By

Mubarak Abdessalami

The Modal Verb can under the microscope - Abdessalami

Dedication

There are a lot of people I would like to dedicate this humble work to especially those who can, but have never been able to reach their goals and accomplish what they have always dreamt of for a reason or another. Id also like to dedicate it to those who cant but they wish they could as well as to those who can read between the lines and never rush to judge things unknowingly.

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The Modal Verb can under the microscope - Abdessalami

What can I do for you? Can I help you?

Its already encouraging that can is used for offering help.

Prelude
In this paper, well try, together, to discover what we miss about this amazing word and see where its influential dominance over interpersonal communication begins and where it fades away. What I am talking about, here, is not the noun which refers to the cylindrical thing we also call a tin, a container or a canister. What I mean is the mystifying modal auxiliary verb can. It is referred to as modal because it has a mood. Funny, No?! Not really; mood refers to a formally grammaticalized category of the verb which has a modal function (*) Like other modal verbs, such as will, must, may etc, can never takes to for the infinitive so there is no to can. It doesnt take s in the third person singular in the present, either: you cannot say she cans for instance. Its negative form is always cannot (standard) contracted into cant for all persons and its past and conditional is could. For you, maybe these clues are not of major importance as you already know them; however cans controlling power over meaning in natural language certainly is. Can is able to serve a number of functions and this, in fact, is what counts the most in our research. Generally, can is known for its expressing, ability, possibility, request and permission, but if you look closer and deeper, youll realize that there are some other functions, in natural language, that are actually within this modal verbs area of competence; but we rarely take notice of them. However, it is always a matter of syntax and semantics. We are not here absolutely talking about linguistic modality, Grammatical mood or Categorial Grammars even though we are not really far-off. We are rather and simply trying to distinguish the various semantic fundamentals of can within the sphere of spoken -but also of written- communication. On this point particularly, there might be some mood ambiguity that I need you not to let go without scrutiny. When it comes to the semantic properties of Can, it is not always clear and detectable in all circumstances; it greatly depends on the way it is used and articulated. Some messages are not really decipherable because of can until they are spoken out or backed up with supplementary expounding context. Consequently, there are lots of hidden or blurring meanings which indicate that the common can, we all make use of, is actually hard to find because it belongs to a diffident species. Can has a special status among modal verbs because it places itself in many utterances as chief decisive about the meaning, not one meaning actually but various meanings; often with the valuable help of syllabic emphasis, pitch, tone, pan and intonation when pronounced; can can overpass the other modals in authority over functional styles of speech.
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(1) Joan Bybee & Suzanne Fleischman, Modality in Grammar and discourse p. 2

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The Modal Verb can under the microscope - Abdessalami

Initiation
Before I start, Id like to draw the readers attention that this paper is meant for non-native speakers of English in the first place. As for native speakers, they use can in their daily interactive communication unpremeditatedly. In natural language, lets emphasize that once more, the use of can depends greatly on lots of factors including, context, intonation, tone and emphasis among others. Therefore, the functions that can serve are not generally visible unless they are put under the styledetector microscope. And thats what we, together, intend to explore here.

Switch on the microscope

Lets first make our way into illustrating the idea. In English there are lots of modal verbs and they all serve different purposes. However, the modal verb can is a little special for its inconceivable ability to appear in different locations without disguise but with a different personality and function each time. Its impact is immense. Contemplate these sentences and try to find out the impact of can in each of them. I have made them two sets of utterances to facilitate the task. In each of the sentences on the left, can - be it affirmative, negative or interrogative - has a specific function to accomplish. Now try to match the sentences with the labels on the right.

Task I
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Can you read this for me, please? You can have a day off tomorrow. Can I use your mobile phone, please? Can we rely on those friends of yours? The child can read and write. Can you come to my party tomorrow? a Ability b. Asking for confirmation. c. Inviting d. Asking for permission. e. Giving permission. f. Request

Task II
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. You cant be hungry. You have just eaten a banana. You can use my bike if you are late. You cant park your can in the alley. She cant write with her left hand. They can come to the party tonight. You cant do this to me! We had an accord, no?! a) Inability b) Prohibition c) Possibility d) Complaint e) Logical deduction f) Offer

As you can see, the same little three-letter-word can is used in a multitude of contexts to serve various goals. It has invaded different linguistic fields in natural language and has made itself noticeable, needed and useful.

KEY

Task I: 1.f - 2.e. - 3.d - 4.b. - 5.a - 6.c Task II: 1.e - 2.f - 3.b - 4.a - 5.c - 6.d

Now lets mull over these functions and others closely. Well deal with them one by one.

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The Modal Verb can under the microscope - Abdessalami

01. Expressing Ability Can is commonly used to convey or describe the ability to do something. In this
case, Can normally means be able to , know how to or be capable of, for example, The ant can carry ten times its own weight. The giraffe can clean its ears with its own tongue. Dont shout. I can hear you. She can speak Italian. Can you fly a plane? I can resist everything except temptation. Oscar Wilde

02. Expressing Inability

To express inability, can is always in the negative form. However, we need to pay more attention because it also expresses impossibility or even prohibition. Thats why the context and the way the statement is articulated make the difference. e.g. 1. I cant speak Chinese. This means I am unable to speak Chinese. 2. You cant touch your nose with your elbow. Not only does this sentence express inability but impossibility as well. It says, You are not able to touch your nose with your elbow because it is impossible and nobody else can. 3. You cant sneeze with your eyes open. (This implies that your inability to sneeze with your eyes open is because it is impossible and it is experimented.) 4. You cant travel abroad without a passport. The you here is more general and it doesnt designate one person specifically -who is you here- but everybody. In some other situation, it may express prohibition. For example, at the airport, a passenger wants to travel abroad but he doesnt own a passport. The officer saying this wants the person in question to abide by the law as everybody else does. Clearly the diffident nature of can is only perceptible when it is used in very specific plain and clear situations. The meaning will obviously be shaky if not misinterpreted or misunderstood whenever one or both of context and intonation are absent. 5. I cant ride a bike. Here, the speaker shows his or her inability to ride a bicycle. Maybe the message implies that the speaker is forced not to ride a bike by an authority be it a parent or a doctor or someone else. If any changes occur in the body of the sentence, the sentence will get different or extra meaning, like when a bike becomes the bike and so on. The most remarkable thing about can is that it can leave room for diverse interpretations, especially if the massage is not reinforced with further explanations or particular tone. Therefore, the intrinsic value of the modal is first because when it comes to can, we are visibly dealing with disposition modality; meaning the potentiality that you will do something when you can do it.

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The Modal Verb can under the microscope - Abdessalami

03. Expressing Possibility Can expresses the possibility to do something or the potentiality that
something may take place. Can is included here under intrinsic modality. They can call you back in few days time. She can pay us a visit unexpectedly. If you dont concentrate, you can make mistakes. You can fall down if you are not careful. The conference can be postponed. These utterances could abruptly express probability once can is replaced by may. And this is the intricate amazing thing about root modality in general; they swap roles in most functions.

04. Asking for permission

Can is used to ask for permission the same way as with may but not with any other modal verb. Can I use your pen, please? Can I close the window, please sir? Can I talk to the manager, please? Can I go out, please? Can I have a look at your photo album? Can we leave now, sir?

05. Granting or declining permission

Can is most recommended when we want to allow someone to do something. This is almost an utterly exclusive act of can. You can use my pen. You can bring your children to the show. You can call me any time. You cant leave now.

06. Making Requests

Like the modal auxiliary verb will, can is also used to make requests. There are levels of politeness in making requests and can always plays the major role. Can you post this letter for me, please? (Polite) Could you possibly post this letter for me, please? (more Polite) Please, can you hand me that folder over there? Can you close the window, please? Can you prepare some tea for the guests, please? Can you leave me alone for a moment, please?

07. Inviting
Can is also suggested when you want to invite someone. Can you come for dinner tonight? Can I invite you to my sisters wedding ceremony? We are partying this afternoon. Can you join us?" Were organizing a contest next week. Can you come along with your team?

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The Modal Verb can under the microscope - Abdessalami

We are having a party. Can you come and have fun? I'm afraid I can't. I'm busy then. I'm sorry but I can't. I'm going somewhere that day.

08. Asking for confirmation

Tag questions with can are frequently used to make sure something is what you think it is. Can is able to ask for confirmation in many question structures, though. You generally seek a confirmation of ability, possibility or else. You can drive the truck, cant you? We can trust him, cant we? He can come tomorrow, cant he? Can he be right? Can she rely on him?

09. Expressing Prohibition

Prohibition is commonly expressed by means of mustnt because this modal verb is bossier and more suitable for this function particularly; however, cannot does the same when the allusion is clear: When something is against the norms or the law, we say, You cannot park your car in the alley. (as nobody does because it is illegal or forbidden by the law) You cant smoke here. implies that nobody is allowed to do so. You cant have more than one ticket. ( regulations say one ticket per person) You cant have access to this facility without a written authorization. Such constructions may also be used in expressing impossibility. Most of these prohibitions are not expressed verbally but through signs, like NO SMOKING etc

10. Complaining
Can is rarely noticed or considered as a vehicle of complaint expressions except for some specific situations like: I cannot be treated this way! This cant happen to me. You cannot do this to me. How can it always be my fault! They cant prevent me from doing my duty. Cant you see that Im busy? Im sorry to say this, but you cant throw your empty bottles in my balcony.

11. Making Offers

Can is the most suitable modal verb for making offers par excellence. Nevertheless, one has to pay attention because there is quite a slight uniformity between using can for offer and for permission. Can I help you? What can I do for you? Is there anything I can do for you? You can use my bike if you need it. They can use my desk if they like.

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The Modal Verb can under the microscope - Abdessalami

I can help you with your homework if you want. You look tired. You can take my seat. Its all right thanks. I can manage that alone!

12. Logical deduction

When it comes to inference, conclusion or logical necessity, must is used for positive deductions whereas cant is used for negation or for what can be termed logical impossibility. This is, most probably, the only instance where cant is the opposite of must. We use must to make affirmative logical deductions, like in Look at his luxurious car. He must be rich The boy is pale and he coughs all the time. He must be sick. She came from France. She must speak French. They left two hours ago. They must be there by now. On the other hand cant is used to make negative logical deductions. We use cant to say that the conclusion from given premises is the most improbable. That man has a luxurious sport car. He cant be needy. He doesnt know how to fix the car. He cant be the mechanic. Johnny cant do that; he has been out of town for weeks now. It cant be true. The source of information is unreliable. He says he is travelling abroad by bike. He cant be serious. It cannot be correct. Can is mostly used to express our judgements of events effectively. We use cant particularly to make inferences like A. Is it Nadia who is making that deafening noise outside? B. No! It cant be Nadia. She is still in bed. A. Look! The vase is broken. It must be the cat. B. No, it cant be. The cat doesnt like to hang around here.

13. Feelings
Unhappy that I am, I cannot heave My heart into my mouth. I love your Majesty According to my bond, no more nor less. (*). This is what crosses my mind when I wanted to talk about can expressing feelings. It looks a little hard to express true Love, doesnt it? Cordelia, in Shakespeares tragedy play: King Lear, couldnt profess her love for her father like her sisters because she believes that theres no bargaining in emotions. The matter of sincere feelings is beyond words. She even styles that this way I am sure my loves More ponderous than my tongue (*) Still, apart from this philosophical stand, feelings can be displayed and spoken through words. _________________________________________________________________ (*) Shakespeare, William : King Lear - [ Cordelia - Act I, sc. 1 -]

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The Modal Verb can under the microscope - Abdessalami

Can, among other modal verbs, is an active component of our language when it is matter of expressing emotions, feelings or attitudes. You cannot find better word than can to display your disappointment, surprise, impatience and determination to name only a few. Therefore,

13. a/ Disappointment or Surprise

When you are disappointed or surprised, can is always there to assist you to show that openly. I can't believe it! How can this be?! This can't be happening! It cant be true! No way! I cant imagine your grandfather climbing up that high tree. I can't believe how much your daughter has grown! I can't believe it's been a year since we last met? She finally got married. We can hardly believe it's true.

13. b/ Showing impatience

Showing impatience doesnt escape can. You can use can to express your being impatient about something or about doing something. I can hardly wait until I meet her. I cant wait until I get my diploma.

13. c/ Showing Determination

You can also use can to show that you are resolute and resolved about fixing and settling a goal. If somebody is to lose, it can't be me. I cannot fail this time. Yeah, I can do it whatever it takes. I can apply for that job as many times as it requires. I cant stop trying as long as I live.

13. d/ Giving instructions.

Giving instructions is also a boss job that the modal can is able to effectuate. When water boils, you can pour some in the teapot. You can fix the gate after painting the fence. You finish the report first, and then you can type it and put it on my desk..

13. e/ Senses.
Can is perhaps the most suitable modal auxiliary to be used with 'see' 'hear' 'feel' 'smell' and 'taste' Without my glasses I cant see well. I can hear them coming. It is so chilly here that I cant feel my feet. I can smell burning. Stop shivering! Anyone can feel your nervousness!

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The Modal Verb can under the microscope - Abdessalami

14. Suggesting Can amazingly shifts in function from asking for permission to suggesting by
just replacing I with we. Can we take a walk after the movie session? Can we start making plans right now? Can we go to the cinema tonight?

15. Idioms & phrasal verbs

Cant help: not be able to control or stop something. - I cant help falling in love with you. (Sung by Elvis Presley, Ingrid Michaelson, UB40) - We all know Nadia is nosy, but she cant help it. - Johnny: I wish youd stop snoring? Deborah: I can't help it. I wish I could, too. - I have a test tomorrow. So, I cant help but go and cram for it. Cant stand: be unable to tolerate, dont like. - I cant stand the rain (A song by Ann Peebles) - She can't stand people with no sense of humour. Cant bear: be unable to tolerate, dislike. - She cant bear living far from her parents - I cant bear eating the same meal daily - I can't bear the thought of doing the same task again Cant put up with: not able to tolerate, unable to endure more. - I can't put up with my roommate. - I can't put up with the childrens noise anymore. Cant afford: not to have money enough to do something, - They cant afford the money for the wedding party. - I can't afford a new car soon. - My parents can't afford to pay for my studies. Cant abide: not be able to tolerate, accept - Dishonesty is one of the things I cannot abide - I cannot abide living in this town. - I cannot abide nasty arrogant people. Cant stomach: dislike, not be able to endure, - She cannot stomach the sight of blood - The one thing I cannot stomach is walking the dog. Cant resist: cant fight back temptation or urge to do something, - She just cant resist buying jewellery - The dish looks so delicious that I cant resist tasting it Can/cant handle: be able/unable to manipulate, manage, bear or deal with

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The Modal Verb can under the microscope - Abdessalami

- Im tired; I cant handle it any more. - I cant handle being unemployed for a long time. - Leave this one to me. Dont worry; I can handle it. Moreover, we can frequently hear some more idiomatic expressions like can't think straight, just can't win, can't take eyes off someone or something, cant hear oneself breathe, can do without and so on and so forth. Because of all this and more, can may generate ambiguity and confusion or even an unanticipated meaning. So in order for speakers to make themselves clear, conveying easily decipherable meanings, they need to rely greatly on the context and certain levels of tone effects. In this regard, I think most of you have seen the science fiction action movie I, Robot (2004) starring Will Smith. One scene particularly in the movie gave can a particular power. It is the interrogation scene where Detective Spooner (Will Smith) interrogates Sonny (the robot). Detective Del Spooner: Robots don't feel fear. They don't feel anything. They don't eat, they don't sleepSonny: I do. I have even had dreams. Detective Del Spooner: Human beings have dreams. Even dogs have dreams, but not you. You are just a machine, an imitation of life. Can a robot write a symphony? Can a robot turn a... canvas into a beautiful masterpiece? Sonny: Can you ? (*) Can in sonnys question suddenly turns magical. It is not innocent at all. It doesnt seek to know if Detective Spooner can write a symphony or turn a canvas into a beautiful masterpiece. On the contrary, it has demolished the presumption that a human being -any human being- can write a symphony or can turn a canvas into a beautiful masterpiece. It is true that robots cant do any of those things; still, the detective who is a human being cant either. Sonnys Can you? unexpectedly makes the whole Spooners allegations mere fallacies. By the way, detective Del Spooner call Sonny, canner. Yes, it has nothing to do with our talk maybe; but still there is a can in it.

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(*) I, Robot, 2004, 115 mns 20th Century Fox studio American movie, directed by Alex Proyas,

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The Modal Verb can under the microscope - Abdessalami

16. Doubt OR confusion

Cant is generally used with tell to show it clear that the speaker is either not sure or he is confused or bewildered about an issue or an event. I cant tell if she will come. I cant tell which is the most suitable for you. I cant tell if he is sincere about giving us a hand. I cant tell if she really loves me. She cant tell if the boy is happy or not.

17. Asking for direction

There are many ways to ask for direction and using can is one of them. "Can you tell me the shortest way for getting to the airport?" Excuse me sir! Can you show me the way to the petrol station, please? Could you please tell me where the museum is? Can you tell me how to get to the post office, please? Can you give me directions to the nearest bakery, please? Excuse me! How can I get to the nearest bus stop, please?

18. Asking for clarification

We have previously talked about can used to ask for confirmation. In the same regard it can be used to ask for clarification or to ask for clarification for good understanding. The only particular thing about this sort of style is that can is better changed into could. With could you are more polite? Can you repeat that, please? Could you repeat, please? I didnt get the last part; can you elaborate on it? Im sorry; can you say that again, please? I dont understand. Can you clarify that, please? What do you mean by that? Can you be more explicit? Can you explain what you mean by brain gain? Can you give examples, please? I wonder if you could say that in a different way. Can you put it differently, please? What are you talking about? Can you be more specific, please? I didnt follow you. Can you say that again, please? I didnt get that. Can you make yourself clear? I cant understand the last part.

19. Agreeing and disagreeing with an opinion.

Can could make it simple and more practical for one to agree or disagree with a point of view.

Agreeing
I can't agree more. I cant argue with you on that

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The Modal Verb can under the microscope - Abdessalami

Disagreeing I'm afraid I can't agree with this idea. I suppose this idea cannot be implemented.

Rehearsing
A. Can you tell what can is used here to express.
They can put you up. Does it express ability? - They are able to accommodate you because they have plenty of vacant rooms. Or does it express possibility? - It is possible that they accommodate you if they get to know you well or for other reasons.

B. What does this mean to you?

I cant understand. 1. It is difficult for me to understand anything. 2. This is a little hard for me to understand what you are saying. 3. I am confused by what has happened. 4. Because this is unusual or strange, I cant understand (it). 5. Understanding is a handicap for me. (I am slow. I cant understand no matter how hard you try to make me.) More than that, can is highly sensitive to its surrounding context. It is easily affected by any words added or omitted in a construction. See if can here expresses the same thing:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

I can play the guitar at the party if they invite me to. I can play the guitar everywhere I go. I can play the guitar at the party. I can play the guitar, cant I? I can play the guitar.

This group of sentences keeps the basic focus I can play the guitar; however, the few words added or changed here and there force can to bear a completely different function in each sentence. Here is the list of functions can expresses in each of the above sentences. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Conditional Permission Possibility Confirmation. Ability

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The Modal Verb can under the microscope - Abdessalami

C. Here is another statement, Well, I've had enough; I can't put up with this situation any further.
Does it express a. inability? b. impossibility? c. complaint? OR d. prohibition?

D. Look at this one,

- Oh! I can see now! This sentence can have two distinct meanings 1. I am able to use my eyes to see (again) 2. I understand now. Most of the time it is not evident that the meaning of a discrete sentence with can in written communication - especially - is easily graspable. We always need to be informed about the global context in which it is used. People usually overlook those little differences to assume that it means what they want it to mean and this premeditated attitude towards vague messages creates a lot of misunderstanding of course. Therefore; much prudence is dearly needed here for sometimes one structure can have more than one functional meaning particularly in discrete sentences like this one,

E. John Doe didnt say anything else. Can you infer what he wanted to say?
- John Doe: I can speak. Here, the meaning is completely lost in the mess of the readers moods, impressions and interpretations. Each one of us will understand it the way it pleases and suits him better. The meaning of the sentence is ultimately mere guesswork. 1. Does John Doe want to say that he is capable of speaking again (after being dumb, aphasic or speech-impaired for a long time or after a chirurgical operation for instance), 2. Or does he say it is possible that he will declare something like when testifying in a court (spoken in a certain way this sentence may suggest a sort of threat or blackmail). 3. Or does the statement imply that John Doe has finally got the permission to speak after being forbidden to do so for a certain time? So here, all these readings are acceptable and valid as far as there are no further precisions or practical information added to dissipate the ambiguity.

4. Suppose John Doe chooses to add now to his statement, suddenly most of the
suppositions above collapse at once. The question persists. Suppose that can, without assistance from accentuation, intonation, explanation or else, is used in a separate statement. How can we make sure we have really understood the message? Can we be sure if it is making allusion to ability,

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The Modal Verb can under the microscope - Abdessalami

possibility, prohibition, impossibility, inability, complaint, request, suggesting, asking for and giving permission, giving instructions, showing determination or else? The answer is: We simply cant. Now! Can we shout victory we have at last tamed this wayward modal auxiliary verb? I guess not, yet. It is still very early for that now. There is much work to do to be able to unveil all the secrets of this powerful mysterious diffident modal, can.

F. Here is an exercise which seems difficult and has to be done. What am I saying
when I tell you You can do it 1. You are able to do it. 2. You know how to do it 3. You are allowed to do it. You have permission. 4. I encourage you to do it. So, go on! 5. It is possible that you can do it if we have enough time for that. 6. All of the above.

G. Before I close, Id prefer to leave you with this medley of statements to examine
and try to see if we have exhaustively studied this modal verb can. Ill let you deepen and intensify the research to check how far this modal verb can go with its influence on our speech. Here, youll encounter other functions that Can would never miss for anything in the world of interpersonal communication, like declining to give an advice, showing contempt, expressing impossibility, expressing fear, lack of certitude and so on.

Can you spare me a moment of your precious time, please? What more can I say? There is nothing I can do I cant help being worried by the way she behaves. For my friends, I can truly make a difference. I don't think they can repair that car. She can't possibly make the pizza. I wish I could suggest something, but I can't I'm afraid I can't really help you. I have the same problem myself. Interviews can be his worst nightmare. I just cant make it. Step aside son. This is tough for you. Daddy can handle it. I am positive he can handle this type of problems. I can barely handle this any more. Excuse me. Can you point me to the nearest store?" Excuse me. Can you give me simple directions to the police station? I can see what you mean. I cant say either way for sure. I can vouch for that. I can't be so sure about that. I can see that you have reached the end. So please, dont give up!

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The Modal Verb can under the microscope - Abdessalami

Conclusion
Undoubtedly our microscope has exerted a great effort to zoom and to bring close enough the maximum of details in the body of linguistic constructions wherein the multifunctional modal verb can is the pivot. The most surprising thing about can, all the same, is the incredible fact that it is the most frequently used word in our daily discourse. You will be surprised, maybe, to know that most of the examples provided in this paper are either song titles or verses in songs. This, by itself, is an incontestable solid proof that can is not to be underestimated as it has the power to render communication stiff without it. It is ubiquitous and we must admit it. I can prove it once more through this assortment of quotes. */ I am only one, but still I am one. I cannot do everything, but still I can do something; and because I cannot do everything, I will not refuse to do something that I can do. Helen Keller */ Generosity is giving more than you can, and pride is taking less than you need. Kahlil Gibran */ If you can dream it, you can do it. Walt Disney */ I don't mind living in a man's world as long as I can be a woman in it. Marilyn Monroe */ The most I can do for my friend is simply be his friend. Henry David Thoreau */ I can live without money, but I cannot live without love. Judy Garland */ Everyone can be great, because everyone can serve. Martin Luther King, Jr. */ If you think you can do a thing or think you can't do a thing, you're right. Henry Ford */ Make all you can, save all you can, give all you can. John Wesley */ I can accept failure, everyone fails at something. But I can't accept not trying. Michael Jordan */ It is one of the beautiful compensations of life, that no man can sincerely help another without helping himself. Ralph Waldo Emerson

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The Modal Verb can under the microscope - Abdessalami

I hope the employed microscope lenses were diaphanous and sharp enough to magnify and disclose some of the secret marvels of this tiny little three-letter-word, can.

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Bibliography
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Shakespeare, William: King Lear - (New Revised Edition) Signet Classic 1987. S. Winter & P. Grdenfors, Linguistic Modality as expressions of social power Palmer, F. R., Mood and Modality, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1986 (2nd edition 2001). Andrew Salter, Conditioned Reflex Therapy p:58 Gnter Radden and Ren Dirven, Cognitive English Grammar. John Benjamins, 2007 Bybee, J. L., Modality in Grammar and Discourse, John Benjamins publishing company. Singh, M.P Quote Unquote A handbook of famous quotations Lotus Press, New Delhi 2006 Wikiquote, I, Robot, [http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/I,_Robot_(film)#Dialogue]

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