ring motor
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.2 Slip ring motor / 2.2.1 Construction
2.2.1
Construction
The slip ring motor, like the squirrel cage motor, is an induction motor. Its rotor windings are brought out to slip rings which allow to control the starting torque and current within a wide range. Fig. 6: Typical connection diagram of a slip ring motor
6/30/2001 - 10:34:44 AM
Page 37
Fig. 7: Start of a slip ring motor by eight steps
MN : MA : MG :
nominal torque torque characteristics during start-up torque of the load
The introduction of an external resistance in the rotor circuit changes the torque characteristic of the motor and reduces the starting current. It allows changes of the torque of the motor and adaptation to the torque of the load (e.g. maximum torque at standstill). The starting time of the motor can be extended since most of the heat is generated in the starting resistor away from the motor. Metal starting resistors are built in different numbers of steps as required by the drive. The last step of the resistor may be permanently connected to the rotor when the drive requires a softer torque characteristic. Liquid starting resistors provide smooth and continuous acceleration.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.2 Slip ring motor / 2.2.2 Operating Characteristics
2.2.2
The slip ring motor is, once started and short-circuited with the resistor, not different from the squirrel cage motor.
6/30/2001 - 10:34:44 AM
Page 38

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.2 Slip ring motor / 2.2.3 Application
2.2.3
Application
Where the starting torque and the starting current must be adjusted to the specific requirements of the drive. From one to thousands of kW.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.3 Synchronous motor
2.3
Synchronous motor
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.3 Synchronous motor / 2.3.1 Construction
2.3.1
Construction
The synchronous motor has a rotor with salient poles. The rotor is connected by slip rings and brushes to a direct current power supply for its excitation. The AC windings are in the stator. The starting torque of an ideal synchronous motor is zero. To improve this situation, the rotors of synchronous motors are normally equipped with a squirrel cage type winding. Fig. 8: Typical connection diagram of a synchronous motor
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.3 Synchronous motor / 2.3.2 Starting Characteristics
2.3.2
Starting Characteristics
Fig. 9: Typical starting characteristics of a synchronous motor
6/30/2001 - 10:34:45 AM
Page 39
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 M : torque a) Motor with massive poles and starting winding b) Motor with laminated poles and starting winding The synchronous motor accelerates, similar to a squirrel cage motor, up to near-synchronous speed. At his point the so far short-circuited DC winding is connected to the rotor. The torque now produced will accelerate the motor to synchronous speed.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.3 Synchronous motor / 2.3.3 Operating Characteristics
2.3.3
The speed of the synchronous motor is proportional with the frequency of the supplying network and independent of the load on the motor shaft up to the break-down torque. The break-down torque is 1.5 to 1.9 times the nominal torque and depends on the excitation. The great advantage of the synchronous motor is its capability of compensating reactive power and the very high efficiency of 96 to 98%.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.3 Synchronous motor / 2.3.4 Application
2.3.4
Application
For rather steady loads with no speed control above 500 kW and where reactive power has to be compensated.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.4 Synchronous induction motor
2.4
Synchronous induction motor
The synchronous induction motor combines the advantages of the slip ring motor and the synchronous motor. It has the high starting torque at a low starting current of the slip ring motor and also the capability of compensating reactive power.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.4 Synchronous induction motor / 2.4.1 Construction
2.4.1
Construction
The synchronous induction motor is built like a slip ring motor; only the mode of operation differs. Fig. 10: Typical connection diagram of a synchronous induction motor
6/30/2001 - 10:34:45 AM
Page 40
a) induction motor b) starting resistor c) DC power supply

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.4 Synchronous induction motor / 2.4.2 Starting Characteristics
2.4.2
Starting Characteristics
The synchronous induction motor starts with a starting resistor like a slip ring motor. After the starter has short-circuited the rotor windings, the DC field is applied and the motor accelerates to full synchronous speed.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.4 Synchronous induction motor / 2.4.3 Operating Characteristics
2.4.3
In the synchronized operating mode the motor acts like a synchronous motor. It can operate with unity power factor or even compensate reactive power.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.4 Synchronous induction motor / 2.4.4 Application
2.4.4
Application
For rather steady loads with no speed regulation, above 500 kW. Where reactive power has to be compensated and starting torque and current have to be adjusted to the requirements of the drive.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.5 DC motor (direct current motor)
2.5
DC motor (direct current motor)
Its name implies that the DC motor runs on a direct current power supply. This power supply is not directly available in our cement plant. To connect a DC motor to our three-phase alternating current network, an AC-DC converter is required (see para 3. below).
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.5 DC motor (direct current motor) / 2.5.1 DC Motor Design
2.5.1
DC Motor Design
6/30/2001 - 10:34:45 AM
Page 41
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Like all other electric machines, the DC motor consists of a stator and a rotor. The excitation windings around the main stator poles are fed by a DC power supply and produce a constant magnetic field. The DC current in the rotor conductors underneath the main poles produce a tangential force on the rotor which is identical to the torque on the motor shaft. Fig. 11: Magnet flux of a DC motor
Fig. 12:
Magnetic forces turning the rotor
The rotor now moves to the neutral position between the south and the north pole. To keep the armature rotating, a polarity change in the rotor circuit is required. This is achieved with the collector. Commutation poles are furthermore installed in the neutral zones between north and south pole. These compensate the remaining magnetic field and thereby improve the commutation. Fig. 13: DC machine with main and commutation poles
6/30/2001 - 10:34:45 AM
Page 42
Fig. 14:
Cut-away view of a large DC motor
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.5 DC motor (direct current motor) / 2.5.2 Characteristics of a DC Motor
2.5.2
Characteristics of a DC Motor
The DC motor offers the great advantage of a simple torque and speed control over the full speed range, as well as high efficiency also for low speeds. The torque can either be constant over the whole speed range, or any particular speed can be maintained independent of the torque. These properties made the DC motor the most commonly used variable speed drive in the cement industry. The main drawbacks of the DC drives are that they: are 2 - 4 times more expensive than squirrel cage motors are maintenance-intensive (collector, power electronic) are space-intensive (transformer, converter) require many spare parts
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.5 DC motor (direct current motor) / 2.5.3 Application
2.5.3
Application
6/30/2001 - 10:34:46 AM
Page 43
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 DC motors are installed where variable speed is necessary and where the excellent characteristics of the drives outweigh the above mentioned drawbacks. Crusher feeders, weigh belt feeders, separators, kiln drives and kiln fans are such possible applications.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.6 Ring motor (gearless mill drive)
2.6
Ring motor (gearless mill drive)
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.6 Ring motor (gearless mill drive) / 2.6.1 Construction
2.6.1
Construction
The ring motor is a synchronous motor. However, the stator has a variable frequency supply, generated in a frequency converter as described in para 3. below. The frequency ranges between zero and a few Hertz.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 2. MOTORS / 2.6 Ring motor (gearless mill drive) / 2.6.2 Operating Characteristics
2.6.2
The feature of variable frequency is used to start the motor. The torque can then be adjusted to the torque of the load resulting in a very smooth starting with low starting currents. The power factor of the motor itself can be unity, the frequency converter, however, requires some reactive power. Fig. 15: Starting characteristics of a synchronous motor with frequency and with asynchronous starting
M) torque n) speed I) motor current
1) torque of the load (mill) 2) torque with frequency starting 3) current with frequency starting 4) torque with asynchronous starting
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 5) current with asynchronous starting

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 3. POWER ELECTRONICS
3.
POWER ELECTRONICS
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 3. POWER ELECTRONICS / 3.1 Introduction
3.1
Introduction
The recent development of semiconductors has raised the application of power electronics to a level of considerable importance. The capacity/price ratio has become very interesting, and the reliability of the elements is in accordance with the industrial specifications. To distinguish between electronics and power electronics, it may be said that electronics handle currents above 1 mA while power electronics handle currents above 1 A. The present maximum is about 9000 A (rectifier diodes) for a single element. The principle elements of power electronics are: diodes transistors thyristors triacs GTO (gate turn-off thyristors) IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistors) Other electrical switching elements, such as the conventional thyratron, are not a subject of this expos as they are vacuum-tube based and very rarely applied in the cement industry today; but functionally, these multi-grid tube elements possess similar operating characteristics. The above mentioned electronic switches can be compared with other physical media, e.g. valves in water mains.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 3. POWER ELECTRONICS / 3.2 Operating characteristics of power electronic elements
3.2
Operating characteristics of power electronic elements
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 3. POWER ELECTRONICS / 3.2 Operating characteristics of power electronic elements / 3.2.1 Diode
3.2.1
Diode
The symbol for a diode is shown in Figure 16 below. The operating characteristics of this element are very easy to understand. If a voltage "U1" is applied across the diode from anode A to cathode C, the a current "i" will flow through the diode. If the voltage "U2" is reversed from C to A, the diode blocks the current, i.e. no current will flow. Figure 17 demonstrates the "rectifying effect" of a diode. Fig. 16: Symbol for a diode
6/30/2001 - 10:34:46 AM Page 45
Fig. 17:
"Rectifying effect" of a diode (half-ware rectifier)
The voltage "U" changes its polarity with every cycle. When the voltage across the diode is "positive" a current "i" flows through the load "L". Figure 18 below shows a more efficient network. Fig. 18: Full-wave rectifier
The current "i" is conducted alternatively by the two diodes. The time phase when the one "passes" the current to the other is called commutation.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 3. POWER ELECTRONICS / 3.2 Operating characteristics of power electronic elements / 3.2.2 Transistor
6/30/2001 - 10:34:47 AM
Page 46
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 3.2.2 Transistor
The transistor is built with three semi-conducting materials similar to a diode, which has two. Depending on the physical arrangement of these three semi-conducting materials, the literature speaks of PNP or NPN transistors. Also, the symbol and electrical circuitry is different, but today generally the PNP concept is manufactured. The transistor can be used in many different circuit-configurations, but is basically a current amplifier, whereas the old electron tubes where voltage amplifiers. Fig. 19: Symbols and typical transistor circuits
small current controlling the transistor (closed or conducting) large current through the load
(note: arrows do not indicate the electron-flow) The transistor input current (base-emitter) controls the transistor output current (emitter-collector) in a proportional manner over a certain range. Of course, the same transistor may also be used as switching element only, i.e. fully closed and fully conducting. Above is identically valid for PNP and NPN types. Elements with output currents above 1 A are called power transistors, used as last stage in amplifiers and variable frequency converters for smaller drives up to approx. 400 kW.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 3. POWER ELECTRONICS / 3.2 Operating characteristics of power electronic elements / 3.2.3 Thyristor, Triac
3.2.3
Thyristor, Triac
The symbol for a thyristor is shown in Figure 20. The operating characteristics of this element are similar to those of a diode except for the additional ignition voltage "Ug" from point anode A to point gate G. Fig. 20: Thyristor symbol
6/30/2001 - 10:34:47 AM
Page 47
If a voltage "U1" is applied across the thyristor, current "i" will only flow through the element when a voltage "Ug" (ignition voltage) is applied between A and G. The current "i" will flow only as long as the voltage "U1" does not change its polarity. The network in Figure 21 demonstrates the use of thyristors as a voltage regulator for DC. Fig. 21: Network for a variable DC supply
By altering the angle of ignition, , one can alter their voltage "U" across the load "L", theoretically within the range 0 - 100%. The symbol for a triac is shown in Figure 22 below. A triac consists of two antiparallel thyristors. This element represents an electronic switch for alternating current. Fig. 22: Symbol for a triac.
6/30/2001 - 10:34:47 AM
Page 48
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 A1 = anode 1 A2 = anode 2 Ug = ignition voltage Together with the ignition voltage "Ug", the triac is able to conduct the current in both directions. Figure 23 below shows its application as a "voltage" regulator" for an AC-load. Fig. 23: The triac as voltage regulator for an AC-load
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 3. POWER ELECTRONICS / 3.2 Operating characteristics of power electronic elements / 3.2.4 GTO (Gate turn-off-thyristor)
3.2.4
GTO (Gate turn-off-thyristor)
The symbol for a GTO is shown in Figure 24 below. The special feature of the GTO's is that they are not only turned on through their gate, but also off. Naturally, this would be the ideal switch, because no forced commutation equipment would then be needed to turn off the current when the thyristor is operated on direct voltage. In order to turn off the thyristor through the gate, negative triggering pulses which are large enough to reduce the load current of the thyristor below the holding current for a brief time are required. The turn-off pulse must be at least 10% of the forward current. Fig. 24: Symbol for a GTO
Figure 25 shows a pill of silicon with multitude of small, circular arranged "cathode-fingers" which are looking out of a connected gate-surface. Each "finger" is an independent small GTO. All these small
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 GTO's are connected in parallel to a large GTO. Fig. 25: Pill of silicon
Gate turn-off thyristors are used for forced-commutated current converters and static inverters.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 3. POWER ELECTRONICS / 3.2 Operating characteristics of power electronic elements / 3.2.5 IGBT (Insulated gate bipolar transistor)
3.2.5
IGBT (Insulated gate bipolar transistor)
The IGBT is a combination of the advantageous characteristics of a bipolar transistor and a self-blocking field effect transistor (MOSFET). Its characteristics are a powerless drive like a MOSFET, a low forward resistance and a high inverse voltage like a bipolar transistor. Figure 26 shows the equivalent network and figure 27 the symbol for an IGBT. Fig. 26: Equivalent network for an IGBT
Fig. 27:
Symbol for an IGBT
6/30/2001 - 10:34:48 AM
Page 50
The IGBT is suitable for numerous applications in power electronics, especially in pulse width modulated servo and three-phase drives requiring high dynamic range control and low noise. They also can be used for power-supplies and other power circuits requiring high switch repetition rates. IGBTs will replace the bipolar darlington-transistor in many applications because the control circuit is less sophisticated and thus cost-efficient.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 3. POWER ELECTRONICS / 3.2 Operating characteristics of power electronic elements / 3.2.6 Application for power electronic elements
3.2.6
Application for power electronic elements
Figures 28, 29 and 30 illustrate how a frequency converter can be built with the aid of power electronic components. Fig. 28: 3-pulse anti-parallel circuit
___
load current circulating current (during transfer motoring to regenerating) 6-pulse anti-parallel circuit
----Fig. 29:
6/30/2001 - 10:34:48 AM
Page 51
___
load current circulating current (during transfer motoring to regenerating)
-----
Figure 30 shows a mounting diagram and voltage from an output phase of a frequency converter. Each output phase is formed by a 6-pulse anti-parallel partial-current converter. Totally at least, 3x2-6 (3-phase; 2-anti-parallel; 6-pulse) = 36 current converters are needed. The two partial-current converters change between rectifier - and inverter service; so that the output-voltage will be sine shaped. Fig. 30: Example for a frequency conversion with a time-dependent ignition control
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 3. POWER ELECTRONICS / 3.3 Application for power electronics in the cement industry
3.3
Application for power electronics in the cement industry
In modern cement works power electronics are used as: (a) rectifiers for - electrostatic filters - magnetic separators - DC power sources - speed (torque) control of DC drives - voltage control of electrostatic filters - electronic contactors
(b) voltage regulators for
6/30/2001 - 10:34:49 AM
Page 52
"Holderbank" - Cement Courseelectronic contactors - 2000 (c) frequency converters for - speed control of synchronous motors, e.g. ring motor, squirrel cage motors - stabilized power sources for supply of control equipment, e.g. computers
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 3. POWER ELECTRONICS / 3.3 Application for power electronics in the cement industry / 3.3.1 Advantages of electronic elements
3.3.1
Advantages of electronic elements
Electronic elements do not wear out. Their modular design permits quick trouble-shooting and short repair times. Furthermore, they offer ideal characteristics for motor controlling, e.g. speed variation.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 3. POWER ELECTRONICS / 3.3 Application for power electronics in the cement industry / 3.3.2 Disadvantages of electronic elements
3.3.2
Disadvantages of electronic elements
a) Cooling Energy losses occur in electronic elements as they are not ideal switches. These losses produce heat and since the switching components have small dimensions, cooling is a considerable problem. The cooling media is usually air, but water may also be used (e.g. water-cooled thyristors of the ring motor at Rekingen). The ambient temperature of electronic boards is often specified up to a maximum of 45oC, thus in most cases air-conditioned rooms are necessary. b) Distortion of the sine wave form The above diagrams (e.g. Fig. 30) show that the power electronics "cut" the source sine-wave in such a way that "angles" are formed. The degree of distortion of the initial wave form represents a quantity of reactive power of higher frequency produced by the power electronics (harmonics). This high frequency power causes the following inconveniences: emission of strong magnetic fields which can disturb control signals (control cables must be protected and separated) malfunction of other electrical equipment inside and outside the plant due to distortion of the voltage wave form.
Summary of semiconductor elements for power electronics

Symbole
DIODES Diodes ore semi-conductor devices which allow current to flow in one preferred direction. If o positive voltage is applied, the diode operates in the forward direction; when the voltage is negative, it blocks. The properties of a good diode are high reverse resistance, low forward resistance and high allowable temperature. Standard and avalanche diodes are used mainly for rectification in circuits operating ot mains frequency Fost recovery diodes ore used for static frequency changers or in pulsed power supply units. Revers voltage: 100 V ... 30 kV max. permissible RMS on-state current: 1A ...9000 A
Description
max. voltage & current
6/30/2001 - 10:34:49 AM
Page 53
"Holderbank" - Cementstatic frequency changers or in pulsed power supply units. for Course 2000
POWER-TRANSISTOR (Power field effect tranistor) The silicon pellet of the bipolar power transistor consists of three layers of alternate p and n type silicon material with two pen unctions. On principle the succession of the layers npn or pnp is possible but today only the pnp concept is manufactured to achieve optimum electrical characteristics for power electronics. Power transistors are almost exclusively fumed on and off in "Switching operation". To allow the output current to flow, a forward base current must be maintained for the desired duration of the conducting state. When removing the control signal the power transistor reverts to the blocking state. POWER-MOSFET The Power-MOSFET is a controllable switch, if it is running in forward directions. In this case the MOSFET can block up high invers voltage and can switch high power. In backward running it has similar qualities like a diode, but it is possible to influence the characteristic curve with the tension on the gate. The MOSFET has on advantage over the bipolar transistor because no control current is necessary. The Power-MOSFET are used for rectifier for DC-motors, frequency converter for AC-motors and power supply units. THYRISTOR The silicon pellet of the thyristor consists of four or more foyers of alternate p and n type materials. It has two different conditions, one is high-resistance and the other one is law-resistance. The difference between a diode and a thyristor is, that a thyristor can switch between the two conditions with a current at the gate. To switch off the current, the thyristor needs a quenching capacitor. Thyristors ore used for contactless switches and controlled rectifiers. GTO (Gate turn-off Thyristor) The special feature of the GTO is that they are not only turned on through their gate, but also off. Naturally, this would be the ideal switch, because no forced commutation equipment would then be needed to turn off the current when the thyristor is operated on direct voltage. The turn-off pulse has to be about 10% of the forward current. Gate turn-off thyristors are used for current converters and static inverters. IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) The IGBT is o technologically combined device having the advantageous characteristics of a bipolar power transistor and a self-blocking field effect transistor. This characteristic is therefore similar to the MOSFET in the input and to the bipolar power transistor in the output. The IGBT is suitable for numerous applications in power electronics, especially in Pulse Width Modulated frequency converters and three-phase drives. max. collector - emitter voltage: 100 V ... 1200 V max. DC collector current: 15 A ... 400 A Reverse voltage: 100 V ... 4500 V max. current: 10 A ... 3000 A Reverse voltage: 100 V... 5000 V max. permissible RMS on-state current: 10 A ... 5500 A Break-through voltage 50 V... 1000 V Output current: 2 A... 100 A max. collector - emitter voltage: 100 V ... 1400 V max. DC collector current: 20 A... 400 A
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM
4.
VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.1 Introduction
4.1
Introduction
The correct air volume for the process is often achieved by damper control or radial vanes in conjunction with constant speed drives. Considering the "BCM" (Better Cost Management) concept, constant speed and damper control for large fans (1-4 MW) is forbidden today.
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Figure 31 compares the reduced energy consumption of using variable speed equipment for fans and pumps with radial vane damper and throttle valve. Where air or water quantities have to be adjusted according to process parameters, a variable flow is needed. Very often, this variable flow is created with more losses than necessary. Compared with other means of flow-adjusting devices, the variable speed drive can save a considerable amount of energy, especially at 50 to 90% of the rated speed. Fig. 31: Power requirement at different speed
Traditionally, requirements for variable speed in the cement industry were covered with the application of direct current (DC) drives or occasionally by hydraulic drive systems. As a result of new semiconductor developments in the field of power electronics, many static converter circuits have become reality in recent years. In addition to the traditional DC drive, these static converters have opened up new applications for variable-speed AC drives of high ratings. This paper presents a number of systems, showing where they can be applied and quoting the criteria which simplify a choice from the wide variety offered. Some outstanding advantages of a variable-speed drive as follows: a) Optimal process control b) Reduced stress on machines and supply system during starting c) Better utilization of the primary energy owing to the higher efficiency Familiarity with the entire spectrum of electrical and mechanical variable speed drive systems is not only useful when ordering a new plant, but is equally necessary when carrying out partial modernizations or conversions, e.g. replacing an installation involving undue maintenance or with a poor efficiency. The following catchwords applies for drive specification: Robust The drive system must be designed to cope with the typical cement plant environment and the type and quantity of dust prevailing at the location of installation, e.g. clinker dust for cooler fan drives.
6/30/2001 - 10:34:49 AM
Page 55
"Holderbank" - Cemente.g. clinker dust for cooler fan drives. Course 2000 Ease of maintenance The necessary amount of man-hours required by the equipment must be minimal. Diagnostic systems must help to identify failures and indicate steps to correct the fault/failure. Modular design and access must allow for a fast replacement of the defective component in order to restore normal operation. High reliability shall be achieved with adequate sizing of a well-proven drive system. The system shall not be overengineered with additional redundant equipment, which increases the initial installation cost. Total drive system efficiency is of utmost importance, since it will substantially influence the operating cost for many years to come at an always increasing cost of electrical energy Last but not least, also the investment cost shall be considered. However, an evaluation oft the investment cost is only meaningful if complete systems are compared including auxiliary installations (e.g. differences in cooling systems, civil works etc.) as well as the operating cost over the next ten to fifteen years.
Reliability
Efficiency
Investment cost
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.2 Electrical variable speed drive system
4.2
Electrical variable speed drive system
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.2 Electrical variable speed drive system / 4.2.1 DC drive
4.2.1
DC drive DC drive system
Fig. 32:
A DC drive system normally includes: 3-phase isolation transformer (1)

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 3-phase full wave rectifier (2) DC motor (3) with shuntfield (4) and tachometer (5) electronic speed regulator (6) The speed of the DC machine varies proportionally to the applied armature voltage. Motor field weakening can increase the speed even more, but the result is reduced torque. DC drives can be built from less than 1 kW to approx. 1000 kW, considering motor speeds of 3000 min-1 for the smaller type and 700 min-1 for the larger sizes. At steel mills, large DC drive systems are built up to 8 MW with approx. 100 min-1. The motor size is the limiting factor due to the centrifugal forces of the commutator. The usable speed range is almost infinite, since the DC drive can start and run close to zero speed even under severe overload conditions. Due to the wide speed range, DC drives in most cases require external forced-cooling systems.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.2 Electrical variable speed drive system / 4.2.1 DC drive / 4.2.1.1 Operating Characteristics
4.2.1.1
The scheme as shown in Figure 33 can operate only in quadrant 1, i.e. motoring in forward direction. For full 4-quadrant operation, a double anti-parallel (back-to-back) thyristor bridge arrangement is necessary. Once the DC motor is equipped with a forced-cooling system, no torque limitations exist. Totally closed DC machines are available too, but they are oversized and cover a limited speed range only. Therefore, a totally enclosed fan-cooled machine is usually very uneconomical. The field weakening range is not used in the cement industry, since it serves mostly for winder applications. Fig. 33: 4-quadrant operation
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.2 Electrical variable speed drive system / 4.2.1 DC drive / 4.2.1.2 Application
4.2.1.2
Application
The DC drive system is widely used in the cement industry for the following machines: kiln main drives large fans (e.g. kiln, raw mill) weigh feeders
200 - 500 kW and twin drive 800 - 2000 kW 5 - 15 kW

6/30/2001 - 10:34:50 AM Page 57
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 weigh feeders apron feeders and special belt conveyors
5 - 15 kW 20 - 100 kW
Due to the rapid developments in power electronics, the variable speed drive technology has gone through various stages in the last decades, but the DC drive represents still an efficient, approved and economic solution today. The commutator, the most delicate part of the whole system, and the cooling system require special and permanent maintenance attention. These two aspects explain the desire for other variable speed drive systems without commutator. Fig. 34: Typical schematic diagram of a twin drive for a rotary kiln employing thyristor-controlled DC motor
1 2 3 4 5 6
Rectifier transformer Reactor Thyristor rectifier, controllable DC motor Tacho generator Gate control unit
7 8 9 10 11
Current controller Speed controller Speed reference potentiometer Current transformer and rectifier for the current actual value Thyristor rectifier, uncontrollable
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.2 Electrical variable speed drive system / 4.2.2 AC drive with squirrel cage motor
4.2.2
AC drive with squirrel cage motor
The variable speed drive system, using a squirrel cage motor, consists of the following main components (see Fig. 35): 3-phase full-wave rectifier (1) DC-intermediate link with reactors (2) forced commutated inverter (3) normal 3-phase squirrel cage motor (4) An input rectifier creates the intermediate link DC voltage. The reactors inserted in the DC link
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 uncouple the AC power supply side from the inverter side driving the asynchronous motor. The forced commutated inverter is using the principle of phase sequence turn-off. Each of these switching circuits consists of a thyristor, a diode and a commutating capacitor. The input rectifier is current-regulated and supplies its power into the DC intermediate link. The output inverter is voltage regulated, maintaining the correct V/Hz relationship over the speed range. The speed of the motor is adjusted by variable frequency. No tachometer is needed, since the frequency feed-back signal is taken from inside the panel. The normal speed range is from 5 to 50/60 Hz and up to approx. 90 Hz. The power of the available units presently ranges from 5 kW to approx. 1800 kW of several typical AC input voltage levels like 380, 415, 500, 660 V AC. In special cases, units of 3 MW have been built for all motor speeds up to 4000 min-1.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.2 Electrical variable speed drive system / 4.2.2 AC drive with squirrel cage motor / 4.2.2.1 Current-source inverter-fed induction motor
4.2.2.1 Fig. 35:
Current-source inverter-fed induction motor Frequency converter with phase-sequence turn-off
Operating Characteristics The converter as described above does not need any additional semiconductors in order to perform a full 4-quadrant operation. The flow of energy is reversed by reversing the polarity of the DC link voltage, with the current direction remaining unaltered. At speeds below 5 Hz, torque pulsation may be noted as a result of low frequency motor-current harmonics. This effect is damped by the mass of the mechanical system. The prevailing use for this type of variable speed drive is to be found with fans and pumps in many different configurations. Usually a totally enclosed, fan-cooled standard motor can be chosen with no extra forced cooling system because the torque curve of these mechanical devises follows a square function versus speed. Fig. 36: Typical block diagram of the voltage-controlled variable frequency converter
6/30/2001 - 10:34:51 AM
Page 59
1 2 3 4
voltage controller value generator and limiter actual voltage measurement current controller (secondary)
5 6 7 8 9
trigger unit of the line-commutated converter actual current measurement voltage/frequency converter trigger unit of the self-commutated converter voltage reference potentiometer
Fig. 37:
Torque/speed diagram
A : continuous duty self-ventilated B : continuous duty with forced ventilation C : intermittent duty Application Cooling equipment manufacturers and suppliers of water pumping stations have used this type of variable speed drive since 1975. Several converter manufacturers have application references for more than 1000 units of a wide power range within the past years. The initial equipment cost is slightly higher than for a comparable DC drive system due to more semiconductor elements in the power path. On the other hand, the squirrel cage motor is much
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 cheaper than the DC motor. Harmonic content and power factor aspects are identical with those of a DC drive since the input rectifier represents the same type of load to the supply side network. This system offers interesting aspects for modifications of existing equipment. When introducing the variable frequency converter to an installation which was so far connected to a constant 50 or 60 Hz supply, the motor can be speed-controlled. It might be of interest that even a speed-increase is possible by applying more than line frequency (e.g. 70 - 90 Hz). In other words, a belt conveyor can run faster and develop more power without motor - or gear change!
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.2 Electrical variable speed drive system / 4.2.2 AC drive with squirrel cage motor / 4.2.2.2 Load commutated inverter-fed induction motor
4.2.2.2
Load commutated inverter-fed induction motor
The main components of this drive type consist also of a line-side converter, DC link circuit reactor and load-side converter. Additionally, a so called diverter is added in order to force commutate (switch-off) the inverter at low frequencies, while an output filter is added to smooth output waveforms and provide excitations for the induction motor. Fig. 38: Cage induction motor with load-commutated inverter (output Filter)
As with the conventional frequency converters, for normal operation the converter is commutated by line-voltage and the inverter is commutated by the load. Unlike the conventional type, the diverter circuit on the DC link is used to commutate the inverter bridge for low frequency operation. The entire inverter is commutated by the diverter, then appropriate thyristors are gated (switched on) to produce the three-phase output. Above about 60% of rated frequency, depending on the motor, the diverter circuit turns off and the inverter is load commutated by the combined effects of the output filter and the induced motor-voltage of the induction motor itself. The filter is sized to provide motor excitation over a wide frequency range. The voltage and current waveshapes are nearly sinusoidal, typically containing less than 5% harmonic distortion at rated output. No motor derating is necessary. Fig. 39: Torque/speed diagram
6/30/2001 - 10:34:51 AM
Page 61
Application The load-commutated inverter-fed induction motor is best suitable for loads with squared torque/speed characteristic (Fig. 39) and reduced speed range, i.e. for fans.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.2 Electrical variable speed drive system / 4.2.3 AC drive with slip ring motor
4.2.3
AC drive with slip ring motor Schematic of sub-synchronous cascade
Fig. 40:
a) HV slip ring motor with tachometer (T) b) 3-phase full-wave rectifier (diodes) c) 3-phase full-wave inverter (thyristors) d) matching transformer e) electronic speed regulator f) starting resistor g) speed reference potentiometer The stator of the slip ring motor is connected directly to the power system. The rotor slip power, which is proportional to the slip frequency, is fed back into the power system via a diode rectifier, a smoothing reactor, an inverter and a matching transformer. A starting resistor is normally used to drive the motor up to approx. half speed, then the rotor is connected to the converter and the electronic regulator takes over the speed control. The static converter section has to be sized only for the rotor slip power. The
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 sub-synchronous cascade system is mostly used to drive large pumps, fans and compressors, where the torque increases with the square of the speed. A considerable change in capacity is obtained by only a slight adjustment in speed, therefore, a large speed range is normally not required. A range of 2:1 or 3:1 is more than sufficient. The normal power range for sub-synchronous cascade systems used in industry is from about 500 kW to 10 MW with motor nominal speeds of 1500 min-1 or below. For special applications, similar converter systems have been built up to 60 MW. Motor cooling systems are identical to those of normal slip ring motors running at a constant speed. Operating Characteristics A sub-synchronous cascade drive needs a starting resistor. The variable speed range is very much reduced compared to a DC drive. No oversynchronous speed can be reached and only 1-quadrant operation is possible, i.e. motoring in one direction only. Every converter requires reactive power. A larger drive systems has a higher demand for reactive power, which has to be considered and compensated. With the sub-synchronous cascade drive system, the reactive power demand increases with increasing speed range. Therefore, the variable speed range should be kept as small as possible. The compensation system has to be designed on an individual basis and should be optimized for the normal running speeds of the motor. Furthermore, the harmonic currents, created by the static converter, have to be considered during the design of the power factor compensation system. In a modern installation, the filter-circuits cover both aspects, resulting in a combination network of reactors and capacitors instead of capacitors only. The efficiency of the total variable speed drive system is not as high as that of a slip ring motor alone due to more power components being involved in the former. The overall efficiency over the speed range is, however, much better than for example controlling the air-flow with a radial vane damper at constant motor speed or at variable slip ring motor speed using permanently connected resistances in the rotor circuit. Fig. 41: Typical speed/efficiency curve of a sub-synchronous cascade drive
Application Especially large plants require large fans where DC drives are not feasible as the power/speed ratio exceeds the typical DC motor frame size. Here, the sub-synchronous cascade system offers an interesting alternative. A 2000 t/d plant, for example, needs a kiln fan of 1700 kW at 1500 min-1. Large fans in the cement industry can have a range of up to 5 MW. Therefore, this type of drive will be seen in our industry more often since it meets all requirements in terms of controlability, operating behaviour and economy.
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Furthermore, any existing slip ring motor can be converted into a variable speed drive by adding a sub-synchronous cascade converter system. On the other hand, every cascade system can run at rated motor speed without the static converter, e.g. during a fault in the electronic regulation part. Leaving the mechanical flow control device installed will be of advantage! The sub-synchronous cascade drive is, therefore, a technically and economically favourable system for large fans requiring variable speed du to process parameters.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.2 Electrical variable speed drive system / 4.2.4 AC drive with synchronous motor
4.2.4
AC drive with synchronous motor
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.2 Electrical variable speed drive system / 4.2.4 AC drive with synchronous motor / 4.2.4.1 Synchronous motor with cyclo-converter
4.2.4.1 Fig. 42:
Synchronous motor with cyclo-converter Converter schematic used in conjunction with the ring motor (gearless mill drive)
1) converter transformer 2) two converters in anti-parallel three-phase bridge connection 3) synchronous motor 4) exciter winding Each motor phase is connected to the feeding power system via two static converters arranged in an anti-parallel three-phase bridge network. A low frequency output voltage is delivered by the converters by means of phase angle control. At a system frequency of 50 Hz, the maximum attainable output frequency is approx. 20 Hz. With this drive system, four-quadrant operation, i.e. reversal of the direction of rotation and regenerative braking, is possible without any modification. This system corresponds fully to a four-quadrant DC drive. A high starting torque and almost sinusoidal current results in particularly favourable characteristics at low speeds. This system is well-suited for the substitution of large DC drives, e.g. for conveying machinery, in rolling mills or as propeller drives for ice breakers and mine winders, especially when the DC motor can no longer be employed because of ambient conditions, maintenance costs or power limits. The system covers a range from 1 to 20 MW.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.2 Electrical variable speed drive system / 4.2.4 AC drive with synchronous motor / 4.2.4.1 Synchronous motor with cyclo-converter / 4.2.4.1.1 Application Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query: 6/30/2001 - 10:34:52 AM Page 64
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 4.2.4.1.1 Application The cement industry uses this system only for large (cement) mills, avoiding the gear and, therefore, saving space and building cost. Of course, this is not of equal importance all over the world and its technical complexity can be a drawback in many third world countries. Therefore, this drive system is not very often selected. But in other industries, it will replace in the near future more often the large DC machines in the MW-range.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.2 Electrical variable speed drive system / 4.2.4 AC drive with synchronous motor / 4.2.4.2 Synchronous motor with intermediate circuit converter
4.2.4.2 Fig. 43:
Synchronous motor with intermediate circuit converter Basic circuit, 6-pulse
Fig. 44:
Basic circuit 12-pulse
Rectifier and inverter, 12-pulse with two motor windings displaced by 30o el. Static converter in parallel connection The circuit is generally called a converter-fed synchronous motor and consists of a controllable rectifier, a smoothing reactor and an inverter. In these designs (Figures 43 and 44 above), rectifier and inverter have to be sized for the full motor power, compared to the sub-synchronous cascade, where the converter has to cope with the rotor slip power only. The commutation from one phase to another of the inverter is dictated by the terminal voltage of the synchronous machine. This natural commutation does not need any additional circuit like e.g. the forced commutation with the converter type for squirrel cage motors.
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 This type of converter is suitable for 4-quadrant operation and can cover a full speed range like a DC drive variable speed system. The 6-pulse scheme is normally used for power of 1 to 5 MW. For larger systems, the harmonic currents lead towards 12-pulse configurations due to motor and line side problems. Modern synchronous motor drives have a brushless excitation system. An auxiliary asynchronous machine, integrated into the synchronous motor, supplies its power through a rotating diode rectifier to the DC field winding thus avoiding trouble causing slip rings. Converter frequencies of up to 120 Hz can be realized driving a two pole synchronous motor up to 6000 min-1 at almost any power. Systems of 30 MW have been built and projects of 50 MW are being studied.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.2 Electrical variable speed drive system / 4.2.4 AC drive with synchronous motor / 4.2.4.2 Synchronous motor with intermediate circuit converter / 4.2.4.2.1 Application
4.2.4.2.1 Application The main applications of the converter-fed synchronous motor for pumps, extruders and compressors, where a precise speed control over a wide speed range is important. These drives are not installed in the cement industry, as the existing type of machinery does not specifically require a converter-fed synchronous motor system.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.2 Electrical variable speed drive system / 4.2.5 Electronic smooth-start for three-phase motors (soft starters)
4.2.5
Electronic smooth-start for three-phase motors (soft starters)
The simplest and cheapest way to start a three-phase motor is full-voltage, across the line starting, and that method should be used whenever feasible. But there has always been a need in some applications to limit the locked-rotor inrush current to the motor, control motor starting torque, or both. Control of starting torque and acceleration is often required to protect the dirven-load. For example, it might be necessary to control acceleration and starting torque of a conveyor motor to prevent shock damage to system elements and damage to products on the conveyor. Fig. 45: Electronic soft-start for a three-phase motor
Figure 46 shows the course of torque with a smooth-start for a three-phase motor. The starting procedure begins by 20 to 40% of the nominal voltage. During the adjusted starting time, the stator voltage will be increased to 100% through the control of the firing-angle of the thyristor-controllers.
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 The motor runs up along the load characteristic Ml, whereby torque-shocks will be avoided. The speed increases linear during the starting time from 0 to the nominal speed of the motor. After the starting procedure, when the motor runs with nominal load, the thyristor will be fully conducted. The electronic smooth-start works similar to the hydrodynamic coupling (see chapter 4.3.3), but it has the decisive advantage that the starting time and the starting torque can be easier adjusted to the individual operating conditions. Fig. 46: Torque/speed diagram
Summary of large variable speed drive systems for the cement industry (>1 MW)
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.3 Hydraulic variable speed drive system
4.3
Hydraulic variable speed drive system
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.3 Hydraulic variable speed drive system / 4.3.1 Hydrostatic drives
4.3.1
Hydrostatic drives Scheme of a hydrostatic motor
Fig. 47:
6/30/2001 - 10:34:53 AM
Page 67
The hydrostatic motor is connected to a hydraulic high pressure pump system. The oil feed and drain pipes are located on the opposite side of the drive shaft. The unit can be subdivided into two parts i.e. the drive shaft bearing part and the torque creating multi-piston barrel assembly. Due to the inclined mounting of the piston barrel assembly, continuously varying cylinder volumes exist during one revolution. The pistons, therefore, perform strokes similar to those of an automobile-engine. The high-pressured oil enters and leaves through slots acting as valves. The piston forces react on the thrust-plate, causing the cylinder barrel and attached shaft to rotate with a torque proportional to the supplied oil pressure. The rotation speed of the motor shaft changes proportionally to the supplied oil-flow. The hydrostatic motor parameters are: oil pressure torque speed
oil flow (quantity)
These two variables are supplied to the motor by a hydrostatic pump driven by a prime mover and the associated speed control regulation devices. Fig. 48: Main components of a hydrostatic variable speed drive system
The hydrostatic pump basically consists of the same elements, only the multi-piston barrel assembly does not have a fixed inclined angel. The complete piston unit is designed to swivel about a transverse trunnion axis. At zero degree deflection, all pistons remain axially at the same position, i.e. do not perform any stroke and, therefore, no oil-flow is created. Moving the piston unit out of the straight centre line, the pistons start to execute a stroke proportional to the deflection angle. An oil flow is established and the motor starts to turn at a speed proportional to the deflection angle.
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Fig. 49: Plan view of a hydrostatic pump with piston unit at 0 degree deflection
Fig. 50:
Plan view of a hydrostatic pump with piston unit at +20 degrees deflection
This is a short introduction to the hydrostatic operating principle. Many additional accessories like valves, oil cooler, operating protection, torque limiters, emergency shut-down, etc. are not explained, but are available and together with pump and motor form a complete drive system. Good operating behaviour and controllability therefore make it truly comparable to electrical variable speed drive systems.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.3 Hydraulic variable speed drive system / 4.3.1 Hydrostatic drives / 4.3.1.1 Application
4.3.1.1
Application
The hydrostatic drive system is widely known and used in the cement industry since approx. 1965. Drives requiring variable speed and high starting torque have been equipped with the above system, e.g. for crusher-feeders, grate coolers, etc. from a few kW-approx.-200 kW. Good reliability and low maintenance of this hydromechanical system make it an alternative to electrical drives.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.3 Hydraulic variable speed drive system / 4.3.2 Hydrodynamic drives
4.3.2
Hydrodynamic drives
The construction of a hydrodynamic drive is similar to that of a turbine, where rotor and stator are not in direct mechanical contact, but are coupled through a liquid or gaseous medium. A prime mover (e.g. electric motor) drives a hydraulic pump. The medium set in motion by the pump is feeding a hydraulic
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 turbine which at its output shaft drives the coupled machine requiring smooth-start or variable speed. Fig. 51: Operating principle of a hydrodynamic coupling
Pump and turbine are brought together and built into one common casing. This combined unit is then called hydrodynamic coupling or turbo coupling. In most commercially used types of couplings, the medium which transports the kinetic energy from the pump to the turbine is oil. The quantity of oil represents a very important parameter since the transmitted torque and speed depend on the filling degree of the coupling. Therefore constant oil volume variable oil volume coupling variable speed drive
In order to achieve a variable oil volume, technical means of adding to and subtracting from the oil volume have to be established during operation at any speed. This oil quantity e.g. can be varied with an adjustable sliding scoop tube. In this way, the power transmitted by the hydrodynamic coupling can be adjusted and stepless speed regulation of the driven equipment in accordance with load demands is provided. Fig. 52: Schematic diagram of a variable speed hydrodynamic coupling
1) prime mover (e.g. electric motor) 2) hydrodynamic coupling: a : pump, b: turbine 3) oil level in the casing during operation
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 4) adjustable sliding scoop tube (up and down) 5) output shaft with variable speed depending on scoop tube position 6) heat exchanger 7) oil flow control valve
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.3 Hydraulic variable speed drive system / 4.3.2 Hydrodynamic drives / 4.3.2.1 Application
4.3.2.1
Application
The hydrodynamic coupling itself behaves according to the propeller law. The output torque increases with the square of the input speed. The coupling, therefore, is well-suited to drive machines with parabolic torque load characteristics such as centrifugal pumps and fans with a regulating range of not more tan 4:1. Machines with a constant torque load characteristic can be used only with a speed range of not more than 3:1 and have to be oversized in most cases. Dynamic response of the variable speed drive system is much slower than e.g. with a DC drive since this depends on the position regulator of the scoop tube. On the other hand, the hydrodynamic offers very interesting benefits since very large units at very high speed are quite normal. The size ranges from a few kW (approx. 20 kW) up to 8 MW at 12,000 min-1 or 60 MW at 5,000 min-1. Especially the units with extreme speed requirements (very high or low) operate either at the input or output with multiple gear stages. Many of those very large and high speed units are installed in nuclear and thermal power plants as boiler feed pumps. Others, including the cement industry, use some of the wide variety of hydrodynamic variable speed drive systems too.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.3 Hydraulic variable speed drive system / 4.3.3 Smooth-start by turbo couplings
4.3.3
Smooth-start by turbo couplings
The operating principle of the hydrodynamic or turbo coupling is described in para 4.3.2 above. The main feature of such a device is not the speed regulation, but the soft start and shock absorbing characteristic. The final output speed at the end of the start-up sequence is, therefore, always similar to the input speed. The plain coupling has no scoop tube. One of the special features is the retarded filling of the oil chamber after stand-sill. During start-up, the integral delayed filling chamber retains part of the operating fluid from the coupling working chamber, resulting in a reduced torque transmission until all the oil has reached the main chamber. This allows the electric motor to start-up under virtually no load. Fig. 53: Principle of operating of the delayed filling chamber
6/30/2001 - 10:34:57 AM
Page 71
The total oil volume is also a measure to control the maximum transmittable torque. In a multi-motor belt system, e.g. load balance can be adjusted by the individual oil filling.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM / 4.3 Hydraulic variable speed drive system / 4.3.3 Smooth-start by turbo couplings / 4.3.3.1 Application
4.3.3.1
Application
The family of hydrodynamic couplings is well-known in the cement industry. Soft or controlled start-up can be achieved by a slip ring motor and the corresponding size of the rotor resistor. A squirrel cage motor and a hydrodynamic coupling perform the same task more elegantly. Therefore, heavy starting machines like long belts, crushers, fans with a large external mass are often equipped with hydrodynamic couplings as well as mechanical items which do not permit excessive starting torque stresses like chains on bucket elevators. This type of coupling is available from 1 kW up to approx. 1,500 kW at nominal input speeds of 3,000 min-1 for the small units and 1,000 min-1 for the larger ones.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 5. CRITERIA FOR ASSESSMENT
5.
CRITERIA FOR ASSESSMENT
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 5. CRITERIA FOR ASSESSMENT / 5.1 Specifications
5.1
Specifications
In the specifications the operational requirements, standard of manufacture and the stipulated reliability have to be summarized by the user. Apart from the technical details generally given and the ambient conditions, a number of other factors are important for variable-speed drives: Starting and slow-running characteristics Speed/torque characteristic of the driven machine and of the selected drive system Range of operating speed and accuracy Suitable means of protecting the installation, which does not lead to unnecessary stops in the event of short interruption of the supply Definition of the maximum admissible harmonic current content on the network and of the filter equipment Extent to which the power electronics is proof against short circuits
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Cooling for the motor and converter Redundancy requirements
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 5. CRITERIA FOR ASSESSMENT / 5.2 Reliability
5.2
Reliability
The main objective when using any drive system, be it mechanical or electrical, is to ensure high availability and reliability for the installation as a whole, with minimum maintenance. The choice of system can to a large extent be influenced by the qualifications of the local staff. This does not only apply to electric drive systems; hydromechanical systems today use components and technologies which can no longer be regarded as common knowledge for the average mechanic. On the other hand, the electrical industry, by utilizing high-power thyristors and by simplifying the control electronics, is making an attempt to keep the complexity of the systems within reasonable limits.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 5. CRITERIA FOR ASSESSMENT / 5.3 Efficiency
5.3
Efficiency
As far as running costs are concerned, the efficiency at the most frequently used operating point is a factor of decisive importance. In the foreseeable future energy costs will continue to increase at a faster rate than investment costs. Therefore, when planning installations, it is necessary to make a comparison of the investment cost with the operating costs of the potential drive systems. This trend should be taken into account in the appropriate manner during the evaluation. The efficiency figures quotated by the manufacturers of drive systems have to be examined with great care, as in most cases they only provide an efficiency curve for full load of the most significant drive component, e.g. the motor. Information on partial load is difficult to obtain, but in most cases the values are below those quoted.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 5. CRITERIA FOR ASSESSMENT / 5.3 Efficiency / 5.3.1 Definition of total drive system efficiency
5.3.1
Definition of total drive system efficiency
Efficiencies of individual drive components do not define the total system behaviour. For comparison, it is therefore essential to establish meaningful and measurable limits, which define the border lines of efficiency for one total drive system. On the one hand, the power drawn from the network is measured and, on the other, the mechanical power imparted at the variable speed shaft. All components located between these two interfaces are appropriately to be taken into account for any system including auxiliary power consumption e.g. for cooling or ventilating purposes. Fig. 54: Definition of total drive system efficiency
6/30/2001 - 10:34:58 AM
Page 73
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 6. CONCLUSIONS
6.
CONCLUSIONS
Especially when high powers are involved, existing and newly planned installations should be closely examined to determine whether they are not equipped with drives or control systems involving unduly heavy losses. Using up-to-date techniques, this is a field where it is possible to achieve substantial savings in running costs. It may be taken for granted that the present trend towards variable-speed drive systems fed by static converters will continue in the future. The development of power and control electronics also allows one to expect that the outlay for variable-speed a.c. drives will decrease further. The high effieciency of electric drives will therefore make their utilization increasingly interesting. The trendency to seek an alternative to d.c. motors and thus to get away from their commutator problems, is unmistakeable. Opportunities for this are provided by hydromechanics and three-phase a.c. systems. But even these systems require a certain amount of maintenance. It is therefore advisable to analyse all alternatives very closely. No matter how high the efficiency may be, it loses all its significance if the system fails only a few times! It will therefore be necessary to weigh reliability and efficiency very thoroughly, one against the other. Some typical applications of variable-speed drive systems were dealt with in this session. Unfortunately there are not generally valid solutions for the various applications in all countries.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C03 - Drive Systems / Drive Systems / 7. MESSAGES
7.
MESSAGES
Be energy conscious when selecting variable speed drives Consider alternatives and new technologies Analyse new technologies very thoroughly especially with respect to reliability and efficiency
6/30/2001 - 10:34:58 AM
Page 74

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation
C04 - Plant Automation
6/30/2001 - 10:34:58 AM
Page 75

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Plant Automation
Plant Automation
Roland Luder 1. INTRODUCTION 2. BENEFITS OF AUTOMATION 2.1 More reliable operation 2.2 Uniform operation 2.3 Energy saving 2.4 Manpower saving 2.5 More efficient maintenance 2.6 Better quality 2.7 Protection of environment 3. AREAS OF AUTOMATION IN A CEMENT PLANT 4. PROCESS AUTOMATION 5. PROCESS AUTOMATION COMPONENTS 6. PROCESS AUTOMATION SYSTEMS 7. CONCLUSION
6/30/2001 - 10:34:58 AM
Page 76

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Plant Automation / 1. INTRODUCTION
1.
INTRODUCTION
Automation can be defined as a physical system which is capable of reaching a certain target without any human action. Applied to the cement manufacturing process, different targets can be formulated. One could for example be: load bags to the packing machine without any human action. The most extreme target would be an automatic bank transfer to the shareholders of the dividends of the totally automatic cement manufacturing. But already the small example of the bag loading shows that automation very soon reaches limits: An automatic bag loader today is no longer a problem, but the target "loading bags to the packing machine without human action" has by far not be reached. Who does the unloading of the bags? And who does maintenance on the bag loader? Theoretically, these activities could also be made automatic, but it would generally not be feasible and there are of course still limits (e.g. who does the maintenance of the "automatic bag loading maintenance machine"?). When we mention "automation" we nowadays immediately associate computers or electronic equipment to it. This is only natural since almost all automation systems are today based on electronic components. When the term automation system is used it shall therefore mean a system based on electronic components.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Plant Automation / 2. BENEFITS OF AUTOMATION
2.
BENEFITS OF AUTOMATION
The example given in chapter 1 shows that an automation project has to be clearly analysed for its ultimate benefit within the cement manufacturing process. The achievable benefits can generally not be expressed or calculated in exact figures, automation is always related to or has to be compared with human factors and these factors are difficult to determine. Nevertheless, some fields where automation can yield some benefits shall be further elaborated:
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Plant Automation / 2. BENEFITS OF AUTOMATION / 2.1 More reliable operation
2.1
More reliable operation
The installation of modern electronic equipment instead of elector-mechanical components guarantees a higher reliability of the control system. Equipment downtime can be reduced due to the availability of detailed process warnings.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Plant Automation / 2. BENEFITS OF AUTOMATION / 2.2 Uniform operation
2.2
Uniform operation
The operator is released from all routine operations, checking and controlling. He is thus in a position to fully concentrate on the optimum and efficient operation of the process. In this objective he is greatly supported by the system which presents all relevant information in a logic and easily understandable way.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Plant Automation / 2. BENEFITS OF AUTOMATION / 2.3 Energy saving
6/30/2001 - 10:34:59 AM
Page 77
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 2.3 Energy saving
A modern control system automatically starts and stops motors according to the process requirements. Inefficient continuous running of motors and high energy losses during unproductive start-up trials are eliminated. The control system can easily include the control of the peak load to the plant (energy management). A better stabilised process can have a very positive influence on thermal as well as on electrical energy consumption.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Plant Automation / 2. BENEFITS OF AUTOMATION / 2.4 Manpower saving
2.4
Manpower saving
Achievable savings depend on actual labour situations, labour costs, labour policies (unions) etc.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Plant Automation / 2. BENEFITS OF AUTOMATION / 2.5 More efficient maintenance
2.5
More efficient maintenance
The maintenance on control and instrumentation can be kept to a minimum due to the installation of electronic equipment. No time-consuming troubleshooting will be required since failures are displayed in clear text. Mechanical maintenance can be optimised and preventive maintenance can be introduced due to the availability of detailed failure and warning messages and statistical evaluation of all events.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Plant Automation / 2. BENEFITS OF AUTOMATION / 2.6 Better quality
2.6
Better quality
The market demands for less tolerances in the cement quality. An uniform operation, more precise on-line measurements are a guarantee also for better quality.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Plant Automation / 2. BENEFITS OF AUTOMATION / 2.7 Protection of environment
2.7
Protection of environment
A modern automation system not only controls the process, it is furthermore and more responsible for continuous environmental protection. Example: Exhaust gas analysis Waste water treatment Energy management
The given examples are typical closed loop control systems. Thus, it is not dependent on human observing abnormalities and reactings. It is a continuous process acting in very narrow limits.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Plant Automation / 3. AREAS OF AUTOMATION IN A CEMENT PLANT
3.
AREAS OF AUTOMATION IN A CEMENT PLANT
Automation can be applied in many different fields of the cement manufacturing process. Table 1 gives an overview of those fields which are mainly concerned with automation. It also shows what type of hardware normally is applied to perform this automation.
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 The table clearly shows that a vast variety of equipment can be used for the different automation tasks. When it comes to software this variety is even bigger. In order not to end up with a patchwork of different automation systems, it is therefore very essential to carefully plan and to evaluate any automation project. It is mainly important to always keep the entire process and the entire system in mind. Automation can start with the modernisation of a single machine, but the automation or control of this single machine should be designed from the beginning to fit into an overall automation concept. Table 1 AUTOMATION AREA 1) 2) QUARRY CONTROL Quarry planning PROCESS AUTOMATION Motor control Process control Monitoring 3) DISPATCH CONTROL Loading Administration 4) QUALITY CONTROL Sampling preparation X-ray On-line raw mix control 5) MAINTENANCE Materials management Maintenance planning Reporting, documentation 6) MANAGEMENT INFORMATION, ADMINISTRATION Production reports, statistics Commercial data Personnel administration Workstations Personal computers Workstations Personal computers Programmable controllers Including micro-computers PC's, Workstations Programmable controllers Workstations, PC's Programmable controllers PC's, Workstations Graphics Displays Process computers Workstations, PC's AUTOMATION HARDWARE
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Plant Automation / 4. PROCESS AUTOMATION
4.
PROCESS AUTOMATION
The next chapters will concentrate on process control and some aspects of management information only. The other fields of automation are mainly dealt within the respective chapters. Process automation or process control has become more and more important together with the increasing capacity and complexity of cement plants. Table 2 shows how the number of drives and instruments (which can be used as degree of complexity) has increased in the last decades. The figures given represent very approximate values of a medium-size cement production line. The technology of control system components has drastically changed during these periods, whereby
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 most new developments have been based on the respective underlying developments in the field of electronic/computer technology. To predict the future is of course always a difficult task. Some trends, however, can already be observed. One trend is surely that there will be developments for more memory at a lower price which will allow better and faster information handling. This again will have an influence in the further development of self-learning ("expert" or "intelligent") systems. The trend in graphic displays goes towards bigger, flatter screens with higher resolution. An additional tool as operator interface might be the development in voice information or voice command. For the moment it is, however, more of a nice game than an efficient tool to increase production. Table 2 1940 Local control of individual machine, local pneumatic/mechanical indication 50 motors, 20 instruments Central control rooms , sequence control of motors (relay), remote indicatin of instruments 200 motors, 70 instruments Central control rooms, decentralised programmable controllers, monitoring or process computers 400 motors, 150 instruments Central control rooms, centralised controllers with remote input/outputs, graphic displays, data-highways 800 motors, 300 instruments Central control rooms, distributed control systems, automated documentation tool, integration of management information 1000 motors, 500 instruments Integration of expert knowledge, voice command, use of transputers, field bus to the level of transmitters, intelligent sensors
1960
1975
1985
1990
future
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Plant Automation / 5. PROCESS AUTOMATION COMPONENTS
5.
PROCESS AUTOMATION COMPONENTS
The different main components of a process automation system are shown as the three lower levels of the pyramid in Fig. F49591 "Structure of plant automation". The total system of these component functions in a similar way as a human being: Sensors and the cabling perform similar tasks as the nerves - capturing and transmission of information to the brain. The controller performs similar jobs as the brain. It processes the information. The result of this data processing is transmitted again by the nerves to the muscles which transform the information into a physical movement as in a plant control system, where the controller output is
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 transmitted - again over cables - to the actuator or the MCC where the information is transformed into physical power. Needless to say, a plant control system plays a very important part in the performance of a plant, similar to the one of the brain and the nerves of a human being. The individual components "analogue sensor/transmitter" will be further explained in the chapter SENSORS, the component "logic controller" in the chapter MOTOR CONTROL. In order to understand the subdivision process controller / logic controller / computer / man-machine interface within the so called "integrated controller" one has to go a little bit back in history of control systems. Some years ago the subdivision of an automation system into the parts motor control instrumentation and process control data logging relays, then programmable controllers for motor control separate instruments and closed loop controllers for process control recorders and operators day-book, then computer data logging equipment. push-buttons and lamps for motor control potentiometers and instruments for process control keyboards and displays for data logging. Modicon Honeywell Digital Equipment for Motor Control for Instrumentation for Data logging
used to be clearly defined by the corresponding type of equipment:
Every type of equipment used to have its own type of man/machine interface
This control equipment has also been offered from more or less specialised manufacturers, as e.g.:
Today there is a market tendency for the established manufacturers to expand outside the field in which they have hitherto specialised and to enter the other areas of automation more and more; this means that modern programmable controllers can perform process control tasks and condition data; computer systems are also able to perform sequence control and they are all linked by computer bus systems and networks.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Plant Automation / 6. PROCESS AUTOMATION SYSTEMS
6.
PROCESS AUTOMATION SYSTEMS
For the automation of a cement plant which has to combine all the three functions of motor control, process control and data logging, it is thus possible to select the most appropriate component for each of the three areas and to integrate them in a complete system. In practice, though, this procedure is often obstructed by the lack of compatibility of the units (i.e. difficulty in interconnecting them) because, owing to the rapid progress made in electronics, neither hardware nor software are sufficiently standardised. Furthermore, the user is confronted with the problem of maintaining three inherently different systems. Fortunately, we have seen that manufacturers have expanded their fields of activity and that today, a
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 level has been reached where all three functions can be realised with only one or perhaps two different control systems. The structures of complete systems from different suppliers, however, still shows considerable differences. Since in the cement industry motor control represents the most extensive part of the automation system, it is regarded to be optimal to choose a programmable controller as basic control unit. Among the various types of programmable controllers available (in Switzerland about 130 manufacturers are represented on the market), it is the medium to large units that are most suitable for the cement industry. "Large" units are regarded as being those capable of catering for the motor and process control of a complete department (e.g. raw mill) with all the associated processing of data for the man/machine interface. As regards configuration, documentation and ease of modification, large systems are preferable to a number of medium or small units. With this concept the automation system of a complete cement production line generally consists of one programmable controller for each department (crusher, raw mill, kiln, cement mill, coal mill, cement dispatch), each controller with its separate operator station and each performing motor control as well as process control. For general management information and reporting, the operator stations are interconnected and linked to a separate data base computer being part of the information management system. Power supply: In order to absorb brief interruptions of the plant voltage and in order to correctly alarm any real voltage supply failure, it is recommended to connect the entire control system to an uninterrupted power supply. Test system: The spare parts required for the automation system are preferably assembled to form a "test system". This system should be procured before anything else in order that the software can be set up and tested before the actual process control system is installed. After commissioning, the test system is used as "spare parts stock" as well as for testing possible changes to the programs and also for training new personnel. Naturally, the "spare parts stock" has to be replenished according to the consumption. System documentation: To establish the system documentation, every possible use should be made of the facilities offered by computers today. A special chapter will be allocated to this topic. Communication: A good communication system can help a lot to improve efficiency in operation and maintenance. Here, too, a clear concept should be established. All possible methods: telephone/paging, walkie-talkie, intercom, loudspeaker, fax, video etc. should be considered and possible applications evaluated.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Plant Automation / 7. CONCLUSION
7.
CONCLUSION
Modern process automation systems can contribute a lot to the enhancement of the efficiency of plant operation. Nevertheless, the degree of the most feasible level of automation has to be carefully evaluated. And most important: even the highest automated plant needs a good maintenance in order to run efficiently. Or in other words: The most luxurious process control system with the most brilliant graphic displays cannot guarantee smooth operation if it does not receive reliable, correct information
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 from the sensors.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:00 AM
Page 83

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Modernization of Control and Supervisory Systems in the Cement Industry1
Modernization of Control and Supervisory Systems in the Cement Industry1(1)

Rene Suberli 1. REASONS FOR MODERNIZING CONTROL SYSTEMS 2. PLANNING OF MODERNIZATION PROJECTS 3. DESIGN OF A CONTROL SYSTEM 4. PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF THE EXECUTION OF MODERNIZATION PROJECTS
6/30/2001 - 10:35:00 AM
Page 84
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 At times when financial means are restricted and the competitive situation on the market is tense, all efforts must be directed towards savings - and thus towards optimization - of the production process and maintenance. Modern technologies in the plant control and monitoring systems can contribute appreciably to a reduction in costs, provided they are properly applied.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Modernization of Control and Supervisory Systems in the Cement Industry1 / 1. REASONS FOR MODERNIZING CONTROL SYSTEMS
1.
REASONS FOR MODERNIZING CONTROL SYSTEMS
Depending on the plant concerned and its environmental conditions, there can be a variety of reasons for undertaking modernization projects. Generally speaking, though, the main reasons for such projects are one or more of the following: a) Plant and equipment is worn out and requires too much, too expensive maintenance b) The plant or system is no longer reliable enough c) Owing to a lack of spare parts the plant or system can no longer be repaired d) Maintenance agreements are expensive e) The plant or system does not permit any further automation of the production process f) The system does not permit any further optimization of the process, the information, the maintenance and /or energy consumption
g) Environmental conditions, such as public opinion, environmental protection, emission limits, etc., make further use of a system or process questionable. Item c) above points to a new aspect of electro-mechanical equipment, that if its maintainability. This aspect is very important and therefore deserves to be discussed at greater length, especially because in most cases works managements fail to attach sufficient importance to it. The conventional mode of looking at maintainability is restricted to the ease of maintenance, when components, machines or systems have to be maintained or replaced because they are showing signs of wear or old age. The same also applies to automation systems, but here a new aspect of maintenance becomes apparent, that of systems having to be replaced because, due to technological changes, systems or their components become obsolescent without being worn out. The extremely rapid evolution of electronics, together with the low cost of hardware, has provided advantages as regards reliability, usability and application potential. On the other hand, this rapid evolution has resulted in a reduction in the useful life, especially on account of the short presence on the market of certain electronic components. In other words, components which only appeared on the market five or ten years go, can no longer be supplied. The replacement of electronic equipment gives rise to problems, in that electronic units cannot simply be replaced by new products. The reason for this is that standardization is hardly possible, on the one hand owing to the very rapid evolution and, on the other, due to the growing complexity of the units. For this reason, it may be impossible for a manufacturer to design his own products so that they are compatible. The presence on the market of a modern electronic control system may be assumed to last for about seven years, i.e. about one third of the normal life of a machine that is controlled by it. In other words, nowadays a machine outlives roughly three generations of electronic units. Fortunately, though, there are signs that the situation with regard to compatibility of electronic components is slowly but surely improving. But despite this the trend will not produce material effects at one. The users of the present - and the next - generations of control and supervisory systems will for
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 the present have to put up with the fact that their systems become obsolete much earlier than desired. Figure Control system layout Typical arrangement per department
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Modernization of Control and Supervisory Systems in the Cement Industry1 / 2. PLANNING OF MODERNIZATION PROJECTS
2.
PLANNING OF MODERNIZATION PROJECTS
Although nobody will question the ability of modern electronic equipment to improve operational sequences, the task of determining the return on investment for such a project is highly complex and differs from one plant to another. The properties of an electronic control system compared with a conventional system have here to be viewed in the light of human factors, i.e. direct human intervention as opposed to automatic operation, human errors compared with the dependability of electronic components, human negligence compared with the robot-like stability of programmed control sequences. How can these factors be taken into account in a feasibility calculation? The advantages attainable with modernization projects should always be measured against the existing equipment and actual operational procedure. To do this the first step is always to analyse the momentary state. Modernization projects for the control and monitoring systems in cement works should be included in the long-term planning of the company. The momentary state of maintenance, maintainability and performance of the existing system has to be determined from time to time, in order that the start of modernization can be specified without haste. If the replacement of obsolete equipment were suddenly rendered necessary, this could give rise to some unforeseen shutdowns in the plant. If such unscheduled replacement measures occur frequently, it will be automatically necessary to replace the entire system step by step, without having achieved any structural improvements, or profiting from new technologies, i.e. the whole job is only patachwork. Then, in the end, the whole system may be even more complicated than it was before. To avoid this, it is always advisable to keep pace with modern standard by replacing a control system as soon as important parts no longer perform their functions satisfactorily or are no longer obtainable on the market. The planning of a modernization project must begin with a detailed assessment of the existing facilities. This should cover the following points: 1) Determination of the momentary state. 2) Specification of a strategy with regard to the technical and operation objectives which shows in what steps, in what time and at what costs they are to be attained. The difficulty in such an assessment is that the various staff members in the works have with time
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 become blind to what is going on and - despite their best intentions - are no longer able to recognize the significant and the really crucial points. It is therefore recommended in all earnest that external advisors be entrusted with this task. But the production and maintenance managers of the works must be included in the planning process as early as possible. Planning becomes particularly important when modernization projects are involved, especially for control and supervisory systems. This is reflected in the costs: the outlay on planning and engineering of the modernization of a control system can amount to more than half the total cost of the project. A well thought-out control concept also takes into account aspects of changes in technology and the maintainability, as outlined earlier on. The components of such a system are therefore designed to be replaced. That may sound somewhat strange, designed to be replaced, but it does correspond fairly accurately to the prevailing circumstances.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Modernization of Control and Supervisory Systems in the Cement Industry1 / 3. DESIGN OF A CONTROL SYSTEM
3.
DESIGN OF A CONTROL SYSTEM
The control units available on the market can be combined to form an almost unlimited number of control systems. Therefore, the choice of suitable units and of the most suitable system for a given application should not be left entirely to the suppliers and/or the users. One must be fully aware of the fact that control does not consist solely of the instruments and graphic monitors in the control room. They are merely the visible part, the tip of the iceberg so-to-speak. The suppliers of electronic units generally tend to offer only this tip of the iceberg, which nowadays is the cheapest part of the whole control system .The rest of the iceberg is generally ignored by the supplier or he simply leaves it to his customer, although that is usually more than he can cope with, when it comes to a full estimate of all aspects of the modernization project. For a user it is normally difficult to analyse his own requirements, to analyse the market correctly and to employ the most suitable engineering tools. The following are some design principles which have been successfully applied by HMC/TC to a number of cement works in past years. a) A control/automation system should be constructed from the bottom upwards. b) The existing facilities for sub-dividing the cement production process into independent sub-units (departments) should also be taken into account when designing the control system. c) Owing to its importance for the operation of the works, an automation system should primarily be selected with regard to its reliability and maintainability, i.e. it should be as simple as possible. d) An automation system must be designed in such a way that future requirements can be satisfied easily and the replacement of obsolete parts is facilitated. Requirement a) signifies that a start must be made on the concept at the lowest level of control tasks. This includes the numbering system (labelling, the wiring, the standardization of sensors and signal generators, the detailed emission of first alarms, the control and the supervision of auxiliary functions, and so on. All of these have a very definite influence on the overall performance of the system as a whole, where performance applies not only to the execution of functions, but also to the maintainability, extendibility, ease of future replacement, etc. Poor design at his lowest level can possibly be compensated by using additional computers at higher levels of the system. But the overall structure and, thus, the factors mentioned under c) are certain to be affected by such a procedure. Point b) is taken to imply that each department should be decentralized as far as possible. Only general functions of a plant, e.g. reporting, statistics, documentation, process optimization, should be dealt with centrally. This enables the departmental maintenance of the control system to be practised
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 without any risk of causing a stoppage in other departments. Point c) says that the system should be s simple as possible, i.e. it should consist of a minimum of black boxes with a minimal number of standardized connections between them. In this context a black box means a hardware or software unit, requiring no internal maintenance or adaptation. Point d) implies that even the most modern control system does not exist as long as the machines in the cement industry. It is therefore very important to set the standards for the introduction of new control or automation tasks to the existing control system well in advance and even to plan for the future replacement of the whole system. That corresponds to what is meant by designed to be replaced. Experience has proved that a decentralized, standardized control system can satisfy such demands very effectively. By replacing in easy stages, spare parts are made available for the still existing system, which is not to be replaced yet in all departments. Another positive aspect of this mode of procedure is the improved distribution of the investment costs over a period of time, without incurring greater risks for availability of the spare parts. As the result of such considerations, HMC/TC has developed and put into practice an integrated, decentralized control system, tailored to the needs of the cement industry. The diagram shows the structure of the system schematically for one department of a plant (for all the other departments the structure remains in principle the same). In a system of this kind each main unit e.g. a programmable logic controller (PLC) processes the signals of the motor control and simultaneously those of the instrumentation. The following advantages accrue from this procedure: Only one make of units is required. The interlocks between analog (process) signals and the motor control can be effected direct - at the lowest level - without wiring or without using the data highway. On account of the high reliability, analog sensors are increasingly being used for the protection of machines (e.g. analog temperature measurement in motor windings or gear bearings, for the measurement of oil flow, etc.). In an integrated system these sensors are wired direct to the PLC. Preliminary alarms, shutdown alarms and the shutdown interlocks are programmed in the same unit. The alarms from digital or analog signals are given by the same unit; there is only one kind of alarm processing. Alarms from the process can easily be interlocked with operating conditions of the motors, for example. Control of a variable-speed drive is very easy (start/stop = motor control; changing speed = process control). Dividing these two tasks between two separate units/would unnecessarily complicate the system. In view of the growing number of variable-speed drives, the integration becomes more and more important. Closed control loops can be easily integrated, in order that hey can meet the various conditions during starting and stopping operations. Hardware and software can be largely standardized, each department using the same type of black box (hardware and software). Since all the control functions are allocated, the corresponding software does not have to be nearly as intricate as in a centralized system. The computer capacity and the facilities for direct operation of displays by the central unit must be utilized as man-machine interface, thus achieving a fully integrated system. If the selected central unit does not offer enough scope, modern microcomputers or personal computers should be employed. In this case the microcomputer calls all the information required off the main unit. However, it should not be used to initiate any intervention in the process, but should remain exclusively reserved for the efficient processing of information. All control commands and motor/process interlocks, sequences, etc., should be processed direct by the central unit.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:01 AM
Page 88

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C04 - Plant Automation / Modernization of Control and Supervisory Systems in the Cement Industry1 / 4. PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF THE EXECUTION OF MODERNIZATION PROJECTS
4.
PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF THE EXECUTION OF MODERNIZATION PROJECTS
As guidelines for the execution of modernization projects the following general rules have proved their worth in the past. a) The control system should not be included in the scope of delivery of the machinery supplier, because he looks for the system that will be most economical for his own purposes. The customer, however, has to make sure that he is going to receive the system that will be most economical for his process, in which maintenance and future developments of the plant have also to be taken into account (integrated system). The only exceptions where the control system should be included in the delivered package are the very special control systems for electronic weighing equipment on bagging machines or for the power electronics associated with drives, etc. b) The equipment numbering system must be examined to make sure that all parts can be clearly identified. Can the system also be used for detailed indication of events and alarms, for data acquisition and for electrical and mechanical maintenance? c) The safety regulations (existing and planned) in the users own country must be examined very closely before the appropriate safety concept is drawn up. It must be checked whether local stop switches for each motor are sufficient or whether a main isolator has to be provided next to the motor. Where do pullcord switches have to be installed? What warning devices (horns, sirens, flashing lights, etc.) are needed when starting up the machines and where are panic stops necessary? d) The existing wiring has to be examined and a clear wiring concept drawn up. The wiring should be such that it is not affected if the control system is replaced at some time in the future. An adequate number of spare lines must be available, should it be necessary to extend to monitoring of the process by additional sensors. These will have to be individually wired also in the future. It is therefore essential to consider carefully how this lowest level of the system should be designed, to be standardized and as simple as possible. e) Dependable, standarized interfaces should be provided in the control system and with all external control sub-systems (hardware and software). Problems are usually caused in control systems by unclear, complicated or uncertain communication processes and/or interfaces. The communication problem, however, cannot be solved by installing a data highway or bus, a local network or similar facility. They are merely tools like a telephone or telex. What is important is the contents of the message or information that is to be transmitted and its interpretation by the receiver. f) Sufficient time must be spent on drawing up a clear concept and on adequately detailed basic engineering, before any system is purchased. All functions to be performed by the automation system - as well as those it has not to perform - must be clearly defined in advance. As far as possible, employees from production and maintenance should be included in this planning. It is indeed true that modern control systems permit a program to be simply changed, but that is only true of minor changes. Major changes in the concept are never simple: that is why a detailed specification of the system and its components is so important. The degree of automation has to be estimated very carefully. The higher this degree of automation is, the greater the number of decisions that have to be programmed in advance and the more complicated and expensive programming becomes. The aim of the specification of a control system is to stipulate the optimal degree of automation for every single task.
g) A detailed alarm system has to be specified. This system is one of the deciding points in the
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 improvement of operation and maintenance. h) The complete system has to be tested before it is installed, especially the communication interfaces. In this phase it is important to include the works personnel. i) The spare parts have to be purchased as early as possible and utilized in the construction of a training system. This enables the works personnel to become familiar with the new system at an early date. A system of this kind, composed of spare parts, can later be used for testing programs, as a training centre and as a stock for warming up these spares. An important factor is the careful compilation of the documentation for the equipment and spare parts. It is well worth while to store the documentation on the computer from the very start of modernization. Experience has proved that existing documentation is usually out of date and has to be renewed in any case. Computerizing - when it is carefully planned and carried out - is a good method of ensuring that the documentation no longer becomes out of date.
j)
6/30/2001 - 10:35:01 AM
Page 90

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors
C05 - Sensors
6/30/2001 - 10:35:02 AM
Page 91

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors
Sensors
Wolfgang Kornberger 1. INTRODUCTION 2. SENSORS (INSTRUMENTATION) BASICS 2.1 Terminology 3. SIGNAL TRANSMITTER 4. SIGNALS 5. SIGNAL TRANSMISSION 5.1 Current output 5.2 DEAD ZERO and LIVE ZERO 5.3 Power supply 5.4 4-wire and 2-wire transmitters 5.5 Non-isolating and isolating transmitters 6. CONTROL, ALARMING AND DISPLAY 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY 7.1 Temperature 7.2 Pressure 7.3 Flow (gas and liquids) 7.4 Level 7.5 Weighing 7.6 Analytical measurements 7.7 Electrical energy and power measurements 7.8 Field devices
6/30/2001 - 10:35:02 AM
Page 92

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 1. INTRODUCTION
1.
INTRODUCTION
When looking at the automation pyramid, it becomes obvious that instruments and sensors form the foundation for any control and automation. It is here where the information is gathered which is then used further in the automation pyramid for either: interlocking and control for automated production regulation with PID-controller and high level control to ease the workload of the operator and to improve the plant performance (reduce energy consumption and/or increase production) display and register process values to inform the management and the operator about the plant performance Note: It is important to remember that it is impossible to control anything unless the parameters have been accurately measured in advance.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 2. SENSORS (INSTRUMENTATION) BASICS
2.
SENSORS (INSTRUMENTATION) BASICS
The task of an instrument or a sensor is to convert a physical value into an electrical signal. A signal is picked up with a primary element, then converted in the transmitter to an electrical signal and finally transmitted to a control centre where the signal is further treated for either display, alarming or control. (See drawing F44570-1) The example in the drawing F44570-1 shows a pressure transmitter. The pressure (connected on either side) distorts the bellows. This deformation is moving a lever which is connected to a plunger moving in a coil. The movement of the plunger in the coil evokes an electrical signal which then is converted to a standard electrical signal of 4-20 mA. All transmitters work on a physical principle which depends on the process media, the desired type of measurement and the accuracy required. Some principles are as simple as in the example in drawing F44570-1 given. Others, like gas analysers working on light diffraction are more sophisticated and therefore not only more expensive but as well prone to high maintenance.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 2. SENSORS (INSTRUMENTATION) BASICS / 2.1 Terminology
6/30/2001 - 10:35:02 AM
Page 93
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 2.1 Terminology
Like in all engineering fields, instrumentation has its own kind of terminology; and to be able to read a technical specification these terms have to be known. The following list gives a short overview of the most important terms used. Example Ampere meter .5% accuracy Temperature meter 5o C
Accuracy: Calibration:
A number of quantity (usually expressed in % full scale) which defines the maximum error. The ascertain by the use of a standard the locations at which scale or chart graduation of an instrument should be placed to correspond to the required value. To adjust the output of an instrument to bring the desired value within a specified tolerance. The range throughout which an input can be varied without initiating response. Deadband is usually expressed in percent of full span. The interval of time between initiation of an input and the start of the resulting response. Reducing of the oscillation of a process input or the output of a controller. Undesired change of an output over a period of time. Departure from a desired or expected value also difference between measured value and true value. (see drift) Error = indication minus true value = setpoint minus measured value
Deadband: Deadtime: Damping Drift: Deviation: Error: Elevated Zero: Feedback: Gain: Hysteresis:
A range where the zero value is greater than the lower range value. Positive answer to a demand in change Is the ratio of an output change to an input change. (Reciprocal to proportional band). The maximum difference between the upscale and downscale indications of the measured signal during a full range traverse for the same input.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:02 AM
Page 94
(Alarm limits for example are equipped with a hysteresis in order to prevent repeated signals around the alarm point).
Impedance: Interference:
Resistance of a network of resistors, capacitors and/or inductors. Noise (spurious voltage or current arising from external sources or interference between measuring circuit and ground). Device to convert the electrical signal into a digital information for further treatment in a Process Station or Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). The closeness to which a curve approximates a straight line.
Input:
Linearity:
Limit: Lag: Noise: Output:
Alarm limit (Time lag) time elapsed between process and measuring point as well as measuring point and control device. False signal picked up in the transmission line (see interference and signal-to-noise ratio). Signal from a device (instrument).
6/30/2001 - 10:35:03 AM Page 95
"Holderbank" - Cementfrom a device (instrument). Output: Signal Course 2000 Range: Region between limits of measuring device expressed by stating the lower and upper range values.
Response:
General behaviour of the output of a device as a function of an input.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:03 AM
Page 96
For additional information regarding PID control refer to the relevant paper in the process technology department. Sensitivity: Signal to Noise Ratio: Span: Suppressed zero: Time constant: Zero: (see deadband and gain). Ratio of signal amplitude to noise amplitude. The algebraic difference between the upper and lower range values. The zero value of the measured variable is less than the lower range value. (Zero does not appear the scale). Time required for an output of an instrument to complete 62.3 % of the total rise or decay. Zero point of scale (to be calibrated frequently due to zero shift resulting in parallel shift of the input output curve).
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 3. SIGNAL TRANSMITTER
3.
SIGNAL TRANSMITTER
As mentioned in the introduction, the task of the transmitter is to convert a physical signal into a suitable electrical signal. This electrical signal is then converted into a standard analogue signal of for example 4-20 mA or 24 V digital on/off. Other standard signals exist but the Holderbank standard analogue signal is 4-20 mA, for digital on/off signal 24 VDC (Exception America: 110 VAC). It is, in most cases, necessary to calibrate or verify (adjust zero, span and range) a transmitter. Normal adjustments are Zero = 4 mA and Span = 20 mA. Thus the actual electrical signal representing a process value of 0 - 100% is represented by 16 mA. Calibration is usually performed by simulating the physical signal. Thus, a true zero and if feasible a 100% signal should be evoked in order to calibrate the transmitter over the entire range. The smaller the range of the calibration signal is the more inaccurate the calibration. Each type of instrument transmitters requires its particular way of calibration. It is therefore mandatory to provide the proper instruments for calibration purpose. Additionally, it is important not only to calibrate the transmitter but the entire instrument loop. Thus, the transmission and the signal treatment in either a display instrument or a PLC must be included in the calibration procedure. (See drawing F44570-1) Some modern instruments require an initial calibration during commissioning and only an occasional check up during their lifetime. Others, like for example power transducers cannot be calibrated nor do they require any adjustments since they are factory precept. The instruments described above are analogue instruments. Thats why the signal varies continuously between 0 and 100%. Often, however only one single point is required. For such a purpose a sensor with an on/off output is sufficient. It saves programming of an alarm limit in case a PLC is used, respective the use of an extra alarm device to produce a thresh hold. However, using an on/off device only can be controversial since this device cannot be checked about its proper function. A 4-20 mA signal can be supervised if it is functioning properly (signal <20 mA and signal >4 mA). An on/off signal can be connected fail safe (contact closed under healthy condition) and a dynamic supervision (contact changes when the process is stopped) included but an analogue signal is easier to verify.
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 The trend of automation in process engineering leads to intelligent field devices. A new generation of instruments called smart sensors is on the market. A smart sensor cannot only perform its dedicated task (e.g. measure the temperature) but monitor its performance at the same time. These smart sensors are microprocessor-based field instruments which are designed to communicate with a control unit. A lot of these sensors are operated via hand-held terminals or PCs. Usually the signal picked up by the primary element is converted into a digital signal by an analogue to digital converter. The digital signal is linearized, ranged (0-100% as required), dampened and if required multiplied or squared. The micro controller also controls the digital-to-analogue signal converter for 4-20 mA output and drives the digital communication. Configuration- and sensor linearization data are stored in a non-volatile EPROM memory. The control unit communicates via a superimposed digital signal over the 4-20 mA signal or via a bus with the smart sensor. Each manufacturer has his own communication carrier (bus or via frequency shift keying FSK) over the 4-20 mA signal and his own protocol. Usually communication is performed without interrupting the control loop. Some of the following tests and functions can be carried out via link, smart sensor and control unit: loop test of the 4-20 mA signal inject a specific mA signal and check the display check the configuration data and call up its values check changes of the performance of the smart sensor name (tag) a device and give an alarm or message text in the smart sensor. Store data about spare parts for the device. Today, neither in the operator control unit nor in the operator philosophy a compatibility or standardisation is discernible. Due to this situation user acceptance is very low. Additionally, the tasks as mentioned can be performed by the normal transmitters connected to a PLC. Thus, it remains questionable to whether smart sensors and Profibus are required today for the cement industry. The enclosed instrument list shows the most frequent measurements applied in the cement industry and the approximate amount of instruments. The number of measurement, approximately 3000, applied in a modern cement plant is quite impressive. And the tendency is certainly not diminishing in the near future. Especially in connection with environmental control and with rising energy prices, the number of additional measurements will increase.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 4. SIGNALS
6/30/2001 - 10:35:04 AM
Page 98
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 4. SIGNALS
When talking about signals at first two different sides must be distinguished: the primary side is the actual physical measurement which is detected with the primary element (e.g. thermocouple, diaphragm of a pressure transmitter) the secondary side is the signal leaving the transmitter and being transmitted back to the control centre. This and the next chapters deal with the signal transmitted to the control system since this is an important factor for the installation. When looking at the secondary side of the signal transmission four different signals have to be distinguished: 1) Analogue signal 2) On/off signal 3) Pulse 4) Field Bus 1) current e.g. 4-20 mA DC, or voltage e.g. 2-10V DC 1) on/off e.g. 24V DC 1) frequency e.g. speed detector pulse 1) code e.g. 500C as a BCD code
The cement industry is concerned with all four types of signals. In the field it is mainly the analogue 4-20 mA and digital 24V DC; to a lesser extend with pulses and, if at all, they are converted as soon as possible to an analogue signal. The classical cement industry was not concerned with a bus except for communication between PLCs or computers. However, the market shows that the near future is in the application of the Fieldbus. The respective standards are set and respective commercial advantages result. The signals 1) - 3) will become less important.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 5. SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
5.
SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
For safe and efficient operation of the plant it is most important to have a reliable signal transmission between the field, - where the signal is generated, - and the control room, - where it is used for indication, recording, limit supervision, process control etc. The distances from the filed to the control centre may range between 100 meters and 1000 meters, or more. And it is well known that problems with electrical disturbance, interference, noise and losses, increase with longer transmission distances. For signals as mentioned in the previous chapter, several alternatives for the long distance transmission are applied; some of them are becoming obsolete due to new developments in the filed of electronic components.The simplest method would be to run any sort of signals (pressure, electrical) back to the control room as performed in the early stage of instrumentation when the control centre was local and closed by. On the example of a thermocouple (TC), the problems encountered are discussed. Is it possible to run a thermocouple extension wire with a mV signal all the way from the thermocouple junction to the indication in the control room? Why not? Mainly because the thermocouple extension wire is expensive. And unless it is very well shielded, which adds to the expense, it will pick-up all sorts of unwanted noise from radio transmitters (walkie-talkies), motors, high voltage cables etc. Since the signal from the thermocouple is only a few milli-volts to begin with, any noise is a problem and it
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 doesnt take a lot of noise to blanket the signal entirely. Such a millivolt signal cannot be transmitted together with other signals in a multi-core cable and it cannot be brought to several users in parallel, such as to an indicator and a recorder, although PLCs with TC input exist. Though, it is true that in some instances by using thermocouple wires over a long distance and achieving satisfactory results, the odds are against it, making it a risky method to try in a cement plant! Even the idea to amplify the voltage signal (to reduce the signal to noise ratio) is not good enough since the noise picked up may be several hundred volts high.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 5. SIGNAL TRANSMISSION / 5.1 Current output
5.1
Current output
If a thermocouple transmitter with 4-20 mA DC (or 0-20 mA DC) current output is used, instead of a voltage output, some important advantages are gained. The controlled current line eliminates losses due to the wire resistance (line losses), because the resistance of the wire merely drops voltage along the line - the current remains constant (impressed current). Also, the noise pick-up is all but eliminated by the very high noise immunity of the current line due to the very low output loop impedance. This allows to use a twisted pair of ordinary signal wires. The wires are twisted, so that any noise that appears on the line will be on both lines. It can be eliminated by means of specific electronic circuits at the input of the upstream connected instrument. (=common-mode rejection, meaning the ability of a circuit to reject signals of equal amplitude on both input leads.) Current signals can be collected in the field (field junction box) and transmitted to the control room with low-cost multi-core cables. Summarising, it can be said that the beginning of the measuring range of any type of analogue measurement is represented on the transmission line by a current of 4 mA (or 0 mA). The end of the measuring range of any type of measurement is represented on the transmission line by a current of 20 mA. That means, an unscaled value in electrical units is transmitted. To produce an indication scaled in the desired physical unit the indicator has to be provided with the respective scale.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 5. SIGNAL TRANSMISSION / 5.2 DEAD ZERO and LIVE ZERO
5.2
DEAD ZERO and LIVE ZERO
In a standard 0-20 mA the zero-point of the measuring range e.g. 0C, is represented with 0 mA (DEAD ZERO), and the end-point of the measuring range, e.g. 150C, is represented with 20 mA signal current. However, the signal current also becomes 0 mA (no current flow), in case of a transmitter failure, broken cable, or loss of power. In a standard 4-20 mA the zero-point of the measuring range e.g. 0C is represented with 4 mA (live zero) and the end-point of the measuring range e.g. 150C with 20 mA. Therefore, for the transmission of an analogue measurement, only a range of 16 mA is available. A signal current of 0 mA (no current flow, or a current <4 mA), can only be caused by a transmitter failure, broken cable or loss of power. Thus, the 2 cases FAILURE and ZERO-POINT of MEASURING RANGE, can easily be distinguished. An electronic circuit can monitor the measurement-loop with live zero and immediately generate an alarm if a failure occurs.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:04 AM
Page 100
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 5. SIGNAL TRANSMISSION / 5.3 Power supply
5.3
Power supply
A 2-wire transmitter can only operate with a live zero* standard signal (4-20 mA), because the first 4 mA are used to supply the electrical power to the 2-wire transmitter, 4-wire transmitters are available with live zero (4-20 mA), or dead zero (0-20 mA), standard signals.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 5. SIGNAL TRANSMISSION / 5.4 4-wire and 2-wire transmitters
5.4
4-wire and 2-wire transmitters
4-wire transmitters need 2 wires for the transmitter operating power supply and 2 other wires to transmit the output signal to a remote location for indication or other purposes. 2-wire transmitters need 2 wires only to bring the power to the transmitter and to transmit the output signal. The basic idea is to use the first 4 mA of the output signal to cover the transmitters power consumption and the remaining 16 mA for signal transmission. 4-wire transmitters are available for any DC or AC power supply voltage. The output signal is usually a standard signal of 4-20 mA or 0-20 mA DC. The admissible external burden can go up to 3000; however, a typical burden is 500. Zero and span are independently adjustable, which facilitates the commissioning and calibration of a transmitter. To prevent electrical disturbances caused by earth-loops only transmitters with galvanical isolation between power supply, input and output should be applied. Where feasible interconnections between measurement loops should be avoided. (See also the chapter Non-isolating and isolating transmitters.) Summary Goals and drawbacks of the 4-wire concept: Compact transmitter, i.e. power supply is integrated in the transmitter. Large variety of power supply voltages possible (220 V, AC, or 110 V AC is already available at most locations of the plant). 4-wire transmitters can perform all measuring functions between very basic and very complex. Independent zero - and span-adjustment. Very high external burden possible.
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Output signal 4-20 mA or 0-20 mA possible. Cabling and installation expensive, due to separate power supply cable. The 2-wire transmitter converts the input signal to a standard output signal of 4-20 mA and receives its power from the same 2 wires. The output signal consists of two components: The 4 mA component (also called live zero), is a constant drain on the remote located power supply. This current is used to provide operating power to the transmitter. The second component, 0-16 mA, is a variable drain on the power supply that is proportional to the transmitters input signal, which may represent a temperature, pressure, flow etc.
The sum of these two current components results in a 4-20 mA current that flows in the measurement loop at the transmitters output. It is obvious that 2-wire transmitters may operate only with the live-zero standard signal 4-20 mA. The typical measurement loop in 2-wire technology shows the power supply, the transmitter and the receiving elements, such as analogue inputs, indicators, recorders etc., connected in series with the loop. Usually the power supply is located in a clean room, e.g. in the control centre, however, the transmitter in a dust and water-proof housing is placed in the field, next to the detecting point. 2-wire transmitters using the most advanced electronics technology may operate with power supply voltages between 12 V, DC and 50 V, DC. The admissible maximum burden connected to the output loop depends on the power supply voltage. In the 2-wire mode it is technically impossible to provide independent adjustments for zero and span. Therefore, calibration and maintenance is slightly more time-consuming and needs more experience compared with 4-wire transmitters.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 5. SIGNAL TRANSMISSION / 5.5 Non-isolating and isolating transmitters
5.5
Non-isolating and isolating transmitters
While driving grounding rods into the ground at two points several hundred meters apart and connecting a voltmeter between them, a voltage difference becomes noticeable.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:05 AM
Page 102
This potential difference exists between practically any two points along the earths surface. From this resulted voltage problems can cause when trying to measure a process at a remote location. It is necessary to ground the sensor at the remote site to reduce noise and to protect the equipment from damage caused by lightning. But if grounded thermocouples are used and if its tried to ground one side of the transmitter output loop at the control room, the voltage difference between the two points will induce an error current along the line, resulting in an erroneous measurement indication or in equipment damage! To eliminate this ground loop, an isolating transmitter can be used. This type of transmitter electrically isolates the transmitters output loop from the sensor signal as well as - in case of a 4-wire transmitter -, from the power supply, and allows to ground both, the sensor and one side of the output loop.
Everybody knows: a transformer can transform only alternating current (AC). Actually, thats the reason why direct currents (DC) are first converted into AC, then transformed by the transformer and finally rectified again to obtain DC, reproducing exactly the DC at the modules input. Recommendation, Conclusion The induced error current, caused by the earth potential difference or by lightning, can cause erroneous measurements and equipment damage! Do not use non-isolating transmitters! Use only isolating transmitters! Galvanic isolation between signals and power supply. The galvanical isolation in transmitter and power supply opens the induced error current path!
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 6. CONTROL, ALARMING AND DISPLAY
6/30/2001 - 10:35:05 AM
Page 103
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 6. CONTROL, ALARMING AND DISPLAY
When the signal at the desired location (e.g. central control room) arrives it has to be further treated either for display, recording, alarm or control. In a modern cement plant the 4-20 mA are fed directly into the Process Station (PS). This is the simplest method since any measurement can be used for any purpose without any further effort provided a good standard and user software is installed in the PS. How the signal is treated further can be red in chapter Motor Control.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY
7.
MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY
The cement industry uses in most cases common instruments but faces some cement specific problems. As shown in the instrument list, the cement industry applies not too many different types of sensors, respective measuring principles. However the tendency is increasing. Problems are encountered mainly with high temperature, clogging and coating. Many of these problems can be evaded by selecting the proper instrument, respectively primary element and/or picking a suitable location. Maintenance and regular calibration avoid break downs and prolong the lifetime of the primary element. Note: To facilitate easy maintenance, accessibility of the primary elements and the transmitter is vital. Cement specific sensors and measuring systems are illustrated in the next chapters.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.1 Temperature
7.1
Temperature
In the cement industry generally thermocouples, PT 100 resistance bulbs and pyrometers are used. For kiln shell measurement, temperature scanners are often applied together with a display system. These scanner systems range from a simple pyrometer connected to a recorder or from a scanner head connected to a PC with an elaborated software giving information about the shell temperature, interpretation about the inside of the kiln and even a brick management and slip detection can be included.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.1 Temperature / 7.1.1 Thermocouple
7.1.1
Thermocouple
Mostly applied for temperature measurement in the cement industry are thermocouples which use the peltier effect as measurement principle. A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metals. Between these metals a voltage is generated. The electro-motoric force (emf) developed by a thermocouple depends on the temperature of both, the measuring (hot) junction and the reference (cold) junction. Important for a thermocouple is therefore: the type of thermocouple and the manufactures data (e.g. type K thermocouple)
6/30/2001 - 10:35:05 AM
Page 104
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 the extension cable of the appropriate type (e.g. type K for type K thermocouple) temperature range and type of thermocouple (e.g. type K for 200 - 1200C) cold junction reference temperature 0C, 20C or others. the type of protection sheath. The length of the TC as well as the protection tube should be standardised (e.g. 800 mm and 1200 mm). The material for the sheath may however be different for various applications since a high temperature protection sheath is very expensive. To calibrate a transmitter for a thermocouple, a mV source is required. This source is connected in the measuring loop instead of the thermocouple. According the manufacturer's data sheet, mV for 0C and mV for the maximum temperature are fed into the loop. Then the output of the transmitter 0C = 4 mA and max. temperature = 20 mA are checked as well as the display in the control room together with any alarm limits. The temperature range from -200C up to +2000C can be covered with thermocouples.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.1 Temperature / 7.1.2 Resistance bulb RTD PT 100
7.1.2
Resistance bulb RTD PT 100
For lower temperature (e.g. for machine protection) resistance thermometers are used. RTDs work on the principle of a resistance changing when the temperature varies. Mostly used in the cement industry is the Pt 100 platinum resistance bulb. The PT 100 has a resistance of 100 at 0C and 158.8 at 150C. When selecting a resistance bulb, it is important to specify a 2-, 3- or even a 4-wire type. To compensate for the line resistance a 3-wire type normally is sufficient. If the transmitter is installed nearby, even a 2-wire bulb is good enough.
To calibrate a transmitter for a PT 100 a resistance decade is required. This resistance box is connected in the measuring loop instead of the PT 100. According the data sheet the base resistance (e.g. 100 for PT 100) for 0C and the maximum resistance for the maximum temperature (e.g. 158.8 for PT 100) are fed into the loop. Then the output of the transmitter 0C = 4 mA and max. temperature = 20 mA are checked as well as the display in the control room together with any alarm limits. PT 100 transmitters require initial calibrations of the entire loop. After that only an occasional check up is required. With PT 100 bulbs temperatures from -250C up to +1000C are measurable.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.1 Temperature / 7.1.3 Pyrometer
7.1.3
Pyrometer
6/30/2001 - 10:35:06 AM Page 105
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 The cement industry uses two types of pyrometers. The radiation pyrometer which detects radiation through an optical lens system onto the thermopile or photo cell and the two colour ratio pyrometer which compares the ratio of the radiation intensity of two different wave lengths.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.1 Temperature / 7.1.4 Scanner
7.1.4
Scanner
The central feature of a scanner is a motor driven optical system which scans the entire kiln with a certain frequency (e.g. 16 Hz). The front of the scanner measures parallel along the axis of the kiln, in the back of the scanner a reference temperature is used to calibrate the system.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.2 Pressure
7.2
Pressure
Pressure can be measured either as liquid column (e.g. U-tube) with a mechanical principle (e.g. diaphragm, burden tube) or electrically (e.g. piezo crystal, strain gauge). The pressure measured in the cement industry is usually very low. Therefore, the differential pressure (gage pressure that is the difference between the absolute pressure and the atmosphere) is measured. Most pressure transmitters applied in the cement industry are of the mechanical type where one side is connected to the process and the other side is left open to the atmosphere. Drawing F44570-1 is a typical example of a differential pressure measurement. The bellows are subjected to a pressure change and move, via mechanical links, a plunger in an electrical field. The electronic senses the movement and converts the change in the field into an electrical standard signal. To avoid problems with pressure transmitters some installation points have to be observed: Location: Process line: locate the transmitter near the pressure tapping easy accessible. Mostly applied as unit by the manufacturer. the pressure tapping can be above or below the transmitter. In any case the process line must be installed such that no water or dirt can accumulate. Thus, always have at least 2% slope in the process line. If the tapping is above the transmitter a water trap is required. install a tapping in such a way that cleaning is easily possible. Thus, a simple removable cover should allow pocking of the process tapping. In large ducts two or more tappings connected with each other give a better result.
Tapping:
To calibrate a pressure transmitter a pressure source is required. This source is connected in the measuring loop on the primary side of the transmitter. To check the zero both sides of the transmitter are left open to the atmosphere. To check the maximum, an equivalent pressure (or vacuum) is applied. The output of the transmitter 0 kPa = 4 mA and max. pressure = 20 mA are checked as well as the display in the control room together with any alarm limits.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:06 AM
Page 106

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.3 Flow (gas and liquids)
7.3
Flow (gas and liquids)
Flow measurement is thoroughly discussed in the corresponding paper of the process technology department.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.4 Level
7.4
Level
Level measurements, whether continuous or just as level alarms are often applied and often not 100% satisfactory. A poll carried out in 1992 querying the performance of the different level measurements in some 30 factories showed results from very satisfactory to useless. Depending on the method applied, the installation and the maintenance the same level measurement is rated different with regards to performance. The following level measurements are used successfully in the cement industry. Some mechanical types like paddle, ball etc. are not explained since their function is very simple.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.4 Level / 7.4.1 Capacity probe
7.4.1
Capacity probe
The capacity probe uses the measuring principle of two plates being isolated by a dielectricum where the capacitance depends on the area of the plates, the distance between the plates and the medium between the plates the dielectricum. When installing a capacity probe, the plates (the probe and the silo wall) are fixed and the distance is fix provided, the probe is mounted properly. The variation in the measuring loop is therefore the dielectricum which is formed either by material between probe and wall or air. The following problems may occur thus hampering the performance: sticky material on the probe. This can be avoided using the proper type of level probe that is insulated or partly insulated probes. probe installed too close to silo wall thus evoking bridging. sensitivity adjusted to fine. Humidity in the air or in the material changes the property of the dielectricum. mechanical damage may result from coarse material or from sheer force. (E.g. coal dust has very high sheer force). Use an other measuring principle or use an insulated capacity probe.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.4 Level / 7.4.2 Vibration
7.4.2
Vibration
The vibration fork level probe is only used for a single point measurement. A driver induces a vibration in the probe and a controller senses a change when material dampens the vibration. The tuning fork is obtainable in two forms, one being the actual fork and the other in form of a tube. The following problems may occur thus hampering the performance: material stuck between the fork. Use a tube type to avoid this problem mostly occurring with coarse material. material coating the probe. Use the fork type probe since this problem takes place mainly with fine material.

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.4 Level / 7.4.3 Electro mechanical
7.4.3
Electro mechanical
Quite successful practice is the level measurement with the so called silo pilot. A rope or measuring tape connected to a weight is lowered into the silo. As soon as the weight touches the material surface, the rope (tape) tension ceases, the motor reverses and pulls the weight back into its original position. During the upward travel the tape is measured, such giving an indication of the level within the silo. The following points have to be considered by using a silo pilot: position on top of the silo so that no material can fall onto the weight. When lowering the weight it should be in the centre of the material cone. access to the rope respective belt and the weight must be easy. Install an inspection door to assist maintenance. select the proper weight for the corresponding material
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.4 Level / 7.4.4 Contactless level probes
7.4.4
Contactless level probes
Several methods allow level measurement without being in contact with the material. Ultra sonic is the most popular and is used with coarse material, e.g. gypsum, limestone. In connection with dust in the sonic beam or on the material surface <40C, e.g. cement, raw meal, this method should not be applied. Level can be measured up to 45 m under good conditions. Rather new on the market are infrared and radar. With infrared no experience has been gained. Good experiences have been gained with radar in environment where ultrasonic fails. In clinker and in raw material silos the measurement with radar proved to be successful even with high dust load. In raw meal the measurement did not work and the problem seems to be the conductivity. Only material with a certain conductivity respective a low dielectricum can reflect the radar beam. Up to now only measurements for 35 m depth are available. This is due to the strength of the source which must be within the limit of the wireless regulation of the respective country. The radar method works in a temperature range of -40C up to +250C.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.4 Level / 7.4.5 Radiation level probes
7.4.5
Radiation level probes
Well-known and well-proven are the nuclear type of level probes. From a measurement technical point of view no restrictions are known. In most cases where all other methods fail the nuclear level probe serves well almost maintenance free. In many countries, however, importing or handling the source is very difficult. Additionally the disposal of the source is in many cases almost impossible and requires a lot of responsibility of the person in charge. And more restriction for the future are to be expected. An alternative (even in the pre-heater cyclones) offers the micro wave level measurement. The arrangement is similar to the nuclear level measurement a microwave source on the one side and a detector on the other side. The microwaves beam of approx. 20o angle, some 5.8 GHz or as high as 24.125 GHz penetrates any non-conductive material. The maximum distance through air is around 8 m. Alternative measurements around the corner are possible if the space is limited. The installation must be such that a light beam would be properly reflected.
Microwave level measurements are sensitive to moisture. In fact, microwave is used as well for moisture measurement. The microwave source is so weak, that no danger comes from the measurement. (No cooking can be done with this microwave source, the energy emitted is less than 25 mW.)
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.5 Weighing
7.5
Weighing
Weighing and weigh feeder play an important role in the cement industry. To produce a good cement quality, accurate weigh feeding of the different components is important. To bill the customer agreeable again, weighing plays the key role. Already these two important requirements show that for weighing two different ways are possible: the static weighing (weigh bridge) and the dynamic weighing (weigh feeder). The weigh bridge at the factory entrance is regarded as the most important and accurate unit. The weigh bridge is in many countries subjected to stringent government regulation and must be checked and calibrated on a regular base. For weigh bridges the measuring principle applied is usually one or several load cells. Due to the strict government roles and due to the simple measurement principle these scales usually are fairly accurate. Small bins are as well placed onto load cells to weigh the contents. And, as long as the construction is suitable, that is three load cells, free moving construction and protection against wind, the measurement can be very accurate. The total weight (xy tons in the bin) may not be accurate but loss in weight is accurate. Thus, for calibration of a weigh feeder or for volumetric weigh feeding a loss in weight is well-qualified. The next important weighing principle is the continuous measurement of material to constantly feed an accurate amount of material, the dynamic weighing with weigh feeder. Several principles are applied with different accuracy, different efforts for maintenance and different prices. Thus when selecting the weigh feeder the following points must be taken into consideration: Accuracy required. Mechanical suitability for the material and the environment. Space availability (height and area). Especially building height can be reduced (cost saving) with certain weighing arrangements and weighing principles.
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Signal availability and signal transmission. (4-20 mA and digital signals or communication via a bus system). Maintenance that is time interval between calibration, access for calibration e.g. re-routing of material onto a lorry, cleaning required, complexity of the control, spare parts etc. Measurement principle. Silo discharge system. Most problems of inaccurate weighing arise from poor flowing material.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.5 Weighing / 7.5.1 Belt weigher
7.5.1
Belt weigher
The most common measuring principle applied in the cement industry is the belt weigher. A section of the belt runs over idlers supported by a frame section placed onto load cells. The weight over this belt section multiplied with the speed represents the feed rate Q = P * v whereas: Q = feed rate [t/h] P = weight per width [kg/m] v = speed [m/h] This principle is well-known and if maintained properly very accurate (error < 1%)
Also different methods of calibration are offered, but only the following are accurate and repeatable: Run for e.g. 5 minutes material onto a lorry, weigh the lorry and calculate the feed rate weight x 12 (if the calibration time was 5 min.). Thus when designing the weigh feeders a means to calibrate onto a lorry must be included or alternatively weigh bins above the feeders to calibrate with the loss in weight method which is a very accurate method too.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.5 Weighing / 7.5.2 Gravimetric feed system
7.5.2
Gravimetric feed system
A gravimetric feed system is mainly used for coal feeders. This weighing system is complex but accurate. A bin on load cells is rapidly charge with material. The filling then stops and for n seconds the bin is emptied. (tn = discharge time depending on bin size).
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 When reaching a certain low level the bin is recharged again and during this time the speed of the discharge feeder is maintained at the previous feed rate. The feed rate Q is calculated by the formula: Q= m = loss of weight during tn [kg] tn = discharge time [s] Modern systems calculate the feed rate during a very short time period and take the whole time to calibrate the system. The accuracy of such a system is < 1%. The maintenance however is high and the system is complex.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.5 Weighing / 7.5.3 Volumetric feeders
7.5.3
Volumetric feeders
A simple method is a volumetric feeder. The accuracy is largely dependent on the feeder itself and on the flow property of the material. Depending on the required accuracy, a periodic calibration onto a lorry is needed. If a higher accuracy is required a weigh bin has to be introduced prior to the feeder and a similar measuring method as mentioned in the gravimetric flow measurement has to be applied.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.5 Weighing / 7.5.4 Impact flow meter
7.5.4
Impact flow meter
A controversial measurement is the weight measurement with an impact flow meter. Material flows on to a plate which in turn is placed on a load cell. The impact on to the plate is proportional to the impact
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 created by a mass falling from a height h. The impact is in practice also depending on the flow properties of the material which in turn is depending on various factors. Thus, this measurement requires a fair amount of mechanical design around the actual measurement. Dedusting, the feed to and away from the impact flow meter are crucial for the accuracy of the measurement.
In practice the impact flow meter is mostly applied together with a pre bin arranged with load cells. This arrangement allows an automatically periodical calibration of the flow meter, in order to compensate sticking material at the plate.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.5 Weighing / 7.5.5 Nuclear weigh feeder
7.5.5
Nuclear weigh feeder
Weighing with nuclear weigher is nothing new in the cement industry but is and remains a controversial measurement. Although, a simple and reliable measurement the import and the disposal of the nuclear source is problem. A nuclear weigher consists of a gamma source and a gamma ray detector. Both are connected on a mechanical frame which is located across the conveyor. The beauty is that almost any conveyor (e.g. belt, apron feeder, screw conveyor etc.) can be fitted with an A or C frame nuclear weigher. Even in an existing installation does the installation of an A or C frame seldom present a problem. A nuclear weigh feeder determines the weight by measuring the absorption of the material. Every material absorbs radiation according the exponential law. The absorption is proportional to the thickness and the density of the material bed. The absorption is then related to the mass of the material which, when multiplied with the speed, results in the mass flow. The main absorption (basic absorption Ag) is in many cases given by the construction. The absorption with a given density is then proportional with the bed thickness (Am). To receive good results the absorption Ag should not be larger than 95%.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:08 AM
Page 112
Due to a less thick material bed (3) the absorption measured by the detector (5) is lower. The absorption (2) by the conveyor (4) is remaining constant and calibrated as zero. When installing an nuclear weigher the following points should be taken into consideration: import regulation for nuclear devices disposal of nuclear sources building and conveyor construction basic absorption (Ag) electronic with source decay compensation even material flow (an irregular bed which influences the measurement negatively) the initial accuracy is around 2% remaining constant even with hardly any maintenance.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.5 Weighing / 7.5.6 Head flow meter
7.5.6
Head flow meter
In an air lift the air pressure measured is more or less proportional to the amount of material transported. However, pressure influence other than the amount of material is coming from dedusting and from pressure changes from the system following the air lift (e.g. pre-heater and kiln). The head flow meter as an indication to the material flow is quite acceptable.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.6 Analytical measurements
7.6
Analytical measurements
For further information, please refer to the appropriate paper Quality assurance in the material technology II.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.7 Electrical energy and power measurements
7.7
Electrical energy and power measurements
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.7 Electrical energy and Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query: 6/30/2001 - 10:35:08 AM Page 113

power measurements / 7.7.1 Introduction
7.7.1
Introduction
In the cement industry, the topic Energy will become more and more important. - In the past until today the price for electrical energy is still low enough that nobody cares to much. But the near future will show us the opposite. The energy consumption will still increase but the energy production cannot follow this rising demand. Thus a bottle-neck will occur. The power companies have already started to think about increasing energy prices and how to introduce new tariff structures (Energy Exchange). Consequently, we have at least to stabilise our energy consumption or, even better, decrease the consumption. The first step will be to measure before other steps can be taken. - The following chapter treats this topic.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.7 Electrical energy and power measurements / 7.7.2 Definition of energy and power
7.7.2
Definition of energy and power
What is electrical energy? Energy, generally, is stored work or the ability to perform work. Electric energy (W el) is potential energy or expressed in an other way, the product of electric voltage (U) and electric charge (Q). The electric charge can be replaced by the product of current and time (W el = U * Q = U * I * t; whereas I = current and t = time). The electric energy is comparable to energy of position in the mechanic that is: potential difference: quantity: height -> voltage U. weight -> electric charge Q.
The unit is volt-ampere-second [VAs] or in a more practical way kilo-watt-hour [kWh]. One kWh is equal to 3.6 MJ [860 kcal]. What is electric power? To express performance the work to complete is related to the time required to do it. Similar, the more powerful a machine is, the more work can be done in a shorter time. Thus, the power is proportional to the work and inverse proportional to the time to complete the job. The electric power (P) is the product of voltage (U) and current (I). At the first sight, there is no time any more in the formula, but the definition of the current is the relation between the transported charge quantity and the time. The electric power is comparable to the mechanical power. For example, the power of a hydro power plant is dependent on the height of fall (voltage) and the flux (current). - The unit is volt-ampere [VA] or more practical kilo-watt [kW]. Apparent, actual, reactance The power companies bill in most cases the actual energy only. To avoid producing too much apparent energy, they demand a power factor correction between 0.87 and up to 0.9. Few power companies ask for a reactance energy meter and if certain values are surpassed adjust the bill accordingly. Some power companies bill the client already according the apparent energy (measured actual and reactive energy). And this may be the future method of accounting the client since a power company has to produce the apparent power and not only the actual power. Using a mechanical diagram the three electrical components: apparent (resultant), actual (linear) and reactive (lateral) are explained. The following picture explains the three different electrical components, apparent, actual and reactive current. Whether current, power or energy is used is immaterial for this example.
When looking at the force diagram the energy required to pull the spring is obviously the linear force Fp (electrical actual force). The spring is subjected to the following two forces: The lateral force FQ (electrically reactive force) which is not required. The resultant force F (electrically apparent force) has to be produced in order to gain sufficient momentum to pull the spring apart.
When measuring an electric circuit with a transducer the actual power is measured which is required to drive a machine. The power company in turn produces the apparent power. If the cosine is multiplied with the apparent power, the result is the actual power. The difference between the produced and the consumed power is the reactive power.
Apparent power Actual power Reactive power
S=U*I P = U * I * cos P = S * cos Q = U * I * sin
[VA] or [kVA] [W] or [kW] [var] or [kvar]
Why measure? As already mentioned, Electrical Energy centributes 20-30 % of the cement production cost. Thus electric energy is important factor as a production component in the cement industry. It is therefore imperative to measure the energy consumption in order to be able to determine solutions to save energy and thus maintaining the costs at least at the present level.
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 The energy consumption [kWh] and the specific energy consumption [kWh/t] are even units to compare for example departments in different plants or different types of machines (e.g. ball mill/vertical mill) to each other. Where to measure? Drawing E310015 shows the process structure in a cement plant which is ideally represented with the corresponding electrical structure and thus the ideal energy measuring points. The measuring points are arranged in different levels: Main entrance-level; measuring point for charging by power company At this point, the local power company measures the total consumption of the plant; it should also be a comparable-measuring of the plant; but attention, the result has not to be the same (two measuring circuits). Department-level; Every department should be measured separately to have an overview of the electric consumption in the different departments. Likewise for large consumers which are directly connected to the medium voltage distribution. Process/Non-process-level; It is necessary to measure the non-process part to distinguish between process- and non-process-consumers. Since less measuring points are used for non-process measurement, costs can be reduced by measuring the Total - non-process = process. (see drawing E310015) Special consumer-level; This level contains consumers of special interest from an energy point of view. Energy-/power metering in a cement plant
If all these measuring points are counted together, the total will be around 50. But in practice it is very difficult to find such an electric distribution. So in reality the amount of measuring points will increase to 500 points which will be rather costly. The conclusion is, that measuring starts with proper electrical departments thus a proper distribution. How to measure energy? Today there are two measurement principles for electric energy, a direct measuring method and an indirect one. - An important criterion is the measuring principle. The method applied depends on the
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 kind of load, the connected voltage (voltage - and/or current transformer necessary) and the accuracy required. The figure F44942 shows different connection diagrams for the measuring method with kWh-meter. The same principle is utilised for a power transducer. kWh-meter (direct measuring method) The kWh-meter forms with the current-path and the voltage-path a mechanical torque, which is proportional to the electric power. This torque sets the metering disc in a corresponding number of turns per unit of time. The multiplication with the time to receive energy, follows with the addition of the number of rotations. The kWh-meter shall be equipped with an on/off output module. This module includes a pulse contact system and a pulse amplifier, suitable for further handling in a control system. For example; In the control system, the energy will be calculated with the time between two pulses. The practice shows that this digital method is not such exact than the method described below. - The above described measuring method is the principle of Ferraris-counter or eddy current motor. Today more and more static kWh-meters are utilised. The same measuring method is done in an electronic way and not any more in an electro mechanical way, but there is still a pulse contact output. Power transducer (indirect measuring method) The power transducer measures current and voltage separately and calculates internally the electric power. The output signal is an analogue signal (4-20 mA) for electric power. This analogue signal is an input in the control system where the signal is integrated with the time which results in a more accurate measurement as opposed to a pulse-signal from a kWh-meter. Process measurement display The display of the energy measurement is just as important as the measurement itself. The measurement has to be displayed in form of power or energy as well as specific energy measurement (e.g. for the raw mill kWh per ton of raw meal. The display is further described in chapter MMI, Visualisation.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C05 - Sensors / Sensors / 7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY / 7.8 Field devices
7.8
Field devices
Just as important as analogue instruments are the on/off sensors, control and field devices. Most measuring principles as described in the previous sections are available as on/off devices. Few on/off sensors are available as smart sensors and even less can be connected to a bus (Profibus). The problems encountered with field devices are similar as with analogue instruments and the same provision has to be made as with the analogue instruments. Sensors like limit switches, pressure switches, speed switches etc. are available in different price classes. Do not feel tempted to buy cheap
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 sensors as the money saved will be spent tenfold on maintenance and on down time. Only the best is good enough. And only the best installation will give acceptable performance. And where possible replace on/off sensors with analogue sensors.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:10 AM
Page 118

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C06 - Motor Control
C06 - Motor Control
6/30/2001 - 10:35:10 AM
Page 119

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C06 - Motor Control / Motor Control
Motor Control
Roland Luder 1. INTRODUCTION 2. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC) 2.1 Introduction, History 2.2 Hardware of Programmable Controllers 2.3 Structure of a PLC 2.4 Software of Programmable Controllers 2.5 Programming a PLC 2.6 Criteria governing the Choice of PLC
6/30/2001 - 10:35:10 AM
Page 120

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C06 - Motor Control / Motor Control / 1. INTRODUCTION
1.
INTRODUCTION
As already mentioned in the chapter AUTOMATION SYSTEMS, Motor Control is a very important part of cement plant control. It is the part which switches drives and valves etc. ON and OFF. These switching operations have to be performed under normal as well as under special operating conditions of the process. Motor control further includes monitoring and alarming of these conditions. Physically, a motor control system consists of an operating panel as interface to the operator (with push buttons, lamps, mouse, displays) a logic controller which performs the logical interlocking of all information (with relays, electronic or programmable controllers) a plant/process interface with sensors and command elements (switches, contactors, valves) cabling, which interconnects the different components of the system. A motor control system for a modern cement production line has to control approx. 1000 motors and a few hundred valves, heaters, acoustic and optical devices. The correct and efficient command of all these items requires a systematic planning of the system and a careful selection of the components. The tendency in systems design is to integrate motor control and analogue control functions into the same physical unit. This set-up has the advantage that only one type of hardware is required and that interconnections between the binary and the analogue systems can be programmed and do not have to be wired.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C06 - Motor Control / Motor Control / 2. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC)
2.
PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC)
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C06 - Motor Control / Motor Control / 2. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC) / 2.1 Introduction, History
2.1
Introduction, History
The logic controller is the brain of the motor control system, i.e. the decision-making part. It takes care of the safe, convenient sequential starting, running and stopping of single motors or of whole groups of machines. There are basically three different techniques to build-up an electrical logic controller:
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C06 - Motor Control / Motor Control / 2. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC) / 2.1 Introduction, History / 2.1.1 Relay Technology
2.1.1
Relay Technology
A relay uses the electro-mechanical equipment which uses the electromagnetic force of an electrical coil to open or close electrical contacts. The internal wiring of these coils and contacts determines the specific function of the set-up. Relays control has been the only technology until approx. 1960. Today relays are still used for interfacing (power amplifying) purposes and for very small control
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 systems.

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C06 - Motor Control / Motor Control / 2. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC) / 2.1 Introduction, History / 2.1.2 Electronic Card System
2.1.2
Electronic Card System
This technology was developed in Europe and was applied approx. until 1975. It consists of electronic components, pre-assembled on printed circuit boards and performing specific logic functions. The function of the total system is determined by the wiring between the different logic cards. Today these systems are hardly anymore installed.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C06 - Motor Control / Motor Control / 2. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC) / 2.1 Introduction, History / 2.1.3 Programmable Controllers
2.1.3
Programmable Controllers
This technology was introduced in the market approx. 1970, and is the todays dominating technology. The tendency is to replace relays by programmable controllers even in very small applications. The programmable controller uses basically the same idea as a computer does: it uses a memory to store information and it uses this information to execute step by step a procedure which is determined by this information (program; software). The advantages of the programmable controllers as opposed to other technologies are: No mechanical wear no rewiring when modifications are required easier planning (hardware / software can be planned in parallel) higher level of automation is possible integrated solutions with analogue control and data acquisition are possible.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C06 - Motor Control / Motor Control / 2. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC) / 2.2 Hardware of Programmable Controllers
2.2
Hardware of Programmable Controllers
A programmable controller is basically a BLACK BOX with INPUTS and OUTPUTS and a connection to a PROGRAMMING UNIT. With the programming unit, the user determines how the different inputs and outputs must be logically correlated and sequenced to perform the desired control task. The programming nowadays uses a PC to display, to enter or to modify the program as well as an additional storage devices to safeguard it. The BLACK BOX is composed on one or several chassis or racks which basically contain the following elements (see Fig. 2.2.1) Figure 2.2.1 Programmable Controller Hardware Configuration
6/30/2001 - 10:35:10 AM
Page 122
1) Power supply To provide the internal stabilised control voltages of the programmable controller 2) Processor To perform the actual logic / timing and internal control functions 3) Memory To store the program and data 4) Communication port To communicate with external devices (as programming panel, computer, other programmable controllers) or with remote input/output devices. 5) Input/Output (I/O) Devices To transform the signal coming in (INPUT) from outside (e.g. from a level switch) or going out (OUTPUT) to the outside (e.g. to lamps, to the MCC). Today most programmable controllers handle as well analogue I/O signals. Physically all these elements are generally grouped on one or several cards of the draw-out type. The cards are internally interconnected via a system bus which performs a fast exchange of the necessary information between the different cards. This arrangement provides great flexibility in hardware planning: if additional memory space is required, for examples, it is generally sufficient to plug in an additional memory card. The draw-out technique, of course, also simplifies troubleshooting of the hardware (defective card out - new card in restart). It must be noted, however, that once a system is correctly set-up, there are generally no more hardware failures. Figure 2.2.2 shows an example of an input card of the draw-out type which contains 16 inputs. Output cards may be arranged in a similar way. Figure 2.2.2: INPUT (OUTPUT) Card of a Programmable Controller
6/30/2001 - 10:35:10 AM
Page 123
The size of a programmable controller can be expressed by different figures. The most important figure is the number of I/O which a programmable controller can handle. The smallest units start at approx. 15 I/O, the biggest go up to 8000 I/O. The maximum memory size is another key figure which, however, generally goes in parallel with the number of I/Os. Normal sizes range from approx. 0.5 K up to 1000 K (1 K = approx. 1000 program steps). The cycle time (see software) generally goes in parallel with the size of the memory used and is generally expressed in ms/1 K. It ranges from approx. 0.5 to 50 ms/1 K.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C06 - Motor Control / Motor Control / 2. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC) / 2.3 Structure of a PLC
2.3
Structure of a PLC
The diagram below shows the structure of a PLC. The main functional elements of a programmable logic controller are the control unit with one, or sometimes several micro-processors and the corresponding memories for data (timers, counters, markers, etc.) and programs (programmable memories). Block diagram of programmable controller
The program memory, processor, counter, data memory and the input/output units are interconnected. Here connection via bus has become standard practice. By means of this bus the data are exchanged between data memory, processor and program memory.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C06 - Motor Control / Motor Control / 2. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC) / 2.3 Structure of a PLC / 2.3.1 Differences between PLC and a Computer Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query: 6/30/2001 - 10:35:11 AM Page 124
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 2.3.1 Differences between PLC and a Computer
What are the main differences? In a PLC so-called bit processing is used. This is special processing method which processes only one bit. In contrast, the computer always uses word processors, i.e. single bits can only be addressed by programming. A PLC functions in much the same way as a computer, but with the following main differences. Users programs are executed cyclically A PLC needs a very simple operating system The information is processed a bit at a time (facilities for word processing are available) A PLC is a real-time system, i.e. the results of operations are obtained within a short, clearly defined time The set of command is especially intended for control requirements and is therefore limited in its scope The hardware is designed for rough industrial conditions (temperatures between -10 and +60C) Programming is simple, can be understood by electricians and is easy to learn Addressing of input and output cards is transparent To program a PLC a special programming unit has to be connected to it.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C06 - Motor Control / Motor Control / 2. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC) / 2.4 Software of Programmable Controllers
2.4
Software of Programmable Controllers
In the chapter Hardware of Programmable Controllers we have seen that a programmable controller can be represented as a BLACK BOX which contains inputs and outputs. The different inputs and outputs have now to be logically and sequentially interconnected to perform the desired control task. To represent this "logical and sequential interconnection", special languages have been elaborated. Unfortunately, these languages or graphic presentations are not standardised. Main differences can be found between European and American presentations but even within one language, practically every suppliers uses his own slang. For a long time there was a certain market tendency toward the ladder diagram, influenced by the American market where generally only this language is used. The ladder diagram is based on the representation which was used for relay systems. It can, therefore, easily be learned by people who worked with those systems but it does not well represent the new thinking in inputs/outputs. Nowadays a standard is on the market named IEC1131. Any logic can actually be represented with only 4 different instructions: Logic AND, logic OR, logic NOT and TIME instruction. In order to make programming easier, all programmable controllers use additional logic instructions which are composed of specific often-used combinations of above four elements. When a programmable controller is equipped to accept analogue inputs, additional instructions for arithmetic operations and file handling are available.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:11 AM
Page 125
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 For bigger applications (as e.g. in the cement industry) a structured programming making use of macros or subroutines should be applied. The same applies when analogue control capabilities are included in the programmable controller. The actual program is now composed of a series of program steps, every step uses a combination of instructions or macros to define how the different inputs have to be linked with the outputs. It is important to mention that the program is executed step by step. This means that one instruction after the other is read, interpreted and executed. At the end, the program automatically restarts at the beginning. The total time which a program needs to come once from the beginning to the end is called the system cycle time. This time is generally very short (approx. 1...300 ms). For an external observer of the system it, therefore, behaves as if everything (all commands) would be immediately executed - all at the same time. In reality, as explained, only one instruction is executed at one time.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C06 - Motor Control / Motor Control / 2. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC) / 2.5 Programming a PLC
2.5
Programming a PLC
In order to program a PLC a special programming unit is required. The pictures below show different versions of programming units.
Programming units are very efficient, they are PC's of special industrial design, equipped with large-area LCD or with a monitor. They can translate the functions entered by the user in a higher-level programming language specifically intended for control tasks, e.g. as a list of instructions (Fig. a), as
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 functional diagram or contact diagram, direct into the machine code of the control units. They can also translate from the machine code back into the higher-level representation. Figure (a) Programming languages (Siemens)
A control task can be expressed in different languages; the list of instructions (a) can also be translated by simple programming units into a machine language understood by the control system. The functional diagram (b) which is easier to understand by engineers and the ladder diagram (c) which is very popular in USA, impose more exacting demands on the programming unit. At all events such units can be employed on-line, i.e. connected direct with the controller. The programs to be entered in this case are usually entered direct in the programming language of the controller, or for display purposes are read out of a memory. In on-line operation it is also possible to perform test functions, fault location and program correction. A further important function of the programming unit is the program documentation. Special documentation software converts the programs into a form readily understood by the user (auxiliary text, I/O description, comments, etc.). A printer connected to the system is able to print out the documented programs.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C06 - Motor Control / Motor Control / 2. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC) / 2.6 Criteria governing the Choice of PLC
2.6
Criteria governing the Choice of PLC
Basically, any PLC can be used for control tasks in the cement industry, provided it satisfies to following requirements.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C06 - Motor Control / Motor Control / 2. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC) / 2.6 Criteria governing the Choice of PLC / 2.6.1 General
2.6.1
General
The system is well represented and generally known in the country Spare parts are guaranteed obtainable at least for 10 years The system must be capable for expansions in order to integrate future adaptations The dimensions of equipment permit the replacement of existing facilities
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C06 - Motor Control / Motor Control / 2. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC) / 2.6 Criteria governing the Choice of PLC / 2.6.2 Central Unit (CPU)
6/30/2001 - 10:35:11 AM
Page 127
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 2.6.2 Central Unit (CPU)
When the system is extended to full capacity, the cycle time should not exceed 150 ms Adapted memory capacity, so that there is no shortage of storage capacity when the system is fully expanded. On-line programming of modifications while the process is in progress Reasonable set of instructions containing the following: arithmetic with variable decimal point, PID algorithms and functions specified by the user, modules (e.g. motor module). Floating point arithmetics
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C06 - Motor Control / Motor Control / 2. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC) / 2.6 Criteria governing the Choice of PLC / 2.6.3 Communication
2.6.3
Communication
Between PLC's with bus Standardised interface with simple protocol with a main-frame computer (e.g. RS 232, RS 422, RS 485) Standardised interface with subcontrol systems (field bus, profibus, RS 232)
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C06 - Motor Control / Motor Control / 2. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC) / 2.6 Criteria governing the Choice of PLC / 2.6.4 Inputs/Outputs
2.6.4
Inputs/Outputs
Decentralised peripherals connected with the CPU by a serial line (possibly an optical link) 24 V or 48 V DC single-ended inputs/outputs with common ground 4-20 mA analogue single-ended inputs/outputs with common ground Capable of extension up to 2000 inputs and outputs
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C06 - Motor Control / Motor Control / 2. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC) / 2.6 Criteria governing the Choice of PLC / 2.6.5 Programming and Documentation
2.6.5
Programming and Documentation
Off-line programming and documentation with standard PCs Remote line connection of programming units Graphic representation, preferably by functional diagram Symbolic programming of addresses with at least 15 freely chosen characters Commands and operating instructions in the local language Motor control - Logic controller Task: Sequence start and stop of motors, interlocking of motors, machine protection, alarming
6/30/2001 - 10:35:12 AM
Page 128
Motor control - integrated Task: Sequence start and stop of motors, interlocking of motors,machine protection, alarming, measuring, analog control, reporting
Motor control - Programmable controller: System configuration
Motor control - Programmable controller: Hardware configuration
6/30/2001 - 10:35:12 AM
Page 129
Motor Control - Programmable controller: Isolation of signals
Motor Control - Programmable controller: Language, presentation 1. Relay European: AND NOT / OR
2. Relay American (Ladderdiagram):
AND NOT / OR
6/30/2001 - 10:35:12 AM
Page 130
3. Logic card European:
AND NOT / OR
4. Programmable logic controller: Boolean language, (or logic, or ladder) A AND NOT B = C A OR B = C Motor Control - Programmable controller: Language, Example
Example: A: Operator command: Turn motor left B: Plant feedback: Limit switch left reached C: Control system command: Turn motor left
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 D: Operator information lamp: Device in position left Program 1. Input A 2. AND NOT Input B 3. Equals Output C 4. Input B 5. Equals Output D B=D A AND NOT B = C Short
Motor Control - Programmable controller: Language, timer
Example Timer: A: Operator command: Turn motor left B: Plant feedback: Limit switch left reached C: Control system command: Turn motor left Program 1. Timer X = 30 seconds 2. Input A 3. Equals timer X 4. Timer X 5. AND NOT input B 6. Equals output C
6/30/2001 - 10:35:13 AM
Page 132
Motor control - Programmable controller: Language, structured programming
Understanding Computer Technology
Automation systems - Typical configuration
6/30/2001 - 10:35:13 AM
Page 133
History of PLCs 1968: 1969: 1973: 1974: Concept of a Programmable Controller Hardware based CPU Logic statements, 1 Kbytes Memory, 128 i/os Source Code Editing PLC with Multi-Processors Logic, Counter, Timer, Move Words, Arithmetics 12 Kbytes Memory, 1024 i/os 1976: 1977: 1978: 1979: 1980: 1981: 1982/83: Decentralised I/O-Systems Micro Processor based PLC with Logic Co-Processors Universal I/O-Structure Bit Slice Processor Architecture High efficient decentralised I/O-Structure with intelligent I/O-Modules and Block Transfer Instructions Data Highway with Medium Response Time(Token Passing) Micro-programmed, with multi-processor PLCs of 4th Generation In BASIC programmable Co-Processors Integrated Hard disk 1985: Intelligent Programming Units Optical Links Use of PCs for programming and debugging 1986 1989: Graphic/Function Programming More Mass-Storage ?
6/30/2001 - 10:35:14 AM
Page 134
1968 Modular Digital Controller MODICON General Motors: simple to program, easy to change maintenance low modular system safe in industrial environment size smaller than relay panels data communication to other systems cheaper than relais Programmable Logic Controller Evolution of Control Systems 40 years of Relay Systems 20 years of Solid State 10 years of PLCs from island to system
Differences between Relay and PLC Programming

Working Principle of a PLC
Block diagram of programmable controller
Advantages of PLC control against relay
6/30/2001 - 10:35:14 AM
Page 136
6/30/2001 - 10:35:15 AM
Page 137
PLC-Progamming Language
6/30/2001 - 10:35:15 AM
Page 138

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS)
C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS)
6/30/2001 - 10:35:15 AM
Page 139

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS)
TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS)

Urs A. Herzog / Felix Fehr HES 98/6348/E 1. INTRODUCTION 2. PROCESS INFORMATION MANAGEMENT 2.1 Introduction to the Improvement Process 2.2 Importance of information for decision making 2.3 Process Information which is relevant for plant performance improvement 3. TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (TIS) 3.1 Types of Automation- and Information System in a plant, Definitions 3.2 Principle of a Technical Information System (TIS) 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 General Tasks (requirements) of a TIS Structure and Integration of a TIS
3.3 TIS Systems and Suppliers 4. TIS APPLICATIONS AND EXPERIENCES 4.1 TIS System installed and planned in Holderbank plants 4.1.1 4.1.2 System installed and running System planned to be installed (Project approved)
4.2 Some Specific Applications and Experiences, Benefits 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 Alsen Breitenburg Zement - und Kalkwerke GmbH, Lgerdorf, Germany Buendner Cement AG, Untervaz, Switzerland Holnam: Holly Hill, Clarksville, Dundee, Artesia; USA
5. TYPICAL PROJECT SCHEDULE AND SCOPE OF SUPPLY 5.1 Project Schedules (typical) 5.2 Scope of supply (typical) 6. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION 6.1 Results, Benefits 6.2 Conclusion 7. REFERENCES:
6/30/2001 - 10:35:16 AM
Page 140

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 1. INTRODUCTION
1.
INTRODUCTION
Since a few years the cement industry is under continuous pressure to optimise their production in general. One reason is to lower production cost, another is to minimise the use of energy and fulfil the emission limits of new environmental protection legislation. Also cement market asks for new products and product properties, therefore production modification and expansion must be realised in short time. To be able to act and react to this continuous challenge, management and personnel responsable of plant operation must have access to the relevant information about their production, and production equipment. Beside the three classical production resources: manpower, capital, real estate, predictions are that information will soon be the forth. Therefore Information Management Concepts and tools which support the user to get and analyse this information, are getting more and more important: This paper gives an overview of modern Process Information Management, of available Information Systems and some experience of applications of such Information Systems.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 2. PROCESS INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
2.
PROCESS INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 2. PROCESS INFORMATION MANAGEMENT / 2.1 Introduction to the Improvement Process
2.1
Introduction to the Improvement Process
Market competence and changing regulations forces company and plant management to optimise continuously the cement manufacturing process to increase production, improve the equipment performance, reduce the use of energy, reduce the amount of necessary man-hours, in summary lower the overall production cost of our product the cement. In general, optimisation and improvement is based on the following facts: (according Jim Harrington). If you want to improve it, you have to control it ! If you want to control it, you have to understand it ! If you want understand it, you have to measure it ! The three activities: measurement, understanding (to analyse data and to come to a conclusion) and control form together the Improvement Loop. Improvement is only sustainable if this improvement loop is executed continuously. Corporate programs as BCM or MAC fully relay on this improvement loop (e.g KPI measurement, reporting, action meetings, etc.). Nowadays (since the invention of modern computers) some of Improvement Loop tasks can be executed automatically. The most time consuming and boring task of process data acquisition, raw data handling and report compiling can be done with a computer system. Plant personnel can be used for analysing information and for decision making. This is a more adequate challenge for a human
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 being than coping numbers.

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 2. PROCESS INFORMATION MANAGEMENT / 2.2 Importance of information for decision making
2.2
Importance of information for decision making
The basis for management to make the daily operational and the medium term tactical decision, is information. Information coming from the process and process related actions as quality control, dispatch, emission monitoring and others. If the plant or company management want to act - proactively or reactively - they need information. The more they fine tune the operation (e.g: BCM) and the more they optimise the risks (e.g: MAC), the more comprehensive, reliable, accurate and direct must the information they base there decisions on be. A modified quotation from a Japanese Business Expert (name unknown) says it quite direct: Information is a key success factor for business some Managers know this others are learning the rest will be Victims.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 2. PROCESS INFORMATION MANAGEMENT / 2.3 Process Information which is relevant for plant performance improvement
2.3
Process Information which is relevant for plant performance improvement
For the daily plant operation, as well as for medium and long term plant performances monitoring and improvement the different responsibilities in a plant need the following type of information on hourly, day, week, month and year basis.: Company / Plant Management Production Process Maintenance Quality Energy Environment What is the plant performance this day / week / month / year? Where is the biggest improvement potential? How are we compared to the others (benchmarking) What is the production rate, consumption, actual stock of materials? Does the process / equipment runs optimal? - Why not? What are the equipment runtimes, machine conditions, failures rates? - Failure reasons? What is the quality level of our product? Why is it in / out of specification? What are the specific energy consumption? - Tendencies? What are the emissions? Are we endangered to exceed limits?
In more general terms, the plant personnel needs a tool which provides:
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Relevant Information at the Right Time at the Right Place in the Right Form to the Right People This simple but important statement (from: Rauli Hantikainen) describes the basic requirement of adequate Information Management. A computer systems which can fulfil the above mentioned requirements has to be based on a integrated Database incorporating data sets from all technical related plant disciplines:
Figure 1:
Such system are called: Technical Information System.

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 3. TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (TIS)
3.
TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (TIS)
In the past, most of the management's planning and optimisation was based on different data printouts, recorder charts and manually generated reports. But nowadays tools and system concept are available to get immediate and accurate information on there desk top in seconds.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 3. TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (TIS) / 3.1 Types of Automation- and Information System in a plant, Definitions
3.1
Types of Automation- and Information System in a plant, Definitions
In this paper common industry term as CIM- and ERP- System are used. They are indispensable for describing and defining the architectures and system concepts that are involved in plant wide Information Management system solutions. Their definition is found just below: CIM = Computer-Integrated Manufacturing systems: A series of computer-based systems, both business and technical, integrated into a single conceptual solution. A CIM system is comprised of components and elements of both ERP and TIS systems (see next), as well as the different automation systems like process control, high level control, quality control (lab), etc. ERP = Enterprise Resource Planning system:
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 A integrated, networked computer system providing (primarily) business functions and some manufacturing functions. An ERP system mostly provides also the information link between the company headquarters (HQ) and the plant. In most Holderbank Group Companies the product SAP R/3 is implemented (or planned) as a ERP system. TIS = Technical Information System: A integrated, networked, real-time computer systems providing (primarily) manufacturing functions. Its real-time data base technology merge all plant automation data with data from the non-technical (or business) systems within a Plant. By capturing live information about the manufacturing process as, sensor measurement, set-points, run-times, throughput, yields, etc., a TIS can measure constraints and identify bottlenecks to better manage and control manufacturing processes (see also decryption in chapter 3.2). (In some industries the term MES, Manufacturing Execution System, is uses also). The sketch below shows the structure and interactions of the different mentioned systems. Figure 2:
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 3. TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (TIS) / 3.2 Principle of a Technical Information System (TIS)
3.2
Principle of a Technical Information System (TIS)
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 3. TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (TIS) / 3.2 Principle of a Technical Information System (TIS) / 3.2.1 General
3.2.1
General
In the CIM pyramid, a TIS is locate between the Company / Works Management Level (ERP) and Production / Process Control Level (Plant Automation). The interaction between those levels is as follows: The tactical and strategic decision are made in the higher levels: The computer systems on these levels must provide to management business data and compiled and summarised plant information (process, production, equipment and quality) (time range: days, month, years). The computer systems on these levels must provide to plant responables immediate accurate
6/30/2001 - 10:35:17 AM Page 144
Operation of the plant is done from the lower level systems.
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 real-time process and process related information. (time range: seconds to hours). A TIS System does the automatic data acquisition and data pre-processing. It provides tools for data evaluation, create reports, graphs and tables, for status and performance analysis. It also serves as a data interface between Operation and Managing Level of a plant and company.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 3. TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (TIS) / 3.2 Principle of a Technical Information System (TIS) / 3.2.2 Tasks (requirements) of a TIS
3.2.2
Tasks (requirements) of a TIS
Data Acquisition Data from the process and process related tasks, e.g as material handling, product shipment and quality determination is the basis for compiling the above mentioned information. In a up-to-date cement plant most of this data are already automatically measured by a computer based Process Control System (PCS) and other Automation systems (High Level Control, Lab, Dispatch, Emission, etc.). In a standard set-up of a 3000 to 5000 tones per day plant, the PCS measures and handles roughly 600 analog sensor, 600 counters and integrators and up to 15000 alarm and event messages. Data acquisition, data processing and visualisation is done in real time (milliseconds to seconds). Historical data is normally presented to the operator in graphic trend charts and data historian is stored for playback for up to a week, sometime month. The PCS capability is very limited for tasks, as long term data storage and retrieval, history archiving, data consolidation and report generation. Furthermore data from the lab analyser and dispatch system are normally not interfaced to the PCS. Data acquisition scan time from data of all above mentioned automation system is between 10 to 60 seconds. Data Pre-Processing, Storage and Archiving All the automatic read in data, is filtered and pre-processed according data type (e.g. integration of a kW signal to kWh, conversion of silo distance measurements to silo level, combination of a cement type signal and a material flow signal to a amount of finish good produced, calculation of specific fuel consumption out of heat content, flow of fuel, kiln feed and clinker factor etc.). The different type of scanned and calculated values are then stored in integrated, real-time Database. The data storage structure is optimised for a huge amount of data to be read and retrieved in very short time. Archiving and retrieving to and from a tape or disk unit must be possible under on-line conditions. Raw data lifetime on harddisk is normally 6 to 12 month, on tape between 1 to 10 years (in some special cases as emission data for the EPA, archive data lifetime, must be guaranteed for up to 30 years). Especially a fast and user-friendly data retrieving engine is important. Otherwise the data is buried in a Data Graveyard with no use at all. A short estimate of the total amount of data on such a system emphasise the importance of this statement: Scan time = 1 minute, analog measurements = 1200 tags, amount of alarm and event messages (132 char.) per minute = 1 data lifetime (on disk) = 1 year. (4 Bytes per number, 1 Byte per character, 4 Bytes per message) per minute: per day: ==> (1200 * 4) + (132 * 1) + 4 = 5000 Bytes
==> 60 * 24 * 5000 = 7.2 Mbytes
per year: ==> 365 * 7.2 MB = 2.6 GB (Data Storage Capacity) Data Evaluation
6/30/2001 - 10:35:17 AM
Page 145
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 To analyse this big amount of data it is indispensable to applies specific methods and tools to transfer the raw data to useful information (remember the difficulties to analyse the pyro-process with data on multiple, endless paper charts strips with no physical scale, date, and remarks on it). A state-of-the-art TIS provides most of the following Data Analysis and Reporting tools: Plant Overview Display Gives plant management an immediate overview over actual plant- and equipment- operation. Summary Report with information about the process, production, equipment status, material stock, quality, shipment etc.. Medium and long-term performance monitoring. Short term production and process performance monitoring Actual - and historical process status and performances Shows actual and historical equipment failures and gives maintenance personnel an overview of equipment problems. Enables plant personnel to plan production and maintenance schedules; For special situations also Ad-Hoc analysis can be done and special Reports (Emissions for EPA, ATR for Holderbank, etc.) can be created. For Quality control, process optimisation and maintenance support. Daily / week / month / year Manufacturing Report
Operation Log Reports: Trend graphs Alarm List and Alarm Statistic
List of running hours, production numbers and process values
Statistical Analysis as Charts, Correlation, Pareto Manual Data Entry and Data Modification Capability For the calculation in the pre-processing (see above) the TIS needs manual entered plant constant. Examples of such plant constants are: clinkerfactor, raw material humidity, head content of fuels, etc. A TIS must provide user-friendly functions to enable plant personnel to adjust the constants in a easy way. Furthermore, a TIS must provide functions to modify and adjust calculated and integrated report values. In contrast to booking numbers in a transaction based ERP business system, every physical sensor measurement has a measurement error (independent how often the sensor has been calibrated). Integration of sensor values result in accumulation of the error. For example in a 2 million tonnes per year cement plant, a 2% error in the produced cement belt weigher system, results in a divergence of 40000 tonnes of cement. TIS applications showed that automatic generated reports must be checked for plausibility and adjusted accordingly before they can be approved for further use (e.g. as input data for a SAP, ERP system). Interfaces to Automation- and ERP System As shown in chapter 3.1, a TIS System is located in between the ERP business system of company / works management level and the automation system of the process / production control level. This means a TIS reads his input data from one or multiple automation system as Process Control System, Lab System, Emission Monitoring System etc.. Compiled reports can be sent to the upper level ERP System for further treatment. A TIS supplier must provide and support highly reliable interfaces to different brand of automation- and ERP systems.

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 3. TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (TIS) / 3.2 Principle of a Technical Information System (TIS) / 3.2.3 Structure and Integration of a TIS
3.2.3
Structure and Integration of a TIS
The general structure of a TIS and the integration in the plant information management concept looks as follows: Figure 3:
With this approach, the process related data flows in a structured flow from bottom to top. All systems are networked, manual data entry is minimised, data transfer speed and data quality are maximised. What to avoid In some plants (Holderbank and Non-Holderbank) the automation- and control systems as well as different business computer systems were installed over several years not applying an overall concept. This natural grown computer system agglomeration are typical patchwork solutions with individual computer islands (not using standards). Such systems are highly complex, difficult to document and maintain and result high operation and support costs. The flow of data is limited, because too many systems and interfaces are necessary. Often manual data transfer is used (data printout of one computer system, data entry typing in the other computer). Such approaches are not user friendly, show slow data transfer, low quality of data and redundant data sets and results in user frustration.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 3. TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (TIS) / 3.3 TIS Systems and Suppliers
3.3
TIS Systems and Suppliers
The results of different Industry Market Scan (1993 - 1997), executed in co-operation with Holderbank Group Companies in various countries, are summarised below. The list shows suppliers, product names and country of origin: Supplier ABB Siemens AspenTech FLS / Fuller Product CIMS CEMAT-MIS CIM/21, InfoPlus.21 Plant Guide Origin Switzerland Germany USA USA / Denmark
6/30/2001 - 10:35:18 AM Page 147
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 USA / Denmark FLS / Fuller Plant Guide OSI Honeywell PI System Uniformance USA USA
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 4. TIS APPLICATIONS AND EXPERIENCES
4.
TIS APPLICATIONS AND EXPERIENCES
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 4. TIS APPLICATIONS AND EXPERIENCES / 4.1 TIS System installed and planned in Holderbank plants
4.1
TIS System installed and planned in Holderbank plants
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 4. TIS APPLICATIONS AND EXPERIENCES / 4.1 TIS System installed and planned in Holderbank plants / 4.1.1 System installed and running
4.1.1
System installed and running
Company / Plant AB GmbH / Lgerdorf BCU / Untervaz HOLNAM / Holly Hill, Clarksville, Dundee, Artesia Alpha / Dudfield, Ulco HOLNAM / all 15 plants (cement and slag)
Country Germany Switzerland USA South Africa USA
TIS Supplier / System Siemens / CEMAT-MIS ABB / CIMS AspenTech / CIM21 ABB / CIMS AspenTech / InfoPlus21
Installed 1994 1995 1995/96 1997/98 1997/98
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 4. TIS APPLICATIONS AND EXPERIENCES / 4.1 TIS System installed and planned in Holderbank plants / 4.1.2 System planned to be installed (Project approved)
4.1.2
System planned to be installed (Project approved)
Company / Plant HCB / Siggenthal SCL / Chekka QCL / Gladstone
Country Switzerland Lebanon Australia
TIS Supplier / System ABB / CIMS under Evaluation under Evaluation
planned 1998/99 1998 1998/99
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 4. TIS APPLICATIONS AND EXPERIENCES / 4.2 Some Specific Applications and Experiences, Benefits
6/30/2001 - 10:35:18 AM
Page 148
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 4.2 Some Specific Applications and Experiences, Benefits
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 4. TIS APPLICATIONS AND EXPERIENCES / 4.2 Some Specific Applications and Experiences, Benefits / 4.2.1 Alsen Breitenburg Zement und Kalkwerke GmbH, Lgerdorf, Germany
4.2.1
Alsen Breitenburg Zement - und Kalkwerke GmbH, Lgerdorf, Germany
(Main use of TIS: Process Analysis, Quality Monitoring, MAC report data) Cement plant with 2 kilns, with a capacity of approximately 1.6 mio t/y cement. The company sells more than 34 different types of products and has to keep track of all the sales and quality of the products. Furthermore the new kiln 11 is designed to be feed with numerous alternative raw materials and fuels. TIS System implemented: Siemens CEMAT-MIS Technical Concept Siemens CEMAT-MIS Technical Information System installed in 1994 The system uses a Server based on a PC (Intel Pentium) running Siemens proprietary DBMS and PC Clients running MS Excel for reporting and data analysis. Trend display and analysing tool (extended analysis possible on integrated Excel tool) Use standard production, operation reports and custom defined daily production report (realised on Excel). Reads process and production data directly from the Process Control System (PCS = Siemens CEMAT Coros LSB / S5). Reads approx. 2000 analog values and process more all alarms and event messages, scan rate = 1 minute). Quality data from the automatic, roboterised lab system (Polysius POLAB) are feed via interface directly to the CEMAT-MIS (event driven). Data from the Emission Monitoring system are send to the CEMAT-MIS via interface. The CEMAT-MIS reads dispatch and sales data once per day from the company mainframe via ASCII file transfer. All systems are connected via an Ethernet LAN (H1 and TCP/IP protocol). Integrates production, operation, quality, emission and consumption monitoring and reporting. More to 16 user PCs. Reports on the plant files server (Novell) can be transfered via modem lines at the terminal and grinding plant locations. The CEMAT-MIS is a very reliable and adequate performing system (more than two years of experiences). The excellent trending and reporting features provided a tool to analyse and optimise the process easy (for example the ball mill charges). Advantage: TIS calculate the specific energy consumption for each type of cement individually. With this cement type dependent energy consumption trends can be monitored which is only possible with automatic data acquisition and pre-processing via PCS and TIS. The CEMAT-MIS was directly used for the commissioning of the new kiln 11. The long-term data storage and trending function provided a excellent tool to speed up commissioning. It even prevented the plant to pay the cost for a damaged EP Filter, because with the data from the
6/30/2001 - 10:35:18 AM Page 149
Experiences / Benefits
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 CEMAT-MIS the engineers were capable to find the root-cause and the exact time when the damage happened. So repair cost could be turned over to the suppliers insurance. Tailor made reports for the MAC Initiative provide automatically, on daily basis the necessary production- and equipment efficiency- numbers. This data were used to calculate the KPI (Key Process Indicators) and are the basis for failure analysis. The biggest benefit from the system is fast and automatic report generation every morning (sustainable). Data accuracy with this system is much better than manual data processing and saves up to 3 man-hours per day. Complex process analysis realised with correlation charts provide new perceptions, which help to increase production equipment efficiency. System is very well accepted and used by plant personnel. In 1998 a SAP R/3 ERP System will replace the now used mainframe system. An interface for data exchange between the SAP R/3 and the Siemens CEMAT-MIS systems is foreseen. The planed use of this interface is to transfer form the TIS failure reasons and equipment running hours in the SAP Plant Maintenance Module (PM). A study will check the possibility to use the SAP Production Planning Module (PP) with production numbers from the TIS.
Further Proceeding and Projects
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 4. TIS APPLICATIONS AND EXPERIENCES / 4.2 Some Specific Applications and Experiences, Benefits / 4.2.2 Buendner Cement AG, Untervaz, Switzerland
4.2.2
Buendner Cement AG, Untervaz, Switzerland
(Main use of TIS: Emission Reporting, Overall Manufacturing Report, Energy Reporting). Cement plant with 2 kilns with a capacity of 1 mio t/y cement. TIS System implemented: ABB CIMS Technical Concept ABB CIMS Technical Information System installed in 1994/95. Reads process and production data directly from the Process Control System (PCS), realised with an Allen Bradley PLC 5 and PC based HMI system (reads approx. 600 analog values and process up to 15000 alarms and event messages, scan rate = 1 minute). Integrates production-, operation, consumption and emission monitoring and reporting. Trend display and analysing tool (extended analysis possible on integrated EXCEL tool). CIMS is a Server / Client solution based on DEC Alpha server running a Oracle DBMS and PC Clients running MS Access and Excel for reporting and data analysis. Use standard production and operation reports and custom defined emission report (realised on Access). CIMS can consolidate (and compress) data to hour, shift, day, month and year values and stores data for on-line access up to 1 year. Improved and faster monitoring and reporting of emission data to EPA. Tool to analyse operating and emission data which improved the use of HWDF burning. Reduced drastically the man-hours (up to 2 man-hours daily) needed for manual data entry and manual analysis to generate emission and production reports.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:19 AM Page 150
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 A sophisticated Overall Manufacturing Report provide on daily and monthly basis a summary of key process, production, consumption, efficiencies, stock and quality data. Saves production management up to 0.5 man-hour daily. Expand CIMS for enhanced production reporting and detailed electrical consumption reporting. An interface for data exchange between the SAP R/3 and the ABB CIMS systems is foreseen (flow of material, equipment runhours and condition). Adapted reports for support for MAC Initiative.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 4. TIS APPLICATIONS AND EXPERIENCES / 4.2 Some Specific Applications and Experiences, Benefits / 4.2.3 Holnam: Holly Hill, Clarksville, Dundee, Artesia; USA
4.2.3
Holnam: Holly Hill, Clarksville, Dundee, Artesia; USA
(Main use of TIS: Emission Reporting, Process Analysis). Four Cement plants which burn HWDF (Hazardous Waste Derived Fuel). Legislation force them to monitor emission (based on gas analyser and materiel input model calculation). TIS System implemented: AspenTech CIM21 (former company: ISI) Technical Concept AspenTech CIM21 Technical Information System installed in 1995 and 1996 Reads process and production data directly from the Process Control System (PCS), realised with a Modicon PLC and Gensym G2 based HMI systems (reads approx. 200 - 330 analog values per kiln, scan rate = 1 minute). Integrates emission monitoring and reporting. Trend display and analysing tool (extended analysis possible on EXCEL tool). CIM21 runs on UNIX based HP workstation server. The Database is proprietary. PC (under X-Window) can be used as user interface. Provide the mandatory (according EPA) emission monitoring, reporting and data archiving. HWDF burning would not be possible without this TIS systems. The system is also used for process data analysis (mainly graphic trend) because trending features of the used PCS are not sufficient. Upgrade the existing CIM21 system with the new InfoPlus21 (NT based Client /Server System). Install in the remaining 11 plant a InfoPlus21. Use mainly as process data historian and emission monitoring tool. The company wide Manufacturing Data Integration (MDI) project will integrate these TIS in the ERP Datawarehouse (Holnam proprietary Data Management System based on Oracle).
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 5. TYPICAL PROJECT SCHEDULE AND SCOPE OF SUPPLY
5.
TYPICAL PROJECT SCHEDULE AND SCOPE OF SUPPLY

6/30/2001 - 10:35:19 AM Page 151

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 5. TYPICAL PROJECT SCHEDULE AND SCOPE OF SUPPLY / 5.1 Project Schedules (typical)
5.1
Project Schedules (typical)
The introduction of a TIS system needs some pre-project investigations resulting in a detailed specification. With this, an evaluation (bidding process) can be executed to find the most appropriate TIS. Normally a TIS is implemented in steps, similar to a SAP, realising the functions with the highest priorities first. The following schedule gives some indications of the whole procedure. Phase 0: Pre-condition Actions The plant must be equipped with a state-of-the-art computerbased Process Control System (PCS).
1: Study
Investigation study to determine plant requirements, elaboration of a concept. Investigate integration in plant /company computer infrastructure. Check of interface solutions to all automation systems and to the ERP system.
2: Project Planning Creation of a Specification and elaboration of a budget and an implementation schedule. 3: Tendering and Evaluation, Offer Creation of a tender document. Execution of a system evaluation and selection of a System / Supplier (in some case evaluation can be skipped if a company standard exist). Ask for offer (using specification and schedule).
4: Implementation of Implementation and commissioning of TIS basis System. Check of Step 1 performance, adaption of functions to meet plant requirement, (if necessary). 5: Implementation of ............................... Step 2
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 5. TYPICAL PROJECT SCHEDULE AND SCOPE OF SUPPLY / 5.2 Scope of supply (typical)
5.2
Scope of supply (typical)
The scope of supply of a TIS application may vary from plant to plant, as the requirements are different. Nevertheless there are basic requirements in a typical cement plant that can be satisfied (usually in a first implementation phase). That is why the scope of supply is roughly divided into Basic System and Options. The experience shows, that a cost estimation cannot be given at this place, because functionality, interfaces and numbers of users differ from project to project. But it is important to know,
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 that project costs are higher than system costs, because time and cost intensive tasks (study, specification, evaluation, see schedule in 5.1) must be done prior to the system implementation. The following sketch gives an overview of different packages of a TIS basis system (1...4) with options (5...7). Figure 4:
TIS Basis System (for reference see number in sketch) 1) Server Hardware (HW) an Software (SW), TIS basis SW including DataBase 2) 4 User PC SW license for basis data evaluation 3) Interface driver SW for data acquisition from a Process Control System (PCS) 4) Application applying standard reports and evaluation methods, including system installation and user training
TIS System Options (for reference see number in sketch) 5) Extended functionality as Maintenance Support Functions, SPC, plant specific Manufacturing Reports, etc. 6) Interface to Lab or Dispatch (weighing) system 7) Interface to SAP System, including data exchange concept a) Hardware is part of the plant computer infrastructure b) not included is set-up and configuration on interfaced system
Assistance from HMC/HES HMC offers its assistance and experience for TIS Implementation in a plant or group: audit elaboration of (detailed) specifications and tender documents evaluation of offers from different suppliers
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 general project assistance detailed engineering of reports (optional) training for plant personel (optional) performing aceptance tests
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 6. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
6.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 6. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION / 6.1 Results, Benefits
6.1
Results, Benefits
The Experience and results from different Process Information Management Projects in the cement and other basic industries show the following benefits: Fast and accurate information Fast and accurate information enables the plant management to see tendencies and to react and direct measures before limits were exceeded. Because reports were calculated automatically, response time is hours or days, not month. All managers which use any kind of integrated Information Management System (not necessary a TIS) confirm that such tools enables open information exchange which improves teamwork drastically and minimises mistrust. This because every user has access to the same information. People share information and work closer together. In projects were an interface between the ERP System (e.g. SAP R/3) and the TIS are planned, personnel responsible for the process and administrative personnel form an interdisciplinary team, were both sides start to understand also the problems and the requirements of the other side. High sophisticated Optimising System as LINKman High Level Control need to be fine tuned and adapted to changing process conditions. Only continuous monitoring of the performance and process conditions with specific analysis tools, as Correlation's, prevent from decreasing system performance. In one plant the LINKman runtime can be maintained continuously over 95% with the help of daily performance feedback, which allows immediate reaction to arising problems. Permanent monitoring of key parameters and adapted analysis methods like Statistical Process Control (SPC) provides vital information about equipment status and equipment failures. Maintenance Improvement procedures (like the one in MAC) relay on such type of feedback data. Legislation forces us to monitor, analyse and report certain critical values. (e.g emission, use of waste fuel). In USA (BIF) and Switzerland (TA Luft) monitoring, reporting and data archiving of emissions and waste fuel with a TIS, were accept by the local EPAs. Continuous Quality monitoring of shipped cement (e.g.: Germany: Cement Norm VDZ, USA:
6/30/2001 - 10:35:20 AM Page 154
Open information exchange
Indispensable for sustainable optimisation
Fulfil legislation requirements
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Mill Certificate) can be realised with the help of a TIS. Saves man-hour In all plant using a TIS, plant management claim man-hour savings. But the even bigger advantage is, that a TIS frees the engineers from formal work (like data entry, manual data processing) and allows him to use more time on the data analysis. Studies of TIS applications in different basic industries show: Reduced data entry time: 75% (reports are compiled in 3 minutes, and checked in 5 minutes) Reduced Paperwork: up 50%
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 6. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION / 6.2 Conclusion
6.2
Conclusion
Considering the importance of relevant information, the actual trends in Information Technology, the indications we have from Technology Watches of non-cement and cement industries (our competitors) and the experiences from TIS and SAP applications result in the following conclusions: A competitive optimised plant has to be based on computerbased, integrated Information Management System (according CIM concept). Process Information Management with a TIS is a central pillar of such an Integrated Plant. Individual users are empowered at the desktop. Process Data feedback and intelligent use of this information is indispensable for a continuous improvement process and will help the plant to be competitive.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C07 - Technical Information Systems (TIS) / TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS) / 7. REFERENCES:
7.
REFERENCES:
U. Herzog, T. Carpenter: Manufacturing Data Integration: Holnam MDI Feasibility Study, Industrial Scan, 1996, HES Report 96/6340/E U. Herzog: Technical Information System, Holderbank E-Circle NA, Mobile (AL), USA, 1996 W. Sedlmeir: Total Management Information, World Cement Feb. 1996 L. Krings: New Cement Information Management Solutions, IEEE Conference 1996, Los Angeles, USA R. Suberli: Process and Quality Control Automation, Information Management; Holderbank 33rd Technical Meeting 1994 Basel, Switzerland R. Suberli, U. Herzog, H. Rosemann: Process Control and Information Management; VDZ Kongress 1993 Dsseldorf Germany, ZKG 46 (1993), No 11
Special Thank also to: Peter Kuenne, Fritz Schneider, Ian Campbell; for discussing and providing information about concept and experiences of the MAC Initiative. Ivo Keller, Urs Bleisch, Michel Moser, Thorsten Fuchs; for discussing and providing information about SAP projects concept, plans and experiences.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:20 AM
Page 156

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C08 - Case Studies
C08 - Case Studies
6/30/2001 - 10:35:20 AM
Page 157

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C08 - Case Studies / Engineering - Case Studies
Engineering - Case Studies
Case studies are not included here.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:20 AM
Page 158

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C09 - Project Engineering
C09 - Project Engineering
6/30/2001 - 10:35:20 AM
Page 159

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C09 - Project Engineering / Introduction to "Holderbank" Corporate Engineering (CE)
Introduction to "Holderbank" Corporate Engineering (CE)
This presentation is not included here. Handouts will be provided during the presentations by CE.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:21 AM
Page 160

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C10 - Introduction
C10 - Introduction
6/30/2001 - 10:35:21 AM
Page 161

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C10 - Introduction / Procedures to Effective and Efficient Capital Expenditures
Procedures to Effective and Efficient Capital Expenditures
Below is a brief summary and the table of contents of the 'CAPEX Guide'. A full copy will be handed out during the presentation by CE.
Guide to Effective and Efficient Capital Expenditures (CAPEX)
Summary: The document at hand is a policy paper for "Holderbank" Group companies, structuring the basis and the approach for preparing and executing capital expenditure (CAPEX) projects based on the mindset of Better Cost Management (BCM). In order to give practical support to all those involved in CAPEX projects, this Capital Expenditure Guide describes the means for proper identification of such projects, provides a generic project structure and content of the project phases and highlights the importance of and the method for financial evaluation of CAPEX. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION OBJECTIVES OF THE GUIDE IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL PROJECTS Company Strategy and Business Plan Plant Master Plan PHASES OF PROJECTS
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Phase 1: Studies Phase 2: Basic Engineering Phase 3: Detailed Engineering/Project Execution/Construction/ Phase 4: Start-up and Commissioning Phase 5: Post Investment Audit CLASSIFICATION AND FINANCIAL EVALUATION ASPECTS OF CAPEX "Holderbank" Classification of CAPEX Types Replacement investments Rationalization investments Expansion and diversification investments Improvement of product quality investments Social and safety investments Environment investments Financial Evaluation of CAPEX
ANNEXES:
Annex 1: Annex 2: Annex 3: Annex 4: Annex 5: Standard Procedures and Guides Business Planning Cycle: From Strategic Assessment to Yearly Actions & Budgets CAPEX Project Implementation: Phases and Interactions Accuracy of Investment Cost Estimates Glossary (selected terms only)
6/30/2001 - 10:35:21 AM
Page 163

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C10 - Introduction / Brief Guide and Checklist for Capital Expenditure Projects for Replacement and Modifications of existing Plant Facilities
Brief Guide and Checklist for Capital Expenditure Projects for Replacement and Modifications of existing Plant Facilities
1. GENERAL 1.1 Definition of Project 1.2 Initiation of Project 2. STUDIES 3. BASIC ENGINEERING 4. DETAILED ENGINEERING / PROJECT EXECUTION
PROJECT MANAGEMENT Key Issues

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C10 - Introduction / Brief Guide and Checklist for Capital Expenditure Projects for Replacement and Modifications of existing Plant Facilities / 1. GENERAL
1.
GENERAL
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C10 - Introduction / Brief Guide and Checklist for Capital Expenditure Projects for Replacement and Modifications of existing Plant Facilities / 1. GENERAL / 1.1 Definition of Project
1.1
Definition of Project
Technical idea / concept to be studied and or realized. Main features: Project has to fulfill certain requirements, assure certain performances. Project has defined start and end, time required depends on internal and external constraints Project has a limited budget Project requires special organization, it is often disturbing factor in permanent organization
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C10 - Introduction / Brief Guide and Checklist for Capital Expenditure Projects for Replacement and Modifications of existing Plant Facilities / 1. GENERAL / 1.2 Initiation of Project
1.2
Initiation of Project
Initiated project should be outflow from masterplan

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Initiation shall be done in written form: setting of objectives establish main tasks and responsibilities name project manager and project team outline stepwise procedure
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C10 - Introduction / Brief Guide and Checklist for Capital Expenditure Projects for Replacement and Modifications of existing Plant Facilities / 2. STUDIES
2.
STUDIES
Set-up organization and procedures Review of requirements compared with present situation (same / higher / lower), all parties concerned to be involved Study of alternative solutions, at later stage time will not be available (literature, suppliers, HMC) Assessment of alternatives based on: technical criteria experience / references economical aspects
Decision to proceed with project -> introduction in investment list or presentation of investment proposal (possibly in Basic Engineering Phase)
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C10 - Introduction / Brief Guide and Checklist for Capital Expenditure Projects for Replacement and Modifications of existing Plant Facilities / 3. BASIC ENGINEERING
3.
BASIC ENGINEERING
Adapt organization and procedures to project phase Establish contracting plan Taking into account complexity of project, own resources etc. choice between: detail engineering (several contracts) packages (2 to 3 contracts) turn-key (1 contract) Detail engineering is being preferred solution for "Holderbank". Establish time schedule with key events Preparation of Tender Document Note: Purpose: - Tender Document shall only be issued once high probability of project realization is being established. - Definition of technical criteria, scope of supply and commercial conditions - Safeguard interest of Client
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 - Provide basis to Tenderers to prepare Tender - Provide basis to Client to evaluate Tenders Form: - Tender Document preferably issued in future Contract Form Preselection of Tenderers at least 3 to 4 Tenderers Evaluation of Tenders Comparison tables to be prepared containing: technical data scope of supply warranties experience / references commercial conditions
The evaluation criteria are laid down in the Tender Document. Tables can be prepared during Tendering Period, do not await Evaluation Period. Preparation of investment request => Approval by Management to proceed with realization of project
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C10 - Introduction / Brief Guide and Checklist for Capital Expenditure Projects for Replacement and Modifications of existing Plant Facilities / 4. DETAILED ENGINEERING / PROJECT EXECUTION
4.
DETAILED ENGINEERING / PROJECT EXECUTION
Adjust project organization and procedures to requirements Contract negotiations at least 2 potential Contractors to create competitive situation technical aspects and warranties to be clarified first price negotiations to be assured by small team and not carried out under time pressure, apply target price policy. all contractual matters to be solved during negotiations and incorporated into Contract, in execution phase power of Client is being reduced.
Establish tight cost and time control Check and approval of Contractor's drawings, to be done with necessary care, concerned parties to be engaged (production, maintenance) Workshop inspection engagement of outside experts to be considered (global purchasing of Contractors) adequate site supervision to be assured, also required to coordinate site activities with plant operations establish and update list of deficiencies Site supervision
Start-up and Commissioning

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 involvement of personnel from operations and maintenance arrange foreseen performance tests to be carried out about 12 months after commissioning by project team and operations / maintenance review of following: project execution performance, recalculate savings, IRR and pay-back period and compare with investment request outline of conclusions for present and future projects
Project audit
Annex 1: Annex 2: Annex 3:
Investment Cost Estimate Investment Proposal / Request Tender Document / Table of Content
Annex 1
INVESTMENT COST ESTIMATE (for small projects) Project : ................................................................ Phase : ................................................................. Description 1. Dismantling and Demolishing Dismantling M&E-Equipment Dismantling steel structure Demolishing civil structures Disposal equipment, steel and civil structures Total 1 : Dismantling and Demolishing 2. Mechanical Equipment: Group No. 1: .............................. Machine No. 1 : ................................. Machine No. 2 : ................................. Machine No. 3 : ................................. Machine No. 4 : ................................. Total Group No. 1 Group No. 2: .............................. Machine No. 1 : ................................. Machine No. 2 : ................................. Machine No. 3 : ................................. Machine No. 4 : ..............................
Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query: 6/30/2001 - 10:35:22 AM
Cost USD .......... .......... .......... .......... -
Cost USD
..........
.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..........
..........
Page 167
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Description Total Group No. 2 Total Mechanical Equipment (Basis FCA) Transport and Insurance Taxes and Duties Temporary Installations Erection Commissioning Total 2 : Mechanical Equipment 3. Electrical Equipment Medium Voltage Distribution & Transformers Low Voltage Distribution and Motor Control Centers Plant Automation Instrumentation Drives and Motors Cabling, Grounding, Lightning Protection Total Electrical Equipment (Basis FCA) Transport and Insurance Taxes and Duties Installations Commissioning Total 3 : Electrical Equipment
Cost USD .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... -
Cost USD .......... ..........
..........
..........
..........
6/30/2001 - 10:35:22 AM
Page 168
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 4. Structural Steel and Civil Works Preparatory Work: Soil investigations Site preparation Temporary structures and works Total Preparatory Work Structure 1 :........................................ Excavation Concrete Works Structural Steel Works Various (blockworks, doors, windows, etc.) Total Structure 1 Structure 2 ........................................ Excavation Concrete Works Structural Steel Works Various (blockworks, door, windows, etc.) Total Structure 2 Infrastructure : Roads and squares Ducts and trenches for utilities Various Total Infrastructure Total 4 : Structural Steel and Civil Works 5. Engineering Mechanical Engineering Electrical Engineering Civil Engineering Fees for Permits, All Risk Insurance, etc. Total 5 : Engineering 6. Various Contingencies Total 6 : Various GRAND TOTAL 1-6 Above cost estimate does not include VAT and cost for spare parts.
.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... -
..........
..........
..........
.......... ..........
..........
.......... ..........
Date: ..............................
Name and Signature: .........................................
6/30/2001 - 10:35:23 AM
Page 169
Investment Cost Estimate Typical Cost Structure in %
1.
Mechanical Equipment
100 % 5 % of 1. 30 % of 1.
1.1 Transport and Insurance 1.2 Erection and Commissioning
2.
Electrical Equipment
30 % of 1. 5 % of 2. 30 - 50 % of 2.
2.1 Transport and Insurance 2.2 Erection and Commissioning
Accuracy of Investment Cost Estimate Phase: Studies Basic Engineering Detailed Engineering + 20 % + 10 % + 5%
Annex 2
INVESTMENT PROPOSAL / REQUEST Project : ........................................... 1) PRESENT SITUATION Description of problems Loss of production Extra cost involved (production, maintenance) Description of alternatives Advantages / Disadvantages Selection of alternative(s) Detailed description Proposed suppliers References
6/30/2001 - 10:35:23 AM Page 170
2) ALTERNATIVES INVESTIGATED
3) SOLUTION PROPOSED
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 4) INVESTMENT COST ESTIMATE Basis of cost estimate Cost estimate (budget) Cost difference (savings) between present situation and proposed solution IRR-Calculation Pay-back-calculation (usually not more than 2 to 3 years) Duration of project execution Critical path
5) ECONOMICAL EVALUATION
6) TIME SCHEDULE
Annexes : Investment cost estimate
Date: ......................
Name and Signature: ................................................................................
Approved: Date: ......................
Name and Signature: ................................................................................
Comments:
Annex 3
TENDER DOCUMENT TABLE OF CONTENT
PART A : Tendering Conditions

General Information Purpose Client Brief description of project Scope of tender Proposed time schedule
Conditions of Tendering Commercial part Lumpsum price in ... currency Price breakdown and weights Time schedule Comments on supply contract proposal Technical part Technical specifications Technical specification sheets Schematas and drawings Reference list Warranties Alternative proposals Date of submission of tenders
PART B : Contract Proposal Supply Contract Proposal Annex 1 : General Information Information on existing equipment related to project Process data to be observed for proposed project Material data (raw materials, additives, correctives, cement compositions, etc.)
Annex 2 : General Requirements on Mechanical Equipment Standards to be applied Standardization (gears, clutches, etc.)
6/30/2001 - 10:35:24 AM Page 172
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Requirements and design criteria on individual equipment (e.g. filters, conveyors) Painting and colour codes
Annex 3 : General Requirements on Electrical Equipment Standards to be applied Voltage levels Standardization (instruments, safety devices etc.) Sub-control systems Drives
Annex 4 : Technical Specifications Supplier's specifications (from successful Tenderer) Technical specification sheets
Annex 5 : Services Mechanical Engineering Electrical Engineering Civil Engineering
Annex 6 : Time Schedule Detailed time schedule
Annex 7 : Price Breakdown Individual prices and weights (from successful Tenderer)
Annex 8 : Performance Warranties and Tests Procedures for measurements of warranties and conducting of performance tests
Annex 9 : Workshop Inspections Tests to be conducted by contractor at individual manufacturing steps Tests to be carried out by Client / Engineer at individual manufacturing steps
Annex 10 : Drawings Flowsheet Arrangement drawings
SUPPLY CONTRACT
6/30/2001 - 10:35:24 AM
Page 173
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Key Conditions 1. PRICE Fixed lumpsum price, preferably in local currency
2.
PAYMENT CONDITIONS 20 (30) % as down payment, against advance payment bond for amounts above USD 50'000.-50 (60) % at delivery 10 (20) % at provisional acceptance against warranty bond
3.
TIME SCHEDULE Overall time schedule Special schedule (shut down period, etc.)
4.
WARRANTY PERIOD 12 (24) months starting from provisional acceptance
5. 6.
WARRANTIES Delivery time Overall time for project execution (from coming into force up to provisional acceptance) Shut-down time Performance (capacities, clean gas content of filters) Function and quantity Lifetime of special parts (e.g. gear boxes up to 5 years) Lifetime of wear parts (e.g. filter bags up to 2 years) PENALTIES Penalties due in case of non fulfillment of above warranties except for clean gas content, which has to be achieved. Penalties in % of lumpsum price for delays and non fulfillment of performances Replacement (partial) of equipment not reaching lifetime
7.
INSURANCE Transport insurance by Contractor Third party liability insurance by Contractor Erection Insurance / All Risk Insurance by Contractor or Client
8.
BONDS Bonds to be issued by a first class bank, occasionally Concern Guarantees are being accepted.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:24 AM Page 174
9.
MODIFICATION OF CONTRACT Modification to be agreed in writing
10.
COMING INTO FORCE Conditions to be clearly defined.
Organization Chart
6/30/2001 - 10:35:25 AM
Page 175

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C11 - General Project Procedure
C11 - General Project Procedure
6/30/2001 - 10:35:25 AM
Page 176

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C11 - General Project Procedure / The Strip-down Concept for Plant Engineering
The Strip-down Concept for Plant Engineering
Slide 1
Slide 2
Slide 3
Slide 4
Slide 5
6/30/2001 - 10:35:25 AM
Page 178
Slide 6
Slide 7
Slide 8
6/30/2001 - 10:35:26 AM
Page 179
Slide 9
Slide 10
6/30/2001 - 10:35:26 AM
Page 180
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Slide 11
Slide 12
Slide 13
6/30/2001 - 10:35:27 AM
Page 181
Slide 14
Slide 15
6/30/2001 - 10:35:27 AM
Page 182
Slide 17
Slide 18
6/30/2001 - 10:35:28 AM
Page 183
Slide 19
Slide 20
6/30/2001 - 10:35:28 AM
Page 184
Slide 22
6/30/2001 - 10:35:29 AM
Page 185

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C12 - Project Identification and Technical Concept
C12 - Project Identification and Technical Concept
6/30/2001 - 10:35:29 AM
Page 186

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C12 - Project Identification and Technical Concept / PLANT MASTER PLAN
PLANT MASTER PLAN
1. INTRODUCTION 2. CLARIFICATION OF TERMINOLOGY 3. PLANT MASTER PLANS: COMMON PROBLEMS 4. INTEGRATION IN COMPANYS PLANNING CYCLE 5. CONTENT AND STRUCTURE OF PLANT MASTER PLAN PROCEDURE FOR ELABORATON OF PLANT MASTER PLANS 7. CONCLUSION AND KEY MESSAGES
6/30/2001 - 10:35:29 AM
Page 187

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C12 - Project Identification and Technical Concept / PLANT MASTER PLAN / 1. INTRODUCTION
1.
INTRODUCTION
In periods of growing demand, investors usually take the opportunity to set milestones in direction of improving productivity and expanding capacity as well as controlling cost. New plants, or suitable plant extensions, are the appropriate answers then. In period of harsh competition, shrinking market shares, high interest rates and thus tight investment budgets, it proves to be difficult to even keep up the pace of change in technology. Comprehensive know-how and adequate assistance are always required to adapt the company to the changing requirements and the future needs. As the immediate and future needs of a company are determined mainly through a dynamic process of changing parameters of the environment, a dynamic planning instrument must be used for the identification and registration of these needs. This appropriate instrument is called Plant Master Plan.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C12 - Project Identification and Technical Concept / PLANT MASTER PLAN / 2. CLARIFICATION OF TERMINOLOGY
2.
CLARIFICATION OF TERMINOLOGY
Plant Master Plans are, since a long time, a well known planning tool on plant level. However, so far, there was no common understanding on purpose and content of Plant Master Plans and for this reason a vast variety of plans were called Plant Master Plans.
In recent years attempts were made in the Holderbank Group to standardize the Company Planning Cycle and in particular the Business Planning Process. This standardization called for a clear definition of the objectives and the contents of Plant Master Plans: The Plant Master Plan shall be the tool for plant management, comprehensively outlining the operational measures and CAPEX projects to be implemented in the plan period. The Plant Master Plan is a strategic paper outlining the development of the plant in all its fields of activity, taking into account the directives of the corporate strategy and the relevant external and internal factors.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C12 - Project Identification and Technical Concept / PLANT MASTER PLAN / 3. PLANT MASTER PLANS: COMMON PROBLEMS
6/30/2001 - 10:35:30 AM
Page 188
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 3. PLANT MASTER PLANS: COMMON PROBLEMS
A closer look at the realities of Plant Master Planning reveals following common problems:
Analysis of these problems shows that they touch 1) the integration of the Plant Master Plan into the companys planning cycle, 2) the content and structure of the Plant Master Plans, and 3) the procedure for elaborating Plant Master Plans.
Properly addressing these three problems provides in fact the keys to successful Plant Master Planning. If these three elements are mastered, the result then is a Plant Master Plan which is a helpful and valid tool for plant management to operate and develop their plant in compliance with company strategy and Business Plan objectives.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C12 - Project Identification and Technical Concept / PLANT MASTER PLAN / 4. INTEGRATION IN COMPANYS PLANNING CYCLE
4.
INTEGRATION IN COMPANYS PLANNING CYCLE
Elaborating a Business Plan and the corresponding Plant Master Plan(s) is an iterative process: On the one hand, the Plant Master Plan translates strategy into operational measures and on the other hand it provides input to the Business Plan, e.g. production and investment costs.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:30 AM
Page 189
6/30/2001 - 10:35:30 AM
Page 190
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C12 - Project Identification and Technical Concept / PLANT MASTER PLAN / 5. CONTENT AND STRUCTURE OF PLANT MASTER PLAN
5.
CONTENT AND STRUCTURE OF PLANT MASTER PLAN
The Plant Master Plan identifies gaps in the areas of materials and energy supply (from main raw materials and fuels to alternative raw materials and fuels and mineral components etc.), production process and plant (from raw material extraction to dispatch, internal and external infrastructure etc.) and plant organization and supporting functions (from organizational structure to crossfunctional processes, like maintenance, quality assurance etc.). The Plant Master Plan clearly defines operational measures and CAPEX projects and indicates priorities, cost impacts and financial benefits.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C12 - Project Identification and Technical Concept / PLANT MASTER PLAN / 6. PROCEDURE FOR ELABORATON OF PLANT MASTER PLANS
6.
PROCEDURE FOR ELABORATON OF PLANT MASTER PLANS
6/30/2001 - 10:35:31 AM
Page 191
To assure comprehensiveness of the Plant Master Plan, the team put together to elaborate such a Plant Master Plan must be composed interdisciplinarily, providing knowledge and experience from all relevant areas and disciplines. On the other hand such a team should include not only plant staff but also representatives of the company management to assure that those who will be responsible for its implementation are really committed to the proposals and priorities of the resulting Plant Master Plan. Including external experts, from HMC and/or from other companies and their plant, further helps to challenge the status quo and to consider a variety of alternatives (Faster Learning Organization). Priority focus must be on optimum exploitation of existing installations in order to minimize CAPEX.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C12 - Project Identification and Technical Concept / PLANT MASTER PLAN / 7. CONCLUSION AND KEY MESSAGES
7.
CONCLUSION AND KEY MESSAGES
6/30/2001 - 10:35:31 AM
Page 192
6/30/2001 - 10:35:32 AM
Page 193

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow
C13 - Massflow
6/30/2001 - 10:35:32 AM
Page 194

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Project Risk Management
Project Risk Management
1. SLIDE 1: CEMENT COURSE 2000 2. SLIDE 2: PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT 3. SLIDE 3: BUSINESS RISK MANAGEMENT 4. SLIDE 4: BUSINESS RISK MANAGEMENT 5. SLIDE 5: BUSINESS RISK MANAGEMENT 6. SLIDE 6: HOLDERBANK GENERIC RISK MAP 7. SLIDE 7: CASE 8. SLIDE 8: CASE 9. SLIDE 9: RISK MODEL FOR CAPEX PROJECTS 10. SLIDE 10: RISK MODELS DEFINITIONS OF RISKS 11. SLIDE 11: RISK MODELS DEFINITION OF RISK 12. SLIDE 12: PROJECT CATEGORIES AND RISK MODELS 13. SLIDE 13: RISK MODEL FOR CAPEX PROJECTS 14. SLIDE 14: WHY RISK MANAGEMENT IN PROJECTS 15. SLIDE 15: WHY RISK MANAGEMENT IN PROJECTS 16. SLIDE 16: WHY RISK MANAGEMENT IN PROJECTS 17. SLIDE 17: WHY RISK MANAGEMENT IN PROJECTS 18. SLIDE 18: WHY RISK MANAGEMENT IN PROJECTS 19. SLIDE 19: BRMP FOR SMALL PROJECTS 20. SLIDE 20: BRMP FOR SMALL PROJECTS 21. SLIDE 21: BRMP FOR SMALL PROJECTS 22. SLIDE 22: BRMP FOR SMALL PROJECTS 23. SLIDE 23: BRMP FOR MEDIUM AND BIG PROJECTS 24. SLIDE 24: MEDIUM AND BIG PROJECTS 25. SLIDE 25: PROJECT RISK MAP 26. SLIDE 26: RISK DRIVER MIND-MAP
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Project Risk Management / 1. SLIDE 1: CEMENT COURSE 2000
6/30/2001 - 10:35:32 AM
Page 195
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 1. SLIDE 1: CEMENT COURSE 2000
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Project Risk Management / 2. SLIDE 2: PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT
2.
SLIDE 2: PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Project Risk Management / 3. SLIDE 3: BUSINESS RISK MANAGEMENT
3.
SLIDE 3: BUSINESS RISK MANAGEMENT
6/30/2001 - 10:35:34 AM
Page 196
4.
5.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:34 AM
Page 197
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Project Risk Management / 6. SLIDE 6: HOLDERBANK GENERIC RISK MAP
6.
SLIDE 6: HOLDERBANK GENERIC RISK MAP
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Project Risk Management / 7. SLIDE 7: CASE
7.
SLIDE 7: CASE
6/30/2001 - 10:35:34 AM
Page 198
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Project Risk Management / 8. SLIDE 8: CASE
8.
SLIDE 8: CASE
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Project Risk Management / 9. SLIDE 9: RISK MODEL FOR CAPEX PROJECTS
9.
SLIDE 9: RISK MODEL FOR CAPEX PROJECTS
6/30/2001 - 10:35:35 AM
Page 199
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Project Risk Management / 10. SLIDE 10: RISK MODELS DEFINITIONS OF RISKS
10.
SLIDE 10: RISK MODELS DEFINITIONS OF RISKS
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Project Risk Management / 11. SLIDE 11: RISK MODELS DEFINITION OF RISK
11.
SLIDE 11: RISK MODELS DEFINITION OF RISK
6/30/2001 - 10:35:35 AM
Page 200
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Project Risk Management / 12. SLIDE 12: PROJECT CATEGORIES AND RISK MODELS
12.
SLIDE 12: PROJECT CATEGORIES AND RISK MODELS
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Project Risk Management / 13. SLIDE 13: RISK MODEL FOR CAPEX PROJECTS
13.
SLIDE 13: RISK MODEL FOR CAPEX PROJECTS
6/30/2001 - 10:35:36 AM
Page 201
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Project Risk Management / 14. SLIDE 14: WHY RISK MANAGEMENT IN PROJECTS
14.
SLIDE 14: WHY RISK MANAGEMENT IN PROJECTS
15.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:36 AM
Page 202
16.
17.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:37 AM
Page 203
18.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Project Risk Management / 19. SLIDE 19: BRMP FOR SMALL PROJECTS
19.
SLIDE 19: BRMP FOR SMALL PROJECTS
6/30/2001 - 10:35:37 AM
Page 204
20.
21.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:38 AM
Page 205
22.
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Project Risk Management / 23. SLIDE 23: BRMP FOR MEDIUM AND BIG PROJECTS
23.
SLIDE 23: BRMP FOR MEDIUM AND BIG PROJECTS
6/30/2001 - 10:35:38 AM
Page 206
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Project Risk Management / 24. SLIDE 24: MEDIUM AND BIG PROJECTS
24.
SLIDE 24: MEDIUM AND BIG PROJECTS
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Project Risk Management / 25. SLIDE 25: PROJECT RISK MAP
25.
SLIDE 25: PROJECT RISK MAP
6/30/2001 - 10:35:39 AM
Page 207
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Project Risk Management / 26. SLIDE 26: RISK DRIVER MIND-MAP
26.
SLIDE 26: RISK DRIVER MIND-MAP
6/30/2001 - 10:35:39 AM
Page 208

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Business Risk Management for Projects (BRMP)
Business Risk Management for Projects (BRMP)

May 1999 Business Risk Management "Holderbank" Engineering Switzerland 1. CHECKLISTS AND FORMS FOR SMALL PROJECTS 1.1 FORM A1: Project: Kiln Shell Replacement Risk Identification (examples only) 1.2 FORM A2: Project: Kiln Shell Replacement Risk Identification (examples only) 1.3 FORM B: Project: Kiln Shell Replacement Risk Evaluation and Management (examples only) 1.3.1 Part of Scope / Project Stage: Pre-shutdown Activities
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Business Risk Management for Projects (BRMP) / 1. CHECKLISTS AND FORMS FOR SMALL PROJECTS
1.
CHECKLISTS AND FORMS FOR SMALL PROJECTS
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Business Risk Management for Projects (BRMP) / 1. CHECKLISTS AND FORMS FOR SMALL PROJECTS / 1.1 FORM A1: Project: Kiln Shell Replacement Risk Identification (examples only)
1.1
FORM A1: Project: Kiln Shell Replacement Risk Identification (examples only)
Generic Risks Parts of Scope/ Project Stages Pre-shutdown activities
Project Parties
Project Organisation
Co-ordination with Production/ Sales 2) Lime stockpile may be too low at the commencement of the shutdown. 4) The shutdown plan and schedule may be inadequate.
Compliance
Preparation of used kiln section Cutting, removing and shifting of kiln sections
Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query: 6/30/2001 - 10:35:39 AM
12) Noise may be generated during shutdown activities.

Page 209
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Generic Risks Parts of Scope/ Project Stages Replacing, aligning,and welding of kiln shell Project Parties Project Organisation Co-ordination with Production/ Sales Compliance
11) Significant welding will be required and this may pose a hazard or health risk to personnel. 12) Noise may be generated during shutdown activities.
Kiln bricking Recommissioning, kiln lightup
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Business Risk Management for Projects (BRMP) / 1. CHECKLISTS AND FORMS FOR SMALL PROJECTS / 1.2 FORM A2: Project: Kiln Shell Replacement Risk Identification (examples only)
1.2
FORM A2: Project: Kiln Shell Replacement Risk Identification (examples only)
Generic Risks Parts of Scope/ Project Stages Pre-shutdown Activities
Time
Cost
Quality
Commissioning
Preparation of used kiln section
6/30/2001 - 10:35:40 AM
Page 210
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Generic Risks Parts of Scope/ Project Stages Cutting, removing and shifting of kiln sections 1) The contractor's equipment may not arrive in suitable time. Time Cost Quality Commissioning
Replacing, 1) The contractor's aligning,and equipment may not welding of kiln shell arrive in suitable time.
8) The kiln may not be cleaned prior to welding leading to problems with the weld. 9) The composition of the existing kiln material is not known and this will impact on the welding material to be used. 10) Incorrect alignment of the kiln may occur leading to ongoing operational problems.
Kiln bricking
3) Late delivery or non-delivery of refractory material.
Recommissioning, kiln lightup

Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Business Risk Management for Projects (BRMP) / 1. CHECKLISTS AND FORMS FOR SMALL PROJECTS / 1.3 FORM B: Project: Kiln Shell Replacement Risk Evaluation and Management (examples only)
1.3
FORM B: Project: Kiln Shell Replacement Risk Evaluation and Management (examples only)
Engineering / B07 - Eng / C13 - Massflow / Business Risk Management for Projects (BRMP) / 1. CHECKLISTS AND FORMS FOR SMALL PROJECTS / 1.3 FORM B: Project: Kiln Shell Replacement Risk Evaluation and Management (examples only) / 1.3.1 Part of Scope / Project Stage: Pre-shutdown Activities
1.3.1
Part of Scope / Project Stage: Pre-shutdown Activities
Risk and Risk Description
Existing Risk Treatment
Risk Relevance LikeliSignifi-cance hood L,M,H L,M,H
Proposed Risk Treatment
1) The contractor's equipment may not arrive in suitable time. 2) Lime stockpile may be too low at the commencement of the shutdown. Current kiln output is considered to be sufficient to meet this target stockpile by the commencement of the shutdown. A customer survey has been undertaken to gauge expected customer demands during the shutdown period.
Confirm that the equ shipped and will arrive at sit scheduled shutdown comme time.
Identify and agree an altern and develop a supply agree
Continue customer surveys.
Ensure that customer silos a
Ensure that ISO containers and loaded prior to the shut Consult with specialist in thi
Develop and implement a si management strategy to en off-specification material in s time of the shutdown is mini Schedule production to max stockpiles at the start of the 3) Late delivery or non-delivery of refractory material. It is known that the overseas manufactured refractory has been shipped and is currently on route and delivery details confirmed. Local manufacturer representative has been asked to confirm delivery date.
Do not start the shutdown u sufficient refractory is availa
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Risk and Risk Description Existing Risk Treatment Risk Relevance LikeliSignifi-cance hood L,M,H L,M,H 4) The shutdown plan and schedule may be inadequate. An experienced contractor who has undertaken other kiln shell replacements elsewhere in the vicinity has been engaged. This contractor has contributed to the development of the plan. Owner also has experience with this contractor. The contractor employs experienced crews and has safely undertaken similar jobs in the past. M L Proposed Risk Treatment
Ongoing review of the shutd and schedule.
5) No formal safety plan by the contractor and no formal transfer or risk.
Discuss the option of develo safety plan and work metho for key work practices with t contractor.
Follow through insurance an compensation situation for t who is a foreigner. Investiga exposure to a major claim if should occur. 6) Some of the work, e.g. debricking, may require work in a confined space. 7) The moving piece of the kiln may fall and be damaged. 8) The kiln may not be cleaned prior to welding leading to problems with the weld. 9) The composition of the existing kiln material is not known and this will impact on the welding material to be used. 10)Incorrect alignment of the kiln may occur leading to ongoing operational problems. All likely materials required to be used in welding are known to be available. Site confined space procedure. Site lockout procedure. M L
Confirm whether the kiln inte required. Develop a specific for kiln entry during the shut
The strategy for moving the kiln piece has been designed by the contractor to be suitable for movement without failure.
Check if crane support will b throughout the process. If n further information from con how the moving piece will be
Ensure that clear instruction during debricking to ensure enough prior to welding.
Undertake sampling and an soon as possible once the k available for sampling.
The contractor is expert in undertaking H kiln shell replacements. Owner's personnel will confirm alignment prior to commencement of welding (included in work schedule).
No additional risk treatment recommended.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:41 AM
Page 213
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 Risk and Risk Description Existing Risk Treatment Risk Relevance LikeliSignifi-cance hood L,M,H L,M,H 11)Significant welding will be required and this may pose a hazard or health risk to personnel. Contractor expertise and existing welding procedures. L L Proposed Risk Treatment
Ensure that contractors are regarding owner's requireme relation to welding.
Ensure that ID fan is used to interior of the kiln. 12)Noise ma y be generated during shutdown activities. There is a restriction of night time operations at site. Owner's personnel is well aware of noise issues and takes control action to reduce noise. A complaint procedure is in place for dealing with environmental complaints, e.g. noise complaint. L L
No additional risk treatment recommended.
About the "Holderbank" Cement Course 2000 CD-ROM
About the "Holderbank" Cement Course 2000 CD-ROM

The "Holderbank" Cement Course2000 CD-ROM contains the full text and graphics of the seven binders distributed during the course. Material Technology I Material Technology II Material Technology III Process Technology I Process Technology II Process Technology III Engineering
The CD-ROM can be read like a book, page by page, or you can take advantage of the advanced
"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000 features of the software to quickly navigate to a specific binder, chapter, document, or section within any documment. If you are unsure of where to look for the information you require, there are extensive search facilities to allow you to locate the appropriate section.
This CD-ROM was produced during February - May 2000 by Holderbank Management and Consulting Ltd., Corporate Training. Department manager: Dr. Walter Baumgartner Project manager: Fred Aubert Contents provided by the following departments of Holderbank Management and Consulting Ltd.: Materials Technology (MT) Mineral Components (MIC) Product Development and Applications (PDA) Process Technology (PT) Maintenance (MTC) Holderbank Engineering Switzerland (HES)
Project administration: Michle Stark Project consulting: ETV Software Engineering S.A., Geneva, Switzerland. Acknowledgments Mr. Fred Aubert. As Technical Training Manager of Coprorate Training in HMC took care of the relations with the authors and gave many inputs which helped substantially to define the project. Ian Bennett. The advice and consulting work given by Mr Bennett from SE was of immense value throughout all phases of the project.
Copyright notices Holderbank Management and Consulting Ltd., 2000 All rights reserved Interface controls & Indexing and Retrieval Engine Copyright 1998 Open Market, Inc. All rights reserved. Contains data security software from RSA Data Security, Inc. Copyright 1998 Data Security, Inc. All rights reserved. Indexing and Retrieval Assistant for dictionaries. Copyright 1998 Soft Art, Inc. All rights reserved. ImageStream Graphics & Presentation Filters Copyright 1991-1998 Inso Corporation, All rights reserved.
6/30/2001 - 10:35:42 AM
Page 215
Endnotes 1 (Popup - Popup)

1 Paper presented to the IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference, Salt Lake City, USA, May 19th-22nd 1986, and published in Holderbank NEWS 6 (1986)
6/30/2001 - 10:35:42 AM
Page 216

Cement Industry Engineering-Holderbank Course (2 of 2)

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Descrição original:

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Cement Industry Engineering-Holderbank Course (2 of 2)

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000

STRUCTURE OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS IN A CEMENT PLANT

INVESTMENT COST OF A CEMENT PLANT

POWER CONSUMPTION OF A CEMENT PLANT

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query:

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query:

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000

C02 - Power Distribution

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query:

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query:

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query:

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000

HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER STATION

Example of a Power Distribution Single Line Diagram

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query:

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000

MEDIUM VOLTAGE POWER DISTRIBUTION

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query:

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000

DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS AND MOTOR CONTROL CENTRES (MCC)

HIGH VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT

The high voltage transformer station generally consists of following components:

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query:

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000

Current and voltage transformers (measure the amount of energy consumed)

Off-load isolator (isolate a circuit at no load e.g. for maintenance purposes)

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query:

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000

On-load isolator (disconnect a circuit at max. double-rated current)

Circuit breakers (disconnect a circuit under load and in case of fault)

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query:

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000

Busbars (form the electrical power circuit)

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query:

Legend: 1, 2 Busbar systems (double busbars)

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query:

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query:

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000

Schematic function of arc quenching mechanism of a circuit breaker pole

Metal-clad, SF6 Gas-Insulated Circuit Breaker

Cross section of double busbar cable feeder:

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query:

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000

High Voltage Transformer

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query:

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000

MEDIUM VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT

Figure 6.0.2 Typical arrangement with metal-clad SF6 switch gear

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query:

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000

Medium Voltage Circuit Breakers

Truck mounted SF6 circuit breaker

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query:

Overhaul of interrupter Switching of lines, cables, transformers, capacitors Switching of motors

Well suited but measures may be necessary to limit over voltages

Well suited normally no measures necessary to limit over voltages

Medium Voltage Contactors

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 Query:

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000

Medium Voltage Transformers