Corso Violino

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Posture Instrument Sizing Instrument Position
Bow Hold Bow Stroke Intermediate Skills Advanced Skills
Left Hand Position Shifting Vibrato Advanced Skills
Process of Teaching Characteristics of Effective Teachers Pacing the Class Delivery of Information On-Task vs. Off-Task Student Behavior Keeping Students Involved During Rehearsal Introducing New Concepts Dealing with Technical Problems in Rehearsal Teaching Students How to Practice The Practice Environment Sample Practice Routines Classroom Management Methods for Starting Beginners
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Holding the Instrument, Right and Left Hand Technique, Teaching Strategies
An Introduction to the Orchestral String Instruments, History of the Instruments, Care and Maintenance
Ear Training, Tuning in Ensembles, Improvising and Composing Activities
Books on String Pedagogy, Classroom and Individual Methods and Materials, Videos, and Links to Other Sites
Michael Hopkins Bio, Credits, Site Map
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Sitting Posture for Violinists and Violists

Most orchestral playing is done sitting down. One general posture principle when sitting: students should be able to stand up without shifting their weight forward. Ask them to stand up when you give a signal, like snapping your fingers to assess if your students are balanced when sitting.
Suggestions for Improving Posture

Positive remarks and modeling work better than negative comments when trying to improve posture in the string class. Saying "don't slouch" to a student gives them no information about what you actually WANT them to do. Model an incorrect posture for students and get them to imitate you. Then model the transition to correct posture and ask them to do the same. Young students will become tired if required to hold their instruments in playing position for too long. Build variety of standing and sitting into the routine. Try movement activities and stretching to build physical awareness of motion into the routine. Two techniques musicians are using to build their level of physical awareness are the Alexander Technique and the Feldenkrais Method. Kato Havas developed a "new approach" to release physical tension in string playing. Yehudi Menuhin was a strong advocate of using exercise and mental relaxation techniques. Helping your students develop physical awareness and relaxation anf freeing their bodies from tension will greatly reduce the chance of injury as they develop.
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Pedagogical Information | The Instruments | Developing Musicianship | Books and Information | Home Copyright 1996-2006, Michael Hopkins. All Rights Reserved.
Page 1 of 1 Url: http://www.uvm.edu/~mhopkins/string/pedagogy/posture7.html
Posture
Posture is the foundation on which all technique is built. Posture affects every aspect of string playing. Bow hold, bow stroke, tone, intonation, shifting, vibrato are all affected by posture. Many students have problems with their posture that work against them as they try to develop technique.
Balance
Body balance is fundamental to proper posture. All movement is a result of balance. When students stand their weight should be evenly distributed between their two feet. Feet should be shoulder width apart. Student should fully lengthen their spine and stand tall. Slouching causes all sorts of problems with instrument holding position, and bow position. Standing posture should be addressed before the student learns to hold the instrument. For violins, violas, and basses, student should learn standing posture before sitting posture to establish the feeling of being lengthened and balanced. The biggest posture problems I see regularly involve balance - a student sitting with legs crossed, or standing with all the weight on one foot. The other big problem is slouching in the upper body.
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Steps for establishing the proper violin and viola stance

Step 1: Stand tall with feet together (Frame 1 of image at left). Step 2: Place the feet in a "V" position (Frame 2 of image at left). Step 3: Move the left foot slightly forward and to the left. Rock back and forth between the two feet and feel the transfer of the weight (Frame 3 of image at left). There are several string pedagogues including Shinichi Suzuki who advocate this approach, with the left foot very slightly in front and bearing the larger share of the weight: Paul Rolland advocated "weight transfer" between the two feet while playing. Some pedagogues like Kato Havas prefer the feet to be on the same plane (4th frame of image at left), shoulder width apart, with the weight evenly distributed between the two feet: Both approaches can be effective.
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Typical Problems with Standing Posture

1) The feet are too close together, making the player off-balance (weeblewobble). 2) The knees are locked, creating tension in the lower body and a lack of flexibility. 3) The feet are too far apart. 4) ALL of the weight is placed on one leg. While Suzuki does prefer more weight on the left leg, none of the leading pedagogues advocate placing all the weight on the right leg. ALL of the weight being placed on either the left or the right will cause problems with tone production. Notice in the image at left that the bodies are lengthened, the feet are shoulder width apart, the knees are not locked.
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Addressing Posture Problems with Students

When I observe orchestra programs in schools, poor posture ranks as one of the biggest problems I see in students. If posture is poor, the student will usually have problems with the rest of their technique. How can we convince students to play with proper posture? In the beginning months, I think it is very important for teachers, students, and parents to focus on playing a musical instrument as primarily a physical skill (like swinging a baseball bat, only much more complex), and make the secondary focus the "sound" aspects of playing an instrument. Too often, beginning students (and their parents) want the instant gratification of learning a song. They pay no attention to the important information the teacher provides to them regarding technique, concerned only with "how do I play this song?" Once proper technique is established, the learning of songs will progress much more rapidly, and will sound better! If we could approach the learning of an instrument as an athletic endeavor rather than as a "creative" endeavor, perhaps we can get beginning students and their parents to buy in to the idea that playing an instrument has a lot in common with learning other physical skills, like riding a bike or throwing a ball. Professional sports are highly valued in American culture. I often compare the playing of a musical instrument to playing a sport. We discuss throwing a football, hitting a baseball or tennis ball, kicking a soccer ball. Fundamental to all of these activities is a lengthened and balanced posture. I think it is safe to say that playing a stringed instrument is at least as complicated, if not more so, than throwing or kicking or hitting a ball. No athlete would ever expect to hit a home run with their legs crossed while slouching, so how could someone ever expect to play a complicated piece of music on an instrument with poor posture?
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Standing Posture for Double Bass

Double bassists should stand with their feet shoulder width apart, With their weight balanced between the two legs. The endpin of the instrument needs to be adjusted so the bassist can stand fully lengthened. Adjustment of the endpin is discussed in the section on Sizing.
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Sitting Posture for Cellists

Cellists should sit on the front of the chair with both knees bent and feet flat on the floor. The torso should be fully lengthened. The lower half of the leg should make a 45 degree or greater angle with the upper leg. Many cellists advocate a larger angle. The size and style of the chair obviously becomes critical for establishing the correct cello posture. For back comfort, it is important to sit with the hips higher than the knees. For this reason, many cellists like a chair that slopes to the front. There are special chairs made by companies like Wenger that are designed especially for cellists. Some cellists raise the back legs of a chair with a prop. What you don't want to see is a cellist sitting back in a chair that slopes to the back. This will place the knees higher than the hips and may lead to back pain.
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Bass Endpin Adjustment

Adjust the endpin so the bridge of the bass is on the same plane with the knuckles (2nd joint of finger - see image) of the students right hand. The important thing is not to set the bass too high. A bass set too high will cause the right elbow to bend too much, the angle of the bow to the strings will change, and ultimately, the result will be a poor sound.
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Instrument Sizing for Violin and Viola

For children, string instruments are available in smaller or fractional sizes, to allow for students to acquire technique on an instrument that suits the length of their arms and fingers. As a student grows, so should the size of the instrument they study on. For violins, sizes begin at the 1/32 size, and continue in increments as follows: 1/16, 1/8, 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, 7/8, and 4/4, or a full-size violin. These sizes do not actually correspond to the true sizes of the instruments. For example, a 1/16 size is actually about half the size of a full size violin. Small violas are available in 11, 12, 13, and 14-inch lengths.
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Correct Sizing for Violin and Viola
To determine if the violin or viola is the correct size, ask the student to reach under the instrument while holding the instrument in playing position. The teacher can assist the student with holding the instrument, if the student is a beginner. If the student extends the palm outward, the scroll should touch the base of the palm of the hand.
The student should be able to reach both her middle fingers around the scroll, while maintaining some bend in the elbow.
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Sizing Problems
For Beginners, especially children, correct instrument sizing is crucial for success. If the instrument is too large, it can cause fatigue, tension, and hinder progress. In these images, the instrument is too large for the student. This can be easily assessed by noting that the student's fingers cannot wrap around the scroll.
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Chin Rests
All violins and violas should have a chin rest. For smaller children, use a chin rest which attaches to the left of the tailpiece, and does not span the tailpiece. Chin rests come in a variety of shapes. Some poke into kid's chins and cause discomfort, depending on the size and shape of the student's head. Everyone needs chin support to keep the instrument from slipping.
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Shoulder Rests
All violinists and violists need a shoulder support to keep the instrument from slipping. Shoulder rests come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Adjustable rests are the best for children who are still growing. Small children don't need to use shoulder rests. A sponge or piece of foam 3/8 to 3/4 inches thick attached to the instrument with a rubber band should be adequate to keep instrument from slipping. Some adults also prefer a cloth or sponge to shoulder rests. It really depends on the size of ones' neck, and one's personal preference. However, everyone needs something to keep the instrument from slipping!
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Cello Sizing for Beginners

Cellos also come in a variety of sizes-3/4, 1/2, 1/4 and 1/8 to accomodate children as they grow. There are several factors to consider when sizing a student to a cello: 1) Size of student's left hand - can the student's left hand comfortably reach the notes in first position? (see image at left)
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Adjusting the Cello Endpin

Here are a few of suggestions for setting the endpin length:
1) Set the endpin to a length equal to span of students hand (tip of thumb to tip of pinkie when spreading hand as far as possible), plus the length of the pinkie (This is an approximate starting point). 2) Ask the student to hold the cello between the knees with knees on lower bouts, then lower the endpin until it reaches the floor. 3) Cello should be about chin height when student stands. 4) C peg should be across from left ear when endpin is correct length.
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The Cellist's Chair

The chair should be of a size so that both of the student's feet can rest flat on the floor. If the instrument is the correct size, the endpin is adjusted properly and student is sitting in an appropriate chair, their knees can rest comfortably against the side of the lower bouts, and the base of the cello neck contacts the student's body near their sternum. Cellos should have fine tuners on each string. Many professional cellists keep the fine tuners, so there is no reason for a student cello to have fine tuners only on one or two strings. Cellists need to have an endpin stopper, for playing on hard surfaces. There are several types available. I prefer the type that anchor onto the leg of the cellists' chair.
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Double Bass Sizing

Basses also come in several sizes. There are 1/2, 1/4, and 1/8 size basses available for smaller students. The size most professionals play is the 3/4 size. Occasionally you may come across a 7/8 bass, but 4/4 basses are extremely rare because they are simply too large for most people to play. Among these general size categories, string length and body size varies, depending on the maker. Size of the student's left hand is an important factor when selecting a bass size. The student's hand should be able to reach the notes in first position. It may be a stretch, but they should not need to shift to span a whole step between 1st and 4th finger. Size of the student's body and the size of the bass should be a good fit. A student's left hand may fit the instrument well because of the string length, but the size of the bass may be too large for the student to play comfortably. Unlike the other string instruments, double bass bodies come in different styles.
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Sitting Position for Double Bass

Sitting position should be approached from a standing posture. After the student has learned where the bass balances with their body while standing, they can sit down on a stool and balance the instrument in the same way. The student should not slump over the instrument in sitting position. Depending on th height of the stool, the endpin may need to be adjusted when going from standing to sitting. The advantages of sitting: 1) Extra leverage gained from your arm weight, because of the increased angle of the instrument. 2) More comfortable for long rehearsals. Advantages of standing: 1) Extra leverage can be gained from weight of the instrument, by leaning the instrument slightly forward into the bow. 2) Freedom to move around
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Instrument Position for Violin and Viola

This is a movie that demonstrates bringing the violin into playing position from above. Since the instrument is brought from above, the student is able to hold the instrument correctly for longer periods of time, and has less of a tendency to slouch, let the instrument drop in front of the body, or let the elbow collapse against the body. Once the instrument is put into position have the student turn their head slightly so they are looking up the strings of the violin.
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Statue of Liberty
This is a one handed approach to putting the violin into playing position that was develop by Paul Rolland. A one-handed approach is useful so the student can hold the bow while bringing the instrument into playing position.
I have found that 90% of my students hold the instrument correctly after the first attempt using this technique. A couple of repetitions will bring along the other 10%.
Since the instrument is brought to the body from above, it is easier for the student to maintain a correct posture for a longer period of time. It also helps students learn to balance their weight correctly.
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Proper Shoulder Support for Violin and Viola

While holding the instrument in playing position, ask student to take the left hand, and touch the right shoulder. The instrument should stay in position. If the instrument slips, the student does not have proper shoulder rest support. See the section on instrument sizing for more information on shoulder rests.
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Elbow Position
A general rule for playing a string instrument is "No part of your body should touch any other part of your body." If the violin/viola is held correctly, when the left hand is placed in 1st position, the left arm will form a natural 90 degree angle at the elbow. The elbow will not rest against the body.
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Common Problems with Violin and Viola Instrument Position

This student is resting her elbow against her body. Notice the effect this has on her bow placement. Her tone will be weak and unsavory. What is the cause? If she lacks proper shoulder support for the instrument, her left hand is holding up the instrument, which causes fatigue. The natural tendency would then be to rest her elbow against her body.
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Common Problems with Violin and Viola Instrument Position

Avoid sticking chin out, or raising shoulder. In this picture the student is raising his left shoulder. Notice how this affects the position of the entire left arm and left hand. In this picture the chin is sticking out, the instrument is drooped in front of the body, and the left hand becomes responsible for supporting the instrument. This will cause intonation problems, and could cause physical damage to the tendons of the left arm. Watch for these common problems in the beginning stages of instruction. Repeat the entire process of bringing the instrument into position frequently. Problems are likely to creep in whenever key concepts are not reviewed. The things you review will get better, and the things you ignore will get worse.
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Instrument Position for Cello and Bass

Holding the cello and the bass can be difficult for younger students because of the size of these instruments. Students should have an opportunity to get familiar with the feel of the instrument. One way to do this is to have students carry instruments around room, being careful not to bang them. Let the students practice putting down and picking up their instruments without making any noise.
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Cello Position
While sitting, the student should be able to stand up without moving feet. Cello should contact at three points: Both knees should touch the side by lower bouts. Students' chest should touch top of cello back at around the sternum height. Have student place arms around and hug the cello. Rock back and forth.
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Double Bass Position

The bassist may either stand or sit on a stool while playing. Standing with the Bass The student should stand with their feet shoulder width apart so their weight balances. The lower right back of the bass should be placed against the student's left leg. The student will need to experiment to find the place where the bass balances with their body. If the instrument is balanced correctly the student will be able to hold it without using their arms. Make sure the student's left leg is behind the instrument, and their shoulders are relaxed.
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Conclusion on Bow Hold

The bow hold of the string player is very important, since the way the bow is held has a huge effect on the sound produced. The majority of advanced string players who are having technique problems have them in the right hand. From the very beginnings of instruction, the right hand is often overlooked. Sheet music provides us primarily with left hand information. The bow hold generally receives very little attention in most classroom method books. Usually, there is a single picture, or perhaps a series of still images or drawings in the front of the book. The rest of the book provides us primarily with left hand information. It is my hope that the movies and detailed images provided in the preceding sequence of information on bow hold can supplement the information found in published method books. The teacher must continuously monitor the bow hold throughout the students' course of study. When the student becomes preoccupied with the notes on the page (left hand) the bow hold is very susceptible to undergoing incorrect changes. In general, whenever new technical difficulties are presented to the student, begin by reviewing and periodically checking the bow hold.
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Bow Hold
For over two centuries, there has been much debate among string teachers as to the "correct" way to hold the bow. The truth is there are many ways that the bow can be held and still produce an artistic result. If you closely studied the bow holds of today's greatest performers, you would find that they all hold the bow slightly different. In the past, string pedagogy had different "schools" of bow holds based on geography: the German School, the Russian School, and the Franco-Belgian school. The difference between these "schools" had to do with finger placement, pronation of the hand and wrist, and several other factors that would result in a different quality of sound production. As people have become increasingly mobile, pedaogical styles have blended, and many teachers have taken the best features from the varied approaches and incorporated them into their own teaching. There seems to be widespread agreement on a few general conceptual ideas regarding the bow hold: 1) The thumb and the middle finger have a special relationship. For the hand to be balanced, the thumb should be across (opposed) from the 2nd finger. 2) The hand should be comfortable, and free from tension. 3) The ideal bow hold is one that permits the musician to execute all the on and off the string bow strokes.
Steps in Forming the Shape of the Bow Hand

Practice this exercise before trying to hold the bow. 1) Remove tension by shaking out hand and by wiggling the thumb to release tension. 2) Form circle with hand. Ask students to pretend they are picking up an orange tennis ball. 3) Bend and Flex the Thumb. While thumb is bent, touch it to the middle and ring fingers at the first joint. Flex the thumb and these two fingers. 4) Wiggle the Index and Pinkie Fingers.
Forming the Bow Hold Using a Pencil

Hold the pencil with the left hand while forming the bow hold with the right hand. 1) Bend and flex the thumb. Touch THE TIP of the thumb to the pencil as shown. 2) Place the FIRST JOINT of the middle and ring fingers on top of the pencil as shown, opposed to the thumb. 3) Turn the pencil over so you can see thumb. Lay index finger on pencil next to middle finger. Continue to bend and flex the thumb. If the tip of the thumb is touching the pencil, pencil should roll back and forth . Flex and bend the fingers. Make a "Come here" type of gesture with the index finger. 4) Turn pencil back over. For violin and viola, tap little fingernail on the top of the pencil. Cello and Bass, place pinkie next to ring finger. Note the placement of the pinkie is next to ring finger. A curved and relaxed pinkie is essential for bow control and it must be taught at this stage.
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Bow Hold Precursor Review

This movie reviews the concepts just presented with an audio narration. Potential problems when forming the bow hold with a pencil are discussed.
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Incorrect
Problem No. 1 - Hyperextended Thumb

Watch for the following problem when students are forming the bowhold with the pencil: Hyperextended thumb is INCORRECT. A hyperextended thumb will cause inflexibility in the wrist. Often, if the the thumb is hyperextended, the TIP of the thumb is not touching the pencil.
Correct
Thumb should be bent at the first joint. If the tip of the thumb is touching the pencil, pencil should roll back and forth.
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Incorrect
Problem No. 2 - Tips of Fingers Touching Pencil

Watch for the following problem when students are forming the bowhold with the pencil: The tips of the fingers should NOT touch the stick. This will result in a loss of bow control.
Correct
The first joints of the middle and ring fingers should touch the stick. The index finger should touch the stick at the second joint (or between the first and second joints, as shown). Some teachers advocate the index finger touching at the first joint.
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Forming the Bow Hold

Step One: Hold the bow with the left hand near the tip
Important! Have the student hold the bow with their left hand so right hand can be free from any possible weight of the bow.
Step Two: Touch the bent thumb to the bottom of the stick.
Step Three: Place middle and ring fingers on top of the stick at first joint.
Step Four: Turn the bow over. Lay index finger on bow at 2nd joint. Roll thumb until thumb nail stops bow. Repeat this several times to get the feel of the bent thumb touching the stick and the thumb nail touching the hair .
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For violin and viola, tap little fingernail on the bow-on top of stick. This insures that it is curved. A curved and relaxed pinkie is essential for bow control. Note the placement of the pinkie is next to ring finger. It does not need to be touching the screw. In general, there is a small amount of space between the fingers. Some teachers advocate the fingers touching. The fingers of the hand are not spread, as this will cause tension in the hand.
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Forming the Bow Hold - Violin and Viola

1) Hold the bow at the tip with the left hand. 2) Bend and flex the thumb. Touch THE TIP of the thumb to the stick of the bow as shown. 3) Place the FIRST JOINT of the middle and ring fingers on top of the bow as shown, opposed to the thumb. Lay the second joint of the index finger on bow next to middle finger. Tap little fingernail on the top of the pencil. Note the placement of the pinkie is next to ring finger. 4) Turn the bow over so you can see thumb. Continue to bend and flex the thumb. Roll the stick until the hair of the bow touches the thumbnail. Flex and bend the fingers. Make a "Come here" type of gesture with the index finger. 5) Turn bow back over. Repeat the steps several times.
Bow Hold Movie

This movie reviews the concepts just presented with an audio narration.
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Incorrect
Incorrect Bow Holds and Their Causes

It is important to give students information so they can discriminate between correct and incorrect bow holds. For example, show the difference between a relaxed hand and a claw hand with white knuckles. Also show the difference between a bent thumb and a hyperextended thumb. Any analogy or game that can be attached to this step will be helpful. The "Claw"
In this image, the student is spreading out the fingers of the hand too much. The pinkie should not sit on the screw. Also notice the hyperextended thumb, and the first finger extended up the stick. This will cause stiffness in the wrist, and prohibit freedom of movement in the bow. Correct
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Incorrect
Incorrect Bow Hold No. 2
"Tippy" This student has placed her finger tips on the stick , but the tip of the thumb is not on the stick. She will have problems controlling the bow and the bow stroke will likely be very, very short. Notice in the model that the first joint of the middle and ring fingers contacts the stick. The index finger contacts between the first and second joints.
The tip of the ring finger should contact the frog near the eye of the frog.
Correct
Incorrect

The "Gripper" This student actually has a correctly bent thumb, but the rest of the fingers are tense and out of position.
Correct
Incorrect

The cause of a poor bow hold is sometimes hidden from view. Remember to check to see if the student's thumb is bent correctly.
Correct
In the correct image at left, note the bent thumb. The TIP of the thumb touches the stick. This insures flexibility in the wrist.
Bow Hold for Cello and Bass

The pinkie and index finger rest comfortably next to the middle and ring fingers. The pinkie does not sit on the top of the stick for cello or bass.
Incorrect
Common Problems for Cello and Bass Bow Hold

In the top image, the student's hand (and wrist) is angled in such a way that wrist will not be able to bend properly as the bow moves from frog to tip. The result will be excess upper arm motion. Compare to the correct hand placement below.
Correct
Thumb Problems for Cello and Bass Bow Hold

A hyperextended thumb will cause tension and locked joints in the fingers, and prevent the wrist from being flexible.
Double Bass German Bow Hold

When holding a german bow the frog sits comfortably in the palm of the hand and the tip of the thumb is placed on the stick. The index and middle fingers lie against the side of the stick. The pinkie is curved and touches the bottom of the frog. The image at left represents what the bow hold would look like during an upbow. When the bow is going downbow, the wrist will bend slightly and fingers will straighten out a bit. The flexibility of the fingers and wrist is crucial to later bowing technique. For german bow players, the pressure (weight of the arm) comes through the thumb. In fact, the bow should be able to supported entirely by thumb and pinkie. By design, the german bow is capable of allowing a young player to produce a big sound on the bass with less effort than the french bow. The french bow, however, is more like the bows of the other instruments so many classroom teachers prefer teaching french bow.
Bow Stroke as an Extension of the Body

When a student learns the basic bow stroke, the first attempts to extend the bow stroke will likely be played with a unilateral body motion - the student's body and bow are moving in same direction. Often, the student's body will remain stiff and motionless, creating tension in the body. As student improves the teacher must encourage bilateral motion. In bilateral motion as the bow moves from frog to tip the body moves away from instrument, as shown in the video at left. Bilateral motion promotes relaxation through a continuous flowing motion in the string player. Stiffness creates tension - motion releases tension. When the bow stroke is balanced the weight will shift between the two legs, with the majority of weight is on left foot or left honch if player is sitting.
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Bow Stroke
Once the bow hold is established, then we can teach students how to move the bow through space. Before attempting to put the bow on the strings and make sound, it is a good idea to try some bowing away from the instrument.
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Shadow Bowing as a Precursor to the Bow Stroke

The purpose of shadow bowing is to learn how to make the correct arm movements with the bow and learn how it feels to move the bow before we get the instrument involved. For violin and viola, the students learn forearm movement from the elbow. Opening up the arm from the elbow while keeping the upper arm relatively still is essential for straight bowing. For cellists and bassists, this activity promotes the pronation and supination of the wrist while keeping the shoulder still that is essential for straight bowing. You'll need a tube for this activity. Obtain an empty toilet paper roll, cut an empty paper towel roll in half, or roll up a piece of paper. Violins and Violas should hold the tube with the left hand and place it on the left shoulder. Cellists and bassists hold the tube in the left hand in front of their bodies. Place the bow into the tube. Play rhythmic patterns with the bow. Put on a recording, and play along. Use students names for rhythmic patterns. For example, "My name is Michael Hopkins" is a rhythm that can be played with the bow. Let the kids make up rhythmic patters with words. Remember to review the bow hold frequently throughout the Shadow Bowing activity.
Bow Stroke Basics

The Constant The bow should move parallel to the bridge of the instrument. Another way to think of this is the bow should be perpendicular to the string. This simple rule should be easy to follow, but it is actually quite challenging and requires much practice, as well as proper guidance in the early stages of instruction. There are a few reasons why it is difficult for string players to move their bows parallel to the bridge. First, from the player's perspective, it is difficult to make a correct judgement about whether the bow is parallel to the bridge - the bow appears to be parallel when in fact it is not! This is why teachers encourage their students to practice in front of a mirror. If you look into the mirror while you draw the bow, it offers an eye-opening perspective on the angle of the bow to the string. Some teachers use "string guides" mounted on the instrument to help students develop the correct bow path. Second, when the player crosses strings with the bow, a bow angle adjustment is needed to keep the bow perpendicular to the string. A common problem for double bassists is crossing from the D string to the G string. Without an adjustment when crossing, the bow will not be perpendicular to the G string, and will make a scratchy sound. Third, as the player moves the bow from frog to tip, a wrist and finger motion adjustment will need to be made to keep the bow moving perpendicular to the string. This motion varies among violin, viola, cello and bass, and from string to string on each of these instruments, and will be discussed in depth later in this tutorial.
The Bow Stroke Variables

The bow stroke has several variables. Distance of placement from the bridge, bow speed, bow pressure (weight), and amount of hair contacting the string can all be controlled by the player. It is the sophisticated technical control of these variables in combination that results in the highest levels of artistic expression. Learning to control these variables while maintaining the bow parallel to the bridge and executing the movements of the left hand is the ultimate technical challenge that is presented to the string player. All problems with tone can be analyzed by examining these factors: 1) The bow is not moving parallel to the bridge. 2) The bow is too close to the fingerboard, or too close to the bridge. 3) The bow is moving too fast, or too slow. 4) There is too much bow pressure, or too little. 5) There is too much hair contacting the string, or too little. It seems pretty straightforward, but as students advance and start playing more and more challenging repertoire, if the bow stroke basics are not under the student's control, playing with a poor tone can become an almost irreversible habit.
First Bow Stroke

Many teachers advocate starting the beginning string student with short bow strokes on a steady rhythm in the middle of the bow. The student can focus on the distance of the bow from the bridge, and can apply a steady pressure and speed. It is also easy to keep the bow moving parallel to the bridge when the bow stroke is short and in the middle of the bow. As the student progresses, the bow stroke can gradually be extended.
Making the First Sound

Modeling and imitation is the most effective way to teach beginning sounds. Use modeling to help students with identification of flaws, and have students correct flaws. Getting students to be aware of incorrect bow stroke and bow hold at this stage will help them tremendously as they progress.
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Holding the Bow at the Balance Point

The balance point is the place on the stick of the bow where the bow balances perfectly. It is easier to form the bow hold here than at the frog, especially for younger students. Since the bow is balanced here, holding the bow is effortless. This helps avoid stiff fingers early on. Some teachers have their students make the first bow strokes while holding the bow at the balance point. While holding the bow at the balance point, play in the upper half of bow, from middle to tip. Try rowing the bow for student to learn which angle the best sound comes from. Adjust the bow so it can be bowed straight. Adjust parts of arm. Adjust the shoulder first, then the elbow, and then the wrist. When the student has developed sufficent strength, move their bow hold from the balance point to the frog.
Basic bow stroke technique - violin and viola

The key to developing the basic bow stroke is to keep the bow parallel to the bridge as the student moves the bow from the frog to the tip of the bow. A bow stroke that does not move parallel to the bridge will not produce a full and resonant tone. The bow stroke should be extended gradually so the student can develop a feel for the motions described below. The basic bow stroke involves the following motions: 1) The elbow leads the motion and opens to an increased angle as the bow moves from frog to tip (downbow). When the bow is at approximately the middle, the elbow will be at a 45 degree angle. As the bow moves from tip to frog (upbow) the angle of the elbow decreases, as shown in this video. 2) The wrist will pronate as the bow moves from frog to tip, and supinate as the bow moves from tip to frog. 3) The fingers flex as the bow moves from frog to tip. The 2nd joints on the fingers (the knuckles) are the least bent when the bow is at the tip and the most bent when the bow is at the frog. Notice that the upper arm remains still. If the student tries to initiate the bow stroke with the upper arm, the bow will not remain parallel to the bridge. Often, if the upper arm is too involved, the elbow will not open and the wrist will be stiff. The fingers must be curved and flexible.The fingers must stay in one position and flex, not move to a new position. Holding the bow must be accomplished with the least amount of squeeze on the bow. Some teachers prefer to use the term "perpendicular to the string" instead of "parallel to the bridge."
Basic Bow Stroke Technique - Cello

The basic bow stroke for cello involves the following motions: 1) The elbow leads the motion. The shoulder joint is flexible like a hinge and permits a slight swinging motion in the arm. The elbow will open as the bow moves from frog to tip. There will also be some motion in the upper arm as it moves with the elbow. When the bow is at approximately the middle, the elbow will be at a 45 degree angle. 2) The wrist will flex and pronate slightly as the bow moves from frog to tip, and supinate as the bow moves from tip to frog. 3) The fingers remain flexible and curved as the bow moves from frog to tip. Notice the flexibility of the wrist and fingers. If viewed frame by frame, the leading motion of the elbow can be observed, followed by the wrist, and then the fingers. When the bow changes direction, the elbow changes first, followed by the wrist and fingers. Note also the speed of the bow and the amount of bow used change as the cellist moves from the low C string to the high A string. The lowest string is considerably thicker than the highest string. The student should move the bow slower and add weight to make the C string resonante.As the student moves to higher strings (G-D-A) he should gradually move the bow faster and add less weight to get a good sound.
Basic Bow Stroke Technique - Double Bass French Bow

The basic bow stroke for double bass - french bow involves the following motions: 1) The shoulder initiates the motion, followed by the elbow, wrist, and fingers. The elbow should remain straight, but not locked. A small amount of bend in the elbow is okay. There will be motion in the upper arm as it moves with the elbow. The shoulder should be relaxed so the full weight of the arm can be transferred through the bow and into the string. If the student tenses his shoulder and bends too much at the elbow, it will result in a small, thin, scratchy tone. 2) The wrist will flex and pronate slightly as the bow moves from frog to tip, and supinate as the bow moves from tip to frog. 3) The fingers remain flexible and curved as the bow moves from frog to tip. Notice the flexibility of the wrist and fingers. If viewed frame by frame, the leading motion of the elbow can be observed, followed by the wrist, and then the fingers. When the bow changes direction, the elbow changes first, followed by the wrist and fingers. Note also the speed of the bow and the amount of bow used change as the bassist moves from the low E string to the high G string. The lowest string is considerably thicker than the highest string. The student should move the bow slower and add weight to make the E string resonate. As the student moves to higher strings (A-D-G) he should gradually move the bow faster and add less weight to get a good sound.
Basic Bow Stroke Technique - Double Bass German Bow

The basic bow stroke for double bass - german bow involves the following motions: 1) The shoulder initiates the motion, followed by the elbow, wrist, and fingers. The elbow will be straight and open. It may bend slightly as the bow moves from frog to tip. There will be motion in the upper arm as it moves with the elbow. The shoulder should be relaxed so the full weight of the arm can be transferred through the bow and into the string. If the student tenses his shoulder and bends too much at the elbow, it will result in a small, thin, scratchy tone. 2) Up bow - the frog is touching the palm of the hand. The thumb and fingers bend. The wrist is straight. 3) Down bow - the thumb and fingers flex and the palm pulls away from the frog (see movie). The wrist bends. Notice the flexibility of the wrist and fingers. Note also the speed of the bow and the amount of bow used change as the bassist moves from the low E string to the high G string. The lowest string is considerably thicker than the highest string. The student should move the bow slower and add weight to make the E string resonante.As the student moves to higher strings (A-D-G) he should gradually move the bow faster and add less weight to get a good sound.
Changing the Angle of the Bow Stroke

There are seven basic angles that the bow will take, depending on which string(s) the bow is placed. This movie shows the angles on a violin from the student's perspective, and from the teacher's perspective. Note the position of the elbow as the angle changes: 1) G string 2) G and D strings 3) D string 4) D and A strings 5) A string 6) A and E strings 7) E string
The Helicopter
The Helicopter is a good game to play for fixing bow holds, learning the names of the different strings, and learning the seven basic bow angles. It also is a great way to assess whether your students know the names of the strings. 1) Students place bow on string (Ex. D string) without making any sound. Fix bow hold:
q q
Tap pinkie nail on stick Turn hand over and look at thumb. Is it bent the right way? Can you wiggle the bow and get the hair to touch against the nail of your thumb? Place bow back on string. Are the fingers too spread apart? Fingers are friends. They should stay close to each other.
2) Now the fun part. Pretend the bow is a helicopter and it takes off into the air, and lands on another string (i.e. the A string). Ask the students to make helicopter sounds with their voices. When they land their bows, play a rhythmic pattern to them, they play back, etc. The objective is to play on the A string without bumping the adjacent strings with the bow. 3) Periodically check the bow holds during this game. Remember to also land the bow on two strings at a time and practice playing double stops (e.g., D string and A string together). Also try landing the bow at incorrect and correct sounding points on the string, for example, over the fingerboard, too close to the bridge, and then at the correct sounding point (as shown in the movie).
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Bow Direction Changes - Circular Motion in the Bow Stroke

As the basic bow stroke becomes more refined, the bow should not travel on a flat plane in a static "back and forth" motion. Rather, the angle will change slightly from downbow to upbow, and the shape traced by the bow hand will be an ellipse. A good way to introduce students to this concept is to begin with large circular (elliptical) motions. Have the students play string crossings on open strings as shown in this video. Note the bow hand of the cellist, and the elliptical shapes it draws. For example: Down bow D string Up bow A string Down bow A string Up bow D string
Hooked Bowings
These types of bowings are typically used in compound meters such as 6/8, or for playing dotted rhythms so that the shorter, unaccented note remains unaccented. The bowing can be indicated in music with bow markings, slurred articulation markings, or both. Often, a composer provides no indications, and the performer must make a decision about whether to play a passage using a hooked bowing.
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Intermediate Skills for Right Hand

Martel Bow Strokes
Martel is a bow stroke that is played on the string. It differs from the detach bow stroke in that pressure is applied before the beginning of the bow stroke, and the pressure is released as the bow begins to move. If executed properly, the note has a crisp attack or accent. The bow stops at the end of the stroke and weight is added in preparation for the next stroke. The martel is used in marcato passages, for accents, and can be played from pianissimo to fortissimo. Say the word "pow" or "ping". The "puh" sound at the beginning of those words resembles the beginning of a martel stroke. The most common problems are not releasing the pressure when the bow starts to move, or moving the bow before applying pressure.
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Martel Bow Strokes

When learning the martel bow stroke, have the student stop the bow in between each bow stroke. Mastering the clean attack is especially important for double bassists, to remove transient harmonics from the tone. When introducing martel to students for the first time, begin by reviewing posture, bow hold, tone production, and intonation. Martel can be effectively presented using a rhythmic pattern. For example, the first rhythm introduced in the Suzuki Twinkle Variations if often taught as a martel bow stroke. It is also possible to focus exclusively on the "bite" of the stroke, free from a musical context.
Martel Bow Strokes

Keys to getting a quality Martel bow stroke
1) Get weight into the string while retaining flexibility in bow hand. 2) Add pressure (weight) before the note. 3) Release pressure as you move the bow. 4) Slow practice. Stop bow in between each stroke. 5) It is easiest in the middle to upper half of bow.
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Martel Bow Strokes

Other Ideas on Martel
Martel is a release of sound, not a surge of sound. Bow must come to a complete stop before attacking the second note. Martel is like playing a pizzicato note with the bow. Eventually, when combined with left hand, martel will become a switch for turning on vibrato.
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Staccato
According to Elizabeth Green, any on the string stroke with a stop at the end of it may fall under the term "staccato." Staccato notes can be played with separate bows, or several staccato notes may be played in a single direction, known as "slurred staccato."
The staccato is usually indicated with a dot above or below the note. Unfortunately, not all dots indicate an on the string staccato stroke. Dots are used in string music to indicate off the string strokes as well, such as spiccato, sautill, or ricochet. The performer needs to study preformance traditions, style, and often make an artistic judgement about how to interpret passages marked as staccato. Staccato notes on a string instrument may use the upper half of the bow with short strokes, but can also involve the use of the whole bow in a rapid motion. The note may use a long or short bow, but if it is followed by a momentary stop, it is some variety of staccato. Upbow staccato is easier than downbow. Most slurred staccato is done upbow.
Lour
The lour bowing can be thought of as a legato version of slurred staccato, or as several detach stokes in the same direction of the bow. In the lour bowing, the bow remains in continuous motion. The weight is released slightly between notes so the notes are articulated. The lour bowing is generally indicated by several notes under a slur with legato markings.
Spiccato
Spiccato is an off the string bow stroke. It is called a variety of different names depending on the speed, character, and musical context, including: controlled bounce, brushstroke, thrown bow, saltando, or sautille, The bowing prerequisites to learning spiccato are control of the detach and Martel strokes.
Playing spiccato requires a relaxed bow hand, free from tension. A teacher should review the basic strokes and bow hold when introducing spiccato.
Spiccato Basics
All spiccato involves a combination of vertical and horizontal motion. The more vertical the bow stroke, the sharper and percussive a note will sound. The more horizontal the bow stroke, the rounder and softer a note will sound.
Slow spiccato may be played in any part of the bow. An approach to learning slow spiccato is to begin by dropping the bow without moving the bow horizontally.
The bow is easiest to control in the middle. As the bow moves towards the frog there is less bounce. As the bow moves towards the tip, there is lots of bounce, but it is harder to control. Another approach to become familiar with the bouncing bow is to let the bow bounce freely in the hand while moving in a down bow direction. This is called ricochet.
Slow Spiccato Quality of Sound

If the quality of sound desired is a slow spiccato with a percussive bouncy bow, very little horizontal motion needs to be added.
By moving the bow more horizontally and less vertically, a smoother sound can be achieved. This is sometimes called the brush stroke.
When playing the brush stroke, the stick of the bow should be tilted toward the scroll so the side hairs will strike the string first.
Giving greater emphasis to the horizontal motion will give greater substance to the tone.
Spiccato - Controlling the Bounce

Once the bow is able to bounce freely in the hand with a completely relaxed hold try controlling the bounce. Let the bow bounce 8 times in the down bow direction, then an up bow.
Next let the bow do 4 downs, then an up.
Next let the bow do 2 downs, then an up.
Finally, try bouncing down - up.
Spiccato on the Cello

Notice the curved fingers and relaxed bow hand in this movie of slow spiccato played on the cello. For the bow to bounce with a consistent tone and steady rhythm, the player must be able to control the bounce. Notice also the place where the bow hair contacts the string is below the middle of the bow, but not too close to the frog.
Spiccato on the Bass

This movie demonstrates the spiccato (off the string) bow stroke on the double bass. Notice the bow is bounced near or at the balance point (the balance point is very close to the frog on this bow). Different angles are presented in this movie. The term "bouncing" bow is not really an accurate way to describe the stroke. It is more like brushing the sound on the string. Observe that the bow stroke is considerably more horizontal than vertical.
Spiccato in Context - Repertoire that includes Spiccato

Excerpt 1 is from Haydns Symphony No. 94, Surprise, movement 2. This excerpt makes use of a slow, brush stroke type of spiccato . In this excerpt, the spiccato is played between the middle and the frog.
Excerpt 2 Gavotte by Gossec. This excerpt demonstrates spiccato at a medium tempo. In this excerpt, the spiccato is slightly more vertical than in the Haydn excerpt, and is played near the camber point.
Common Problems and Solutions

This movie describes a few of the common problems students encounter when learning spiccato. A demonstration of each problem is followed by a demonstration of the correct technique.
More Ideas on Spiccato

The angle of the bow to the string should be perpendicular for the best sound. Think of spiccato like a jump on a trampoline. Think in pairs. A drop and a rebound. Start with a single drop and rebound. Gradually increase the number of drops and rebounds. Let the hand rest frequently when learning spiccato, and practice it daily at varying tempos.

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