Part of Your

World

Part of Your

World

Practical Earth Science Knowledge for the Real World

Cindy Wright

Copyright 2012 by Cindy Wright. ISBN: 978-1-62050-550-2 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

This book was printed in the United Kingdom.

To order additional copies of this book, contact: email: 12.ajenterprises1@gmail.com

Contents
1. Astronomy and Space........................................................7 Astronomical Objects ........................................................7 The Planets in our Solar System ........................................8 Stars and Clusters ............................................................15 Galaxies ...........................................................................16 Astronomical Concepts and Observations .......................17 2. Earthquakes ....................................................................22 Types of Earthquake ........................................................23 Seismic Waves .................................................................25 Measuring Earthquakes ...................................................26 3. Erosion............................................................................29 Engineering Applications ................................................32 Internal Erosion and Geofilters........................................34 4. Maps ...............................................................................38 5. Plate Tectonics ................................................................42

6. Rocks ..............................................................................49 Types of Rock..................................................................49 The Rock Cycle ...............................................................52 7. Volcanoes ........................................................................55 Types of Volcano .............................................................56 Volcanic Hazard ..............................................................59 8. Water ..............................................................................62 Pollution .........................................................................64 Water Conservation.........................................................64 Water Cycle .....................................................................67 Oceanography .................................................................69 Sea Life ...........................................................................70 The Layers of the Ocean .................................................71 9. Weather ...........................................................................72 Severe Weather ................................................................72

Astronomy and Space

Astronomical Objects

HE SOLAR SySTEM is made up of a variety of objects and bodies, many of which we are quite familiar with. We know

that the planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. But what exactly makes a planet? A planet is body of matter that orbits a particular star. The definition of planet has been changed over time, so that we no longer have quite as many planets in our solar system as there once were. The orbit patterns that a body follows are often the largest indicator of whether or not they are a planet. If it does not orbit that star that we consider to be
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the sun, it is not a planet. However, recently size has come to play a part in the classification of planets. Pluto was deemed too small to be a planet, instead earning the title dwarf planet.

The Planets in our Solar System

Mercury, being closest to the sun, has some of the most intense heat during its daytime phase. However the side that is facing away from sun has temperatures that drop hundreds of degrees below zero in the night-time. It has no atmosphere, making it more prone to asteroid collisions. It is similar in size to Earths moon, and also covered in craters. However, Mercury has no moons of its own. Its year is only 88 days long. Venus has both intense heat and volcanic action on a regular basis. Its atmosphere is much thicker than Earths and tends to trap in the heat and gases from the volcanic explosions, as well as heat gathered from the sun. Its atmosphere makes it difficult for asteroids to pass through far enough to make an impact on the planet itself. Venus also spins in the opposite direction of most other planets. Its year is about 225 Earth days long.

Part of Your World

Earth is the only planet that so far has been found to be home to living things. While other planets have ice, Earth is the only one to have liquid water that supports life. Moons and other planets seem to have elements similar to Earths (like seasons, atmospheres, and sometimes weather), but none of the others can boast an abundance of life. Mars, the red planet, is about half the size of Earth. Both planets have approximately the same amount of land though. Mars shares many common features with Earth, like weather, geographical similarities, and ice caps. However, it has no liquid water to speak of. This makes it impossible for Mars to support life. It has two small moons that orbit it which are thought to be captured asteroids. Jupiter is by far the largest planet of the solar system. In fact, not only is it large but its gravitational pull is large as well. It has 67 recognized moons that orbit around it, making it almost like a miniature solar system. Jupiter has great dust storms that are constant, including the Great Red Spot. The Great Red Spot is a dust storm that has been on-going for hundreds of years. Saturn is considered to be a gas giant, meaning that it mostly consists of hydrogen and helium gas. Its rings are the
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most spectacular of the solar system, made of chunks of ice and rock. A known 53 moons orbit Saturn, while others are up for consideration still. Its magnetic field is almost 600 times greater than Earths, allowing it to pull more asteroids and minor planets into orbit around it. Uranus has two sets of rings that surround it, along with 27 recognized moons. Being a gas giant, it too is made of hydrogen and helium, though scientists have discovered traces of both methane and ammonia. The methane is considered to be responsible for the blue tint of the planet. Similar to Venus, Uranus also rotates in the opposite direction (east to west). In addition, it appears to be rotating vertically instead of horizontally because the planet is tilted, something probably caused by a collision with Neptune. Neptune is thirty times further away from the sun than the Earth, something that is related to its lengthy year. Neptune only orbits the sun once every 165 years due to the long distance that it needs to travel. It has six rings and thirteen known moons that surround it. The last of the planets in the solar system, it also has large amounts of ice due to its position so far from the sun. Pluto used to be considered a planet because it was drawn in so closely
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to Neptune, though now it has been announced to be a dwarf planet.

The sun is what allows for Earth to have life by providing heat and warmth, lessening the cold during harsh winters and dark nights. Though it is a large star, it is not the only one in the galaxy of the suns size and stature. It is 27 million degrees Fahrenheit at its core and the size of about one million Earths. It is also the closest star to Earth when compared to the distances of the other stars that we see in the night sky. The pressure within the sun is tremendous because it is made of hot gases that are held together by gravity. Other bodies also make up the solar system even though they are much smaller than planets. For example, many planets have
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their own moons. These moons differ from planets in that they do not orbit the sun. Instead, they revolve around the planet they belong to. They are held close to that planet by gravitational pull. They act as satellites, orbiting around the planet as the planet orbits around the sun. Each planet has a different number of moons. Mercury and Venus have no moons, while Earth has only one. Jupiter has 67 recognized moons to date, though more and constantly being discovered and debated. Because Jupiter is such a large planet, it is able to pull more things into its gravitational field, including smaller bodies such as asteroids. Later, these smaller bodies will be considered Jupiters moons because they act as natural satellites. Asteroids, another smaller body in the solar system, behave much in the same way that planets do. They orbit the sun and rotate on their own axis. Their size ranges from super small, like a grain of sand, to super large, being considered minor planets because of their behaviour and size. The composition of each asteroid depends on how it was formed and where in the system it was located. However, every asteroid is covered in a type of space dust known as regolith. This dust forms when asteroids collide
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with each other or with planets and moons. Occasionally, asteroids will group together, forming large parts of the solar system known as asteroid belts. Perhaps the best known asteroid belt is located between Mars and Jupiter. Occasionally, the Earths moon can block the sun from view here on Earth. This phenomenon is known as a solar eclipse. It can only occur during a new moon phase, but does not happen each time this phase is present. Whenever the sun and moon do line up, there is the possibility for either a full solar eclipse or a partial solar eclipse. During a partial solar eclipse, some of the suns disc will still be visible. Full solar eclipses prevent the suns centre from being seen here on Earth. We will still be able to see the light that radiates from the sun, but its centre will be impossible to see.

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Our moon helps the Earth to move more easily without shaking on its axis as it rotates. Its presence helps to give the Earth a relatively stable climate. The gravitational pull between the Earth and the moon causes the tides to rise and fall, depending on where the moon is in relation to the body of water. Many might wonder where the moon came from. In fact, scientists theorize that it was caused by an asteroid collision with Earth. The debris from this collision created the moon, which got caught in the gravitational field of Earth and continues to light up the night sky for us today.
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Part of Your World

Stars and Clusters

A star is made of plasma, which is held together by gravity. They are most often formed in the midst of dust clouds. These clouds begin to break down, causing an excess amount dust and gas. The dust and gas contribute to the formation of the star, though some of it may work together to form planets or other smaller bodies such as asteroids or moons. Stars sometimes group together in formations known as star clusters. There are different types of star clusters, known as globular clusters and open clusters. Globular clusters have thousands of stars grouped tightly together, all of which have the same point of origin. Their formation is symmetrical. Open clusters typically have less stars, no symmetrical pattern, and younger stars. Nebulae are places where the stars tend to either be created or places that hold the remains of dead stars. A nebula is a cloud of dust and gas (hydrogen and helium gas, as well as plasma), perfect for the formation of a new star. However, sometimes when stars burn out, they decompose back into these original components.

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Galaxies
Galaxies are parts of space that are held together by gravity. Each one can have a different shape and size, but are often much bigger than we can imagine. They consist of stars, gas, and dust all held together. The Milky Way galaxy where our solar system is located is a spiral shaped galaxy, the most common shape found so far. In fact, this accounts for more than two-thirds of the galaxy shapes that NASA has identified to date. At the centre of the Milky Way is a lot of energy and flares, leading some to speculate that it may be a large black hole (an area with such intense gravity that anything pulled in cannot escape). Galaxies, even the Milky Way often collide with one another. Our galaxy appears to collide most frequently with our neighbour, the Andromeda galaxy. Black holes are very difficult to identify or see, requiring special tools to note areas where the gravity pull is significantly higher. Once something enters the gravitational pull of a black hole, it will be sucked inside and unable to escape. Even light cannot escape from a black hole, making it difficult to see or identify. Pulsars are neutron stars that allow for high beams of radiation to enter into Earths sight. The light we see is a result of the stars rotation
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axis and magnetic axis become unaligned. It is the often the end of star evolution. Similarly, quasars emit a high amount of energy and appear to the Earth like a star. However, scientists are now beginning to believe that these quasars may contain black holes.

Astronomical Concepts and Observations

Astronomy is the science of space. It includes the study of the planets, stars, moons, asteroids, and any other bodies or objects that are found in space. Most cultures throughout history have been fascinated with the way the night sky seems to work. They were determined to solve the problem of how they came into being and how the moon seems to work magically around the earth. Though many of these theories are not accepted today, the Greeks were the first culture to truly begin to understand many of the concepts that have been expanded upon today. They were able to measure the circumference of the Earth, as well as propose that the solar system revolved around the sun instead of the Earth. In the year 150, Ptolemy had proposed a geocentric model that explained how the planets all revolved around the Earth. This was the widely accepted belief until 1583 when Copernicus proved
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that the planets actually revolved around the sun (a heliocentric point of view). Many astronomers work hard to develop sky maps or star charts that help them to predict where each star will be at any given time. It is easier for them to develop these sky charts by identifying the location of certain constellations. Constellations are a grouping of stars that form a picture, such as Ursa Major which is a large bear. The study of stars is a large part of what astronomers study. The most commonly used form of math in astronomy is physics. Astronomers use this branch of mathematics to develop theories about light and vision, which helps to determine where stars are located and how we see their light. Heat and thermodynamics, another branch of physics, helps to determine the actual temperature of a star. They also may use electricity and magnetism to determine the way things are attracted to each other in the galaxy and the way that pulsars magnetic fields tend to function when they are misaligned with their axis of rotation. Much of physics formed as an outflow of information from astronomy. Scientists began to observe the phenomena of astronomy
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and the universe. They began to notice certain patterns that occurred over and over again. These patterns led to the development of theories and laws that would help to expand knowledge of objects in space. The most well-known physicist of all time was Isaac Newton, who famously proposed that what goes up must come down. His theories and laws of nature have given scientists great information on how the universe works beyond just our planet. Obviously, it is not always possible to measure stars or other bodies in space because we cannot travel far enough to reach them. However, scientists still need this information in order to continue learning about the solar system and the universe as a whole. Instead of measuring them directly, they can often use scale to determine the real size of the object. They take into consideration the size of the object that they can see and estimate its distance away. Scale, the size that we can see, and distance, how far away it is, can help scientists to determine the actual size of objects that would otherwise go unknown. One of the most heated points of debate relating to space is the issue of cosmology. Cosmology is the discussion of the origin of the universe. Most scientists agree with the Big Bang Theory, which
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reasons that all of the matter and energy that we know today was once combined into one central location. This energy eventually exploded, expanding until it created the universe that we know today. Prior to this point, people believed that the universe had no beginning because it had always existed. However, the Big Bang Theory dominates scientific opinion today. Gravity plays a large part in the solar system, particularly in the orbiting of planets around the sun and moons around the planets. It is the force that attracts other objects. On Earth, we see gravity when things are pulled back towards the ground. That is because Earths centre of gravity pulls them back down. Similarly, it also pulls the moon to itself. The sun pulls all of the planets into its gravitational field, holding them tightly while they rotate and revolve around it. Space missions give us a lot of the information that we know today about the make-up of different planets and their atmospheres. However, these also tend to be the most dangerous because other planets have atmospheres that are not easy for humans to survive on. Instead, they must bring their own oxygen, food, and space suits to protect them from the harsh conditions on the new planet. Other
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methods of gathering information about space include telescopes and observatories. Telescopes and observatories help to create star charts because it is easy to see the stars locations. They cause them to appear much larger than usual, making it easier to identify each individual star and the role that it plays in the sky and constellation. The electromagnetic spectrum helps to determine the wave length and properties of various things. In astronomy, this spectrum is used to study the amount of radiation in a given object. Many of the stages on the electromagnetic spectrum are already familiar to us, such as radio waves and microwaves. These two have the longest wavelength and the lowest amount of radiation. As the spectrum increases, we find infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays, and gamma rays. The further along on the spectrum, the more harmful these waves could be to the human body. As the wavelength becomes smaller, it is easier for the wave to penetrate objects, causing harm.

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Earthquakes

VERy NOW AND again, the Earths plates move around under the surface. These plates move and grind against each

other in a way that makes it difficult for the Earth to readjust itself. As a result, it causes a great amount of stress in the lithosphere of Earth, or the outer layer of Earths surface (which holds the crust and upper mantle). As the stress continues to increase, it eventually causes the lithosphere to break or shift. When the upper layer of Earth moves or breaks, it causes an earthquake. This earthquake could result in large scale natural disasters where cities are destroyed.
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Types of Earthquake
There are different types of earthquakes that have different causes and effects. One of the most common types is a tectonic earthquake. When the tectonic plates are shifting around under earths surface and cause a geological response, such as breaking in the crust, a tectonic earthquake occurs. Rocks in the crusts surface break as a result of the stress of shift plates and surfaces beneath. Tectonic earthquakes can also occur simultaneously with volcanic eruptions, leading to volcanic earthquakes. When magma is moved from deep under Earths surface, it can cause the tectonic plates to shift. When magma cools, it expands which could push plates further away. In other cases, magma is withdrawn due to an explosion which could cause the plates to come together to fill the gap where the magma once was. In either case, it could cause a significant shift of the plates and result in a volcanic earthquake. Tsunamis can occur in conjunction with volcanic eruptions, volcanic earthquakes, or tectonic earthquakes. When an earthquake occurs in the middle of the ocean, it can cause a large wave to sweep over land nearby. This is known as a tsunami. As the waves come closer to the shore, they tend to increase in height, causing
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more damage. For tsunamis that begin further out in the ocean, waves tend to start smaller but grow gradually larger as they move. The speed that these waves hit with is determined by the depth of the ocean in the place of the earthquake. Explosion earthquakes are caused by man-made devices. When a nuclear or chemical device is set off, it could trigger a shift in the tectonic plates in the area where it is set off or lands. Furthermore, collapse earthquakes could also be triggered by human actions. Collapse earthquakes happen underground in mines or caverns as a result of a seismic wave coming from a rock explosion located above the cavern. As the seismic wave travels through the rock, it causes it shift and triggers the collapse of the roof and walls. Earthquakes result from the forces that are acting upon them. Typically, we consider a force to be either a push or a pull. Force can have both magnitude and direction. When a force is applied to earth, this is where earthquakes come from. When force is applied, the Earth becomes stressed. Stress is the deforming force on the area, which over time will produce strain. Strain is what will actually cause the earthquake to occur because it is the deforming action. Force is most often applied as a result of the plates shifting
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against one another. This can occur as they push side by side, collide head-on, climb one over top of the other, or as old plates are being retired and new ones formed. This force causes the stress and strain that lead directly to the shifts in Earths lithosphere and cause earthquakes. Some rocks have what is known as elasticity, meaning that they can bend or change their shape to a certain point. This bending and changing will always revert back to its normal shape when the force is removed (such as another plate moves to a different area) unless it reaches the elastic limit. The elastic limit is the point at which any extra force would only serve to further and permanently deform the rock. Elastic rebound allows shapes to occasionally return to their previous shape even after being broken. This is what typically generates seismic waves.

Seismic Waves
There are three major types of waves that are related to earthquakes. The first, the P wave or primary wave, is the fastest of all three. They are the first to be recorded by seismographs, tools that help to determine when an earthquake is occurring or
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to measure it. They are compressional waves, so they can compress and expand matter as they move through it. The second type of wave, the S wave (secondary wave) follows behind the P waves. These waves can cut rock as they travel sideways to the direction of the motion. They are larger than P waves and significantly more dangerous because they can move both horizontally and vertically, causing more damage. However, they cannot travel through liquid because liquid cannot be cut. The speed of both P and S waves depends on the type of material they are moving through. The last type of wave is known as a surface wave. They move on the outside ground and are split into two different types. These are known as love waves and Rayleigh waves. Both are similar to S waves, but love waves can move only horizontally.

Measuring Earthquakes
Scientists find it hard to tell simply by experiencing it the severity of an earthquake. Instead they use seismographs, instruments that measure the length of the waves to determine on a scale how severe an earthquake was. The tool itself stays on a
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relatively level surface, while a weight hangs inside of it, designed to measure the horizontal waves. Others measure the vertical waves by using a spring to hold a pen used to mark the up and down motion of the seismograph. The readout created by a seismograph is known as a seismogram, which include the size of the waves and the duration of their appearance. Earthquakes can be measured by either their intensity or their magnitude. The intensity of an earthquake represents the obvious noticeable damage done to Earths surface and to humans. It is not considered to be the most accurate method of measuring an earthquake because it really only describes the area affected by the earthquake. Magnitude is the more commonly used measurement. It relies on wave amplitude and distance to determine the extent of the earthquake instead of visible features and destruction. It is determined using the information from the seismograph and then applied to mathematical formulas to be placed on a scale such as the Richter scale. Newer methods of measuring an earthquake include the use of GPS or global positioning system. Scientists are using this GPS to track the locations and movements of Earths crust and plates. It
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allows them to see if a collision may occur in the near future or how much damage may be done. With further knowledge and research, it may be able to fully allow for accurate predictions of upcoming earthquakes and potential damages.

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Erosion

ROSION IS THE process of being worn away by wind, water, ice, or any other natural occurrence. The most

practical way this is seen is with rocks. Over time, the elements begin to wear away the edge of rocks, eventually causing large holes or corners to come missing. Sometimes in the places where erosion has occurred, rivers or ponds form where the water has cut through the rock over a long period of time. Erosion is difficult to measure and monitor because the elements and circumstances are difficult to control in the natural environment. There are many different factors that can play a role in the rate and severity of
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erosion, many of which are difficult to monitor. As a result, many scientists form various models in order to monitor how erosion occurs. Physical models are one of the best ways for researchers to really evaluate ways to help prevent erosion. They begin by making a model of the cliff, rock, or area that is similar in composition and scaled down to the correct proportions. From there, they can test the effect of wind and rain. It is the most controlled way to evaluate how the area erodes and what could be done to prevent it from doing so. However, there are problems with these physical models. It is impossible to reproduce a model as an exact replica of the area because stress in that area plays a big role. For example, a large mountain will have considerably more stress on it than a model mountain that is only three feet tall. It also does not account for the variety of complex factors, such as demographics or harsher weather conditions. These physical models can have several different forms. The first would be a physical model of erosion at the grain scale. This takes into account the way erosion affects a single grain. In a grain scale model, scientists would measure the forces acting upon a
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single grain under the weather conditions they are testing. This gives them a good idea of how each individual particle responds under pressure, which can eventually add up to cause larger erosion. The continuum scale accounts for some of this larger-scale erosion. It evaluates the way erosion takes place over the surface of land as a whole. Instead of accounting for a single particle, it accounts for an entire layer. The continuum scale helps to predict what will happen to the surface and contour of the land over time. Geomorphologists study how the land came to be the way that it is today. They want to account for the history of erosion and the effect that it has had over time. In the geomorphology scale, they attempt to either examine what factors shaped landmarks or what will happen to these areas in the future. They are interested in the way the earth changes due to erosion. Erosion can be dangerous in terms of engineered structures. For example, when a bridge is built, the posts are placed far into the ground so that the bridge will remain sturdy and standing. However, over time the soil and rock can erode around the pole, leaving it more unstable and unsteady. Similar things can occur with pipes. Instead of the soil being packed tightly around a pipe
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underground, it slowly wears away, creating a gap under the pipe. This creates a form of stress which can lead to a busted pipe. Researchers will often evaluate the effect that erosion will have on structures with physical models as well. This helps to plan safer and more effective engineering processes.

Engineering Applications
Bridge scour is one of the most dangerous aspects of erosion and man-made structures. Water can eventually erode and take away much of the soil and rock that help the bridge up. When the posts become exposed, the danger of the bridge falling increases. Bridge scour is one the most common causes of bridge failures. Because bridges most often expand over water, it is very typical for their abutments, or supports, to be located in water. The water often rushes around these supports and causes the dirt to wear away, leaving the abutment completely exposed and no longer anchored by the ground. This is particularly true of marine structures. Piers, for instance, extend into the ocean where water is always moving. As the currents and strength of the waves increase, the sand and sediment in those areas decreases.
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Soil is one of our natural resources that must be taken care of in order to preserve it for as long as possible. There are many ways to both restore and conserve it. Agriculture takes a lot of the nutrients out of the land. Certain crops drain the soil of particular elements that are necessary for others to grow. Most farmers have begun to rotate their crops so that each season, the soil gets a rest from a more draining crop and can replenish that resource. If they were to plant the same crop in the same place year after year, the soil would become less fertile and they could have a failing crop. It is necessary to begin planning to restore soil so that we can continue agricultural practices in the future. Runoff from precipitation tends to collect an excess amount of sediment, which will eventually be deposited in dams and reservoirs. This sediment can add up quickly and becomes detrimental to the reservoirs primary function, which is to hold water. The sediment takes up too much room to allow the water to collect in these areas. It is most often too expensive to remove sediment mechanically, making it a challenging element to eliminate. Some of the alternative methods to managing sediment deposits into these areas are to allow the flow of the incoming river to eventually erode
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away the sediment, or to provide erosion protection to prevent the sediment from flowing into it in the first place. It is necessary to manage both rivers and coastlines in order to keep the flow of water functioning as it always has. Its primary focus is to keep waters clean and pure for drinking and daily usage. In order to do this, they must figure out ways to prevent water pollution, whether its cutting back on industrial uses or more carefully monitoring the deposits that people dump into the water systems. They are both considered with maintaining the current ecosystems that exist. Coastal management has an additional task of monitoring how the coastline is eroding due to water. Its focus is on erosion protection.

Internal Erosion and Geofilters

Internal erosion is the process by which soil is eroded from within a dam by water that is able to enter the dam. Once erosion begins, it is generally only a matter of time before the dam begins to leak. This type of erosion is the most common cause of dam failure. Internal erosion can happen in a number of ways. For example, it could create a type of pipe, where water begins to seep in or out
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at one particular point. The sediment eventually builds up and as the water continues to travel in through this point, it carves out a tiny pipe or tunnel. A scour allows water to seep into cracks or flaws in the earth and gradually wears away at them until they are totally eroded. Suffosion occurs when the finer particles of soil or sediment are worn away, leaving only the coarse ones behind. This leaves a weak structure to contend with. Scientists and researchers use both laboratory and field tests in order to examine and predict internal erosion. In laboratory testing, they sometimes create small-scale physical models with similar soil composition and stress levels. This may demonstrate some of the early warning signs of internal erosion, or it could reveal an easy solution to the problem. They can narrow down dam failure or internal erosion to a single cause and then attempt to correct that issue. In field tests, they would measure the composition of soil, study the way the elements tend to interact with this area, examine structures of the earth, and then determine if any one point may be compromised for internal erosion. It is very difficult to determine if internal erosion may compromise a dam or levee. Often, there are few signs of erosion
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until it is too late to correct them. One of the most common ways that internal erosion is visibly seen is a sand boil. This occurs when the sand that is seeping out of the dam, along with the water, resurfaces elsewhere and creates a tiny hill of sand. This is often the first sign of internal erosion, and a breach of the walls may occur shortly after. In order to prevent this, engineers have begun to create filters that line dam walls so as not to allow the particles to escape in quantities large enough to cause a breach to the walls. Geofilters attempt to prevent erosion, particularly along coastlines. They protect the natural edge of the land so that it cannot be carried away by the water. One of the most popular types of geofilters is the granular filter. This limits the size of particle that can pass through the filter so as not to allow much land to be carried away. For example, it may allow for small particles, such as soil to pass through, but not larger ones, such as pebbles. This is one way to prevent the most important substances from passing through the filter and eroding. Another common type of geofilter is the geotextile filter. Geotextile filters are formed in much the same way as granular filters. The pore size is small enough that it does not
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allow the larger particles of sand or soil to erode. While smaller ones may get through the system, it keeps majority of it in place.

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Maps

APS ARE AN important part of Part of your World because they help to locate and identify various areas,

as well as impart important information about those areas. The most common type of map is a reference map which is used to locate certain areas. It may give you a specific location, with a latitude and longitude, or an approximate location, in terms of nearby landmarks or important areas. All maps have some features in common that are necessary to examine before attempting to interpret the map. The first thing to look at is the title. Titles of maps will often give key information about what the map should
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be used for. For example, it might give the specific year that the map details, the area, or the specific demographics that the map details. Second, all maps have a legend. A legend is a key that tells what symbols are on the map and what they represent. It might list specific colors that stand for different areas or it may various symbols, like a star that stand for the capitol city. This helps users to interpret and identify the pieces of information that the map can tell them. Equally important to the legend is the scale. A scale details the distance that is represented on the map. It may tell you that one inch equals 50 miles. This helps you to get a better grasp on the size of the area being covered by the map. Upon looking at and studying a new map, all three of these things need to be carefully examined. They help you to understand the information present. There are several different types of maps, but these key features will help you to understand them no matter what type they are. Most people have seen reference maps before when planning a road trip or a vacation. They show the highways, major roads, and cities for a particular area. Another important type of map is a topographic map. A topographic map allows
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people to see in more detail the actual texture of the terrain. Maps are supposed to be a two-dimensional way of viewing information, but topographical maps still allow information about the height and depth of the land to pass through. Topographic maps have contour lines that outline a particular change in elevation. Sometimes these lines will be accompanied by a color change to indicate the area that is in that elevation range. Other times, the lines will be labeled with specific numbers that would tell how high or low that area is. This is great for seeing how a mountain changes elevation as it progresses or finding out how deep a valley sinks into the earth. New technology allows for web mapping services, where the areas are drawn from a database of maps on the internet. It can allow you to reference locations, see topographical maps of the area, view the demographics of a neighborhood, or see political party divisions for that area. The maps have become easier to access as new technology forms. These maps are pulled from the geographic information system through a variety of other sources. Other companies can access this geographic information system in order to make the information available for their users.
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A geographic information system combines data in order to relate any type of geographical information that may be necessary. It gives the tools to understand and interpret the information in the maps, as well as providing a quick and easy way to access the information. It pulls information from reference maps, topographic maps, demographic reports, and charts, and organizes them to make them more easily understood by users.

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Plate Tectonics

HEORIES OF PLATE tectonics have helped to form the geological knowledge that we have today about how the

Earth moves and functions. These tectonic plates are large sections of the Earths lithosphere (the upper level of the Earth that consists of the crust and upper mantle). Researchers have found that there are ten of these major plates that are constantly in motion. They move a couple centimetres each year (approximately the same speed at which your fingernails grow), and all of them move in different directions. This constant motion and movement is what accounts for the earthquakes that we experience. There are three different
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types of motions associated with plate tectonics: convergent, divergent, or transform boundaries. Convergent boundaries are where two tectonic plates crash directly into each other. Divergent boundaries are where the plates are pulling away from each other. At transform boundaries, they slide right past each other.

The Earth has several different layers to it, each with its own individual distinction and purpose. The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth. It is made of rock and other loose things, like dirt, sand, and silt. It is thicker underneath bodies of land than it is underneath the ocean floor. The next layer down is the mantle, which accounts for the majority of Earths mass. It is made of a sold
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rocky material which is quite dense. This part of the earth is said to be approximately 1,800 miles deep. These two layers are where we find tectonic plates. While not all of the mantle accounts for these plates, the upper portion of it does. Underneath the plates the mantle becomes hotter, sometimes melting other plates to be reused in different areas.

Tectonic plates are most often named for the major continent or land body that is present in that area. For example, the North American Plate is accurately named after the North American continent. It covers most of North America, but also extends to encompass Cuba and Greenland. It creates a divergent boundary with its neighbours, the Eurasian and African Plates. At its other ends, it creates transform boundaries with the Cocos and
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Caribbean Plates. It comes into contact with the Pacific Plate at the San Andreas Fault. This fault runs through California, and like all faults, it is a place where a crack has occurred and there is much slippage. It is 800 miles long and results in much slippage of the rocks against one another. This causes many of the California earthquakes, particularly the famous ones in San Francisco. The South American Plate encompasses all of South America and extends east into the Atlantic Ocean. It is gradually moving westward as time progresses. It forms a divergent boundary with the African Plate, and a convergent boundary with the Nazca Plate. The Nazca plate is currently being subducted, meaning that it is moving both sideways and underneath another tectonic plate. In this case, the Nazca Plate is moving sideways and underneath the South American Plate. This process of subduction leads the old plate into the mantle where it will most likely be melted and reused later on.

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The Pacific Plate is one of the largest tectonic plates. It is moving northwest at approximately nine centimetres yearly. It is surrounded by what has been coined the Ring of Fire, a series of volcanoes located in the Pacific Ocean. This volcanic activity so close to the boundaries of the Pacific Plate have led to much action and subduction. They lead to volcanic earthquakes, a specific type of earthquake caused when the addition or subtraction of magma from within the earth triggers a movement of the tectonic plates. Parts have been taken under other plates and into the mantle for reheating and regenerating new land. The Juan de Fuca Plate is the smallest of all the tectonic plates. In fact, it is only a remnant of another plate that was subducted a
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long time ago. The plate itself is split into three different segments, sometimes known as the Explorer and Gorda Plates. Many times the term Juan de Fuca only refers to the central plate instead of all three. It encompasses the area between the North American Plate and the Pacific Plate, in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. Currently, it is going through a process of subduction underneath the North American Plate. The Eurasian Plate encompasses the area of both Europe and parts of Asia (most commonly referred to as Eurasia). To the east is the North American Plate, where it creates a divergent boundary. It also borders with the African Plate on its western border, as well as with the Indian and Australian plates. Continental drift is another important topic related to the origin and continual movement of the tectonic plates. It was once believed that all the tectonic plates were united in one supercontinent, often referred to as Pangaea. As the ocean floors changed and shifted, the plates began to change and move with them. Today, it is still referred to as continental drift because the plates are moving in relationship to one another. The plates do not all move in the same direction, which is the reason that earthquakes, tsunamis, and different types
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of boundaries occur. This even causes subduction because there is not always room for an additional plate in that area. Scientists have found that the tectonic plates move along the ocean bed. This is similar to the idea of seafloor spreading, which states that the ocean floor is expanding where two plates pull apart (a divergent boundary). This allows there to be a crack in the earth, and magma rises up from underneath the plates deep in the mantle, forming a tiny underwater volcano. Volcanoes can link together along a long path where the plates are constantly pulling apart, forming what is most often known as an oceanic ridge.

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Rocks
Types of Rock

DENTIFyING ROCKS AND minerals can be tricky because many have similar appearances. There are a few tricks of the trade

that may help you to identify any rock or mineral that you might find. The first is to decide whether it is an igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rock. An igneous rock is sometimes referred to as a fire rock because of how it is formed. They can be formed both underground and above ground. Underground, magma settles into small pockets where it cools and forms an igneous rock. Above ground, as lava cools following a volcano eruption, it forms igneous rock.
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The next type of rock is a sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rocks are formed as other items are eroded away and the fragments falling are deposited elsewhere. As these deposits of sediment build up, more and more layers press down on top of the original layers. This creates pressure, which over time leads to the formation of sedimentary rocks. This is most often where fossils are found. Sedimentary rocks are easily distinguishable because it easy to see various layers within the rock. The last type of rock is a metamorphic rock. A metamorphic rock is a rock that has changed from either an igneous or sedimentary rock. It could have been either in its previous state, but the pressure and heat created from the build-up on top of it leads it to change. Sometimes it is easy to see a metamorphic rock because the grains are flattened within it. After identifying the type of rock, it is easier to narrow down what particular substance you might be studying. you can examine colour and grain size are quickest to note. While that may narrow down the search somewhat, you must also account for the composition. It would help significantly to look at any minerals that may be present within the rock. This might include checking
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for the colour, the streak that a rock might leave behind if rubbed against something, or the hardness of it. Certain minerals, like talc, are very soft and may crumble while others will not. The way it breaks, or its cleavage, is another large clue. It may split in layers or shatter into pieces. Its magnetism, lustre, odour, and taste all help to identify the type of mineral. Minerals are naturally-occurring solids that have a specific chemical structure that results in very specific geometric patterns forming on a molecular level. They can often switch out various elements for others, but still retain the same formation and only a minor change to the chemical formula. There are several groups of minerals that are placed together because of common characteristics. A few of these groups are the halides, sulphides, oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, and phosphates. These groups have particular chemical formulas that cause them to have similar properties and structures. There are several other groups as well, but all are formed on the basis of chemical similarities. Bowens reaction series addresses the issue of mineral formation. He proposed that many minerals are able to form as lava cools. It depends on the temperature how and if these minerals will ever
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form. It is generally written as a y-shaped chart, with the upper half depicted as two branches of minerals that can develop. As the temperatures decrease, it is more common for certain elements to form, such as quartz. As the temperatures increase, there are multiple possibilities for the mineral that could be formed.

The Rock Cycle

In general, rocks are formed via the rock cycle. It begins with the eruption of magma, a hot liquid rock from inside the earth. The magma will eventually cool to form the igneous rocks. This first stage is where the process of forming hardened rock begins again. However, eventually, this igneous rock will be eroded by wind, water, hail, or some other natural element. The erosion will cause it to develop into sediment. The sediment will settle somewhere until much time passes and it continues to build up. Eventually the amount of rock and pressure on top of the sediment will force it to become a sedimentary rock. From here, the sedimentary rocks are continuously being pushed further and further down into the earths mantle. The heat and pressure of this area allows for the sedimentary rock to change
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into a metamorphic rock, deemed so because of its metamorphosis. As the heat increases, the metamorphic rock will turn into magma, which can again begin the cycle. In general, this is how the cycle works. However there are always ways in which a rock can revert to its former stage by being eroded before it can transform from an igneous rock into a sedimentary rock. An igneous rock, with enough heat and pressure, may change to a metamorphic rock before returning again to become magma. Fossils can form during this process, and are most often found in sedimentary rocks. Fossils could be the imprint of a shell left behind, the imprint of a bone, or a footprint from a creature long ago. They often settle into the area of sediments and are preserved there as the pressure increases until it becomes a part of the rock. These fossils give archaeologists, palaeontologists, and others important clues into the past. They can reveal the types of organisms that were living, eating habits, and the physical size of animals that no longer exist today. Rocks and minerals are incredibly important for the economy today. We use them in a variety of things. Majority of the economic uses of rocks and minerals revolve around construction. Because they
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are sturdy and often difficult to break, we use them as foundation materials and key items in the production of a building. They are great for cements and floors. Sometimes they are crushed up to form these things, while other times they appear to be just fine as they are. Many times the powders of rocks are used in daily items, such as toothpaste and bread. Rocks are incredibly important to keep the economy going and as sources for things we often take for granted.

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Volcanoes

NE OF THE most common places for volcanoes to form

is along a plate boundary. The mantle is the second layer of

earths surface, made mostly of a dense type of rocky material. Here, magma often pushes to the surface. These locations are commonly referred to as oceanic ridges when they occur in the ocean. When they occur on land, they have no such name. The magma forces the earths crust up and away from the mantle, creating a type of hill. It is easiest for volcanoes to form here because there is already a gap where the tectonic plates often do not match up exactly. There are pieces

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that do not fit perfectly, and it is here that volcanoes most often find an easy outlet for their magma to enter through the earths crust.

Types of Volcano
There are three different types of volcanoes that have a tendency to form. The first is a volcano field. These consist of several small volcanic eruptions that are spaced out over a long period of time. After this single eruption, that volcano will not be able to erupt again, as it has exhausted the magma available to it. However, each new eruption also creates a new volcano that will be able to erupt at any time afterwards. The second type of volcano is a cone volcano. These are the tallest volcanoes because of the way they tend to erupt. Over a period of time, there are several eruptions from one central location. The eruptions are usually small to moderate in nature, but the magma that cools once on the surface of the land serves to build up the volcano to become taller and taller. These are also sometimes referred to as stratovolcanoes or composite cone volcanoes. The third type of volcano is the caldera volcano. These are volcanoes that erupt infrequently but tend to have the most severe
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eruptions. In fact, their eruptions form craters that are anywhere from ten to twenty-five kilometres in width. These craters will be filled with the debris and igneous rock that form from the cooled magma. New Zealand is home to one of the most active volcanic sites in the world. It hosts all three types of volcanoes, spread out over six different areas in the country. The activity of their volcanic eruptions can be directly traced to the tectonic plate movement that affects their country. Most of the activity occurs in one area, known as the Taupo Volcanic Zone. This zone features three cone volcanoes that frequently erupt, as well as two caldera volcanoes that have a tendency to have high production levels. The cone volcanoes are known as Ruapehu, Tongariro/Ngauruhoe, and White Island, while the caldera volcanoes are known as Okataina and Taupo. Scientists and researchers are currently investigating the area of Rotomahana, located in Waimangu Valley, Rotorua. It is the same location where Tarawera erupted in 1886. The first team sent two underwater vehicles into the freshwater hydrothermal system to investigate the details that fascinated them. This used to be home to the pink and white terraces, considered to be the eighth
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wonder of the world. However, they promptly disappeared when the volcano erupted. The freshwater system no longer functioned the way that it used to and the terraces could not reform. Scientists have undertaken studying Rotomahana in order to discover what change occurred underground that would lead to this type of development. Obviously, it is of the utmost importance to keep careful tabs on the volcanoes that exist today. It must be noted when and how they will erupt to lessen the damage and death toll that each eruption could potentially cause. They are monitored both in between eruptions and also during the eruption itself. The latter requires much more skill and involves greater danger than the former. Monitoring between eruptions is often the best method as it can predict that damage will ensue shortly while there is still time to evacuate. In New Zealand, the volcanoes are monitored through a variety of means, and these can be transferred to any site. First of all, they use ground deformation. As the magma prepares to erupt, it will push aside ground near the volcano in order to expand its passageways. Chemical analysis of the gases produced can also provide clue about when an eruption might occur. The
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content of the gases can provide key information about how close to the surface magma is. The closer to the surface magma gets, the greater the chance that an eruption will occur. They can also monitor seismic waves and volcanic tremors to determine if there may be an earthquake that accompanies the eruption.

Volcanic Hazard
Many of the hazards associated with volcanoes take place solely at the base of the volcano or in the nearby areas. For example, these can include lahars (mudflows consisting of volcanic rock, ash, and
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water) that slide down the volcano alongside lava, a landslide, or a pyroclastic flow. A pyroclastic flow forms when the eruption column spews its contents too quickly, leading to a jumble of rocks being thrown all around the volcano. This is often the most destructive force related to volcano eruptions. Volcanoes can also generate lots of electricity, resulting in an electric storm that can start fires and interfere with emergency radio communications. Steam explosions of hot springs can occur when the water becomes too hot and starts to boil violently. The volcanic gases released into the air could be toxic. If an earthquake occurs and the volcano is located in the sea, there could be a tsunami (or a large wave) that follows. The most widespread damage is done by the ash fall which can affect areas that hundreds of miles away from the volcanic eruption. If a volcano were to erupt, the best method is to prepare for such an event. Often, the best option is to evacuate if you reside close to the site of the active volcano. Precautionary measures should be taken, even if living at a greater distance, to account for the lava flow and ash fall. you should be prepared to evacuate at any given time for lava flows. Important items to take would be official paperwork that will be necessary in the future, medicines,
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radios for emergency communications, and clothing. Turn of all water, gas, heat, and electricity, and stay in a safe location until it is time to return. Afterward, make a list of the damage done and seek medical help or counselling if you feel it is necessary. During an ash fall, it is not necessary to evacuate but certain precautions must be taken. you should stay indoors with the windows and doors securely shut. Refrain from driving and cover cars to prevent ash from entering into the engine. Water should be closely monitored if it comes from a source that would be affected by ash fall and air conditioning and dryers should be turned off. Afterwards, ash should be removed as quickly as possible and without water. Water will make it more difficult to clean. Care should be taken as ash can be very rough and could cause injuries.

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Water

ATER IS AN important part of daily life. In fact, one of the things we most often take for granted about is the

luxury of having sustainable sanitation systems. This is any type of system that allows us to practice good hygiene and have clean drinking water that we can use over a long period of time. It cleans the water we take in and use, making it safe and free from bacteria that could cause disease or illness. Many countries do not have access to any type of sustainable sanitation system which leads to water-borne diseases. Water-borne diseases can take many forms

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such as bacterial, viral, or parasitic. It is the current leading cause of death around the world. Lifestyle can be affected even if there is clean drinking water. Having too much or not enough often leads to large-scale social and economic difficulties. A flood can drown crops and ruin homes. It is difficult to clean up in the aftermath of a flood, and dirty water tends to pervade the area. This leads to an increase in waterborne diseases from being exposed to it, similar to the way you would become infected if you were bathing in it. A draught, or a dry spell over a long period of time, occurs when no rain or water comes to nourish the land. This leads crops to wither away in the heat, and often leads to dehydration among people. Water is currently becoming an important source of energy. As we worry about how long our fossil fuels will last and the effect that they have on the environment, many people are turning to hydropower in response. While it does not cause air pollution, it does have a heavy environmental impact. It changes the temperature and flow of bodies of water, which change the course that fish are able to swim and the type of fish that can survive in these changes. Many naturally occurring plants and animals
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are forced to either relocate or are killed. Hydropower also lowers the amount of oxygen in the water, making it difficult for life to breathe underwater.

Pollution
Any type of pollution in the water harms the environment and the people who use that body of water. Pollution can come from an industrial source or a chemical spill. They can also result from a source on the surface. As water runs over the land and back into a body of water after a rainstorm, it takes any of the chemicals that exist on the land with it. This can also lead to nutrient difficulties, where algae can grow and take away from the oxygen levels of the water. Biological pollution can cause some of the most severe effects for humans by contaminating the water with bacteria, parasites, and viruses.

Water Conservation
There is not an infinite supply of water, so we must learn to conserve the amount that we use. It could be as simple as turning the water off when were not using it, watering the yard and plants
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a little less, and driving a car less often. One of the best ways to conserve water is limit use of bottled water. It takes three times more water to fill up a bottle of water than to fill one up straight out of the tap. Not to mention, it requires the production of plastics. Industries use water too, which accounts for almost 25 percent of the worlds water usage. It is used to make copies, make gasoline, cool hot objects, lower acidity in chemical reactions, and wash machinery. In many countries, particularly those that are undeveloped, there is a large contrast between the water access available to those in urban areas and those in rural areas. Those in urban areas typically have better access to sanitation systems and clean drinking water, as this is where majority of the people are. In rural areas, there is less clean drinking water available. It makes it more difficult to clean and sanitize things properly. It is more difficult to put sanitation systems in rural areas because it is expensive and few people in these areas can afford them. In urban areas, it is more likely for everybody to chip in and help to purchase these systems. No matter where you live, it is a human right to have access to clean drinking water. It helps to keep healthy so that you can realize
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your other human rights and continue to live a fully functioning life instead of one riddled with water-borne diseases. The United Nations have been requesting action so that this human right can be fully realized for everyone. Water infrastructure is incredibly important to this process because it helps to place waterways and sanitation systems in place. There needs to be the formation of piping and outlets for wastewater. Any countries cannot agree upon the management of international waterways. There are many rivers and bodies of water than run through more than one country. However, these countries cannot seem to agree on how that water should be used. It is well recognized that water is a valuable natural resource, and each country wishes to claim it for its own. This often leads to war and conflict over who should be in control and have the primary usage of this waterway.

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Water Cycle

Water goes through a specific cycle that allows for it to be constantly restoring itself. The first stage of this water cycle is known as evaporation. It begins as the sun starts to warm up a body of water. As it is being heated, the water moves into its gas phase. It transforms into water vapour when it leaves the body of water it originated in and becomes a part of the air. The water is no longer visible at this point. Next, the water goes through its condensation phase. When the water meets the air, the higher it travels, the cooler it becomes. It
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eventually changes back into its liquid state. However, this is not the point where rain occurs. The liquid water now sticks together to form the clouds. Clouds can be made of condensed water or ice crystals if it is cold enough. They can be any shape, depending on how the water sticks together. We can see condensation on the outside of a glass when beads of water form or on a window during a rainy day. Water goes through the same process when forming clouds. Eventually, the clouds can no longer hold all of the water that has accumulated. As a result, they burst open, and we see precipitation. Precipitation can take a lot of different forms. It could be rain, snow, sleet, or hail. Any type of weather that comes from the sky is a form of precipitation. As precipitation falls, saturation begins to take place. This means that the amount of water in the ground (groundwater) begins to expand. The falling water gathers together with the already formed saturation layer of groundwater to make it even larger. Groundwater is formed by rain, snow, sleet, and hail soaking into the ground and forming small bodies of water. The earth has the exact same amount of water now as it did 1,000 years ago. The water is constantly going through the water
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cycle in order to rain back down again as water. Though the water may accumulate in areas differently than it did 1,000 years ago, the same amount still exists. The water cycle does not destroy any water. It only allows it to change its physical state and to transfer locations temporarily. For example, when water is evaporated, it may have come from a pond. That same water will condense in the clouds, and could be rained back down into a river. Rivers flow into oceans at deltas or estuaries. Water can flow from a pond all the way to the ocean through a series of complicated steps.

Oceanography
There is a whole science devoted to the study of the ocean, known as oceanography. This helps us to learn about different types of waves, the way the ocean is set up, and the kind of life forms that we might find in the ocean. When swimming in the ocean, you may notice the current, or the pull of the water. There are several different types of currents but some have specific names such as the West Wind Drift, the East Wind Drift, the North and South Equatorial currents, and the Gulf Stream. They flow in gigantic loops and patterns that are known as gyres. In
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the Northern hemisphere, they flow in a clockwise direction and in the Southern hemisphere; they flow in the counter clockwise direction. This effect, known as the coroilis effect, is a result of the Earths rotation. There are several different types of waves as well. The three main surfing waves include the plunging breaker, surging breaker, and spilling breaker. The plunging breaker happens on moderately slope and has a characteristic curl overhead as it breaks. The surging breaker occurs on a sharp slope and does not break. Instead it rolls over the land, making it the most destructive of the three types of waves. The spilling breaker occurs on a very low slope, where the surf rolls over the front of the wave because it actually broke further out in the ocean.

Sea Life
The ocean is home to several different types of sea life. It hosts a variety of colourful plants like the corals and sponges that are often seen in shops. There are also a multitude of mammals that survive in saltwater instead of freshwater, such as dolphins. There are many vertebrate animals and invertebrate animals, but all of
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them interact in a way similar to those on land do. They have camouflage to protect them from the gaze of predators, but it is still up to the strongest to survive.

The Layers of the Ocean

The ocean is divided into five major layers. The top layer, the epipelagic layer, holds the sunlight zone, the warmest part of the ocean. This is typically where the end of visible light occurs. Further down is the Mesopelagic zone, often referred to as the twilight zone. It is only partially lit here. The bathypelagic zone comes next, which is nearly the end of where living organisms can be found. Whales may come to this dark zone in search of food but do not venture any further down. The last two zones, Abyssopelagic and the Hadalpelagic, have the deepest waters and the most intense pressures. A few organisms live the abyssopelagic zone, but only invertebrates such as starfish and tube fish can be found in the hadalpelagic zone.

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Weather
Severe Weather

EVERE WEATHER CAN be life-threatening and cause extreme damage. The utmost care should be taken to account

for potential damage and to avoid taking part in anything that may be dangerous under these circumstances. This can include tornadoes, tropical cyclones, hurricanes, typhoons, lightening, fires, hail, snow, or rain. The first step is always to gather information about the threat at hand and to create a plan, which will then be acted upon under the dangerous circumstances as they occur. There are two types of notifications about impending severe weather. The
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first is a weather watch. This could indicate the environmental conditions for developing a tornado, storm, or other form of severe weather is very favourable and there is potential for it. A weather warning indicates that severe weather is coming or it has already been reported.

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Rainstorms are dangerous because they make visibility all but impossible. Driving during a rainstorm should be discouraged because it is impossible to see and the vehicle could slip or slide on the wet roads. Rainstorms can be accompanied by severe winds, thunder, and lightning. All of these things could be potentially dangerous and life-threatening. It is best to remain inside during these times. Tornadoes are very damaging windstorms that form as a result of severe thunderstorms. They are violently-spinning columns of air and wind that are capable of uprooting trees and destroying homes. It is funnel-shaped but may be difficult to spot during a particularly severe thunderstorm when it is dark and raining outside. When a watch or warning is issued for a tornado, it is imperative that action be taken or planned for. The first thing necessary is to find a safe location for your family. It could be a basement, hallway, or bathroom in the centre of the lowest floor of the house. This area should be removed of all clutter to avoid injuries if extreme winds should reach that area. Windows and doors should be avoided and shelters taken under something extremely sturdy until you are advised that the danger has passed.
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Similar to tornadoes are hurricanes. Hurricanes and tropical cyclones are also made of extremely high winds forming a funnel that can cause serious damage. Hurricanes or tropical cyclones occur when their wind speed exceeds 119 kilometres per hour. Both tropical cyclones and hurricanes have a low pressure centre, known as the eye of the storm. This eye is typically a very safe place to be, without the violent winds and damaging storms that are found on and around the outside walls of the storm. Hurricanes, tropical cyclones, and typhoons are all similar storms but their names depend on the areas in which they were formed. Typhoons occur west of the 180 degree mark, and Japan is responsible for monitoring their development. The terms hurricane and tropical cyclone are often interchangeable. Lightning comes from a burst of energy and is very deceptive in the way that it appears. Its speed can exceed 60,000 miles per hour. Lightning can have a variety of forms, including differentiations in its shape and colour. Three of the major different types of lightning are intra-cloud lightning (lightning occurring within one cloud) and inter-cloud lightning (lightning occurring between various clouds), but the most damaging is the cloud to ground lightning. Here, the bolt of lightning can hit the ground and the energy and
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heat generated could spark a fire. Wildfires can destroy acres and acres of land if not taken under control in their beginning stages. The only way to avoid this type of fire is to evacuate, and it often leaves nothing in tact in its path. Snow is often pictured as a light and fluffy substance that could hardly do any harm, but a blizzard shows us just the opposite of that. A blizzard has both strong winds and low temperatures, making it a dangerous combination. If trapped in a blizzard, visibility is difficult and travel becomes near impossible. The difference between an average snowstorm and a blizzard is the strength of the winds. A blizzard has winds that exceed 56 kilometres per hour. Its visibility is only a quarter mile or less (400 metres) over a long period of time. As the temperature sinks lower, hail could be formed. Hail is solid ice that falls similar to the way snow does. However, its solid nature causes it to be more damaging. It can cause serious bodily injuries, as well as more damage done to vehicles, windows, and homes. Care should be taken to remain away from glass objects and if anything of value is outside, it should be taken into shelter. This includes both vehicles and animals.

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