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Past tenses
A Past simple
The past simple is used:
look back from that point and mention something that happened before it, we use the past perfect. I got home very late. Id met some friends and wed gone to the cinema.
For more information on Time linkers with past tenses, see Unit 5 below.
period of time in the past. The period finished in the past. We usually use a time phrase with for to indicate the period. I lived in New York for six months when I was a student.
before and continuing up to a point of time in the past. The activity may have stopped at that point or continued after it. James arrived at 4.30. Id been waiting for half an hour. I looked at my watch. It was three oclock. Id been waiting for half an hour and he still wasnt there. When Dave got here he was very tired. Hed been driving for twelve hours.
B Past continuous
The past continuous is used:
progress at a particular moment in the past. It does not give an indication of the length of the activity.
another action happened. The activity in the past continuous started before the action in the past simple and may or may not have continued after it. When Peter phoned me I was watching a DVD.
before another action in the past. We use the past simple to talk about an event in the past, and then if we want to
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Grammar reference
4 Would + infinitive is also used to talk about regular action in the past. However, it is NOT used with stative verbs to talk about permanent states in the past. It often describes typical behaviour and can be used with always/ usually/never/often. My gran would always give me a piece of cherry cake and a cup of hot chocolate after school. Our teacher would never let us use a dictionary during tests! 5 It is possible to use would in the negative and question form but it is not common. Have you phoned Renee yet? (I know you planned to) Have you ever done a bungee jump? (to emphasize in your life)
time. The exact time is not stated because either it is not known or it is not important. This event can be a single event: Ive seen the new James Bond film. Ive never eaten sushi. or it can refer to several events. Ive been to America three times. Our teacher has taught in several different countries.
still continuing at the present time. It emphasizes the length of time spent on the activity. For and since are usually used to talk about the time period. Ive been working on this assignment for two hours. (and I havent finished yet) Shes been talking on the phone for at least half an hour.
continued for a certain period and finished recently. This activity has a result in the present.
has happened. We are making the comment in present time. We also use this pattern + ever after superlatives.
Note the difference between the present perfect simple and present perfect continuous. The simple form focuses on one or more completed actions. Ive cleaned the car. It looks really nice. Ive written three letters this morning. The continuous form focuses on the activity, which may or may not be completed. Ive been cleaning the car and Im soaking wet! Ive been writing letters this morning.
the present. The time period in which it happened hasnt finished yet. We usually use time phrases such as this year/today/this morning. Ive been abroad three times this year. Helen has eaten six chocolate bars this morning!
has a result in the present. The focus here is not on a single, prolonged activity but a series of actions. We often use the words a lot/too much/too many and recently/ lately. Ive been going out a lot recently and I need to catch up on some sleep! Harrys been buying a lot of things for his car lately and hes a bit short of money at the moment. Ive been eating too much recently and I need to go on a diet!
just/yet/already/ever/never
Ive just seen Tim. (a moment before the present) Weve already done this exercise. (so we dont need to do it again) The teacher hasnt given us the results yet. (but she will)
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Grammar reference
Unit 2
Ability
A Can and be able to
The modal verb can is used to talk about the present, and also general ability. Be quiet! I can hear someone coming. (present) Maggie can play the violin very well. (general) be able to is also possible but more formal. Ms Smith is able to see you now please come this way. Camels are able to travel for several days without drinking water. could and was/were able to can both be used to talk about past ability (see section B below). Since there is no infinitive, future or participle form of can, only be able to is possible in these cases. I used to be able to play the guitar. Pam might be able to help you. Will you be able to come to my party? Steves been able to get tickets for the match. The negative form of can is cant or cannot; in the past, couldnt or could not are used. To form the negative of be able to, not is used in an appropriate position; be unable to is also possible. I cant/cannot believe how lucky I am to have met you! I regret that I am not able/am unable to attend the ceremony. Sue hasnt been able/has been unable to play tennis since she broke her finger.
Nick couldnt/didnt manage to/wasnt able to get to the meeting on time. We didnt succeed in convincing him to change his mind.
B Past ability
1 When we talk about general ability in the past, both could and was/were able to (and their negative forms) are possible. Our last dog could swim really well. Sam couldnt/wasnt able to read until he was eight. After the course Emily was able to speak Spanish quite fluently. 2 When we talk about ability to do something on one occasion in the past, could is not possible. Instead we use was/were able to, succeeded in + gerund or managed to + infinitive. I was able to/managed to repair the DVD player myself. The police succeeded in recovering the stolen jewellery. Couldnt, wasnt/werent able to, didnt manage to and didnt succeed in can all be used to talk about inability to do something on one occasion in the past.
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Grammar reference
narrow, pleasant, polite, quiet, simple, stupid. narrow narrower/more narrow narrowest/most narrow be used with all adjectives and adverbs, regardless of the number of syllables. I bought the least expensive coat I could find. Like more and most, they can be used without adjectives and adverbs. Most women here work more than the men and get paid less. Which subjects do you like (the) most and (the) least at school? d Use more or less with uncountable nouns, and more or fewer with plural countable nouns. You may have less money than him, but hes got fewer friends. Similarly, use most or least with uncountable nouns, and most and fewest with plural countable nouns. We aim to sell your house for the most money in the least amount of time with the fewest problems.
3 Adverbs
Use more and the most in front of most adverbs. quickly more quickly most quickly Adverbs with the same form as an adjective, such as early, fast, hard, late, long, have comparative and superlative forms which end in er (or r) and est (or st). The adverb soon is another example. soon sooner soonest
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Grammar reference
e the same .. as can also be used with nouns. Grandpas car is the same colour as ours.
3 Other structures
a the + comparative, the + comparative Use this structure to show that two changes happen together; the second is often the result of the first. The easier I find a subject, the less interesting it is for me. The harder you work, the more you can earn. b like + noun, pronoun or gerund You children behave like animals! c (not) a lot of/a great deal of/much/little/no difference between There isnt a lot of difference between the film and the book. (= the film is very similar to the book)
Unit 3
Modals for speculation and deduction
A Speculating and making deductions about the present.
1 When we are sure something is true we use must + simple infinitive/continuous infinitive without to You must be Garys sister. The two of you look very similar. Lenny and Rita must know each other. They were at Barton High School at the same time. Penny must be working very hard. She hasnt had a break for two hours. 2 When we are sure something is not true we use cant/ couldnt + simple infinitive/continuous infinitive without to. We do not normally use mustnt to express this concept. We cant be out of petrol. I filled up two days ago. He couldnt be having a shower. Theres no hot water. 3 When we think something is possibly true we use may(not)/might(not)/could + infinitive/continuous infinitive without to. We do not use could not to express the concept. Jack could be in his bedroom but Im not sure. Why dont you check? I have no idea of the answer but Peter might know. Ask him. Kathys gone home. I think she may not be feeling very well.
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Sometimes I go round to my friends to play computer games after school. My brother is always borrowing my bicycle without asking me.
Unit 4
Gerunds and infinitives
The gerund is used:
B Present continuous
The present continuous is used:
after prepositions.
Are you interested in going to the cinema tonight?
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Grammar reference
Its worth buying a good guidebook before you go to Rome. She had difficulty understanding his Scottish accent at first. If the subjects of the main verb and the gerund are different, an object (pronoun) is added or, in formal English, a possessive determiner. I cant imagine him (or his) playing football. Id better go its very late. Id rather stay here, though. Make and let are followed by a direct object; help can be used with or without a direct object. Can you help (me) clean the kitchen?
gerund or infinitive with to, without any difference in meaning. The gerund is not usually used after a progressive form of these verbs. He continued writing/to write until his hand began aching/to ache. Its starting to rain. [not Its starting raining]
Either form can also be used after hate, like, love and
prefer with no difference in meaning. I like singing/to sing in the shower.
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Do you think you could tell me ? Could you (possibly) give me an idea ? I would like to know I would be interested to know I was wondering if I would be grateful if you could tell me you could tell me Compare: How do I get to the station? Could you tell me how I get to the station? When asking questions in this more indirect way:
So and such
So and such can both be used to give emphasis. 1 So is used before adjectives and adverbs (without a noun) and means:
very/really.
I was so proud of my daughter. She sang so beautifully in the school concert.
the auxiliary verbs do, does and did are not used in
indirect questions. I would be interested to know where you bought it. [not where did you buy it] A question mark is used if the indirect question begins with a question form (Would you mind telling me ?), but not if it is a statement (I would be interested to know ). In Yes/No questions (where the answer to the question will be either yes or no) if or whether are used. We would like to know if/whether we can hire bikes in your campsite.
Unit 5
Time linkers with past tenses
1 After, as soon as, before, once, until, when, whenever can be used with the past simple. The gerund is also common with after and before. I recognized him as soon as I saw him. Before she went/Before going to bed Sue had a glass of milk. Two past simple tenses often indicate that the second action resulted from the first, and that it happened soon afterwards. I cried when I heard the news.
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Grammar reference
Whenever means every time that. Whenever we went camping, it rained/used to rain. After, before, as soon as can be qualified in the following way: soon after, (not) long after, shortly after; (not) long before, shortly before; almost as soon as. Just can be used with all three. Just/Shortly/Soon/Not long after he got married, Tim lost his job. The past perfect can be used, especially if we want to emphasize that the first action finished before the second one started. My mum wouldnt let me go out until Id tidied my room.. Once Id eaten something, I felt a lot better. 2 As, while, when can be used with the past continuous to introduce an action or situation which was in progress when another, shorter action occurred. Whilst is formal. When/As/While we were having our picnic, we saw a deer. They can also be used with two clauses in the past continuous to talk about two actions or situations occurring at the same time. While is more common in this use. While you were having fun and making lots of noise, I was trying to do my homework! 3 During, for are prepositions and followed by a noun. During tells us when something happened. I stayed at my sisters house during the summer. For tells us how long something took or lasted. My brother was on the phone for two hours! 4 At first, at last, finally, eventually, at the end, in the end, by the end At first is used to talk about the beginning of a situation and to contrast it with what happens later. It is often followed by but. At first it was cold and grey, but then the sun came out. At last indicates very strongly that you have been waiting for something to happen for a long time. Finally has a similar meaning. After ten years in prison he was free at last! Mike finally managed to pass his driving test on the sixth attempt. In the end and eventually suggest that something happens after some problems, changes or uncertainty. Lucy wasnt sure about the job, but she accepted it in the end/ eventually. At the end refers to the point at which something finishes. It can be followed by of + noun. I spoke to the teacher at the end of the class. By the end can also be followed by of + noun and means at some time during the period before something finishes. I started reading the book at lunchtime and by the end of the day Id finished it. 5 By the time, at the time By the time is used for saying what had already happened before something else occurred. It can be followed by the past simple or the past perfect. By the time we (had) arrived at the station, our train had left. (= The train left before we arrived at the station) At the time means at the particular point when something occurred. It may suggest a contrast with what happens later. It seemed like a good idea at the time (but I know now that it wasnt).
As and like
We use like:
We use as:
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Going to
Be going + infinitive with to can be used to talk about:
after the verbs consider, describe, regard, think of, refer to,
know. Ive always considered/regarded/thought of him as a friend. As is optional with the verb consider.
Modal verbs
Modal verbs express degrees of certainty when talking about:
to mean because.
As we havent got any homework, we could go to the cinema.
intentions.
We may/might have a barbecue on Sunday. (Possibility)
to mean when or while. (see Time linkers p.8) As I was leaving the house, the phone rang. in a number of phrases, including: as far as I know, as far as Im concerned, as soon as possible, as well as, as a result, as usual I look forward to hearing from you as soon as possible.
predictions.
It may/might/could well rain tomorrow. (Probability) You should be able to find a parking space quite easily. (Probability)
Present simple
The present simple can be used:
The future
Will
Will + infinitive without to can be used to:
soon as, before, until, when. The present perfect and present continuous can also be used.
Present continuous
The present continuous can be used to describe future arrangements we have made, usually with other people or organisations. Im picking Gavin up at 1.30 and were having lunch at Le Bistro. Ive booked a table for two oclock.
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Grammar reference
Future continuous
The future continuous, will + be + present participle, is used to talk about:
Unit 6
Reported Speech
When we are reporting what someone has said we can use either direct speech or reported speech. Direct speech: Ive bought a new car, said Dan. Reported speech: Dan said that he had bought a new car. When we use reported speech, we may have to make changes to the actual words that the person spoke. We can use that after the reporting verb but it is optional. He said (that) he wanted to live in Poland. 1 We usually have to make changes to the verb tenses. This is sometimes called backshift as most tenses go back one tense. Direct speech Present simple We live in the countryside. Present continuous Im waiting for Tina. Present perfect Ive worked here for three years. Present perfect continuous Jacks been looking for you. Past simple I spoke to Matt outside school. He said hed spoken to Matt outside school. Past continuous We were playing a computer Future Ill meet you at 6.30. She said she would meet me at 6.30. He said theyd been playing game. a computer game. She said Jack had been looking for me. She said shed worked there for three years. He said he was waiting for Tina. She said they lived in the countryside. Reported speech
The modal verbs must/may/can are reported in these ways: I can understand the text easily She said she could understand the text easily. I may be a bit late. I must do the essay before Friday. He said he might be a bit late. She said she had to do the essay before Friday.
The verbs plan and think can be followed by a preposition and a gerund. Mick and Irene are planning on getting married next year. Theyre thinking of going to Tahiti for the honeymoon.
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2 We do not need to change the tense: He said (that) hed seen the film on DVD. He told me (that) hed seen the film on DVD. He said hed never thought about it. He said me (that) hed seen .... He told (that) hed seen .... Say, like explain and complain, can be used with an indirect object. I said/explained/complained (to the receptionist) that the heating in my room wasnt working. 2 Verb patterns for other reporting verbs are:
verb + gerund
Recommend, suggest Lets go to the new Thai restaurant. He recommended going to the new Thai restaurant.
These verbs can also be followed by that + should + infinitive without to. The words that and should are optional. You ought to do more exercise. She suggested (that) I (should) do more exercise.
Suggest, unlike recommend, cannot be followed by an infinitive. She recommended me to do more exercise. She suggested me to do more exercise.
Reported questions
When we report questions we have to make the same changes as for reporting statements regarding tenses, pronouns and phrases indicating time and place. We also need to remember the following:
Reporting verbs
1 The most common verbs we use to report statements are say and tell. The verb tell must be followed by a direct object. Ive seen the film on DVD.
a statement. We do not use inversion as we would with a direct question and we do not use auxiliaries do/does/did. When we report a question we do not use a question mark. Where do you live? Who was your first teacher? He asked me where I lived. He asked me who my first teacher had been.
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B
Nouns which can be used both countably and uncountably.
wh- question word, we use that question word in the reported question. She asked me where I had been.
Reported command
We use tell + object pronoun/noun + infinitive with to to report a command or imperative. Take the next turning on the right, Anna. said the driving instructor. The driving instructor told Anna to take the next turning on the right.
For a negative command we add not before the infinitive. Dont open your books, class. The teacher told the class not to open their books.
C
Making uncountable nouns countable.
Unit 7
Countable and uncountable nouns
A Countable nouns have a singular and a plural form. In the singular they are always preceded by a word such as an article, a number or a determiner. a garden four student each day some animals Uncountable nouns have no plural form. They can appear alone or be preceded by a word such as the or a determiner, but not a/an or a number. They are used with a singular verb form. Knowledge is strength. The news was good. Weve made little progress. These nouns are usually uncountable. Accommodation equipment health information advice food help knowledge behaviour furniture homework luggage damage graffiti housework money
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D Words and phrases used with countable and uncountable nouns. Before countable nouns (very) few a few quite a few many too many several a large/small number of each every (Very) little and (very) few mean not much/many or not as much/many as you would like or expect. Ive got very little money left. Can you lend me some? Few people attended the meeting. A little and a few mean some or a small number of. A little knowledge is a dangerous thing. Ive got a few sweets left. Would you like one? Quite a few and quite a lot of mean a fairly large number/ amount of. Quite a few people came to our concert we were very pleased. Plenty of means a lot of or more than enough. Pauls got plenty of toys dont buy him any more. Each is used to talk about two or more people or things; every is only used to talk about more than two. They both precede a singular countable noun and a singular verb. Each player starts with six cards. Before uncountable nouns (very) little a little much too much a great deal of a large/small amount of a couple of Before countable and uncountable nouns some any no (quite) a lot of plenty of most all enough more Notice on building site: Hard hats must be worn at all times.
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In the passive, make is followed by the infinitive with to. Liam was made to apologise to the teacher for his behaviour. Neednt have + past participle is used to indicate a past action that was completed but that was not necessary. We neednt have taken our coats; the weather was warm all week. Didnt need to + infinitive is used to indicate a past action that was not necessary. The context usually makes it clear whether the action was performed or not. We didnt need to wear a suit to the party, but I wanted to look smart so I did. There is/was no need (for someone) + infinitive with to can also be used to express a lack of necessity in the past or present. Theres no need (for you) to shout! I can hear perfectly well.
Prohibition
The modal verbs cannot/cant and must not/mustnt can be used to express prohibition. You cannot/must not talk during the exam. Negative forms of let + infinitive without to, and allow + infinitive with to can be used with a direct object. My parents wont let me have a tattoo. The hotel does not allow guests to have pets in their rooms. The passive am/are/is not allowed + infinitive with to can also be used. The dogs not allowed to come into the kitchen. To talk about past prohibition, use couldnt, didnt/ wouldnt let, didnt/wouldnt allow or was/were not allowed to. There is no past form of mustnt and no passive form of let. When I was your age, we couldnt wear trainers to school. Mark wasnt allowed to go fishing; his parents wouldnt let him stay out all night.
Unit 8
The passive
A Form
1 To form the passive we use the appropriate tense of the verb to be and the past participle. Present simple: Present perfect: Past simple: Past continuous: Past perfect: Future simple: Gerund: Infinitive with to: My salary is paid directly into my bank. Ive been asked to join the football team. Luke was given his results on Friday. I didnt know I was being tricked. The papers had been signed before we saw them. Well be transferred from the airport to the hotel. Do you like being photographed? Id like to be invited to the party.
Advice
Should/shouldnt and ought (not) to are used to give advice. You should see/ought to see a doctor about your headaches. They can also be used to say what we think is the right thing to do. Supermarkets ought not to give customers plastic bags; they should charge for them. In the negative, I dont think you should is more natural than I think you shouldnt. I dont think you should eat any more sweets. Had/d better (not) + infinitive without to is used to give advice and warnings. It suggests that the speaker thinks there will be negative consequences if the advice is not followed. Wed better get the tickets soon theyll sell out very quickly. Youd better not be late - Ill be furious if you are!
Infinitive without to: Mobile phones must not be taken into the exam room.
B Use
We use the passive when an event or action is more important than who or what is doing the action (the agent). Our attention is directed to the person or thing that is affected by the action. It can be used in both spoken and formal written English: My husband was made redundant last month. Crime figures for the last year will be released tomorrow. If we want to indicate the agent in a passive construction, we use by. This book was written by P.J.Stone.
Necessity
Need to + infinitive is used to express necessity. Have you got a minute, Sven? I need to talk you. Neednt and dont need to both express a lack of necessity. The doors open at seven thirty but we neednt get/dont need to get there until eight.
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If we want to indicate the instrument used by the agent to do the action, we use with. The graffiti was painted with a spray gun. The passive cannot be used with intransitive verbs. The glass was fallen off the shelf. When there are two objects in a sentence, the person usually becomes the subject of the passive sentence. The teacher gave Trudy a prize. Trudy was given a prize by the teacher. (This is more usual than: A prize was given to Trudy by the teacher.) Verbs that we often use with these constructions are say, believe, expect, know, think, feel, consider, hope. 2 We can use these constructions to introduce ideas about present time, past time and the future. Present It is felt that school class sizes are too large. The government is known to be thinking about the introduction of another tax soon. Future It is believed that astronauts will visit the moon again within twenty years. Brian is expected to pass all his exams next month. Past It is said that Einstein did not speak until he was four years old. The famous sailor, Lawrence Jarvis, is thought to have drowned off the coast of southern Australia last weekend.
C Non-use of agent
The agent is not usually included in passive constructions:
Unit 9
Conditionals
Conditional sentences contain: a) a subordinate clause expressing a condition and introduced by words such as if, unless, as long as b) a main clause describing the likely result of the condition becoming reality. If I miss the last bus, Ill phone you. (condition) (result) When the result clause appears first in the sentence, there is usually no comma. Id learn to sail if I had more time. (result) (condition)
Zero conditional
The zero conditional is used to talk about situations which are always or generally true. We use the present simple in both the conditional clause and the main clause. If has the same meaning as when, whenever or every time in these sentences. Everyday situations: I usually feel sick if I read in the car. Scientific facts: If you add salt to water, it dissolves.
First conditional
The first conditional is used to talk about possible future situations and their likely results. We use the present simple in the conditional clause and a future tense in the main clause. Well probably go swimming if the weathers fine tomorrow. If you dont let me play, Im going to tell my mum.
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Modal verbs such as can, may, might and could can also be used in the main clause. If the pain gets worse, I might go to the doctors. Otherwise can be used to introduce the result clause. We use it to talk about the negative consequences of something not happening. I hope it stays sunny, otherwise we wont be able to have a barbecue. (= If it doesnt stay sunny, we wont be able to have a barbecue.) Its a good job we took our umbrellas, otherwise we would have got soaking wet. (= If we hadnt taken our umbrellas, we would have got soaking wet) Or can be used in a similar way, especially in warnings, threats and advice. Youd better go now, or youll be late for school. (= If you dont go now, youll be late for school.) Stop being silly, or Ill send you to bed early. (= If you dont stop being silly, Ill send you to bed early.)
Second conditional
The second conditional is used to talk about imaginary, impossible or unlikely situations in the present or future. We use the past simple or, less frequently, the past continuous in the conditional clause and would/ might/could + infinitive without to in the main clause. If I lived/was living in Spain, Id eat paella every Sunday. (imaginary) I could do this job a lot faster if I had six pairs of hands. (impossible) When the second conditional refers to the future, the implication is that the condition is less likely to become reality than if it were expressed with a first conditional. Compare: If Ian phones tonight (possible), what will you say to him? If Ian phoned tonight (unlikely), what would you say to him? Were instead of was is often used after if in second conditional sentences. If I were/was you, I wouldnt worry about it.
Relative clauses
Relative clauses give information about someone or something in the main clause. They usually begin with a relative pronoun (who, which, that, whose, what) or a relative adverb (where, when, why).
Third conditional
The third conditional is used to talk about imaginary situations in the past and to speculate about how things might have been different. We use the past perfect simple or continuous in the conditional clause and would/could/might + perfect infinitive without to in the main clause. If Id lost my job, we would have had to sell the house. (I didnt lose my job so we didnt have to sell the house.) If my wife hadnt been working last night, we could have gone to the concert. (My wife was working last night so we couldnt go to the concert.)
omitted, but only if they are the object of the verb in the defining relative clause. What was the name of that film (which/that) we saw on television last night? (The relative pronoun is the object of saw and can be omitted.) People who/that say they never cry are liars. (The relative pronoun is the subject of say and cannot be omitted.)
Mixed conditional
A mixed conditional is a combination of a second and a third conditional. The time reference in the conditional clause is different from that in the main clause. My parents would be happier if I hadnt bought a motorbike. If the car wasnt so unreliable, we would have driven down to London.
Alternatives to if clauses
As long as and provided/providing (that) can be used in place of if to emphasize the condition.
Ill let you borrow my bike as long as you promise to look after it.
You can watch the television provided you finish your homework first.
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Non-defining relative clauses
Non-defining relative clauses contain information which is not essential to our understanding of who or what we are writing or talking about. The main clause would make sense, even without this additional information. Commas are used to separate the relative clause from the main clause. That cannot be used instead of who or which, and the relative pronoun cannot be omitted. JK Rowling, who is now a multi-millionaire, once taught English in Portugal. The Man of the Match was Ward, whose two goals ensured his teams victory. We went to Gouda, where the cheese comes from.
Unit 10
Wish, if only and hope
We use the verb wish when we would like things to be different. We can also use If only to express the same ideas as wish. We use If only when we want to make the wish stronger. It is often considered more dramatic. I wish I had enough money to buy that bicycle. If only I had enough money to buy that bicycle!
Whom
In both defining and non-defining relative clauses whom can be used instead of who when it is the object of the verb in the relative clause. Sarahs French teacher was Mr Jenkins, whom she had always disliked. There is someone here whom I would like you to meet. However, many speakers consider whom to be too formal and avoid using it. There is someone here (who) Id like you to meet.
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This page has been downloaded from Direct to FCE: www.directtofce.com. Written by Roy Norris and Lynda Edwards Copyright Macmillan Publishers Ltd, 2011
Grammar reference
but using wish indicates that we would like things to have been different. I wish I had gone to Tonys party. Sue says it was really good. I wish we hadnt played that trick on Miss Barker. She was very upset. My dad wishes hed gone to university when he was my age.
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This page has been downloaded from Direct to FCE: www.directtofce.com. Written by Roy Norris and Lynda Edwards Copyright Macmillan Publishers Ltd, 2011