Running Head: TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

Trauma and the Developmental Writing Classroom Janet Kirchner University of Nebraska

Note: This paper was originally written for TEAC 991 on December 4, 2011

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

Abstract Because the community college developmental writing classroom population is rapidly changing, an understanding of one of the fastest growing groups, students with traumatic background experiences, is important for every community college instructor, especially those in developmental classes. Trauma includes experiences with war (either as a soldier or civilian), physical or emotional abuse, natural disasters, substance abuse history, and childhood neglect. In a single class, instructors might have representatives from each type of trauma. In this paper, I look at how trauma affects learning and how this impacts student-teacher relationships, classroom practices, motivation, curriculum decisions, student accommodations, and professional development/teacher education.

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

Trauma and the Developmental Writing Classroom As my students were completing a group activity on the second day of class in one of my developmental writing classes, I heard a loud thud and a voice, Im done. I came over to the group as one of the students was starting to put her book in her backpack and was starting to stand up. I pulled up a chair, sat down in front of her, and asked her what had happened. They are not listening to me, she said, near tears. Her group members, perplexed, looked at me, but kept quiet. I quietly opened her book back to the appropriate page and told her group members, Lets listen to what she has to say. Her classmates nodded in agreement and then listened as she gave her point of view on the text. Then I gave them an opportunity to speak as well as I let her know everything would be okay. This student had confided in me on the first day of class that she was scared and anxious about starting college, but this is all I had known about her before beginning the course. After this day, though, there was never another incident. In fact, she became helpful to other students who were having difficulties in the class. Through her writing, I learned of a traumatic childhood, of a single-parent who was a drug addict, of childhood rape, of her own substance abuse and her own children being removed from her custody. I never ask to hear such stories, but a writing classroom may be the first place (and potentially only place) that students from traumatic backgrounds are given a voice and are heard.

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

A Changing Population As community colleges and open-admissions colleges accept more and more students who had never considered college before, educators must be aware of the needs of a changing population. Many students, like the one just described, did not have a traditional high school experience and have had scattered schooling experiences at best. In developmental writing classes especially, the percentage of students who have experienced trauma in their lives is likely higher than ever before. In my first level developmental classes, I can safely say that the majority of my students have experienced some form of trauma, whether it be physical or sexual abuse, experiences in war (either as a citizen or a soldier), substance abuse (often drawn out by earlier trauma), childhood neglect or abandonment, and natural and human-caused disasters. In a single class, I have had student representatives from each experience. Those who have not had such experiences have often had traumatic schooling experiences, or they would not be in the beginning levels of developmental writing. Whether or not instructors are open to essays about traumatic experiences varies considerably and is an individual decision. Some instructors feel that they are not qualified as therapists and feel uncomfortable grading essays that deal with such personal experiences. Other instructors see the value in writing about these experiences as a step toward healing. As writing instructors, though, we often are able to see what is hidden in a math or science class, for example. All instructors, especially those who work with developmental students, should understand how trauma can affect learning.

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

According to the National Council for Community Behavioral Healthcare, Almost 2/3 of the general population reported at least one adverse childhood experience of physical, sexual abuse, neglect, serious family problems (Rosenberg, 2011). While most educators realize that children who are neglected or abused are going to have a difficult time learning, educators may not realize the lasting effects on adults. In the past, such students might not have attended college, or they might have attended and then silently dropped out. Trauma and Learning According to Shell et al. (2010), learning requires attention, repetition, and connections to be made. How much attention that is needed depends on whether the task is new to the learner or not (Bransford, J., Derry, S., Berliner, D., & Hammerness, K., with Beckett, K.L., 2005, p. 57). As developmental instructors, its important for us to realize that When learning to read, for example, the effortful allocation of attention to pronouncing words can make it difficult to also attend to the meaning of what one is reading (Bransford, J., Derry, S., Berliner, D., & Hammerness, K., with Beckett, K.L., 2005, p. 58). Attending to new learning for those who have experienced trauma, however, is especially difficult since the underlying fear makes concentrating difficult. According to Perry (2006), when threatened, a person becomes less capable of learning or retrieving cognitive content; The adult learner with a history of trauma or with a background of educational failure or humiliation is sensitized and moves along the arousal continuum faster in the face of significantly less challenge or perceived threat (p. 23). Perry (2006) emphasizes that its important to realize that adults recovering from trauma may often be in a state of low-level fear. Awareness of this state is the first step toward creating a

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

safe environment for such students. Because of this persistent low-level fear, a different part of the brain is active than necessary for learning. According to Steele (2007), the state of arousal (or low-level fear) makes understanding and processing information difficult. As anyone with test anxiety realizes, sometimes the information is in the brain but inaccessible during states of anxiety. For those recovering from trauma, this anxiety is much more difficult to control. In the classroom, its easy to see how misunderstandings can occur between instructor and student when the student seems to not be paying attention or fails to follow instructions on an assignment. Misunderstandings can occur between classmates as well since students from traumatic backgrounds may be hyper-sensitive to criticism or the perception that they are not being heard. Many students feel alone in their experiences, a child of abuse not necessarily relating to the refugee from Sudan sitting next to him. Negative experiences in the college classroom can trigger memories of negative schooling experiences in elementary and high school, reminding the student why he or she didnt like school. Repeated failures add additional stress so that students may withdraw further and disassociate themselves from the class and their peers. As developmental educators, we often worry about the retention rate in our classes. Much work is done in creating new programs, new curriculum, and new support systems for students. However, the difference between a student who persists and a student who drops out is sometimes difficult to predict. The student mentioned in the introduction is now near finishing her program and has clearly overcome many of the obstacles that she initially faced. Other students simply disappear.

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

I had a student once who begged to be admitted to my class late. Something about her made me sign the registration form, despite my usual policy of not admitting students past the first day of class. For her diagnostic essay, she wrote an essay about her experience with rape. In the first week, she admitted that she was afraid to come to class, but was determined to stick to school this time (it became clear that she had dropped out of school the quarter before), but the next time I saw her, she was red-faced angry. She couldnt believe how another instructor had circled all of the its and theres in her paper. I tried to calm her down, but after this, I never saw her again. Certainly, the instructor did not do anything wrong; however, perhaps understanding the fragile nature of many of our students could help us help them persist longer. Trauma and the Classroom A first step in working with students from traumatic experiences is creating a safe classroom. I once had two students who had just returned from fighting in Desert Storm. They had gone there together and returned together, and were also there for each other as they began college. There were times, though, when one had to escort the other out of the classroom due to his PTSD. Its important for educators to recognize potential triggers that may cause the effects of trauma to become worse. These triggers may apply to those who are returning from war, as well as those recovering from any traumatic experience. Potential triggers include: loud or abrupt noises, smells, tone of voice, glaring lights, aggressive behavior, impatience, not being listened to or being heard, small spaces, crowds, having to repeat ones story multiple times to multiple people, removal of or denial of privileges, colors, anniversary

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

dates, disorder/chaotic environments, lack of choice or options, and not being believed (SAMHSA). I sometimes wonder how many stop coming because of something as simple as an overly authoritarian tone of voice or a class of boisterous individuals. In a safe classroom, the student is heard and respected. Kerka (2002) stresses that the structure of the class should not be based on a deficit model, where instructors are working on healing students, but that the environment created is a safe one for all students. As instructors, we dont want to assume that all of our students have come from traumajust that the number is likely larger than we might think. According to Kerka (2002), a safe classroom may limit diagnostic testing, encourage group rule-making, encourage full-group participation, but also allow students to opt out of activities when the stress-level is high. Likewise, the Association on Higher Education and Disability (2010) recommends flexibility about class participation, along with help through online class notes, assessment beyond timed exams, short breaks, and flexibility when possible with attendance. Still, we need to realize, Trauma survivors should not be seen as poor souls in need of healing. But, it is the responsibility of literacy workers, funders and others in the field to recognize that all literacy learning must be carried out in recognition of the needs of survivors or trauma (Horsman, 1997, p. 5). For instructors just beginning their teaching careers or for instructors new to the developmental writing classroom, there is often a mismatch between instructor and student experiences and expectations. When I was very new to teaching, I taught at a for-profit twoyear school in an inner city. Before this experience, I had only taught at universities and suburban community colleges. When I started class, I brought the syllabus I had used in the

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

other institutions, only changing the dates and page numbers based on the required books. I arrived ten minutes early and briefly met the five students in my first class. However, a few minutes later, two of the students left. The time to start the class came and went, and I became distressed that they werent there at the beginning of the first day of class. Still, I started reading my syllabus to the three remaining, just as I would have in any other class I had taught before. There were rules about how many classes could be missed, how many tardies equaled an absence, penalties for late work, etc. The language was the same as I had used as a GTA at a big university. When the tardy students arrived, I went back over the main rules again, which started an hour long battle about why those rules might matter. Never before had anyone questioned my policies, which were similar to most composition classes. I was so shaken that I had almost quit that day. Something about the place, though, brought me back, and the days after the first were not as stressful. I got to know my students, and I learned that three of the five had been recently released from prison. Two of the other students worked all night before coming to the 8:00 AM class I taught and then took their two other required courses before being able to sleep and start over again. All students were at a level of heightened anxiety, and I now realize the tone of You must or Fail throughout my syllabus certainly only increased that anxiety and set up an adversarial relationship from the start. In a room full of eighteen-year-old university students, the old dont smile until Christmas might have seemed like good advice to a twenty-two-year-old GTA, but keeping this advice in a situation with already fragile students does not support learning.

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

10

Trauma and the Instructor Students from traumatic backgrounds must feel safe with their instructor. They must trust that the instructor has their best interests in mind and that the instructor is not there to belittle them. Unfortunately, many students in developmental classes have come from many years of negative schooling experiences. Isserlis (2000) writes, Validating learners strengths is critical, especially for adults who have received negative messages about themselves or their learning abilities (p. 3). As instructors, we need to keep in mind the difference between praise and encouragement (Shell et al., 2010). Empty praise is not likely to have as much impact as encouragement about specific student strengths. In a writing class, we have an excellent opportunity to build trust through conferences over student writing. If personal writing is allowed or encouraged, some understanding should be reached about the nature of instructor feedback. In an upper level class, a discussion of You are not the poem might be enough to help writers disconnect from their writing. However, when students are just beginning to write and share their writing, it is very difficult for them to separate themselves from what they have written. Ideally, space can be created for personal writing that is not judged, while other writing assignments might be used for formal grading. When giving feedback, we need to take a multidimensional view, where situational and individual characteristics of the instructional context and learner are considered along with the nature and quality of a feedback message (Shute, 2008, p. 176). Trauma and Motivation

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

11

An important part of the learning process, no matter the student, is motivation. Those intrinsically motivated have a better outcome than those who are extrinsically motivated (Shell et al., 2010). For students from traumatic backgrounds, motivation is what often helps them get through what may seem to be insurmountable odds. College is not a requirement, so something in our students lives brought them to this point in their lives. For students escaping abusive relationships, college is a step toward a career where they can be self-supporting. I have had many students write about suddenly being able to do something for themselves and not their partner. For students from poverty, neglect, or substance abuse in their pasts, college is a chance to escape such cycles in their families. However, to be successful, the motivation usually needs to be intrinsic, something the students have always wanted to accomplish, something they are doing for themselves or their children. When students come because of court orders or as a temporary way to make money, we rarely see the same kind of success. While students might come to college with a real motivation to become a nurse or a computer technician, students who are placed in developmental courses often have that motivation sink quickly as they realize how many months (and sometimes years) they must spend in preparatory courses before they even get to their general education requirements. Developmental instructors can help by connecting their courses to students prior knowledge, by helping students make learning goals, by connecting these goals to their future, and by making the learning experience as relevant as possible to their current and future goals (Shell et al., 2010).

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

12

Corsos (2008) discussion of teaching adaptively can be applied to todays developmental writing classroom in which we find students from varied backgrounds. Since the backgrounds and abilities in any one classroom can be quite diverse, beginning with an appreciation of this diversity and then microadapting to students needs: Microadaptation means continual monitoring to determine necessary and helpful levels of support in classroom learning tasks, some of which is assessment of work products and some of which is assessment of thinking, affect, and behavior Adaptive teachers provide appropriate support when they think it is needed, and withdraw support when they see students as capable of working alone (Corso, 2008, pp. 170-171). Trauma and Curriculum Since traditionally, developmental coursework began with the sentence and moved to the essay, the classes have often not fit well with the needs of adult learners, who may see repeated grammar exercises as juvenile and a reminder of their school days that they did not enjoy or in which they found little success. While an understanding of grammar can help in the avoidance of some errors in Standard English, exercises and basic paragraph structures need not be the focus of developmental writing. Still, many textbooks created for these courses include a sentence to paragraph level, paragraph to essay level, and short essay level sequence. Many of these texts were designed for a more homogenous group, often students who possibly missed grammar instruction in their schooling experiences and simply need some review. Today, however, a single classroom might include a refugee from a war-torn country who had inconsistent schooling, a factory worker who had never thought about going to college but was

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

13

just laid off after twenty years of service, a young student who had been misidentified and spent many years in special education, an international student who was a doctor in her own country, a student who was raised in foster care and moved from school to school most of his life, and a recent high school graduate who simply never paid attention in class. For all of these students, the traditional textbooks are lacking. For one, these students do not usually connect to the essays about high school or traditional college life they are required to read. For books that focus on exercise completion, the sentences are often disconnected and meaningless, except to teach a grammatical rule. Students who will go further in college will need more than this. Many of these students are also capable of much more and could be engaged more by more complex activities. Calfee and Wilson (2004) state, All students find cognitively complex tasks more interesting and challenging than simplistic ones (p. 588). Students who test into developmental writing may not have had the same educational backgrounds as students who test into traditional collegelevel writing, but they are still adults, many of whom have run businesses, raised families, and read quite a bitjust not necessarily the kinds of readings used in the academic world. As students begin their college careers, the more meaningful the work they are doing, the better. Darling-Hammond and Brandford (2005) point out that Learning how ideas connect to one another and applying them to realworld problems enhances the probability that they will be remembered and usable later (p. 23). Relevance is certainly important to all students, but many students just finishing high school might simply trust that their instructors know best what they need to learn. Non-traditional students, however, especially those who have come

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

14

through such difficult experiences to be able to sit in a college classroom, expect more from their classes. As we consider the curriculum for our developmental writing classes, we should remember that many of our students have quite a bit to say, but have had few opportunities to share their knowledge. A course that moves from personal to community writing begins by valuing what students are bringing to the classroom but then brings the work outside of themselves so that they can apply their writing to a school or community issue. Grammar should not be ignored, but should be taught in the context of students own writing. Grammar can also be taught through examples from reading assignments that are relevant beyond the grammar or writing concepts being taught. There are many directions a class might take, and the choice made should depend on the colleges and the classs particular context. In Nebraska, place-conscious education has become popular due to the work of the Nebraska Writers Project. Even though many of the teachers in the project are either K-12 teachers or university instructors, the goals of the project would work well in a developmental classroom, but particularly with students from traumatic backgrounds. In the K-12 context, the goals might be partly celebratory in nature of a students place, with the goal being for students to appreciate their hometowns and work toward making them better. In a community college developmental writing classroom setting, the structure of the course might be quite different since many students will not feel a close connection to any place that they have lived. At the same time, when students begin their writing with what they bring with them, whether its a place, people, or their own inner

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

15

strength, they begin to understand a major purpose of writingto share lives with each other and build understanding among people of different backgrounds. In place-conscious education, the projects would then move toward projects within the community, which for students in developmental classes might include projects dealing with services they may have experienced themselves. Brooke (2003) writes, Place-conscious education, thus, is schooling that focuses on the necessary relationscultural, natural, agriculturalthat shapes a given place and its human communities. By centering education in local civic issues, history, biology, economics, literature, and so forth, learners will be guided to imagine the world as intradependent, filled with a variety of locally intradependent places, and to develop a richer sense of citizenship and civic action (p. 6). Helping students connect to the places that they might have felt alienated from is an important first step toward the lives many of them hope to lead after finishing college. In Using Problem-Posing Dialogue in Adult Literacy Education, Sara Nixon-Ponder discusses a related activity in which students discuss problems and solutions related to their own experiences. The problem-posing process directs students to name the problem, generalize to others, and finally suggest alternatives or solutions to the problem (NixonPonder, 1995, p. 208). The process includes describing the content (which might include written dialogues, role-plays, stories from the participants lives, texts from newspapers, and pictures), defining the problem, personalizing the problem, discussing the problem, and then discussing alternatives to the problem. In one of the case-studies, Nixon-Ponder (1995) discusses how a class begins with the issue of childcare, reads a variety of materials related to the issue, writes journal entries and shares oral histories, and then moves toward a solution, which included a

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

16

real-life plan to help each other out with their child-care needs. In a place-conscious class, the issues explored could be ones related the students school or city. In encouraging the students to move beyond their own experiences, students will feel a sense of empowerment they may have never felt before. No matter the theme or progression of the class, giving students a sense that what they are working toward is meaningful and applicable beyond the class will help keep them engaged and motivated. Trauma, Resources, and Accommodations Creating a class that is safe and meaningful for all students is a good start in helping students from traumatic backgrounds, but instructors must also be prepared to help those who need more than this. While instructors may not be able to directly refer and individual student to counseling or disability offices, information about the services the college offers should be available for all students. I know of many instructors who have had no idea where to refer students who have needed more than what the instructor could offer. Institutions that currently do not offer counseling for their students should consider the changing population and the necessity for adding such services. Instructors should also be prepared to administer accommodations for students with Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) or Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Instructors are not told the diagnosis on accommodations and sometimes become angry at the increasing number of accommodations that seem to be being requested. However, realizing that TBI and PTSD have real consequences for learning can help. TBI is defined as a blow or jolt to the head or a penetrating head injury that disrupts the functioning of the brain (Veterans Success, 2010). Veterans might have received a TBI

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

17

during an explosion, but instructors should also be aware that other students could have experienced a TBI from a car accident or abusive incident. Most people who have TBI are able to function, but there can still be lasting effects on attention, processing, and memory. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), however, is a psychological health injury that can develop in response to exposure to an extreme traumatic event (Veterans Success, 2010). Many may connect PTSD to returning veterans, but people who have experienced rape, mugging, robbery, terrorist attacks, natural, or man-made disasters could also have PTSD (Veterans Success, 2010). Like TBI, students with PTSD may be suffering from anxiety or depression and may have trouble concentrating in class. Both TBI and PTSD are covered under the Americans with Disabilities Act and may receive classroom accommodations. A major issue, however, is that many students may not realize they are eligible for accommodations and may end up failing or dropping out before receiving these accommodations. Veterans, especially, who are new to seeking accommodations may either not realize they are eligible or may be embarrassed to go to an office for disabilities. Even though we cannot legally direct someone to a disabilities office, we can make all services clear for all students. For many students, the accommodations can mean the difference between persisting in college and dropping out. Trauma, Professional Development, and Teacher Education Much of the professional development I have been encouraged to undertake has had to do with technology. We are encouraged to learn Microsoft Applications and online learning platforms each time we change systems. We are required to complete diversity training, but

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

18

the types of training can range from a cultural dance to a chosen article on an ethnic group. While some of this training may be applicable to our teaching, what seems missing is professional development geared toward our changing student population. Many instructors I know feel overwhelmed by the changes they see: more and more students underprepared for the work required and more and more students unaware of classroom expectations. Many of these instructors do not have the advantage that writing teachers have in knowing some of our students backgrounds and knowing that many of our students are underprepared because they did not actually go to high schoolor if they did, they paid so little attention that they barely graduated. When I started teaching developmental writing in 1994, just one developmental writing course was offered. Where I teach now, we have four levels below Composition I, each with multiple sections available. Even though the lowest level was available when I started at my current college nine years ago, there was only one section offered; now, there are nine. Instructors and professors have complained about the changing student population as long as there have been students. However, today, there are some very real changes, and an understanding of student experiences they bring with them will help instructors better serve them. Professional development seminars can go beyond the usual tips and technology. Sessions on returning veterans, poverty, homelessness, physical and emotional abuse, foster care, refugees, and natural disasters would all be more important for instructors than what is often offered in in-service sessions. Some instructors may believe that not everyone is meant to

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

19

be in college, but with a little more understanding, instructors have the chance to change many more lives. For teachers in teacher education programs as well, more could be done to prepare future teachers for the populations they may be working with in the future. Due to the apprenticeship of observation (Loughran, 2006), which all teachers have experienced prior to becoming teachers, many teachers already have a concept about how the classroom should be run before they have classes of their own. However, because many teachers have had very different experiences than their students, the methods their teachers used may not work well for classrooms today. Teacher education is where all students of teaching should learn to challenge their deeply held views of teaching and learning; so often implicit in practice but so rarely articulated, confronted and examined (Loughran, 2006, p. 42). Most of my experience, for example, during my K-12 years included quietly listening to the teacher and then quietly filling out worksheets. In college, the classrooms were either lecture or discussion-based, but even the discussion-based classrooms were often more lecture than discussion. When I first started teaching, I tried to teach as I had been taught, but I did not anticipate how difficult it might be to have a lecture-based classroom in a room full of students with problems with attention. My colleagues who still lecture continually complain that their students do not listen; but they still do not change their practice, which they see as the way teaching should be. Since this is the way they were taught, this is the way their students will be taught. Because many instructors may become community college instructors without education training, some other method of trauma training is important as instructors begin

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

20

teaching. For those working in the mental health care field, trauma-informed care training is a regular requirement. Because so many of our students come from traumatic life experiences and because there is so little understanding of required accommodations, regular training in trauma-informed care would be just as important in a community college setting. Along with informative sessions on trauma, institutions should also offer support for instructors who regularly hear of trauma. Since most instructors are not trained to be mental health professionals, its important to be able to talk to someone about special cases and whether or not the right decisions have been made. Its easy to second-guess and worry about each decision, and instructors often have only each other to talk through these issues. Even for mental health professionals, secondary trauma, trauma from listening regularly to others trauma, is a major concern. Instructors with no training in mental health may not realize the impact the difficult life stories may have on their own mental well-being. The advice given for mental health professionals could be applied to instructors who work with students from trauma: have a strong support network of friends, family, and co-workers, stay physically fit, and eat well. Getting involved in social action of some sort is also very useful, as it leads people to feel they are doing something on a larger level seek help themselves from other professionals when they need it (Landau, 2009). Conclusion After I had intervened in the group issue discussed in the beginning of this paper, I was worried that I had done the wrong thing. In forcing the other students to respect the one student, did I minimize their efforts? They had not been doing anything wrong in their group

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

21

work; they were simply answering the questions. However, I sensed that the other students would be fine with holding their comments for a few moments. I did apologize to them after class about being a little harsh in order to let the other student speak, but they were very happy with me. We were glad you stepped in, they had told me. In the end, the student did well in the course and is continuing to do well. How many students, though, do we just miss, not realizing their inner struggles? How many students do we know are struggling but still cannot help sufficiently? The more we know about our students, though, the better we can help them achieve their dreams.

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

22

References Accommodating student veterans with traumatic brain injury and post-traumatic stress disorder: Tips for campus faculty and staff. (2010). Veterans Success Jam. Retrieved from http://www.acenet.edu/Content/NavigationMenu/ProgramsServices/MilitaryPrograms/ serving/AccommodatingStudentVeterans_06222011.pdf Bransford, J., Derry, S., Berliner, D., & Hammerness, K., with Beckett, K.L., (2005). Theories of learning and their roles in teaching. In Darling-Hammond, L., & Bransford, J. (Eds.), Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do (pp. 40-87). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Brooke, R.E. (2003). Rural voices: Place-conscious education and the teaching of writing. Berkeley, CA: Teachers College Press. Calfee, R.C., & Wilson, K.M. (2004). A classroom-based writing assessment framework. In C.A. Stone, E.R. Silliman, B.J. Ehren, & K. Apel. (Eds.) Handbook of language and literacy: Development and disorders (pp. 583-599). New York: Guilford Press. Corso, L., (2008). On teaching adaptively. Educational Psychologist, 43(3), 161-173. Horsman, J. (1997). But Im not a therapist: Furthering discussion about literacy work with survivors of trauma. Toronto, Ontario: Canadian Congress for Learning Opportunities for Women,
1997. (ED 461 078). Retrieved from http://alphacom.alphaplus.ca

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

23

Isserlis, J. (2000). Trauma and the adult English language learner. Center for Adult English Language Acquisition. Retrieved from http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/digests/trauma2.html Kerka, S. (2002). Trauma and adult learning. Eric Digest. Retrieved from http://www.calproonline.org/eric/textonly/docgen.asp?tbl=digests&ID=124 Loughran, J. (2006). Developing a pedagogy of teacher education: Understanding teaching and learning about teaching. London & New York City: Routledge. Nixon-Ponder, S. (2007). Using problem-posing dialogue in adult literacy education. In Ed. S.N. Bernstein. Teaching developmental writing: Background readings. 3rd ed. (pp. 206-213). Boston and New York: Bedford/St. Martins. Landau, P. (2009). Treating trauma victims may cause its own trauma. CNN Health. Retrieved from http://articles.cnn.com/2009-1106/health/military.psychiatrists.fort.hood_1_trauma-victims-vicarious-trauma-anxietyrecovery-program/2?_s=PM:HEALTH. Perry, B.D. (2006). Fear and learning: Trauma-related factors in the adult education process. New directions for adult and continuing education. No 110. Wiley InterScience. Rosenberg, L. (2011) We must do more. National Council Magazine. National Council for Community Healthcare. Retrieved from http://www.thenationalcouncil.org/galleries/NCMagazinegallery/NC%20Mag%20Trauma%20Web-Email.pdf

TRAUMA AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING CLASSROOM

24

Shell et al. (2010). The unified learning model: How motivation, cognition, neurobiological sciences inform best teaching practices. Shute, V.J. (2008). Focus on formative feedback. Review of Educational Research, 78(1), 153189. Steele, W. (2007). Traumas impact on learning and behavior: A case for intervention in schools. The National Institute for Trauma and Loss in Children. Retrieved from http: www.tlcinst.org/impact.html U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2006). Understanding trauma: When bad things happen to good people.