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Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters are the chemicals responsible for signal transmission between the individual neurons. Most neurons make two or more neurotransmitters, which are released at different stimulation frequencies. 50 or more neurotransmitters have been identified Classified by chemical structure and by function
Criteria to Classify a Biochemical Substance as Neurotransmitter: Substance must be present in the pre-synaptic nerve terminal and packaged into synaptic vesicles The substance must be released from the nerve terminal upon arrival of action potential or depolarization of presynaptic membrane Specific receptors must be present on the post synaptic membrane for the substance
IB Psychology / BLOA / Neurotransmitter and Behaviour Notes / Patricia George / November, 2012
IB Psychology / BLOA / Neurotransmitter and Behaviour Notes / Patricia George / November, 2012
Acetylcholine (Ach) Acetylcholine (Ach) was the first neurotransmitter to be identified It is the most abundant neurotransmitter in the brain Released at neuromuscular junctions and some ANS neurons Synthesized by enzyme choline acetyltransferase Degraded by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) Catecholamines Catecholamines -Dopamine, norepinephrine (NE), and epinephrine are synthesized from Tyrosine Is involved in reward-pleasure and learning Dopamine is the principle neurotransmitter involved in Addiction pathway Serotonin Broadly distributed in the brain, derived from Tryptophan Involved in sleep, dreaming, hunger and arousal Play roles in emotional behaviors and the biological clock Depletion of serotonin in brain leads to depression GABA GABA Gamma-aminobutyric acid is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in CNS Synthesized from decarboxylation of Glutamate Involved in regulating anxiety May be related to eating or sleep disorders Endorphins, Enkephalins and Substance P Substance P is the mediator of pain signals Endorphins and Enkephalins act as natural opiates; reduce pain perception They also depress physical functions like breathing and may produce physical dependence
IB Psychology / BLOA / Neurotransmitter and Behaviour Notes / Patricia George / November, 2012
Acetylcholine (Ash):
Acetylcholine acts or is transmitted within cholinergic pathways that are concentrated mainly in specific regions of the brainstem and are thought to be involved in cognitive functions, especially memory. Severe damage to these pathways is the probable cause of Alzheimers disease. Outside the brain, acetylcholine is the main neurotransmitter in the parasympathetic nervous system the system that controls functions such as heart rate, digestion, and secretion of saliva and bladder function. Drugs that affect cholinergic activity produce changes in these body functions. Some antidepressants act by blocking cholinergic receptors and this anticholinergic activity is an important cause of side effects such as dry mouth.
Norepinephrine (NE)
Norepinephrine
(noradrenaline)
is
classed
as
a
monoamine
neurotransmitter
and
noradrenergic
neurons
are
found
in
the
locus
coeruleus,
the
pons
and
the
reticular
formation
in
the
brain.
These
neurons
provide
projections
to
the
cortex,
hippocampus,
thalamus
and
midbrain.
The
release
of
noradrenaline
tends
to
increase
the
level
of
excitatory
activity
within
the
brain,
and
noradrenergic
pathways
are
thought
to
be
particularly
involved
in
the
control
of
functions
such
as
attention
and
arousal.
Outside
the
brain,
noradrenaline
plays
an
important
role
in
the
sympathetic
nervous
system
the
system
that
co-ordinates
the
fight
or
flight
response.
Systemically,
therefore,
changes
in
noradrenergic
activity
may
induce
changes
in
a
range
of
functions
including
heart
rate,
blood
pressure
and
gastrointestinal
activity.
This
explains
the
broad
side-effect
profile
associated
with
drugs
that
affect
monoamine
neurotransmitters,
such
as
the
tricyclic
antidepressants.
Dopamine (DA):
Dopamine is also classed as a monoamine neurotransmitter and is concentrated in very specific groups of neurons collectively called the basal ganglia. Dopaminergic neurons are widely distributed throughout the brain in three important dopamine systems (pathways): the nigrostriatal, mesocorticolimbic, and the tuberohypophyseal pathways. A decreased brain dopamine concentration is a contributing factor in Parkinsons disease, while an increase in dopamine concentration has a role in the development of schizophrenia.
Serotonin (5-HT):
Although the CNS contains less than 2% of the total serotonin in the body, serotonin plays a very important role in a range of brain functions. It is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan. Within the brain, serotonin is localized mainly in the nerve pathways emerging from the raphe nuclei, a group of nuclei at the center of the reticular formation in the pons and medulla. These serotonergic pathways spread extensively Midbrain throughout the brainstem, the cerebral cortex and the spinal cord. In addition, to mood control, serotonin has been linked with a wide variety of functions, including regulation of sleep, pain perception, body temperature, blood pressure and hormonal activity. Outside the brain, serotonin exerts a number of important effects particularly involving gastrointestinal and cardiovascular systems.
IB Psychology / BLOA / Neurotransmitter and Behaviour Notes / Patricia George / November, 2012