The Gaze Vol - 4 Full Body

Lumbini as International Pilgrimage Destination: Authenticity and Significance
Ramesh Raj Kunwar * Him Lal Ghimire **

Abstract Authenticity refers to original, genuineness or true to reality. Tour is an outer journey in geographical space to have pleasure; pilgrimage is an inner journey in the outer space from where immanent and transcendent together make a system complex. Tourism is to be a benign and possibly beneficial agent of change. Nepal is the country which has a unique and diverse living history and culture. It has been blending and carrying the history of thousands of years. The authentic history of Lumbini- the birthplace of Lord Buddha, however, started with the pillar inscription of the famous Indian Maurya Emperor Ashoka. The archeological remains, structures, temples, monasteries, stupas, legends, religious texts, rituals, caste/ethnic groups and languages, festivals and the welcoming nature of people are more than enough to prove its authenticity. There are age long traditions of visiting pilgrimage sites by domestic as well as Chinese and Indian pilgrims since long to and from Nepal. Authenticity is simply a matter of highlighting authentic elements not only for the benefit of tourists but also for the sustainability of tourism which ultimately pay to the locals. This paper tries to establish the foundation of authenticity in tourism and the authenticity of Lumbini. Key words: Authenticity, constructivism, theoplacity, pilgrimage, heritage, positive reinforcement Introduction to Lumbini Nepal is the country which has a unique and diverse living history and culture. It has been blending and carrying the history of thousands of years. The archeological remains, structures, temples, monasteries, stupas, legends, religious books, rituals, caste/ethnic groups and languages, festivals and the welcoming nature of Nepalese people are more than
* Prof. Dr. Ramesh Raj Kunwar is the author of seven books on tourism and anthropology. He is tourism educationist and anthropologist by profession. He is the former Dean of Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal. He is also the former Dean of (then) Royal Nepalese Military Academy. Currently, he is teaching at the Central Department of Culture, Kirtipur Campus, T.U. Email: kunwardr@yahoo.com
** Him Lal Ghimire is Ph.D. Research scholar (Thesis submitted) on Pilgrimage Tourism in Lumbini in TU, has MSEd from Bank Street College, New York, published more than 30 articles in journals and newspapers, more than 22 years of experience in teaching and school/college management. Email: himghimire@gmail.com)
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enough to prove its authenticity. There are age long traditions of visiting pilgrimage sites by domestic as well as especially Indian and Chinese pilgrims since long to and from Nepal. Geographically, Lumbini is situated in Rupandehi District of Southern Terai at an altitude of 105m above the sea level and around 300 km to the southwest from Kathmandu-the capital of Nepal. There are regular flights to Gautam Buddha Airport, Bhairahawa (also known as Siddarthanagar) from Kathmandu. Bhairahawa is the nearest town to Lumbini. The flight takes about 30 minutes. One can take a taxi or a public bus from Bhairahawa airport to Lumbini for a distance of 22 km. Traveling around 300 km distance from Kathmandu to Lumbini by road takes about 7-9 hours. Despite the richness of Buddhist heritage, Lumbini is located in one of the countrys poorest regions. Around the site, there are seven village development committees such as Ekala, Khudabagar, Tenuhawa, Madhuwani, Lumbini, Bhagawanpur and Aama. Interestingly, the popular Buddhist site is surrounded by a predominantly Hindu (67%) and population (32%), with only 1% of the population Buddhist (Neupane, 2009 p.165). Works So Far Done As far as the study of Lumbini and other important sites related to Buddha and his life around Lumbini are concerned, most of the studies have been done by several scholars of history and archaeology (Fuhrer, 1972; Mukherji, 1969; Tange & Urtec, 1998; Kwaak & Brenes, 2002; Bidari, 1990; 2002; 2004; Pradhan, 1979; Pandey, 1985; Rijal, 1979; 1996). The contributions made by them have highlighted the historical past of Lumbini, Kapilvastu, Devdaha and other archaeological sites of the region. The studies brought by another group of scholars are Ghimire (2004; 2005a; 2005c; 2006; 2009; 2011; 2012a; 2012b; 2012c), Gurung (1998); Hewage (2010); Rai (2010); Roy (2000); Giri (2007); and Vaidya (1999) focused on sacred complex, touristic destination, tourism development, development of Lumbini, history, peace, culture and religion. Recently, Neupane (2009) studied about Lumbini from different perspectives i.e. heritage issue and conflicts. His study has been centralized on dissonance, consonance heritage proximity, conflicts, Buddhist pilgrimage, stakeholders and has concluded 'religious proximity' and latent 'dissonance'. Comparatively his work is highly academic in nature. But none of the above mentioned studies have touched authenticity as an academic issues on the studies of Lumbini. To address the today's need, Lumbini should be studied from different dimensions. Therefore, the researchers have made an attempt to study Lumbini, the birth place of Buddha, Buddhist pilgrimage site, its sacred geography and tourist destination from different theoretical dimensions. Methodology Research methods concerns how one conducts research, analyses the data or evidence, tests theories and creates new knowledge (Rosenau, 1992 p. 116; in Repko, 2012 p. 128). Using a variety of methods, rather than concentrating on one method, will help to overcome weakness, as there is no single ideal method of research in the behavioural sciences (Sommer and Sommer, 2002; in Laing 2006 p. 80). Methodologically, this work is based on the interdisciplinary approach. According to Newell (2007 p. 240; in Repko, 2012 p.15),
Kunwar/Ghimire: Lumbini as International Pilgrimage... 3
interdisciplinary study is a two part process: it draws critically on disciplinary perspectives, and it integrates into a more cmprehensive understanding... of an existing complex, phenomenon [or into] the creation of a new complex phenomenon. Visentin (2011: xiii) justifies the above mentioned approach and writes, Rather interdisciplinary is a means to identify and study new themes that single disciplines would not be able to put into focus, describe interpret by themsleves. Weaver and Lawton (2002; in Melkert and Vos, 2010 p. 37) argue that the multidisciplinary approach in tourism research is gradually evolving into an interdisciplinary approach, where the perspectives of various disciplines are combined and synthesised. Without ignoring interdisciplinary approach, eclecticism, instead of triangulation method, as an approach has been used in this study. The data have been collected from both primary and secondary sources. In order to get the primary data, the authors have visited the field for several times. The secondary data have been collected from books, journals, articles and the internet. The structured, semistructured, unstructured, narrative and episodic (Lemmetyinen, 2010 p. 50-51) interviews were taken with many tourists/pilgrims, resource persons and sacred specialists. The survey method was also followed during the field work. This study uses a mixture of emic and etic perspectives-with the researcher both an insider and outsider at different periods during the research (Laing, 2006 p. 28). MS Excel 2003 has been used to analyze the data graphically. This study is based on qualitative and partly quantitative approach. But, the quantititive versus quatitative debate is largely over. Today most authors on methodology stress mixing methods rather than distinguishing between methods (Hall and Hall, 1996 p. 35; in Repko, 2012 p. 208). Silverman (2001 110; in Laing 2006 p. 79) sees theory as a goal of research. Without theory, research is impossible narrow. Without research, theory is mere armchair contemplation. Conceptual framework Authenticity becomes clearer when one thinks of its opposite words such as falseness and imitation. Theobald (1998) writes authenticity means genuine, unadulterated or the real thing. In tourism, authenticity refers to experience a different way of life, manifestation of the identity of a people, customs, traditions, heritage, history and. The discovery of places in a country that remain untouched by modernism and still maintain traditional methods and ways of life and travel with added value and quality of experience signify the authenticity. However, tourism is frequently accused of destroying authenticity (a notion which is problematic in its own term), through commoditization of cultures, traditions, festivals, dance, rituals and food which is produced for monetary gain. "Authenticity" is one of the core concepts in tourism. It gives theoretical explanation of tourism attractions from the angle of tourist motivation and tourists' perception. The search for authenticity reflects the needs of urban tourists from industrial countries. When they travel, they seek to experience something new outside their daily lives, something innovative and different. They want to experience new things and enjoy the sensation of being where things are real and original. They want to share the joyful moment with other people or write a note "I was there". MacCannell's tourist, however, is concerned with the authenticity of attraction. The quest for authenticity, indeed, rather than the search for contrived illusions, is said to be the fundamental motivation of modern tourists. Modern tourists, however, alienated
from their own inauthentic and shallow world, may seek authenticity elsewhere in other times and places (MacCannell, 1976 p.3; in Kunwar, 2002 p.53). Authenticity can be measured in terms of the tourists own values and satisfactions. It occurs when travellers return home feeling they have truly experienced a change in scenery, gained a better understanding of the country visited and its development, or connected in some way with the local population. Authenticity is categorized into three types such as perceived authenticity, original authenticity and created authenticity. In perceived authenticity, the tourists before their departure are subject to have an idea about the images of the destination. Most of them are market oriented; others are unbiased documentary accounts of the region to be visited. The original authenticity is represented by the natural and man-made features which attract visitors to the destination. If the original authenticity has been changed due to development or environmental damage then it is replaced by created authenticity (Jackson, 1989; in Kunwar, 2002 p.118). For this, Wang (1999) gave taxonomy of three types of authenticity in tourist experiences. Before the examination of the interaction between object-related and existential authenticity, the nature of object-related authenticity needs to be further clarified. It was also taken from the constructivist perspective. The five characteristics that Wang identified as common to constructivist approaches outlined the general assumptions and orientations of that school of thought, but do not address the specific meaningful elements used to construct notions of authenticity. The present task, then, is to answer the question "What makes an object of the tourist gaze seem authentic to the viewer?" The answer rests in idealized conceptions located within impermeable boundaries, communicated symbolically and legitimated by authority. Assuming that there cannot be objective authenticity, why do people believe in its existence? Constructivist philosophers assume that there is no real pre-existing world independent of human activity. Nothing is inherently authentic; authenticity is constructed by a society based on points of view, beliefs, perspectives, interpretations or powers. Therefore, what consumers or tourists do is projecting their expectations, preferences, consciousness and stereotyped images onto toured objects and sites and believe them to be authentic when they meet their expectations. For constructivists, authenticity is elative, negotiable, contextually determined and even ideological. Wang provides an important differentiation between the completing definitions of authenticity within the context of pilgrimage and heritage tourism. Authenticity in tourism can be applied to both the visitor experience (activity-related authenticity) and the toured objects themselves (object-related authenticity). Wangs existential definition of authenticity deals with the activities or experience of the visitor, both objective and constructive definitions of authenticity focus more on objects, or the heritage tourism product that has been developed. Because the goal of this study is to better understand the role of authenticity in the pilgrimage tourism development process (creating objects or products for consumption), Wangs objective and constructive definitions of object-related authenticity are used as the basis for exploring stakeholder beliefs and opinions.
Table 1: Wangs Taxonomy of Three Types of Authenticity in Tourist Experiences Object-related Authenticity in Tourism Activity-Related Authenticity in Tourism
1. Object authenticity refers to the authenticity 2. Existential authenticity refers to a potential of originals. Correspondingly, authentic existential state of Being that is to be activated by experiences in tourism are equated to an tourism activities. Correspondingly, authentic epistemological experience (i.e., cognition) experiences in tourism are to achieve this activated of the authenticity of original. existential state of Being with in the liminal process of tourism. Existential authenticity can have nothing to do with the authenticity of toured objects. 3. Constructive authenticity refers to the objects by tourist or tourism producers in terms of their imagery, expectations, preferences, beliefs, powers, etc. There are various versions of authenticities regarding the same objects. Correspondingly, authentic experiences in tourism and the authenticity of toured objects are constitutive of one another. In this sense, the authenticity of toured object is in fact symbolic authenticity. Source: Wang, 1999: p. 352 Handler and Saxton (1988; Bruner, 1994; Wang 1999; in Belhassen et al., 2008) recognized that the term 'authenticity' has not been used consistently in the literature, suggesting that the various uses of the term can be found across studies and, at times, even within the same study (such heterogeneity is reflected for example in the following studies (Bruner 1989; Cohen 1988; Danie l1996; Eco1986; MacCannell 1973; Reisinger and Steiner 2006; Selwyn 1996). Through a genealogical meta-analysis, Wang (1999) maps out conceptual developments of the term over the last four decades, and concludes by suggesting a classification of the different theoretical approaches toward authenticity in tourism studies. Hypothetically, this originality can be measured with objective criteria that determine whether the object is authentic or not. This approach may be affiliated with the broader academic stream of objectivism and, to some extent, with post-positivism and empiricism, all of which presuppose the existence of authenticity as a quality that can be measured. However, this approach, as reflected in the writings of Boorstin (1964) and MacCannell (1976), does not specify how or by whom these criteria are established (Belhassen et al., 2008). The definitional content of authenticity is always located in a specific place, time or actor. Authenticity can be located by imagining boundaries not only in space, but also in time. Tourists may also locate authenticity in specific actors. This usually takes in two forms: The first distinguishes us from them, subject from object, observer from observed. However, the definition of the tourist him/herself as inauthentic is problematic. It may occur if the criteria
by which observers judge authenticity are considered applicable to themselves as well. An alternative means of locating authenticity in others involves drawing distinctions between authentic and inauthentic locals. Associated with modernity, commoditization is of the now. Moreover, it implies that the toured cultures are themselves oriented toward the tourist bearers of in authenticity. The strict boundary that distances the authentic then, there and them from the inauthentic here, now and we is thus blurred. But without this boundary, the concept of authenticity cannot stand. The reason for this lies in the way tourists attribute authenticity to the sights they observe. To restate the point made at the outset, authenticity is and must be constructed simultaneously with its opposite, which is only possible by positing the existence of the boundary dividing the two. The corollary to this assertion is that the impermeability of this boundary is crucial to the integrity of the concept (Kelner, 2001 p.7). Far from being content with inauthentic existence, MacCannell's tourists are on a modern day "quest" in search of authenticity. These tourists constantly attempt to go behind the "staged authenticity" of the surface in order to reach the "reality" that presumably lies there (MacCannell, 1976; in Redfoot, 1984 p. 292). There have been many reasons to travel to seek fortune in faraway lands, to seek religious experience in a pilgrimage, to seek the personal and national aggrandizement of colonial conquest, or to seek escape, in exile, from persecution. Stories of those who sought escape from the everyday reality of home are the stuff of great mythology. By stepping out of the reality of the familiar and the everyday life, these travellers have provided rich symbols of heroic confrontation with the unknown and the mysterious. While the actual experiences of these earlier travellers may have been less than heroic, they have been viewed metaphorically in heroic terms good, evil, or tragic (Redfoot, 1984 p.291). Alternatively, the constructivist approach takes a different track. This approach is affiliated with the larger academic thought of constructivism, which emphasizes symbolic meanings created through the process of socio-public discourses. Constructivists do not put as much stress on the originality of toured objects, and they reject the objectivist assumption of the binary nature of authenticity. Instead, they emphasize the pluralistic nature of the meaning-making process through which authenticity is established or recognized and assume that authenticity is projected on to an object by the influence of social discourses. Constructivists emphasize the heterogeneous ways that tourists perceive authenticity as well, which can be related to their personal interpretations of the definition of authenticity. Within the constructivist approach, authenticity is viewed as a projection of the tourists home culture, rather than as a reflection of an inherent quality of the toured object. In this way the constructivist approach opens ground for consideration of claims that bind authenticity with relations of power. Actually, constructivists view authenticity as a dynamic concept, in the sense that it can come to be attached to a toured place that was initially perceived as inauthentic. This attribute refers to the emergent nature of authenticity in the context of places that have come to be seen as authentic over the years (Belhassen et al., 2008 p.670). Belhassen et al. (2008) illustrated that the search for authentic experiences during the visits to the holy sites is shaped by three interrelated components: the theopolitical ideology underlying the pilgrimage, the places visited, and the activities under taken by the pilgrims.
One way to view the relationship between these three elements is to consider place, belief and action as the physical and social contexts through which individual pilgrims negotiate meaning regarding their touristic activities, and then to view this sense of meaning as the foundation that gives rise to experiences of existential authenticity. They referred to this relationship as theoplacity, bringing together the Greek theos (god) and the Medieval Latin placea (place), in order to capture the hybridity of its socio-religious and sociospatial foundations. To illustrate this concept visually, a graphic representation is offered as shown below. The religiously loaded relationship between Buddhists and Lumbini is an example of what geographer Yi-Fu Tuan (1974, 1977; in Belhassen et al., 2008 p. 684) calls 'geopiety'. If 'piety' is defined as one's desire to perform acts guided by one's religious world view, then 'geopiety' is a cognitive and emotional attachment to a sacred place that is based on one's faith or values. Belhassen et al. (2008 p. 684) believe that social construction help to shape not only the meaning of toured-objects for pilgrims but also the meaning of their own activities and experiences. Thus, pilgrims' experiences of existential authenticity are the result of socially constructed understanding about the places they are touring and the actions they are undertaking in those places, combined with their own direct, empirical encounters.
Figure 1 Theoplacity: A Conceptual Framework for the Study of Authenticity (Source: Belhassen et al., 2008).
Adopted from Goffman's notion of front and back region settings, MacCannell developed a framework by adding four more stages. These intermediate stages are sometimes grouped together and characterized as 'staged authenticity'. The tourism industry seeks to create even deeper forms of 'staged authenticity' by drawing tourists into more deviously contrived 'back stages'. These 'back stages' as MacCannell called them, are more 'insidious dangerous than a false front' (Xie, 2001 p.18). To return to Goffman's original front-back dichotomy, tourist setting can be arranged in a continuum starting from the front and ending at the back, reproducing the natural trajectory of an individual's initial entry into a social situation. While distinct empirical indicators of each stage may be somewhat difficult to discover. It is theoretically possible to distinguish six stages to this continuum (MacCannell, 1973 p. 597). Table 2 MacCannell's Six-Staged Authenticity Stage I Stage II Stage III Stage IV Stage V Stage VI Goffman's front region A front region but cosmetically decorated with reminders of back region activities A front region that is totally organized to look like a back region A highly modified back stage that is open to visitors A back stage that has been cleaned up or altered to accommodate occasional visitors Goffman's back region
Source: MacCannell, 1973: p. 597 Tourism to be a benign and possibly beneficial agent of change (McKean, 1976; Cohen 1979; in Kunwar 2002 p. 37), like all industries, is embedded within a complex of sociospatial processes that are historically, culturally, and locally dependent. It is also embedded in political processes, particularly in the case of the Haifa Gardens, and it is within these locally contingent systems that localities engage in a global competition for capital investment. As part of this competition, localities are engaged in the process of imagining, re-imagining, and marketing a shared local identity. The resulting place-craft that occurs at tourist sites and in their host localities suggests that the tourism industry is a complex system comprised of perceptions, expectations and experience (Gatrell & Reid, 2002; Petric & Mrnjavac, 2003; in Collins-Kreiner & Gatrell, 2006 p.33). Kunwar (2002 p.37) writes as far as tourist search is concerned, for Boorstin (1962), it is 'pseudo-events', for MacCannell (1976), it is 'staged authenticity' and for Turner (1973), it is 'center out there'. The key factor in the tourist search is nostalgia, which is closely related to authenticity. That nostalgia motivates and attracts tourists. However, it can also be taken as evidence of dissatisfaction with modern life and of the search for simpler or more morally uplifting qualities in other places, times or culture. Pilgrimage The word 'Pilgrimage' was derived from Latin word 'Peregrinus', i.e. stranger, which means visit to a sacred place. The devotees perceive spiritual enlightment from pilgrimage
(Gurung, 1998 p.32). Pilgrimage is the oldest concept or original art of traveling. Pilgrimage to the sacred and holy places such as Lumbini for Buddhists, Pashupatinath for Hindus, Jerusalem for Christians, and Mecca for Muslims induced modern tourism in the society (Ghimire, 2004 p.95). The devotees make pilgrimage to holy places to fulfill their wishes and get fruits. The early Buddhist pilgrims endured tremendous hardship, and some of them changed the course of history (Szostak, 2007). Pilgrimage can have very positive effects on communities and is one of the well-known phenomena in religion and culture and it exists in all the main religions of the world (Collins-Kreiner et al., 2006). Pilgrimage is not a new phenomenon for both Hindus and Buddhists. They were quite familiar with terms like tirthatan, paryatan, deshatan mentioned in Sanskrit texts (Kunwar, 2006). Pilgrimage, in this context, can be viewed as a performative act of religious belief, in which sacred sites play an important role (Belhassen et al., 2008 p. 674). Tour is an outer journey in geographical space to have pleasure; pilgrimage is an inner journey in the outer space from where immanent and transcendent together make a system complex. As human being we need both (Singh & Malville, 2011 p.13). The relationship between tourism and religion has focused primarily on the question of the similarity and difference between the tourist and the pilgrim. Yet, the dominant use of the terms (e.g. pilgrim as a religious traveler and tourist as a vacationer) is a socially constructed binary that veils (or obscures) individual motives. This binary is an unfortunate one in that the religious and secular spheres of tourism are rapidly merging as religious tourism assumes a more prominent market niche in the international tourism market place (Cohen, 1992, 1998; Collins-Kreiner & Kliot, 2000; Olsen & Timothy, 2006; Smith, 1992; Vukonic, 1996; in Collins-Kreiner & Gatrell, 2006 p.33). As per Belhassen (2009 p.133), Turner and Turner (1978) suggested three types of communitas characterize the pilgrim experience, namely existential, normative and ideological. The first is a generic communitas that occurs spontaneously as the pilgrims liberate themselves from the social control that governs their daily life (Eade & Sallnow, 2000; in Belhassen, 2009 p.133). The normative communitas refers to the institutional practices and rules that seek to create this sense of interrelatedness during visits to sacred sites. Eade and Sallnow, 2000, p.11; in Belhassen, 2009 p.133) suggests that this type of communitas can be therefore "related to the historical process of cult emergence, growth and decline as particular pilgrimages become routinised and institutionalized". Lastly, ideological communitas refers to the transformative desire expressed in some pilgrimages. According to the Turners, pilgrimages include a reformist component as they seek to portray an idealistic society or utopian humanity to which the pilgrims should aspire. The center is another important concept in the conceptualization of the pilgrim experience. It can be described as the spiritual destination to which the pilgrims travel Turner claims that pilgrims travel to religious centers that tend to be located in the periphery, outside of their original world. Like Turner, Eliade views pilgrimage as a religious tour toward a center. The pilgrimage tourism not a journey to a center located in the periphery, as suggested by Turner, but rather a journey toward the axismundi (i.e. the center of the world), which serves as the main motive for the pilgrims journey (Cohen, 1992; Eliade, 1961; Turner, 1973; in Belhassen, 2009 p.133).
San (2002 p.11) writes "For the majority of Buddhists, going on a pilgrimage to the holy places mentioned by the Buddha, is a once-a-lifetime undertaking. A pilgrimage is a journey to a sacred place as an act of devotion and faith. Barber (1993, p.1) defines pilgrimage as: "A journey resulting from religious causes, externally to a holy site, and internally for spiritual purposes and internal understanding". The holy shrines are conducive places for pilgrims to reflect on the virtues and practice mind-fulness to develop wisdom. These are various practices by which one can show veneration at the holy shrines in addition to the normal acts of devotion like the offering of flowers, lights, incense, and worship (puja). Indeed, one can develop the perfections and earn much merit when going on a pilgrimage. But it should not end when one has returned home. After the journey is over, one should always try to recollect the joyful moments spent at holy places to keep them vivid in ones memory. Such recollection is productive of joy and is a skillful means of re-enforcing ones good karma already acquired. In times of sickness, fear and worry, or sorrow, one can easily dispel these negative mental states by rejoicing in ones wholesome actions during the pilgrimage (San, 2002 p 13 & Ghimire, 2011 p.47). After the parinirvana of the Buddha, the relics of His body were collected from the funeral pyre and divided into eight parts. These were distributed to the claimants and stupas, were erected on the relics. The practice of pilgrimage in Buddhism probably started with visits to these places, and the purpose could be to achieve personal advantages such as rebirth in a good location, as well as to honour the great master. Thus the custom of pilgrimage has been widespread among Buddhist for many centuries. However, as per the history of pilgrimage as described in the Tripitika, there is no recognition of the duty or advantage of pilgrimage. As per a commentary to the Vinaya Sutra known as 'LungTreng-Tik' in Tibetan by the First Dalai Lama (1392-1474), the Buddha is said to have emphasized several times the importance of pilgrimage. "Bhikkhus, after my passing away, all sons and daughters who are of good family and are faithful should go to the four holy places and remember. There will be activities such as circumambulation of these places and reverence to them. New Bhikkhus who come and ask of the doctrine should be advised for pilgrimage which helps to purify their previously accumulated Karmas (actions)." A pilgrim is defined in the Dhammapada as one who has abandoned the world, and be a 'wanderer' free of worldly attachments by becoming a member of the Buddhist Sangha. However, the wandering of a monk is not completely aimless; it includes the visits to sacred shrines for religious merits. It also contributed to spread Buddhism (Buddhanet, 2010 & Ghimire, 2011 p.47). Authenticity of Lumbini A recent trend in research has been to recognize more fully the impact of the physical world on experiences and meaning about place (Belhassen et al., 2008 p.672). Tourism is fundamentally about the variation of the 'place' or destination. Clearly a region's physical element combines to define it as a 'place' and contribute to the attractiveness of a destination. Similarly, the importance of place as a means of differentiation: The geographical knowledge is based in the cultural meanings of places (Relph, 1996, Cook and Crang, 1996; in Kunwar, 2011 p.84). One of the unique forms of manifestation of a sacred site is its close association
with a particular holy person, or a deity (Bharati, 1970; in Singh & Malville, 2011 p.13). Lumbini is the 'birthplace' of the greatest, the brightest, and the light of peace and indeed the most illustrious son of Nepal (Guruge, 1998 p.26) where the newly born Prince Siddartha (latter distinguished as Lord Buddha) took his seven steps and uttered an epoch-making message to the suffering humanity nearly two thousand six hundred years ago. The grove of Lumbini had changed into a pilgrimage site soon after the parinirvana of the Lord Buddha. The importance of Lumbini is so great that the Buddha himself advised his followers to make pilgrimage in Lumbini. Lord Buddha explained the significance of Lumbini in the words: "Lumbini should be (visited) seen by person of devotion, and which would cause awareness and apprehension of the nature of impermanence.." because Lumbini is the foremost Buddhist pilgrimage site in relationship to the other sacred sites (Ghimire, 2011 p.46). Lord Buddha himself enshrined pilgrimage as an important act in the life of a practitioner. In answer to Venerable Anandas concern that the monks would no longer be able to see the Buddha and pay their respects after His Mahaparinirbana, Lord Buddha mentioned four places which a pious disciple should visit and look upon with feelings of reverence. They are: Lumbini: "Here the Tathagata was born! Buddhagaya: "Here the Tathagata became fully enlightened, in unsurpassed, Supreme Enlightenment! Sarnath: "Here the Tathagata set rolling the unexcelled Wheel of the Law! Kusinagara: "Here the Tathagata passed away into Nirvana. Further Lord Buddha said, "And whosoever, Ananda, should die on such a pilgrimage, with his heart established in faith, he at the breaking up of the body, after death, will be reborn in a realm of heavenly happiness." (Mahaparinirbana Sutra Chapter V in San, 2002 p 15, Ghimire, 2011 p.47). The authentic history of Lumbini, however, started with the pillar inscription of the famous Indian Maurya Emperor Ashoka (Rijal, 1979 p.12). Emperor Ashoka guided by his spiritual teacher Upagupta made a pilgrimage to this holy site in 249 B.C. The famous Chinese pilgrims Tseng Tsai (3rd Century), Fa-Hsien (5th century AD) and Hiuen-Tsang (7th century AD) visited Lumbini for the pilgrimage purpose. The visits of the Chinese travelers brought more records out about Lumbini and world knew about Lumbini. Hiuen Tsang's records are the most informative of all for he not only traveled to see Lumbini and other Buddhist sites, but he also maintained a detailed description of his travel. After an interregnum of about 600 years, another prominent visitor left a mark in Lumbini. Khasa King Ripu Malla from Sinja in far western Nepal paid a visit to the holy site. He engraved his name on the Asoka Pillar dated 1312 (saka era). UN Secretary General U Thant's pilgrimage to Lumbini in 1967 was taken as milestone in the history of Lumbini. After a prolonged slumber, Lumbini rose to the sacred site of devotees. Due to the efforts of General Khadga Shamsher Rana, the then Governor of Palpa, and Dr. A. Fuhrer, the Asokan Pillar was discovered on Dec. 1, 1896. Archaeologist P.C. Mukherjee conducted excavations in the area in 1899 and published the details in the form of book. Then after the Buddhists and peace lovers from the world began to be attracted to this holy and important
place. The idea of developing Lumbini as an important site originated during the 4th General Conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists held in Kathmandu, in 1956. Lumbini chronology: Authenticity and Events The historic events held in Lumbini reconfirmed and enhanced Lumbini's authenticity and status as the Fountain of World Peace and sacred pilgrimage shrine of the Buddhists and peace-loving people and a symbol of international brotherhood, peace and prosperity, and helped to project it as a World Peace City and important touristic destination in the world. The Lumbini chronology is as follows: 623 BC Birth of Gautam Buddha 249 BC Pilgrimage visit of Maurya Emperor Ashoka 3rd Century Pilgrimage visit of Chinese traveler Tseng Tsai 403 AD Pilgrimage visit of Fa-Hien (Fa-Xian) 636 AD Pilgrimage visit of Hiuen Tsang (Xuan Zang) 1312 Pilgrimage visit of Ripu Malla 1896 Excavation of Ashoka pillar by Khadga Shamsher and A. Fuhrer 1899 Excavation work by P.C. Mukherji 1930 Petition of Mahadan Upasak to Prime Minister for restoration work 1932-39 Excavation work by Kaishar Shamsher 1956 King Mahendra's proposal for development at the Fourth Assembly of World Federation of Buddhists 1967 Pilgrimage visit of U.N. Secretary General U Thant 1970 Formation of U.N. International Committee for Lumbini Development 1972 Formation of Nepal Tourism Master Plan, identified Lumbini as one of the important pilgrimage destination and responsibility given to Prof. Kenzo Tange for preparation of Lumbini Master Plan 1978 Completion of Lumbini Master Plan by Kenzo Tange, approved by HMG/ Nepal and UN 1985 Lumbini Development Committee changed to Lumbini Development Trust 1996 Excavation of marker stone at the Nativity site 1997 Lumbini included as a World Heritage Site 1998 1st World Buddhist Summit: Theme "Lumbini as Fountain of World Peace" and sacred pilgrimage shrine of the peace-loving people of the world 1998 "Visit Nepal Year 1998" helped to promote Lumbini in international market 2001 International Buddhist Conference: Theme "Lumbini in the New Millennium: The Role of Youth and the Community" 2003 Restoration of Maya Devi Temple- reconfirmed and enhanced the status of Lumbini in the international level as a touristic destination 2004 2nd World Buddhist Summit: Theme "Lumbini: A symbol of Unity in Diversitythe Fountain of World Peace" and declared Lumbini as "World Peace City" 2011 Nepal Tourism Year and Nepal government proposed Visit Lumbini Year 2012 2012 Nepal is celebrating Visit Lumbini Year
Tourism is the dynamic industries which contribute significantly in the national economy needs always new things, ideas, activities and attractions. Visit Lumbini 2012 could be the appropriate platform to publicize Lumbini and Nepal in the international market as well as create awareness among the domestic tourists. It is the slogan to develop Lumbini and attract more pilgrims and tourists from the international market and bring the momentum of tourism industry of Nepal. Lumbini holds almost similar position with Mecca. Millions of pilgrims and tourists visit Mecca; however, less than 100 thousands international tourists/pilgrims visit Lumbini every year. The government of Saudi Arab has given high priority to develop Mecca and every year Mecca is expanding its territory with wide roads, hotels, restaurants and other basic facilities needed for visitors. They have a plan, budget, enthusiasm and commitment to develop it and get benefited. It seems they are celebrating 'Visit Mecca' every year. On the other hand, nearly 35 per cent works have been completed in 35 years time of Lumbini Master Plan. How many years will it take to complete is unknown? Though Lumbini has been attended to a great extent, much still remains to be done in Lumbini itself. The Greater Lumbini Development is a broader concept to develop the historical sites in Lumbini, Kapilvastu and Nawalparasi associated with Buddha's life, from childhood to his younger days, in an integrated approach. The successful completion of this mega event (Visit Lumbini 2012) could add up the other dynamic programmes in the days to come to build up the Nepalese tourism as a whole. Authentic Products of Lumbini Lumbini is the hub for many authentic evidences and is abuzz with religious, archeological, historical and natural phenomenon. Major authentic products (atractions) are: Mayadevi temple: The heart of the site and the center of attraction of the pilgrims/ tourists visiting Lumbini is the Maya Devi Temple dedicated to Mayadevi, the mother of Lord Buddha. The holy site witnessed the construction of Maya Devi Temple known as heart of all monuments at this holy site. Emperor Asoka visited Lumbini for a pilgrimage purpose in 249 BC, erected a stone pillar, and built a temple. The reasons unknown, however, the Mayadevi temple disintegrated over the time. Lumbini was discovered in 1896 and Keshar Shumsher re-constructed the Maya Devi temple in late 1930's. The newly constructed Maya Devi Temple reopened on 16 May 2003. The ground floor consists of the remains of the foundations of the early Maya Devi Temple that dates back to 3rd century B.C to the century AD. The sanctum Sanctorum is the birth spot of the Lord Buddha. The upper floor consist an open meditation platform, on which stand a dome and the gold plated shrine pinnacle. Nativity sculpture: A burnt-brick structure that later became famous by the name of Maya Devi Temple which is the stone sculpture, known as the Nativity Sculpture. It was installed in the temple in the 4th century AD. The image shows Maya Devi, mother of the Lord Buddha, supporting herself by holding the branch of a tree with her right hand. Next to her Gautami Prajaprati, her own sister, in supporting posture in the time of delivery is standing. The newly born Gautam is standing upright on a lotus pedestal. Two other celestial figures are seen in an act of pouring water. The far right figure shows the figure of Brahma
and Indra, wearing conical crowns, standing in devotion before the queen to receive the divine child, as narrated by Buddhist literature. Lotus flowers are also seen being scattered from heaven. Asokan Pillar: This is one of the most important monuments, the first epigraphic evidence relating to the life history of Lord Buddha and an authentic historic document of Lumbini. The pillar is standing even today and bearing a very well preserved inscription is made out of the sedimentary rock and sand stone and having three parts viz. cylindrical pillar, the bracket figure and crowning part. The total height of the pillar is 30'10.5" of which 13'8.5" is buried underground and remained erect in place for more than 2600 years. The pillar bears an inscription stating "Hida Jate Sakyamuni" means Sakyamuni Buddha was born there. The inscription engraved by Emperor Asoka is still intact and testifies the authenticity of the birthplace. The text written in Brahmi script and Pali language is translated as follows: Twenty years after his coronation, King Priyadarsi, Beloved of Gods visited this spot in person and offered worship at this place, because the Buddha the sage of the Sakyas, was born here. He caused to be built a stonewall around the place and also erected this stone pillar to commemorate his visit. Because the Lord Buddha was born here. He made the village of Lumbini free from taxes and subject to pay only one-eight of the produce as land revenue instead of the usual rate. Puskarini holy pond: The famous and most sacred pond known as Puskarini lies on the southern side of Maya Devi Temple and Asokan Pillar. It is believed that Maya Devi took a holy dip just before giving the birth to the Lord Buddha and also where the infant Buddha was given his first purificatory bath. The devotees feel proud and purified from evil effects in the life by washing their face in the pond and some of them take water (jala) with them. It is also known that there are two wells with hot water and cold water for supplying water in the pond, terraced steps and is riveted by beautifully layered bricks in 1933-39. Marker stone: The single most important spot at Lumbini (and to the entire Buddhist world for that matter) is the Marker stone (stone slab-conglomerate) located deep in the Sanctum Sanctorum. It is revealed after a hard and meticulous excavation under the three layers of ruins on the site of Maya Devi Temple in 1996, the stone slab foundation pinpoints the precise location of the original place, making the exact spot of the birthplace of Lord Buddha. The marker stone 70x40x10 cms is now preserved with a covering of bulletproof glass. Other structural remains: The brick masonry foundations, known as the group of stupas and vihars, built in the period of Mauryan, Gupta and Kushana (between the 3rd century BC and 2nd century AD), which are evidence of the early devotees desire to be near to the sacred birthplace. The Sacred garden: The Sacred Garden is the focal point of the Lumbini including several historical, archaeological monuments around the Maya Devi shrine. Its peaceful, sacred look preserved and restored to it legendary beauty can function as a magnet to attract more pilgrims and tourists. This is the southern part of the Lumbini Master Plan and the plan gave high priority for the preservation of the sacred garden and enclosing it by
the circular ponds and circular levee. Its form, consisting of a circle enclosing a square, embodies the mystic symbol of the universe in its purity and simplicity. The square area is formed with a network of raised walkways between the landscaped area and the archaeological remains. A beautiful garden and the circular levee with a large water body is the new attraction in this shrine complex. The Central Canal: The Central Canal is the link between the Sacred Garden in the south and the New Lumbini Village in the north of Lumbini Master Plan area. It also divides the Monastic Zone into two enclaves. The purpose of the Central Canal is serve as a means of water transport from friendship bridge to the eternal peace flame, add beauty to the area and be a habitat for aquatic plants and namials. It is 1.5 km long and 16m wide. The pedestrian path and flower belt will lie parallel to the canal. The Eternal flame (Shantideep): It is the eternal peace flame in Lumbini which is burning as a symbol of world peace. The Monastic Zone: It is the middle section of the Master Plan. The green zone and the central canal separate the two sections east and west monastic zones set aside for the two major sects of Buddhism- Theravada and Mahayana. There are 42 plots allocated for the construction of the monasteries. The Lumbini museum: The cultural zone consist Lumbini museum. The museum houses artifacts collected from the site during the excavation in the sacred complex and the areas nearby. It consist ancient coins, religious manuscripts, terra-cotta fragments, paintings, beads, fragments of the horse capital of the Asoka Pillar, stone and metal sculptures, dresses of different Buddhist sects and replicas of marry images. They are related to the life of Lord Buddha and the history of Lumbini. The building has a moderate seminar hall, large ground floor for display of the objects, office and lab. Likewise, Lumbini is the center of various other activities. There are about 200 blue bulls and 250 bird species with Crane Sanctuary and a Wetland Garden. As Buddha was associated with water and forest from his birth onwards, the master plan has given high priority for the conservation and development of natural environment in Lumbini. Lumbini Village Tour is another attraction of Lumbini. Visitors can enjoy and see their authentic traditional costumes, a way of life and culture, and the traditional farming practices of Terai people. The popular village tours are: a. Ekala Village Tour b. Khudabagar Village Tour c. Tenuhawa Village Tour d. Lumbini Adarsha Village Tour e. Madhuni Village Tour Buddhist Monasteries in Lumbini The central canal 1.6 km divides the Monastic Zone into two enclaves such as East Monastic Zone and West Monastic Zone. The East Monastic Zone is for the construction of monasteries belonging to the Theravada sect and West Monastic Zone for Mahayana sect of Buddhism. There are 42 plots (13 east and 29 west) allocated for the construction of monasteries in Lumbini.
Monasteries in the East Enclave 1. The Royal Thai Monastery, Thailand 2. Mahabodhi Society Vihara, India 3. Cambodian Monastery, Cambodia 4. Myanmar Golden Monastery, Myanmar 5. International Gautami Nuns Temple, Nepal 6. Sri Lankan Monastery, Sri Lanka 7. Dhamma Janani Vipassana Centre Monasteries in the West Enclave 1. The Great Lotus Stupa, Germany 2. Laddakh Meditation Centre 3. The World Linh Son Buddhist Congregation, France 4. Vietnam Phat Quoc Tu, Vietnam 5. Geden International Monastery, Austria 6. Chinese Monastery, China 7. Mahabodhi Society Monastery, Korea 8. Manang Sewa Samaj Monastery, Nepal 9. Drubgyud Choeling Monastery, Nepal 10. Panditarama Lumbini International Meditation Centre, Myanmar 11. Karma Sheling Monastery, Nepal 12. Swayambhu Mahavihara, Nepal 13. Karma Lekshey Ling Institute, Nepal 14. United Tungaram Monastery, Nepal 15. Sokyo Monastery, Japan Monasteries in Sacred Zone 1. Dharmaswami Maharaja Buddha Vihara, Nepal 2. Rajkiya Buddha Vihara, Nepal Other Important Buddhists Sites around Lumbini Besides Lumbini, there are many sites associated with the life of Lord Buddha. They have their own importance regarding authenticity, pilgrimage, sightseeing, historical and archaeological aspects. Tilaurakot: It is the ancient Kapilvastu, the kingdom of Shakyas where Buddha spent his earlier 29 years of life. It is 27Km west of Lumbini, 3 Km. from Taulihawa town in Kapilvastu District. A joint effort of Nepalese and Japanese archeologists recovered the royal town of Tilaurakot, the elaborate gateway in the western side, the twin stupa of the Buddhas parents, King Sodhodhans palace in and around the Tilaurakot mound. Historically, Kapilvastu was named after Saint Kapil. Buddha visited Kapilvastu several times during his life. The first nunnery, in the Buddhist history, was also established in Kapilvastu. The most interesting things to note in the historic ruins are the earth rampart, the
brick fortification, the ancient habitation, exposed plus the thirteen layers of human depositions dated from 8 th BC and 2-3 AD. The Kapilvastu Museum exhibits the coins, pottery and toys (dating back to 7th century BC and 4th century AD) with a good collection of jewelry and other ornaments. The terracotta figures and plaques recovered at Tilaurakot belonged to the preMauryan, Mauryan, Sunga and the Kushana periods. Both the pilgrims Fa-Hien and HiuenTsang noted that they saw Kapilvastu in complete ruins and counted 10 deserted cities within Kapilvastu. It is said to have been destroyed by king Virudhaka who massacred the Shakyas during the last days of Lord Buddha. Niglihawa: It is a significant archaeological and pilgrimage site situated about 7 Km. north of Taulihawa. There is a large pond known as Niglisagar and broken Asokan Pillar. It is believed that Niglihawa is the natal town of Kanakmuni Buddha where he enlighted and met his father. Historically, the Emperor Asoka visited during his pilgrimage, built a stupa and set up a pillar. Renowned archaeologist Dr. A. Fuhrer discovered this pillar in 1895. The 15 feet tall upper portion of the pillar bears inscription. The Asoka pillar attests the fact that Emperor Asoka enlarged the stupa enshrining the relics of the Kanakmuni Buddha. Chinese pilgrims, Fa-Hien and Hiuen-Tsang described the Kanakmini stupa and Asoka Pillar in their travel account. Sagarhawa: It is the forest site where the ruins of an ancient pond were excavated in 1895. Archeologists have identified this site as the "Place of Massacre of the Shakyas". The ruins of the ancient site are lying on the west and south banks of the huge rectangular pond, locally known as Lumbu Sagar or long pond in Niglihawa village. It is about 12 Km. north of Taulihawa. Araurakot: It is the large rectangular fotified area with the remains of ancient moat and brick fortification lies nrarby Niglihawa. It is used to be a walled forest in ancient times. This citadel was believed to be the natal town of Kanakmuni Buddha, lying to the east of Niglihawa, and about 10Km. northeast of Taulihawa. Kudan: It is situated about 4.5 km south of Tilaurakot in the village of Kukan, where King Suddhodan met Lord Buddha first time after returning from enlightenment. It is a huge mould of structural ruins and a pond near by appears to be the wreckage of stupas and monasteries, believed to be the Kasaya stupa, where a kasaya (yellow-robe) was presented to Lord Buddha. Kudan is also Kshemavati, the birthplace of historic Krakuchanda Buddha. Gotihawa: It is an important historic, archeological as well as a very important religious site of the Buddhist world, located about 5km southeast of Taulihawa. It is believed that Krakuchanda Buddha, who came before Sakayamuni Buddha was born and attained nirvana in Gotihawa. The area outside Gothihawa village is covered with ancient potteries, brick structure of stupas and monasteries. At the center of the main mould lies remains of broken Asokan pillar standing on a slab. Adjoining the pillar on the northeast side is a huge stupa with a ring of wedge shaped ancient bricks, identifying the Nirvana stupa of Krakachunda Buddha. An ancient well lying in the center of the village is still being used by the villagers. The site is believed to be developed in 6 century BC. The first phase of the stupa is made of rectangular and wedge-shaped bricks containing a large amount of rice husk, straw and vegetation (dating back to the 3 rd century BC). The bricks are ill baked
and few of them bear marks of crosses within circles internally barred. The second period is marked by the supplement of two more rings and a new Pradaksina Path at a higher level than the earlier. New rings are made of rectangular bricks only. It is conjectured that the enlargement of the stupa was carried out in Saka and Kushana time (end of 1st century BC to the 2-3 century AD). Devdaha: It is the ancient capital of the Koliya Kingdom, located 54 Km. east of Lumbini, across the Rohini River in Rupandehi District. It is the maternal hometown of Queen Mayadevi (mother), Prajapati Gautami (step mother), Princess Yashodhara (consort) of Lord Buddha, where Prince Siddhartha had spent his childhood. After seven years of his enlightenment, Lord Buddha had visited Devdaha and ordained the flowers of Jain Sadhu Nirgrantha Nathputra. There are several other sites Kumarbarti, Khayardanda, Bairimai/Kanyamai, Bhabanipur/ Devidarma, Mathagadi (ancient weapons) around Devdaha. Ramgrama: It is the brick mound on the bank of the Jharahi River. It is seen meter high brick stupa consisting of relic (one of the eight astha dhatu) of Lord Buddha. The stupa was built by the king of Ramagram, who was the eighth king to obtain the Buddhas relics. History has noted that Emperor Asoka to open it to multiply into eighty four thousand stupa. However, the Dragon King of Ramgrama stupa did not permit. Lumbini as Global Pilgrimage Tourism Destination Pilgrimage sites are visited to acknowledge religious history. Pilgrims visit Lumbini to reduce mental tension and gain peace. Usually, tourists travel to see the places and experience but in pilgrimage process pilgrims get wisdom and knowledge. That is why pilgrimage is a part of a Buddhist life. Lumbini is a very important place which is not only the Birthplace of Lord Buddha; it is like a diamond and should be marketed internationally. Nepal can not compete with developed countries in economy, infrastructures and industry but other countries can rarely compete with Nepal's Lumbini, the source of peace. Now, the world is full of war, racism, conflicts, and killings. Buddhism, wisdom and peace are originated from Lumbini and spread in the world. Lumbini is the common destination for all, free from religion, race, sex, and discrimination. Pilgrims visit pilgrimage sites for wisdom and purification, and believe that it is the way to Buddhist paradise after death. There is no compulsion for pilgrimage but it could be one of the ways to attain nirvana (liberation). It could be also a peace-tourism destination. Lumbini should be developed not only physically but also spiritually. Great heritage sites are a place of attraction for everybody irrespective of their personal religious faith. It is therefore logical and relevant that Lumbini is a place of reverence for entire peace-loving people as well as historical and archeological interest groups of people. Today, Lumbini can be considered as a synonym of world peace center and a top class pilgrimage destination in the world. Lumbini is one of the most important and the greatest holy site for the Buddhists. Buddhists from the world as well as domestic ones feel proud and satisfaction, fulfillment of the life while visiting Lumbini which is equally popular among non Buddhist visitors in the world (Ghimire, 2011 p.47). From both heritage and tourism point of view, Lumbini is different from many other heritage sites. Lumbini, one of the most important Buddhist sites in the world is surrounded by a non-Buddhist population, which is major impediment for the conservation and management of its heritage. This complexity
of heritage complicates community involvement, a major paradigm of heritage conservation and development (Neupane, 2009 p.157). Heritage is often a political resource for creating nationalism, justifying political power and gaining international support for political causes. Lumbini is unique because locals, particularly Muslims, do not own the heritage and do not have a personal attachment to it (ibid., p.161). Lumbini Master Plan (1978) is an ambitious and integrated plan for conservation and development without alteration of authenticity of history, geography, architecture, philosophy, culture and tradition of Lumbini. It is the nervous system for the development of Lumbini. The conservation and development of Lumbini definitely project Lumbini nationally and internationally. The total area covered by Lumbini Master Plan is 3 square miles (2.56 sq. Km.) which is three miles north-south and one mile east-west. Further, Lumbini is divided into three zones (1 sq. miles each) viz. Sacred Garden Zone, Monastic Zone and New Lumbini Village. The plan is the combination of art, architecture, Buddhist philosophy and imagination. Concrete establishments are prohibited in and around the Sacred Garden Zone for retaining its natural atmosphere, an ambiance where mankind can attain world peace. The sacred garden, shelters and the ancient monuments at the centre in a recently renovated atmosphere of serene and lush forest all around the Lumbini complex. Furthermore, Monastic zone is situated in the centre within the forest area, north of the sacred garden which is divided into two halves East and West Monastic Zone. The northern part of the site is being developed for New Lumbini Village, which is also a gateway to the outer world where visitors can find comfortable lodges, restaurants, a crane sanctuary and a Peace Pagoda. Tourist Typology The tourist typology as a concept was first developed by Cohen (1972), Plog (1974), Smith (1977), Cohen (1979), The American Express (1989), Urry (1990), Poon (1993), Horner and Swarbrook (2007). This typology helps for tourism marketing on one side and impact assessment on the other. The use of heritage by Buddhist pilgrims and non-pilgrims is quite different. (Buddhist) Pilgrims tend to meditate at the site, visit monuments and temples to worship where as non-Buddhist tourists are interested in history, monuments, archaeology and the over all beauty of the location (Neupane, 2009 p.166) who could be typologically termed as general dabblers (Glyptis, 1989, 1991; in Hinch and Higham, 2006 p.34; Stebbins, 1996, 1997a; in Prentice, 2006 p.170.), sacred specialists (whose propose of visit is pure religiousthe monks and Lamas) and spiritual sojouner (The householder Buddhists and Hindu pilgrims). The students of different disciplines are knowledge seeker who occasionally visit in group for education purpose. Therefore, they could be called as secular tourists. Lumbini, Kapilvastu, Devdaha, Ramgram and other sites are the living laboratories for those who take keen interest about the authenticity of Buddhist civilisation. Tourist arrivals in Lumbini Tourist arrivals in Lumbini has been fluctuated and affected by several reasons. Because of the mega events (First World Buddhist Summit and Visit Nepal Year) in 1998, there is slightly increment in tourist arrivals. However, there was heavy decline in the number of
tourists in the year 2002 because of the peace and security situation of the country, incompletion of the Maya Devi Temple and other national and international incidents. There is positive growth in tourist arrivals after 2003 because of the completion and restoration of the Maya Devi Temple, Second World Buddhist Summit, peace process in the country and completion of around 40 percent of Lumbini Master Plan.
Table 3: International Tourist Arrivals in Lumbini Year Number of tourist Growth rate % 1991 12016 1992 15197 26.5 1993 19439 27.9 1994 20972 7.9 1995 20023 -4.5 1996 25400 26.9 1997 23280 -8.3 1998 22119 -5.0 1999 10715 -51.6 2000 14135 31.9 2001 10135 -28.3 2002 9036 -10.8 2003 28053 210.5 2004 37892 35.1 2005 39792 5.0 2006 49595 24.6 2007 71053 43.3 2008 82075 15.5 2009 82445 0.5 2010 99508 20.7 2011 128259 28.9 Source: LDT, 2012 (Indian and domestic tourists/pilgrims are not included) Index 100 126 162 175 167 211 194 184 89 118 84 75 233 315 331 413 591 683 686 828 1067
An attempt was made to explore the visiting patterns of tourists/pilgrims in Lumbini. The trend line has been significant for polynomial of degree four with R2 value 0.956. y = -6.5073x4 + 305.45x3 - 4307.4x2 + 21336x - 9827.4 R2 = 0.956
Figure 2 Trend of International Tourist Arrivals in Lumbini Further, an attempt was made to compare the monthly domestic tourist travel in Lumbini. The data shows that there is high fluctuation in monthly data. Months such as November, December, March and April are high seasons where as May through September are off seasons to Nepalese tourists in Lumbini. Table 4: Monthly Travel Trend of Nepalese Tourists/pilgrims in Lumbini
Year Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Total 2010 39411 35418 50419 35372 24112 19830 14455 15658 12371 36485 74954 67765 426250 2011 45376 27531 23490 58006 16666 20057 13107 14475 13352 34538 78247 50725 395570
Source: LDT, 2012 The following figure shows that there is almost similar travel pattern in 2010 and 2011 except on March, April and December. Seasonality has been one of the important problems in Lumbini as the summer especially July, August and September are very hot, humid and rainy months in Lumbini. Tourists with other than pilgrimage purpose usually do not visit in those months. However, larger number of Buddhists pilgrims from Sri Lanka, India, China and Korea visit Lumbini in those months as shown in Table 5. Priority should be given to the regional and domestic tourism to draw more pilgrims/tourists in those months. Maintaining greenery and air-conditioned smokeless vehicles in and around Lumbini can attract more tourists.
Figure 3 Comparisons of Monthly Nepalese Tourist Arrivals in Lumbini Table 5 Monthly International Tourist Arrivals form different countries in Lumbini Country India China Korea Thailand Sri Lanka Other countries Total Jan 2827 564 1568 2725 80 Feb 3478 1032 798 4852 7089 Mar 4737 840 829 4981 7790 April 3753 660 230 984 733 May 8386 235 76 202 285 June 4889 192 86 221 58 July 2691 391 148 356 777 Aug 2683 582 168 181 14732 Sept 3467 713 177 180 5646 Oct 5949 583 446 2942 6387 Nov 12778 1072 1093 4722 8078 Dec 8071 2097 459 4036 1036
2676 3941 5345 3059 1087 563 1209 1204 1199 4534 5035 4295 10440 21190 24522 9419 10271 6009 5572 19550 11382 20841 3277819994
Further, the data also shows that majority of the tourist visit Lumbini in a group. Maximum 198 groups of tourists more than 40 in a group of Sri Lankan visited Lumbini in 2008. However larger group from Sri Lanka make very short visit in Lumbini. Usually they do not stay in Lumbini and go back to India for night stay. Likewise, the larger group visiting Lumbini from Thailand, Taiwan, Japan, and Korea also used to come via India and go back to India for night stay. However, Nepal is counting them as tourists and their stay period as one day even they do not stay in Nepal. If Nepal can stop them at least for one day it will have great impact in economy and employment. The concerned stakeholders need to address it immediately. On the basis of the field reconnaissance, local information and the statistical data available, the Lumbini Master Plan has estimated 89,700 tourist arrivals in 1985 where as real tourist arrival for that year was only 5059 in Lumbini. Likewise tourist arrivals in 2009 are 82445 which is less than the estimated tourist arrivals by Master Plan for the year 1985.
Number of Visits in Lumbini While trying to find out the frequency of visits made by visitors in Lumbini, it was expressed that the majority of respondents (70%) visited first time and (11.5%) visited second time. The following table shows that (2.4%) of respondents visited Lumbini more than 30 times. Likewise, 30.0% of the respondents repeated their visits in Lumbini; it indicates that it has potentiality to attract the pilgrims/tourists for repeated visits. Table 6: Number of Visit in Lumbini Number of visit 1 2 3 4 5 6 10-20 More than 30 times Total Source: Field survey Number of tourist 91 15 5 7 2 2 5 3 130 Percent 70.0 11.5 3.8 5.4 1.5 1.5 3.9 2.4 100.0
Interest to Visit Lumbini The respondents were asked to give their opinion by multiple responses. The survey results shows that out of 337 respondents who have given multiple interests among 8 different interests, (72.3%) were interested to observe the birth place of Lord Buddha where as (63.8%) visited to worship Lord Buddha. Likewise, (34.6%) were to visit monasteries followed by (33.1%) to study about Buddhism, (24.6%) for meditation, (21.5%) to enjoy the nature's creation in Lumbini where as (6.2%) visited Lumbini to buy souvenirs. The remaining (1.2%) out of total respondents visited to know about Lumbini. Table 7: Multiple Responses of Interest to Visit Lumbini Category To observe the birth place of lord Buddha For the meditation in Lumbini To study about Buddhism To worship Lord Buddha To buy souvenirs To visit monasteries To enjoy the nature's creation in Lumbini Others (to Know Lumbini) Total Source: Field survey Responses N 94 32 43 83 8 45 28 4 337 Percent of Cases Percent 27.90% 9.50% 12.80% 24.60% 2.40% 13.40% 8.30% 1.20% 100.00% 72.30% 24.60% 33.10% 63.80% 6.20% 34.60% 21.50% 3.10%
As far as the pilgrimage activities undertaken in Lumbini is concerned, the spiritual sojourners no matter whether they are Buddhists or Hindus, they first visit the Maya Devi temple first, worship to the Nativity Sculpture, prostrate, offer incense (dhoop) and butter lamp, circumambulate the temple and take snaps. Some of them seem to be interested to take holy water from the Puskarni Pond, mud and leaves of peepal tree with them as a gift/ souvenir/ Prasad (offerings) from Lumbini. Likewise, the general dabbler just go around, observe and take snaps and they then may proceed their journey to the other places for their intertainment and satisfaction. However, the sacred specialists not only visit the site (Maya Devi temple) but also undergo with various religious rituals according to their religious sects. They also visit international monasteries, Peace Stupa and other sites around Lumbini as availability of their time and resources. Special Remarks made by the Tourists/pilgrims visiting in Lumbini An attempt was made to know the special remarks of the tourists/pilgrims visiting Lumbini. Some of the remarks are as follows: Thailand is Buddhist country. The king of Thailand is Buddhist. Lumbini is the most important destination. We respect Lumbini. It should be developed as an international destination. I think everybody should visit Lumbini at least once. The development works in Lumbini are satisfactory (President of Culture and Religion-Thailand. There were seven parliament members also in the trip). It is better than previous visit. For disables and elder ones wheel chairs or any kind of transportation system is to be developed. Lumbini is being commercialized (Ms. Karuna Rajput of Sri Lanka who visited Lumbini 31 times). The most amazing place I've seen is the Tibetan monastery. It is the most peaceful place I've ever seen. The best place for personal retreat. I will be back again (Maria Galligani -Italy). I hope development continues in Lumbini to make it a more attractive destination for tourists without spoiling its peaceful atmosphere (Alex Godfrey -England). Lack of reliable information centers. Taxi drivers and other brokers are manipulating to the tourists and try to cheat. One should be able to hire own bicycle so that they can visit monasteries and country sides (Mathew Pasion - USA). Explanation of Buddhism, Buddhist environment around Maya Devi Temple is needed. Some rest places are to be constructed on the way to Maya Devi Temple from monasteries. Establish smokeless transportation system inside the Lumbini area (Giles Pruce - Ireland). Don't charge to enter the temple for Buddhists. As it is very important place, very good security system is to be managed. Have enough sign boards and provide more information. Budget class hotels are needed (Mr. H.S. Caldera- Sri Lanka). Nepalese government had looked after very well for Lumbini. It is better than last visit. Lumbini is respectable place. Why you are charging? More income can be generated from other types of tourism activities (Sampat- Sri Lanka). The traveling from Bhairahawa to Lumbini was on the roof in public bus. It was very
crowded and slow (Tomasz Tutan- Poland). Better information, better transport to/from airport. Information offices are needed. Site map with short explanation, guide map of hotels and lodges, lack of proper sign board at airport, no information about bus service, only taxi drivers waiting (Gerwot Satouitsch Austria) Inconvenient, unsuitable for baggage, Language difficulties in the transportation from Bhairahawa to Lumbini. Charging for entrance is against Buddhist ethos. Put donation box. "Buddhism = Tolerance and acceptance of others". Therefore the emphasis should be on international Buddhism to break down national barriers in accordance with the teachings of Lord Buddha (Philip Waslin- Britain). Difficult to see Marker stone and Nativity sculpture. Make stairs case down to marker stone and up to Nativity sculpture. Make the roof like a dome so that it would be easier to worship and take photos. The space is very narrow and congested to see and pray ingroup inside the Maya Devi Temple. Lumbini was famous for flowers and garden, manage it properly ( Masataka ueki - Japan). It is very very hot. The different monasteries should be constructed at a same place so that no need of traveling here and there (Chan Shiek - Malaysia). Very peaceful and atmospheric, but perhaps more could be made of what is a site of great significance. Faster buses are needed from Bhairahawa to Lumbini (Paul RushtonUK). In Japan, we celebrate Buddha's birth day as "flowers day". Manage good plantation of flowers and trees properly (Mori Kaishin- Japan). I had a special and meaningful time here in Lumbini and I hope to return some day (Lindsay Gaffner, USA)
Buddhist Circuit in and around Lumbini Lumbini is the centre point for the Buddhist circuits. The Buddhist Circuit Tour focuses on life of Buddha. While it is a pilgrimage tour in one hand, in the other hand it displays the great archeological triumph of mankind. There are 62 archeological sites in Rupandehi, Kapilvastu and Nawalparasi exhibiting different event's in Buddha's life. The Buddhist Circuit Tour is a visual aid to Buddha's life and development of Buddhism. Those sites in and around Lumbini are to see, experience, worship and pay homage to Lord Buddha. Buddhists pilgrims can experience following circuits. Sites in Lumbini-Sacred garden, Maya Devi Temple, Monasteries and Peace stupa in Lumbini Sites in Lumbini and around- Lumbini, Tilaurakot, Kudan, Gotihawa, Niglihawa, Sagarhawa, Kudan and Ramagrama Sites in Lumbini and other parts of Nepal- Lumbini and around, Kathmandu (Swayambhunath, Bouddhanath), Namo Buddha, Muktinath Sites in Nepal and India- Lumbini, Boddhagaya, Sarnath, Kushinagar
Figure 4 Buddhist Circuit in and Around Lumbini Hotel Accommodation in Lumbini There are budget hotels, lodges and modern star hotels in and around Lumbini. The vicinity of Lumbini has been extremely urbanizing and developing. The rapid growth in tourist standard hotels and guest houses, souvenir shops can be seen. The existing different class hotels and guest houses can easily accommodate present number of tourists. The available data shows that the accommodation capacity of Lumbini is more than 1500 tourist standard beds. The research has shown that about 30% tourists stay in Lumbini. The current accommodation capacity is sufficient in Lumbini. Bhairahawa (Siddarthanager) is also the desired accommodation site for the tourists. There are more than 15 tourist standard hotels with more than 700 beds in Bhairahawa. Majority of the tourists visiting Lumbini via India go back to India on same day. They don't stay in Lumbini or Bhairahawa. Mostly, tourists/pilgrims are manipulated by Indian tourist guides to go back and hotels in India are cheaper in comparison to Lumbini and Bhairahawa. The pilgrims prefer budget class accommodation. Capacity enhancement In order to improve tourism, local capacity needs to be enhanced in several areas, since the local communities role in enhancing the attractiveness of the holy site is meaningful. Increasingly local people are getting involved with the tourism activities in Lumbini. They are participating in the establishment of middle class hotels and guesthouses and by becoming professional tour guides, rickshaw drivers, and shopkeepers selling traditional products etc. Local people need training in income generating activities, co-operative management, souvenir production, tourists guiding, lodge management, food hygiene and production. All hotels in Lumbini provide vehicle services, local guides, cultural programmes and village bicycling trips, thus mobilizing and providing opportunities to the locals. Different organizations have been providing various trainings and support to the local people and tourism entrepreneurs in and around Lumbini, including providing funds for the production of handicrafts, as well as searching for a way to export their products to the international market (Ghimire, 2006 p.105).
Conflicts and Positive Reinforcement Kunwar (2012 p.65) writes, the tourism sector is highly sensitive to the effects of conflict in its immediate and wider environment. It may be labour disputes, conflicts in the community, socio-political tensions in society or the case of a road accident in a neighboring district even issues that seem to be completely unrelated can have devastating effects on tourism business. Lumbini has been a matter of discussion for various aspects. During excavation conducted by the Japanese Buddhist Federation in 1990s, international agencies could not agree when the Maya Devi Temple was removed, along with the ficus tree that grew on the temple. The purpose of excavation was to search the marker stone. The cultural integrity of the new Maya Devi temple built after the excavation was questioned by UNESCO because the edifice was too massive and invasive and did not reflect World Heritage values (Boccardi & Gupta, 2005; in Neupane, 2009 p.164). This is one example of resulting conflicts between different organizations over issues at Lumbini (Neupane, 2009 p. 164). Dissonance is a multifaceted phenomenon and it can be used as an opportunity to bring harmony and balance, and to repair and stop the damage (Auerbach, 1986; in Neupane, 2009). As 'religious proximity' suggests (Uriely etal.; in Neupane, 2009), within the two dominant religions around Lumbini, Hindus feel spiritually close as they also worship Buddha as one of the incarnations of Lord Vishnu, a Hindu god and are interested in preserving the heritage, where as Muslims are indifferent (Neupane, 2009 p.169). Great Heritage sites are places of attraction for everybody, irrespective of personal religious faith. It is therefore logical that Lumbini, which is symbolically related to peace and harmony (Ghimire, 2006 p.107). If Nepal wants to develop Lumbini and get benefits from it, the first thing is not to drag it into political and ideological controversy. Lumbini's development could, therefore, associated with the promotion of human virtues of love and peace. It has great potentiality and could contribute significantly in economy and employment, peace process and development of universal brotherhood. There could be debate on Lumbini as a pilgrimage site, or an international tourist destination, or could be both. Likewise, could Lumbini be as an archeological site where very limited visitors could visit. For broader sense, Lumbini, as mentioned above, could be a peace-tourism destination for all in the world. As Lumbini has been declared as fountain of world peace, world peace city and an international pilgrimage destination, it should be developed accordingly. Despite its importance, Lumbini and sites around it are backward and are unable to draw attention of pilgrims and tourists (Ghimire, 2011 p.50). Locals who scarified their land and houses gave to the government for developing Lumbini as an international destination seeking more ownership on it. However, they are seemed to neglected, involved only in low paying job positions. Most of the tourists standard hotels are owned by the peoples who are not locals and the major benefits from tourism go to them. The conflict between the locals, political and religious groups, and stakeholders can be solved by positive reinforcement, dialogue and involvement of locals in decision making process. The holy Lumbini not only belongs to Nepal and Buddhists people; it is a very important pilgrimage and world heritage site for peace loving global people in the world. The sense of belongingness, therefore, is essential for the faster and smoother development of the complex and the region. Pilgrimage network could be one of the important approaches to get higher benefits spiritually and economically from tourism in Lumbini. It helps to attract more pilgrims and increase the length of stay so
that it could contribute significantly in economy and employment. The network could be developed among sites around Lumbini, Lumbini and other sites in Nepal, sites in Nepal and India, and many more. Recently, Asia Pacific Exchange Cooperation Buddhist Foundation has proposed to the both governments of Nepal and India to bring Buddhist pilgrims as tourists to Lumbini-Nepal for three days and four days at Buddhist sites of India (The Annapurna Post, September 17, 2012). Likewise, Korean International Cooperation Agency (KOICA) has also decided to lunch some development programs in seven Buddhist sites of eleven village Development Committee for empowering to the local people for the development of Lumbini. (Gorkhapatra, 27 September, 2012). Peace psychologists see contacts are especially beneficial when people work together to overcome a common or to achieve a super-ordinate goal. Conflicts are readily kindled and fueled by social dilemmas, competition, and misperceptions, some equally powerful forces, such as contact, cooperation, communication and conciliation, can transform hostility into harmony. Those understanding can help us establish and enjoy peaceful and rewarding relationship (MacNair, p. 2003; in Timalsina, 2011 p. 72). Gautam Buddha proposed that dukkha (suffering) is caused by desires, and peace would be found through discipline of detachment. His four noble truths, eightfold paths and five principles are considered the quintessential attributes and panacia to the individuals spiritual being. DAmore (2007) has described that Abrahams path following the footsteps of Abraham (The route will begin in Harran, Turkey and will proceed through Syria, Jordan, Israel, and Palistine, passing through Jerusalem and ending at the tomb of Abraham and Sarah in al-Khalil Hebron; other parts of the route will be opened in future from Ur (Abrahams birth place) in Southern Iraq to Harran, from Egypt to al-Khalil and from al-Khalil to Mecca, Saudi Arabia (2007 p.69) is going to be promoted peace-tourism in Arabian world. Abrahams path as a model for peacetourism enhances to develop Buddhas path in South and South East Asia. Asian Buddhist pilgrims journey can be organised from Nepal to India to Srilanka to Thialand to Japan to Korea to Burma will end in China (including Tibet) or it should be started from Nepal to China... to the end in India. In the field of pilgrimage tourism, this will be a new innovative approach for the development of peace-tourism in Asia. This is a different kind of package tour within the Buddhist countries of Asia for promoting peace-tourism. The paradigm has to be shifted from diachronic to synchronic approach. This will be a greater Buddhist circuit tour (trans- Buddhist circuit tour) in Asia. The pilgrims will visit to the particular Buddhist site or centre of each proposed countries. If there are any missing countries in Asia could be included in the itinerary. If above mentioned Buddhist circuit tour in between Nepal and India focuses on life of Buddha, the latter greater Buddhist circuit tour will focus on peace propounded by Buddha relates to peace-tourism (see in detail Kunwar, 2006 pp.299-318). Conclusion Pilgrimage is an important part of life in most of the religion and devotees are practicing it. However, it has not been in an organized way because of lack of awareness, time and resources. Nepal has been honored to have great pilgrimage sites among them Lumbini has great potential and carries the authentic history of more than 2600 years. Every elements of Lumbini are authentic and unique to see, experience, feel and practice. Lumbini not only
belongs to Nepal and Nepalese people, it is very important pilgrimage destination for the Buddhists, Hindus and peace lovers around the world. Worldwide attention and focus on Lumbini not only because pilgrimage site, but because for all mankind Lumbini has special meaning as a place of meditation and spiritual renewal, a center of cultural exchange, a symbol of peace and ultimately the faithful destination. The increase in number of tourist arrivals, increase in length of stay, development of infrastructure, worldwide publicity and active involvement of governmental and non governmental organizations ultimately contribute for the sustainable development of pilgrimage tourism in Lumbini and tourism in Nepal. As per Wang's taxonomy within the context of pilgrimage and heritage tourism, Lumbini is appropriate destination for it. Authenticity in Lumbini can be applied to both the visitor experience (activity-related authenticity) and the toured objects themselves (object-related authenticity). Wangs existential definition of authenticity deals with the activities or experience of the visitor, both objective and constructive definitions of authenticity focus more on objects, or the heritage tourism product that has been developed. The activity-related authenticity (mega events in Lumbini) has been powerful to attract more tourists. For the pilgrimage tourism development process (creating objects or products for consumption), Wangs objective and constructive definitions of object-related authenticity are used as the basis for exploring stakeholder beliefs and opinions for the development of local culture, traditional arts and handicrafts, and practices of rituals. This research demonstrates that Lumbini is one of the world top class authentic destination, its development and sustainability can worth a lot economically for the country like Nepal. References Barber, R. (1993). Pilgrimages. London: The Boydell Press. Belhassen, Y. (2009). Fundamentalist Christian pilgrimages as a political and cultural force. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 4, (2): 131-144. Belhassen, Y.; Caton, K & Stewart, W.P. (2008). The Search for Authenticity in the Pilgrim Experience. Annals of Tourism Research, 35 (3): 668-689. Belhassen, Y. & Ebel, J. (2009). Tourism, faith and politics in the Holy Land: an ideological analysis of evangelical pilgrimage. Current Issues in Tourism, 12 (4): 359-378. Bidari, B. (2004). Kapilvastu: The World of Siddartha, Lumbini: Basanta Bidari. _____________. (2002). Lumbini, a haven of sacred refuge. Kathmandu: Hill Side Press. _____________. (1990). Lumbini: The Birth Place of Lord Buddha. Sri Lanka: Ancient Ceylon. Boorstin, D.J. (1964, 1975). The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-events in America, New York, Atheum. Cohen, Erik (1972). Toward a sociology of international tourism, Social Research, 39 (1), pp.164-82. Collins-Kreiner, N. & Gatrell, J.D. (2006). Tourism, Heritage and Pilgrimage: The Case of Haifas Baha Gardens. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 1 (1): 32-50. Collins-Kreiner, N.; Kliot, N.; Mansfeld, Y. & Sagi, K. (2006). Christian Tourism to the Holy Land Pilgrimage during security Crisis, England: Ashgate Publishing limited &
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Trans-Real Space in the Tourism Service Portfolio

Monika Bretbacher Roman Egger *
Abstract Information provided by computer plays a prominent role in our society. The Internet, in particular, has entered our daily lives, and not only do the physical and virtual realities complement each other, but the line between them is also becoming increasingly blurred. While physical and virtual processes have so far always been discussed separately in scientific literature, the present contribution aims to break up this polarity. To this end, the authors analyse customer-specific reflections in trans-real spaces using the portfolio of tourism services as the approach. Keywords: Virtuality, trans-real space, reflection, tourism services Introduction One characteristic of our western-oriented society is the dynamism of change it is undergoing. The new information and communication technologies (ICT) can be seen as the main drivers of this change. Nora and Minc already spoke about the "informatisation of society" in 1978; communication researcher Marshall McLuhan saw the harbingers of a global information society even as early as at the end of the 1960s. At that time the first four mainframe computers were linked up and the basis of the Internet or as Hartmann put it so succinctly "a global nervous system of communication lines" was laid (Hartmann 1999). McLuhan recognized the potential of change that such an information society would entail and predicted the imminent dissolution of space and time in a world that he called most aptly a "global village" (McLuhan 1968). Information has gained unprecedented importance in our society. A look at our daily actions shows that we constantly search, call up and distribute information by aggregating, changing, copying, forwarding it, by putting it into new context, and so on. The social change is, however, also apparent in the new income and financial circumstances, in our spending on leisure time activities, in a dynamic demographic development and in restructured forms of family and households as well as in a change in leisure time and consumer behaviour. (Kroeber-Riel, Weinberg 1999; Tromsdorff 2004) In line with the social framework, information and communication technologies, too, have undergone a rapid development. They are both cause and effect of dynamic change, have long entered into all areas of life and must now be seen as indispensable pillars of our social system.
* Monika Bretbacher is research associate, Salzburg University of Applied Sciences. Prof. Dr. Roman Egger is Head of Tourism Research Department at Salzburg University of Applied Sciences. Email: roman.egger@fh-salzburg.ac.at
Bretbacher/Egger: Trans-Real Space in the Tourism... 35
Technological progress and tourism have gone hand in hand for many years (Poon 1993). Tourism is an outstandingly information-intensive industry and as such dependent on the support functions of ICT. (Buhalis and Law 2008) stated that the significance of crossing the new information threshold of universal, ubiquitous communications access has brought the entire tourism industry to the new levels of interactivity, propelling management by wire. The individual demands, requirements and characteristics of tourists require professional handling; the increasing scope and quality of information calls for efficient management and processing (Egger 2005a). One of the greatest challenges that service providers are faced with is to satisfy ever growing customer demands. This leads to a demand for targeted and timely transfer and processing of the wealth of information that is available and that can best be met by using ICT (Buhalis & Egger 2006). Equipped with newly acquired media skills, the guests in their role as individual designers and planners have meanwhile also become involved in the tourism production process. The travel industry is a typical service industry and characterised by intangibility and linked to that a high degree of insecurity on the part of the customer, by the simultaneousness of creation and use (uno-acto principle) and by its pronounced processoriented nature (Freyer 1998; Tomczak et al. 2004; Bieger 2000). The Internet helps to reduce this inherent insecurity with its transparency of offers and rates, in combination with the simultaneous development of new technologies permitting dynamic bundling of products according to the customers demands. At the same time, the Internet improves the convenience of planning. With the Internet, consumers and service providers alike are given an opportunity to dive into a world parallel to the physical one, a world where interaction is "virtual". Comparable to the Chinese tradition of yin & yang, these parallel worlds, the physical and the virtual one, are opposites. For one thing they are dynamic, and secondly they do not exclude each other quite on the contrary the one is even contained in the other. Bhl (1997) found that virtual realities are certainly not able to replace the real thing, but the dialectics of virtuality and reality also include a significant extent of substitution processes in our understanding. This parallel world is noticeably reconstructed with the contents of the Internet. In contrast to our physical world, this parallel world becomes systematized, organized, tabulated, indexed and as such can be searched and virtually discovered without having to overcome obstacles of time and space. The reciprocity between these polarities requires, however, that the players move consciously between the parallel worlds in their everyday action. The authors believe that this decision on how to move between the two worlds is based on a conscious reflection about which world is more promising, comfortable or convenient for an intended action. The authors attempt to resolve this dichotomy between physical and virtual space - that is, to show that the polarities do not exist in the form of opposites but rather as intertwined parallel worlds, and that they in fact merge in a trans-real space of action. It is the aim of this paper to provide the fundamentals of this approach and to trace the genesis of the trans-real space on the basis of the customers reflection phases. As the service portfolio of tourism is characterized by high complexity, and since the focus is to remain on transreality, the authors have chosen to use a highly simplified description of the process on the
customers part. The fundamental scientific and theoretic position and also the starting point of the study is radical constructivism. This states that the belief that there is just one reality is the most dangerous; there are in fact innumerable notions of reality that can be highly contradictory, and that are all the result of communication (Watzlawick 2005). In this paper, a number of terms will be used that may not appear to be exact given their use in everyday language and which could therefore lead to interpretation issues. To ensure homogenous use of terms throughout the article, the central terms are explained below, following Hegels theorem that "the notion is the truth of substance". 1. Terms In line with constructivism, the term reality should not be understood as an actual reality but as a cognitively constructed reality. Roth (1996) stated in this respect that the world in reality is created by the real brain and thus part of the reality in which we people exist. Digital media, so Funken (2004) have contributed a major share to modifying the notion of reality. In colloquial usage, there are many different meanings of reality (Roth 1997; Wallner 1992; Sandkhler 1990) where actuality and reality describe the ontic part of the world, i.e. the part that exists irrespective of human consciousness and human ideas. At the same time, it is assumed that reality also stands for something constructed, and that actuality can be seen as the superordinate. Roth (1996) speaks here of a phenomenal vs. the actual transphenomenal world, a world of consciousness and a world beyond consciousness (Roth 1996), Valery (2004) adds that actuality is characterized by the fact that it can always be perceived anew from a different perspective and consequently offers infinite and inexhaustible potential of observation (Valery in Palm 2004). This diverse potential of observation and consideration emerges in particular when it comes to interpreting and perceiving information, also in what is known as the virtual world. According to Hlsmann (2000), the term virtualisation describes a computer-initiated process in the course of which social and cultural processes are increasingly taking place in computer-generated artificial parallel worlds (Hlsmann 2000). Freyer (2005) adds that there are, on occasion, miscommunications in these virtualised worlds of tourism services that may be intangible, yet still exist in reality (Freyer 2005). This shift between real and virtual reality (real reality virtuality) implies a permeability that is now in cultural terms triggering a new call for actuality, an "actual actuality" as it were, as a countermove to the electronic mediatisation of the world (Welsch 1998; Vester 1999). Flusser (in Bhl 1997) also refers to virtuality shaping our awareness of reality stating that the boundary between the real and the virtual is blurring or disappearing, as the virtual increasingly becomes part of our real everyday life. There have been several attempts to explain the true meaning of virtual world or virtual reality (Guttentag 2009; Schrter 2004, Halbach 1997, Bhl 1997, Mnker 1997, Bente et al. 2002, Freyer 2005). Meanwhile the term has become common colloquial usage, albeit
rather undifferentiated in most cases. The term may be used, for example, to describe simulations of real worlds in real time, also referred to as artificial realities or virtual environments (Schrter 2004; Halbach 1997); or to describe the integration of the user into virtually constructed worlds (Bhl 1997); as a synonym for making things an actuality that have never been actual and never will be, also called artificial realities (Bente et al. 2002; Rtzer 1993) as an actuality that may actually become actuality even though it is not at the moment, a potential actuality (Mnker 1997) or only to describe a "computer-initiated process where real space is replaced by virtual space" (Freyer 2005). According to virtual reality pioneer Jaron Lanier, the term virtual reality is "(...) not a good name. But I know it had some kind of mojo, and I knew that this field needed some kind of mojo. I realized that this field represented more than just another technology fad, that it represented a way of validating the publics mystical love with technology and I wanted to acknowledge that. I thought people would respond to it. And it seemed like using the word reality would do that" (Lanier 1996). And so this antonym, this fundamentally contradictory term virtual reality stands per se for what is imagined, for something artificial, for a construct of thought (the Latin word "virtus" means power, capacity); and contrasting with it there is the real thing, the reality that is objectively there, verifiable, understandable, tangible, something that we can grasp with our senses. (Freyer 2005; Bhl 1999; Bhl 1997). Working definition Virtual reality / Virtual space The concept of the virtual space as used here starts from an analytical construct and not from an entity within the meaning of objective space. Thus, space is used within the meaning of the concept of space and can describe facts that differ from each other as regards content. (Bahrenberg 1987; Werlen 1997) Virtual space is therefore to be understood as an individual space of human action and perception in computer-based networks and can be put on a level with the Internet service of the World Wide Web (Luley 2005). Freyer (2005) states about that the visitor is immersed in an artificial, virtual environment a 'world' of data, networks and nodes. On the one hand, this virtual space can be a sort of 'mirror' of real space or the real world (virtual reality), and on the other hand new, artificial worlds and phenomena are created that have no concrete counterpart in the real world. The authors take these terms a little further by including the action resulting from this virtualisation and ascribe the following meaning to them: Virtualisation stands for the computer-generated re-construction of the 'real' world. Virtual spaces offer the user webspace for constructing or virtualising real things. 2. The tourism service portfolio As mentioned above, the travel processes of customers may be highly complex. Such as process can, for example, be depicted by means of the value-generation chain or as below by means of the core phases of the journey.
Based on the Customer Buying Cycle (Mauch 1990; Ives & Learmonth 1984), Egger (2005) describes the IT-based process phases of a journey on the part of the customer as an iterative process with the following sequence: information phase, booking phase, pre-travel phase, travel phase and post-travel phase (Egger 2005). Bruhn and Meffert (2000) describe the process on the part of the customer with the three phases of potential orientation (the provision of independent, marketable services), process orientation and outcome orientation (Meffert & Bruhn 2000). Freyer, too (2007) speaks in this context of a tourist phase model, following on from Bruhn/Meffert2000 (Freyer 2007). Irrespective of the names of the various models, it is in the end about systematic observation and reflection of the interfaces between supplier and customer (Oberweis et al. 2001). The authors intend to use this service process that encompasses several phases to identify the phases of reflection the consumer goes through against the background of the changing perspectives of the two realities, the real physical world and the virtual world. An attempt is made below to depict the service process on the basis of the extensive purchasing decision model of Kroeber-Riel and Weinberg (2003). Figure 1 shows the textbook sequence of such an extensive purchasing decision that a customer follows to fulfil his/her wish for a journey. The first step is the recognition of the need, i.e. becoming aware of a need but also realising an opportunity. The next step is the search for information linked to the intention to find a possible solution to the problem and/or to fulfilling the need. The selected information is then processed in such a way that the alternatives are assessed and a final decision is taken. If a decision is made for a particular service, the purchase is made and after having used the service, the purchase is evaluated with regard to the consequences of this decision. Figure 1: Phases of the purchasing decision process
Source: Based on Kroeber-Riel & Weinberg 2003
The dotted lines in Figure 1 indicate phases of feedback in the decision process but also possible jumps across one or more phases. The authors now add the polarities of reality and virtuality to this continuous six-step process; the process is modified with abstract concepts, graphically depicted and finally explained in detail. The authors point out again that the following is a simplified process with the aim of reducing complexity. The authors achieve this reduction in complexity by starting from a linear process with the following appearance (see Figure 2): 1. The impetus reflection is at the beginning of the purchasing decision. This recognition of the need is the conscious perception of the demand to fill a need; in most cases this recognition happens on a physical basis. Somebody feels the need or urge to travel. 2. To get an overview of the options offered by the services that are supposed to meet the perceived need, the person starts to search for information. In the course of choosing the channels of information, the motivation to enter the virtual space is created. 3. The next step is that of information processing and assessment of alternatives. The result of information processing is the act of booking. The customer compares and evaluates the available alternatives until s/he finds the suitable service, can complete his/ her decision and/or reflective evaluation process with a clear conscience, make the booking and finally leave the virtual space. 5. The performance of the promise is made by consuming the service, the customer is on holiday. 6. The evaluation of the reflections is made in the post-travel phase. The individual phases of the process can be illustrated as follows. Figure 2: Phases of reflection along a text-book tourism service process
Source: Based on Egger 2005; Kroeber-Riel & Weinberg 2003
The dotted line in the circle separates the two rooms and illustrates which phases (may) take place in what world. These customer-specific phases of reflection along the tourism service process are elaborated in more detail below, one by one against the background of the interaction of virtuality and reality, to be finally merged anew following the polarity approach. 3. The dialectic interaction in trans-real space by the example of the customer-specific phases of reflection along the tourism service process 3.1 Recognition of need The travel process starts on the part of the customer with the "recognition of a need" that reveals the intention to use tourism services. The first recognition of the need, also referred to as impetus reflection, always occurs when consumers feel that the status quo differs from an ideal state of affairs. The consumer realizes the problem. This recognition of a need may be caused by various (individual, external and other) influences (Solomon et al. 2001; Blackwell et al. 2006; Tomczak et al. 2004; Egger 2005). This reflection can generally mean seeing or understanding an opportunity at hand or perceiving a need. For the purpose of this paper and to depict the entire tourism service portfolio, the authors start from the assumption that there is a need to be fulfilled. This need "() occurs when an individual senses a difference between what he or she perceives to be the ideal versus the actual state of affairs" (Blackwell et al. 2006). For a need to be perceived by the consumer at all, a certain threshold, as it is referred to by Blackwell et al. (2001), has to be crossed. The perception threshold depends on the actual status quo of the consumer and his or her desired state. The ideal state and the actual state are compared and the dimension of the difference is assessed. If the difference is bigger than the personal threshold, a need as such is perceived; if it is smaller, no need is recognized. Figure 3 illustrates this in a simplified manner. Figure 3: Recognition of need depending on the actual and the desired state
Source: Based on Blackwell et al. (2001) quoted according to Ku/Tomczak 2007
Traditional approaches to satisfying consumer needs aim at satisfying the consumers rational needs with the features of a product, i.e. yielding the demanded benefit. However, the role of the hedonistic motives, such as the need for diversion, excitement or fun, is just as important in many purchasing decisions and has only recently been taken into account by more modern approaches (Solomon et al. 2001). A need can in general be understood as a "sense of lack linked to the ambition to do away with it" (Hartmann 1874 quoted from Wittmann et al. 1993). So it is about the emerging wish to overcome this sense of lack and the interaction of the consumer with his/her environment in order to achieve this goal (Wittmann et al. 1993; Thommen & Achleitner 2003). This impetus reflection of the customer-specific process takes place in real space and can then be motivation for the customer to approach the objective of need satisfaction in virtual space. 3.2 Motivation to change over into the virtual space The World Wide Web has become so ubiquitous in our society that virtual space can be seen as an extension of reality where basic functionalities of social interaction can be performed. This includes travel planning, from information search to booking. Science has for some years been increasing its attention to purchasing or booking journeys on the Internet (Soopramanien & Robertson 2007). One of the central starting points of this discourse is the choice of channel, i.e. whether users view the Internet as an alternative, addition or surrogate of existing channels. The motivation to move into virtual space in order to find an adequate service provision is multi-faceted. In the end it is individual, as well as situation- or context-dependent variables that decide whether the user behaviour meets the basic attitudes and approaches of the consumer or not. Van Dijk et al. (2007) state that the choice of channel depends mainly on the type of consumer, the properties of the channel and those of the product. Consumers differ in their media use mainly through their media skills and user skills. These skills cover on the one hand, the Internet experience, but also factors such as type of Internet connection and the use of applications and tools employed to navigate the web (Beldona et al. 2004). In addition to the individual characteristics of the user, it is the properties of the channels that account for the majority of the motivating factors. These properties include above all the possible degree of interaction, the convenience of use (Constantinides 2004; Van Dijk et al. 2007; Beldona et al. 2004) and the transaction costs of the various channels. "Consumers are willing to trade their time and effort only if they perceive value in exchange" (Van Dijk et al. 2007). Reardon und McCorkle (2002) note in this respect that in addition to advantages of time and costs (Soopramanien & Robertson 2007), also hedonistic values and social experience need to be included in the cost-benefit ratio. Apart from the absolute benefit, Van Dijk et al. (2007) also refer to the perceived, relative benefits of a sales channel. The motivation to work online could, for example, correspond to the perception that the Internet is superior to other channels. Convenience, such as being able to research and book online around the clock 365 days a year (Swaminathan, et al. 1999), is also a relative benefit; as is the Internet phenomenon of customer empowerment. Further motivating factors to use
the Internet as an information and possibly also as a booking channel are the enhanced transparency of prices, the high level of control and involvement in the planning process (Fesenmaier et al. 2004), a transparent wealth of products and services (Beldona et al. 2004; Fesenmaier et al. 2004, Smith & Rupp 2003) and the possibility to read about the personal experience of customers, their ratings and assessment, in addition to the information provided by the suppliers. Since the tourism product is an intangible service that the customer is unable to examine before purchase, the consumer looks for indicators that would confirm his/her purchasing decision. If these indicators are highly complex, the risk of incorrect assessment is high if no professional help is used, and independent research on the Internet is discontinued. More experienced and highly skilled users of the web, however, will use the Internet more intensively for information seeking and booking; a fact that Tomczak et al. (2004) refer to as "customers are doin it for themselves". 3.3 The processing of information If adequate information was found in the virtual space to solve the problem (the choice of information and/or options available is also referred to as "Available Set"), the customer will be ready to reach an "Evoked Set" in several steps, where the solution will finally be searched to satisfy the need in the best possible way and/or to reach the ideal state. This process of information processing takes place in several steps that will ideally and typically be as follows: Some suppliers will be consciously realised in a given set of offers available online (Available Set). These consciously realised options (Awareness Set) are broken down by means of specific selection criteria to a Processed Set (consumer has formed knowledge about them) and a Foggy Set (i.e. options of which the customer is only vaguely aware). The consumer will reject some alternatives of the Processed Set (Reject Set) and keep some others (Hold Set). The rest (Consideration and/or Evoked Set) is the positively assessed, accepted portion of in the majority of cases two to three alternatives from which the product to be purchased will be chosen. (Trommsdorff 2004; Gardini 2004) The assessment of alternatives described above can be visualised as follows: Figure 4: Identification of alternatives
Source: The authors, with acknowledgements to Trommsdorff 2004; Solomon et al. 2001; Gardini 2004
3.4 Result of information processing The result of information processing is the customers decision based on cognitive elements, such as purchasing intention, preferences and benefits, activating elements, such as emotions and motivation, and finally on a combination of the two trust, attitude and involvement (Steinbauer 2007). Thus, the customer has reached his/her sub-objective. S/he has found the promise of a service in virtual space (as one of the channels of information available) that represents for him/her the adequate fulfilment of his/her need in real space. The next step is the real, physical use of the service, also referred to as the performance of the promise (of a service/service commitment). With a view to explaining the performance under the aspect of reflection, the authors start again from the premise that the loop of information processing (there may be several phases of assessing the available alternatives) is already concluded at the moment the decision is taken and that the decision i.e. the purchase as such is really taken as shown in the graphic illustration above. 3.5 Performance of the promise If both sides fulfil their mutual promise, the virtual establishment can finally be used and experienced in its physical version and the customer starts evaluating whether the service really lives up to his/her expectation formed on the basis of information gained in the virtual world. The perception of the real scope of services is compared to its illustration and presentation in the virtual space; this being a selective perception, i.e. there is a tendency to focus on certain aspects and neglect others. The features of the service assessed, the situation and features of the assessor him/herself (i.e. individual motifs, requirements, personal expectations and availability) among other things influence this perception. (Werth 2004) The satisfaction of a customer determines the outcome of the expectation-disconfirmation paradigm, i.e. whether the expectation placed in the service corresponds to the actually received service. If expectations are exceeded, the customer is satisfied; if expectations are not confirmed, the customer is dissatisfied. (Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry 1985; Matzler 1997) Richard Oliver (1980) commented on his "expectancy disconfirmation model" as follows: "Satisfaction depends on a comparison of pre-purchase expectations to consumption outcomes." (Oliver 1980 in Blackwell et al. 2006). The outcome may be: positive disconfirmation, negative confirmation or confirmation. In this phase of the service process, the customer experiences two different reflections: First, s/he compares the physical establishment to the image reached of it based on the information made available on the Internet, and secondly s/he checks whether the establishment was really able to satisfactorily meet the need. 3.6 Evaluation of reflection This part of the process is the "post-travel phase" as it is referred to; the customer as the user evaluates and rates what s/he has experienced. This post-consumption evaluation takes place after the service has been consumed; in this phase the degree to which the consumption of the service has really fulfilled the original demand is evaluated.
4. Customer-specific phases of reflection in the virtual physical polarity approach Following the explanation of the customer-specific reflection phases along the tourism service process, they are illustrated once again. Figure 5 does not show the iterative process, but the chronological order of customer reflections under the aspect of the transreal parallel worlds. Virtual space is shown in the bottom part of the chart as a subset of reality which in turn as determined in the beginning of this paper is part of actuality. All the reflection phases from impetus reflection to the evaluation of the reflection are marked with abbreviations in the chart below and shown as a process (dotted line starting in the left upper corner). Figure 5: Trans-real reflection
In the top left corner of Figure 5, there is the first reflection of the customer (Rk1), the recognition of the lack or demand. This happens at any given time (Z1) in the real world. Understanding/realising the need (Rk1) leads to the first objective (Zr) defined by the customer in the real world, i.e. to find an offer or an establishment able to satisfy his/her need. The customer is motivated (MoK) to change over into virtual space (Z2) pursuing the new objective (Zv) of finding a suitable establishment among all the establishments reconstructed, systematised in virtual space and made possible to experience virtually. After having entered this real "virtual space" (Z2), the customer searches for information on the Internet (ISk). The following step of information processing, i.e. the reflection about the best possible alternative (Rk2), results in the purchasing decision (Zv) or goal to find a reconstructed establishment in virtual space that is able to satisfy the perceived need (Rk1).
The time period between purchasing decision (Zv) and performance of the service commitment (Z4) is referred to as Z3 in this illustration and is shown here for the sake of completeness only. It will not be further explored but is intended to illustrate that there is a period of time between the two last named steps of reflection. At a later point (Z4) follow the two final reflection phases of the tourism service process: actually using the promised service followed by evaluation of this reflection (Rk1 _ Z1 / Rk2 _ Zv). As shown in Figure 6, there are six different reflections at point Z4, but only the trans-real ones are of interest for this paper. They are illustrated and explained as follows: Figure 6: Trans-real reflections
Rk3: The comparison of the real establishment with the objective Zv to find an establishment in virtual space that is able to satisfy the real need. Rk4: The comparison of the real establishment Br with the communicated and reconstructed presentation of the establishment in virtual space Bv. Rk5: Evaluation whether the presentation of the virtual image corresponds to the objective manifested on the basis of the reflection about the lack/need. R6: The customer reflects about his/her objectives Zr and Zv and compares to what extent the objective derived from the lack/need corresponds to the objective in the virtual space. For the sake of completeness, those operations (B) have also to be mentioned as further elements of the illustration that were only partly motivated (MoA) (the ones with arrows pointing to the virtual space) to present themselves in virtual space. The integral presentation therefore shows that the trans-real scope of action which is accessed by supplier and customer
in equal measure, must be used by both actors to reach their objectives and that they are even mutually dependent in parts. 5. Implications and need of further research By developing generic concepts, fundamental research offers the starting position for a translation of general findings to specific cases. Based on this, applied research is able to build a bridge to the practical relevance of concepts and models. The approach derived by the authors in this paper can also be further developed and seen in this context. The implications of the concept developed will become apparent when the supplier-specific phases of reflection are considered in addition to the customer-specific ones and when the two sets of phases are superimposed. After all, supplier and consumer use virtual space alike, to a greater extent than shown here as illustrated in Figure 7. Figure 7: Trans-real service portfolio on the part of consumer and supplier
In contrast to the real world, an indexed and thus searchable depiction of real space opens up to the customer that s/he can virtually experience; i.e. a reality opens up that was ultimately constructed by the supplier for this very purpose. The motivation to enter virtual space has been discussed above, at least from the point of view of the customer. There are parallels on the supplier side, too. Establishment, products and services are virtualised according to selfperception and potentially optimised by facets of customer demands and requirements to be expected. This could be compared to online dating the supplier presents himself and draws attention to himself and tries to score with users and potential guests with his cyber authenticity and cyber emotions. A model combining goal definitions, reflection and evaluation phases of both supplier and
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Media with dual effects for peace image in politically toppled destinations: A case study of Nepal
Pranil Kumar Upadhyaya*
Abstract The trends of blanket media coverage by the global media are found decisive in shaping tourists awareness, attitude. This media behaviour generates both realistic and falsified impressions towards tourist destinations which are influenced by political instability and its prone insecurities. This paper examines the case study of politically toppled Nepal on media behaviour and concludes that there are dual impacts of media hype with their dual (positive and negative) nature of characteristics. Methodologically this paper has reviewed published literatures to know the media influence on destination image of Nepal and also used content analysis to retract the various media coverage (e.g. news coverage of various nation daily news papers, press releases of tourism associations and Nepal Tourism Board, and travel news coverage of Nepal Travel Trade Reporter). This paper concludes that the peaceful destination is of foremost importance for a destination toppled with political conflicts. Keywords: political toppled destination, media, tourism, peace image, perception, destination image Introduction In tourist destinations toppled with conflicts and instabilities, a risk-free destination image backed up with the perception of tourist safety and political stability is crucial to make a destination eligible for the visitation of tourists and attraction of international and domestic travellers (Hall, 1994; Kunwar, 2012; Snmez & Graefe, 1998). As noted by Pearce (2006), destination image is a key factor in tourists buying behaviour as there is strong correlation between a positive perception of destination and a positive purchase decision. Reviewing a number of literature on the effect of risk perception on the intention of travel of tourists; Floyd, Gibson, Pennington-Gray, & Thapa (2009) focus on for major risk factors pertinent to tourism: (i) political instability and war, (ii) health concerns, (iii) crime, and (iv) terrorism. It is afterwards added with one additional factor which is the influence of natural disasters on tourism demand by Faulkner (2001). Tourists perception of destinations is a major determinant that governs the desirability and appeal of a destination to the potential tourists.
* Pranil Kumar Upadhyaya is a PhD research scholar in the field of 'Tourism, Conflict and Peace' at Kathmandu University in association with NCCR North-South (pranilupadhayaya@gmail.com)
Upadhayaya: Media with dual effects for peace... 51
Media has power to allude over public perception which according to Ehemann (1970 as in Snmez, 1998), in fact, represents reality for most individuals. Risk perception of safety and security can largely be shaped by the mass media where certain images of a destination are formulated and accordingly attracted or detracted to potential visitors (Hall, 2002; Hall & OSullivan, 1996). The term media, as an entity, describes the independent third party source of information with its various modes of communication in the public domain (Nielsen, 2001). The examples of formal modes of mass media includes print media (primarily newspapers, magazines, brochures, journals, direct mail, newsletters, press release, and so on), broadcast media (radio, television, etc.), and the Internet. Amidst and in the interconnectedness with other actors (e.g. security and risk information issued and communicated by governmental agencies in the generating markets in the form of travel advisories and other foreign policy settings, returning tourists with their words-ofmouth reporting of their experiences, tourists guides as commentators to tourists on the tourist spots, the travel industry in the tourist generating markets as advertisers, and government tourism organizations in the affected receiving destinations as destination promoters), media plays not only a central role in presenting travel and security information but also creating confidence on the peaceful image of tourist destinations because of its independent entity in general (Adhikari, 2005; Maharjan, 2004). The central importance of media in the interdependence with other factors is clearly visible from a model of theoretical framework (figure 1).
Figure 1: Political instability and media in image making process
Source: Compilation modified from Hall & O Sullivan (1996)
Both media and government play the roles of image filter between the tourist destination and generating regions. The government disseminated security information is certainly important to regulate tourists visitation, however it is media, with its central position, as the active portrayer of events have the greatest influence on the creation of destination images by distributing information to potential tourists and to providers (e.g. travel agencies, tour operators, diplomatic missions or embassies issuing travel advisories) of tourist information in tourist generating regions (Hall & O Sullivan, 1996; Nielsen, 2001). This reveals a close relationship between media and tourism. However, this relationship of tourism and media is not always very smooth and cordial especially in terms of the implication of this relationship for peaceful destination image building of a tourist destinations toppled by political instabilities and conflicts. A number of literatures reveals about positive and negative relationships between media elements and tourism when a tourist destination is in the verge of political instability and its induced conflicts (Baral, Baral, & Morgan, 2004; Beirman, 2003; Bhattarai & Dahal, 2007; Kunwar, 2010; Snmez, 1998; Snmez, Apostolopoulos, & Tarlow 1999; Thapa, 2003). The various publications of these authors reveal about the role of mass media in covering and selling the hot spot stories in tourist destinations caught with political conflicts, bringing it to the notice of tourists, playing an influential role in shaping tourists opinion, perception, awareness, and attitudes towards destination image, and inducing tourists to decide on risk (actual or perceived) to travel towards political instable destinations. There are a number of countries like Columbia, Fiji, Tunisia, Israel, Syria, Philippines, Iraq, Afghanistan, Nepal, etc. which have been experiencing this outcome. However, it is the portrayal of political conflict and instability rather than political conflict and instability itself, which becomes uppermost cause in the formulation of tourists negative destination image, risk perceptions and destination choice behaviours. In this conceptual background, this article analyzes the role of media with negative and positive effects on the peaceful destination image of tourist destinations in general and Nepalese tourism in specific. The highlights of the effects of media in Nepalese tourism are covered, documented and analyzed when the country was in the state of domestic political instability during a decade long (1996-2006) armed conflict. Methodology Methodologically this paper has reviewed published literatures to know the media influence on destination image of Nepal and also used content analysis to retract the various media coverage (e.g. news coverage of various nation daily news papers, press releases of tourism associations and Nepal Tourism Board, and travel news coverage of Nepal Travel Trade Reporter). The contents analyses of such news coverage reveal that there are negative (exaggeration and unrealistic news coverage) as well as positive (positive destination image building) impressions of such media coverage in Nepal. The media with its dual (negative and positive) nature of impacts are briefly documented in the succeeding paragraphs.
Negative media impact on tourism and peace image The media coverage of political instabilities and conflict has the potential to shape the induced image individuals have of destinations (Butler, 1990). The mass media, though not always objective, tends to report not just on the political instabilities and insecurities and their actual impacts on tourism, but also takes upon itself the role of interpreter and assessor of risk involved in travelling to the affected destinations (Hall & Osullivan, 1996). In this context, the mass media coverage can further deepen the exclusion of affected destinations from the global tourist map unless other information and communication modes are to be used to balance the lead of the media as a security information provider (Baral et al., 2004). In addition to it, a crisis in one country has a ripple effect on neighbouring destinations due to the media influence (Beirman, 2003). The high security risk concerns have a ripple effect throughout the industry in that security risks at one location may be perceived to influence the wider region or, during major security concerns, the entire tourism system (Hall, Timothy, & Duval, 2009). In context of such affects in Nepal from the political instability and violence in India, Richter (1997) mentions: The assassination of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi of India in 1984 depressed arrivals in neighbouring Nepal. Nepal, itself torn, at the time of writing, by political conflict based on populist demands for democratic rule, was for years dependent on perceptions of political stability in South Asia, especially India. Nepals proximity and identification with its more turbulent neighbours had a dramatic effect. Disasters, political or otherwise, in India, Bangladesh, or Pakistan of which there is no shortage - could be traced immediately in the arrivals figures for Nepal (Richter, 1997, pp. 39- 40). Throughout the period between 1962 to1988, Nepal had witnessed a continuous growth of tourists arrivals (e.g. a growth rate of 266% during 1966-1970 and a growth rate of 95% during 1970-1974) except in 1984 when there were 176,634 (-2%) international tourist arrivals in comparison to 179,405 arrivals in 1983 (MoTCA, 2011). Positive media impact on tourism and peace image The dual nature of media reveals its positive impact too on the peaceful destination image of a tourist destination. Tourists, the lifeblood of tourism, are often regarded as longing for relaxing and unconcerned holiday making and therefore are sensitive to events of violence in holiday destinations. The economic theory of tourist consumption reveals that tourists consume state of peacefulness (peaceful image as social attraction) as one of the various prime characteristics of a tourist destination (Lancaster, 1971). The authentic information dissemination by mass media shapes the positive perception of tourists towards a destination which is peaceful and fulfilled with these characteristics. The acknowledgement of the concern of no fear of personal security, the subjective acceptable risk threshold of the travellers, and the updates on the varied attractions of tourist destinations through accurate media reporting are supportive to tourists to translate travel decisions. The background on negative and positive media influence can be traced (verified) from the outcome of a national seminar on the role of media for tourism and peace titled "Peace & Press: Vital Forces for Tourism Development", organized by Nepal Travel Media Association
(NTMA) in collaboration with Nepal Tourism Board (NTB) and ten prominent tourism related associations on July 6, 2007 in Nepal. The view expressed by the Officiating Chief Executive Officer of NTB on the impressions of media and press for tourist destination image is remarkable which states: Mass media plays vital roles in the dissemination of news. Readers and audiences have great belief on press because they believe that press is an independent association. We, at the industry, are quite aware of negative and positive impacts of the dissemination of news. Perception and reality are two different things. Mostly, tourists make their opinions as per the perception not the reality. Most of the times, such opinions are proved to be false. If we could change foreign visitors perceptions toward Nepal, that would be of great support to our tourism industry. However, the returning tourists through word-of-mouth reporting of their experience can act as triggering factor for building favourable tourists destination image and attracting others new tourists (Bhattarai & Dahal, 2007, p.10). Though Nepal is a unique natural and cultural destination on the tourism map of the world, however such a valuable aspect of Nepal for tourism is largely moulded by media with its dual (negative and positive) influence both on breadth and depth. The enhanced ability of these media channels to scrutinize and report events as they occur at both national and international levels has given rise to a mixture of problems (negative impacts) and benefits (positive impacts) for peaceful destination image of Nepal. The paragraphs below offer information on how negative mass media reports have contributed to effect upon the peaceful tourist destination image of Nepal when Nepal is in the politically instable conditions. Negative media impact and deterioration of peaceful destination image Nepal passed through various political conflicts (peoples movements) during the years 1960, 1980, 1990, and 2006 with the aims of changing political system and the structural transformation of society. Earlier to the Jana Andolan II (2nd peoples movement) in 2006 that resulted with the change of political system from constitutional monarch to democratic republic, a decade long armed conflict led by United Communist Part of Nepal Maoist (UCPN-M) had through effects on tourism. The cadres of UCPN-M were involved in selective destructions of the tourism properties [mostly only those hotels which were owned by Rana and Shah (ruling classes)], extortions from trekking tourists and tourism entrepreneurs, and misbehaving US tourists (restrictions and over extortions to US tourists were viewed as punishments to the United States government for its military assistance to Nepalese government to crush UCPN-M armed conflict under the policy of global war on tourism after September 2001) (Upadhayaya, Mller-Bker & Sharma, 2011). These activities of UCPN-M formed the core of negative interactions between tourism and UCPN-M. However, UCPN-M had no official policy of harming tourists intentionally or obstructing them on their movements in Nepal. It is also notable that there was not a single fatality of tourist by UCNP-M in the entire armed conflict and post conflict periods (Grandon, 2007a; Upreti & Upadhayaya, 2010). As exceptional in a decade long armed conflict, only two cases are observed which were slightly targeted to tourists like: (a) a Swiss tourist Mr.
Stave Zinnerite was beaten up by UCPN - M cadres on 6 December, 2007 in the exit point of round Annapurna trekking route in Western Nepal on his reluctance to offer illegal donation demanded of UCPN-M, and (b) a group of Polish trekker were detained for refusing to pay tax in March 2006 in central Nepal only to be freed later (Gandon, 2007a & 2007b). In totality, Nepal was a relatively safe destination for all tourists from safety and security point of view during the decade of armed conflict (Grandon, 2007a; Shakya, 2008; TAAN, 2003). Linking UCPN-M uphill, Shakya (2008, p. 35) opines that the claim that Maoist insurgency was alone responsible for the downfall of Nepalese tourism is completely baseless. However, it was a just a coincidence that some remarkable national and international incidences (table 1) occurred during the armed conflict period which came in excessive media scrutiny and exaggeration apart of UCPN-M affairs. A series of these remarkable incidences were fallen under the excessive media scrutiny, hyped massively, and also publicized internationally linking with and exposing about the lack of safety and security of tourists in Nepal. This trend of media ultimately caused a serious damage to the destination image of Nepal. Among above incidents in table 1, the hijacking of an Indian Airlines flight (IC-814) from Kathmandu to Kandahar (Afghanistan) and the massacre of royal family were most significant incidents which coinciding with the internal political instability and UCPN-Ms armed conflict bought Nepal into the international media limelight, negatively influencing its destination image (Thapa, 2009). In context of the negative media hype, an proclamation of Nepals Minister for Foreign affairs Mr. Ramesh Nath Pandey at an interaction program held on "Rebuilding the Image of Nepalese Tourism Through Embassies Abroad" organized by NATO on June 24, 2005 in Kathmandu is relevant. It ascertains the negative impact of the media hype on the destination image of Nepal. The statement reads: Nepal has been the victim of negative media image and adverse travel advisories. Most of the media reports tend to bypass the ground realities and focus on areas that interest them. They are often found not to be sensitive enough to our interest as baseless and exaggerated media reports harm our national image as well as tourism industry. An on the spot inspection by the representatives of foreign media would reveal that what has been projected about Nepal is a great injustice done to this country whose economy heavily relies on tourism. We expect greater degree of understanding and cooperation from domestic media in reviving tourism image of Nepal. The Royal Nepalese missions abroad in cooperation with the Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation, Nepal Tourism Board and organizations like NATO must make efforts to counter negative media image by projecting the situation of the country in proper perspective (The Rising Nepal, 2005, p.2). Amidst the international media, Indian news and media channels were always at forefront to highlight and exaggerate any sort of political and other social instability with unrealistic sensationalized headlines such as Kathmandu under siege which portrayed Nepal as an unsafe destination for tourists. The highly negative media reports, especially those from the private television channels (e.g. Aajtak) from Indian, contributed to a sharp decline in Indian tourist arrivals in Nepal - 1.82 % in 1999, 32% in 2000, and 33% in 2001 in comparison to corresponding earlier years (MoTCA, 2011). Following the widespread negative publicity, scores of international
tour operators also excluded Nepal from their travel brochures. The negative media hype about the worse security situation and the deterioration of the tourism destination image of Nepal is verifiable through the review of various issues of Nepal Travel Trade Reporter (NTTR - it remained earlier a most selling and leading weekly travel trade journal that covered all aspects of tourism industry) and various other publications (Bhattarai, Conway, & Shrestha, 2005; Bhattarai & Dahal, 2007; Grandon, 2007a; Rajdhani, 2004; Sharma & Upadhayaya, 2008; Thapa, 2009; Upreti & Upadhayaya, 2010). In this context, Bhattarai et al. (2005, p. 684) reconfirm it by stating the rhetoric of terrorism as well as actual warfare heightened, and even the smallest of Maoist incidents were hyped in the global media, a pattern of socio-political development that further convinced the Western markets to divert tourists elsewhere, consequently rendering Nepals industry a big blow. Having realized the importance of crisis mitigation and rescue operations to assure safety among the tourists and reviving the destination image in the back drop of the media influence, the tourism sector of Nepal has applied following response (coping) strategies. The Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation formed a high level Tourism Crisis Management Committee (TCMC) under the chairmanship of the Minister for Tourism in 2004. The TCMC established a 24 hours Media Center at the office of Nepal Tourism Table 1: Various incidences with media exaggeration during the armed conflict
Date 2004 Incidences The publication of the story of Pakistan's ISI presence in Nepal under the title 'Nepal Game Plan' in the biggest Indian news magazine "India Today", Remarks on negative media impact The increased Indian media attack on Nepal leaving no mercy to blow up the issue. This exaggerated projection was enough to create alarming situation among the Indian tourists (which occupies one third of total international tourist arrivals in Nepal) to travel to Nepal
September 2003
Iraq fallout in the streets of Kathmandu Serious effects to the tourism industry as this news after the killing of 12 Nepali hostages was sensitized linking with lack of safety of tourists by Al-Qaeda linked group The Islamist by News Channels especially by Indian Army of Ansar al-Sunna in Iraq Imposition of the state of emergency and declaration of UCPN-M rebels as 'terrorists' under Terrorist and Disruptive Activities Ordinance (TADO) act Royal Massacre in which all members of King Birendra were killed in royal palace in Kathmandu. It became the top story of the news centres worldwide. Tourists in the month of June of 2000, immediately after the incident, went down to 13,030 as against 26,933 in June of 2000. With nine months of emergency from Nov 2001 to July 2002, there was high risk perceived about the insecurity of potential tourists due to excessive media hype. Almost a week of curfew in Kathmandu though made inconvenience for tourists' movement; media cell of Nepal Tourism Board had to offend against extreme insecurity related media broadcast about tourism sector in Nepal. It impressed a long lasting negative impact on the country's peaceful destination image at the international levels.
November 2001 and May 2002
June 2001
June 2000
Ritik Roshan incident - It was the coverage of saying an India superstar (Ritik Roshan, an India film actor) that Nepal was the part of India. Riots broke in Kathmandu valley which damaged properties and halted the metropolitan city life for some days. Hijacking of Indian Airlines by terrorists from Tribuvan International Airport (TIA), Kathmandu and suspend of all flights by Indian airlines to Nepal for next seven months
People denounced the Indian actor. The situation snowballed. Tourism suffered in great extent due to the negative media hype by various Indian Channels.
December 1999
Excessive negative media hype especially by Indian private TV news channel 'Ajtak' about the lack of strong security measures at TIA and possibility of the repeat of such accidents. It largely deteriorated Nepal's destination image and caused drastic fall in the arrivals of Indian tourists (-32% in 2000 than 1999).
Source: Various print and visual media channels, 1999 2002 Board. Since its establishment, the MC is active for offsetting the negative dissemination of news of international and national media, preventing and coping with the impact of unrealistic media hype and developing the crisis resistibility preparedness (NTB, 2008). Lately, the NTB has also started the operation of a 24-hour crisis management cell in association with Himalayan Rescue Association and other tourism associations since June 2010 to manage tourism crisis proactively. The private sector tourism associations are active with continuous uses and mobilizations of media (e.g. holding of press meets, conferences, press releases, industry interactions) at national and regional levels for countering the escalated media hypes about the lack of security to tourists in Nepal. Building these strategies ascertain the influential role of media on the peaceful image of tourist destination both negatively and positively. Positive media impact and peaceful destination image building The media coverage of the armed conflict of Nepal is not only negative, but also with some positive effects. Such exposures of media have become supportive in exposing Nepal as an attractive destination from natural and cultural point of views. There are illustrations of such positive media influences in succeeding paragraphs. Massive coverage of the peace related involvements of tourism entrepreneurs The collective roles and solidarities of tourism entrepreneurs for the restoration of peace and democracy are the clear indicators of the peace potentiality of tourism in Nepal. The private sector tourism entrepreneurs like trekking agencies, hoteliers, rafting agencies, travel agencies, expeditions agencies and their hundreds of employees had formed Loktantric
Paryatan Samaj (Democratic Tourism Entrepreneurs Association), displayed their solidarity during the 19 days of successful Jana Andolan II (2nd peoples movement) through peaceful rallies, demonstrations and dharnas (demonstrations), and demanded for the restoration of democracy and parliament for the reestablishment of peace (Upadhayaya, 2011). Media is found prompt and supportive for covering such peace related activities of tourism entrepreneurs. One of rallies undertaken by tourism entrepreneurs in Pokhara (Kaski) in Western Nepal is 2006 serves a good example in this regard. This rally demanded for early peace and stability to revive the ailing tourism industry during the armed conflict period. This act of tourism entrepreneurs was also supported by tourists in major touristic places like Kathmandu and Pokhara. This trend of media not only over emphasized politics and but also gave thrust to resolve the political conflict from the perspective of tourism. International promotion of Nepals beauties Though both national and international media covered Nepals crisis during violent conflict periods and sold insurgency stories, but some international media like BBC, CNN, and Deutsche Welle, etc. also covered Nepals beautiful landscapes, varied ethnic people, their traditional cultures, collective traditional lifestyles, and extensively reported about such aspects. Moreover, a number of internet blogs helped to create positive image and trust on Nepal among interested tourists who were willing to come to Nepal. Thus media in many ways supported the private sector of tourism industry in promoting tourism of Nepal. It had positive impact on the image of Nepal and contributed to the relatively fast growth of tourist arrivals after the comprehensive peace agreement in November 2006. The organization of the golden jubilee celebration of the first ascend of Mt. Everest in May 2003 specially received a wide international media coverage. The massive press coverage of this a week long festivities worked very well to make positive the bad publicity of the past. Recently, there has been global media coverage of Nepal Tourism Year 2011, a national mega event organized to revive the earlier tarnished image of Nepal in global tourism market. Such positive media coverage can be seen even today in terms of covering various tourism linked cultural events, sports events, food festivals, street festivals, mahostavs (traditional celebrations) and various adventures events in spite of present political impasse in Nepal. Tributes to Nepal by various media It is various media sources which also awarded a number of accolades to Nepal during the armed conflict period. Such media coverage was positive for the destination image building of Nepal. Just to illustrate few names are Nepal as one of the 50 must see destinations before death by British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC TV) aired in late 2002, iExplores announcement of Annapurna Circuit and Royal Chitwan National Park as number 1 in iExplores Hiking & Trekking Trips in 2003, voting to Nepal as the favourite long-haul country behind New Zealand by two popular U.K. newspapers (The Observer and The Guardian) in May 2002, and voting to Annapurna Trail as one of the best 12 walks in the world by Modern Maturity, a U.S. based magazine in 2002 (NTB, 2008). There are such positive media effects in Nepal even in present days largely due to the unique and invaluable product and excellent
performance for tourism. For example, Nepal was chosen and advertised as one of the worlds top 10 countries for the year 2011 in Lonely Planets best in travel 2010. Best in travel 2010 is Lonely Planets fifth eagerly-awaited annual collection of the best places to go and the best things to do around the world for the year ahead (NTB, 2010). Conclusion Tourism thrives in conditions with political stability and peace. The stable political condition persuades for peace and it is long lasting peace coinciding with perception of the peaceful destination image which is the prerequisite for a sustainable tourism sector (Upadhayaya, 2008). The role of media is highly important in terms of building the peaceful destination image of tourist destinations which are in the verge of politically led conflicts. The media is an important source of travel and security related information for tourists in their various stages (e.g. destination choice stage as potential tourists, in-between stage, on-site stage and also pre-next trip stage). Hence, there is influential role of mass media in shaping tourists risk perception, opinion, awareness, and attitudes towards the security affected tourist destinations. This paper reveals the media behaviour with its dual influential characteristics in tourist destinations. One characteristic reveals that media is inclined to be saleable by covering and amplifying the interesting stories of political instabilities. This can deteriorate the peaceful image of tourist destinations as media is inclined to convey, distort, interpret and exaggerate political conflict related security crisis. The other opposite characteristic of media reveals constructive and unbiased role of media in strengthening the positive image of tourist destinations. The case study of political instability and conflict hit (however without any physical threat to tourists) tourist destination of Nepal exemplifies the application of these dual characteristics of media and its unalike impacts on tourism. During a decade long armed conflict with heightened political instability in Nepal, there were some shocking incidents (table 1) though not relating to the insecurity and crime of tourists. However, many Western journalists especially from Indian media (from the private Indian television channels) were quick to exaggerate these negative situations. The international media tried their level-best to prove Nepal an insecure zone, hiding the fact that Nepalese rebels (UCPN-M) had never targeted any tourists and none of the single tourist was hurt or was stranded on their way. The were intense media coverage (as in table 1) of the political instability and its led situations in past. Such various other political conflict related minor incidents (e.g. sit on streets, civil disobediences, protests, banda (closures, and wheel strikes) are also covered by media channels at present which create a climate of fear psychosis, risk and concern on the overall safety and viability among potential tourists. It is the fear of insecurity caused by political instability and its prone conflict and violence rather than the real violence and real direct threat to tourists, which induces sporadic deterioration of the destination image of Nepal. All of these situations caused to erase the peaceful destination image and contributed to the decline tourist visitations to Nepal. Thus, Nepal had
to face many uphill in promoting tourism and marketing it as a favourable destination. In line with the second characteristics of media that favours and strengths the positive image of tourist destinations, there was some positive global media coverage about the natural and cultural beauties of Nepal while covering the political conflicts and footages of armed conflict and tributes to Nepal by various media in past. Such positive media coverage had surprisingly positive implications against the deteriorating peaceful destination image of Nepal during the heightening of the armed conflict. Nepals destination image, especially in the minds of media-led consumer market and the international travel industry has been sporadically dominated by fear. The exotic, peaceful and hospitable characteristics of Nepal for which the tourists in the tourist generating countries are known and familiar with, occasionally gets tarnished due to negative and unrealistic media hype. This concern as also showed by Snmez (1998), though more difficult to respond to, as how to mitigate media exploitation of political instabilities, conflicts and terrorist incidences really relates with the ground reality of Nepal where there are prolonged manifestations of internal structural conflict even after the end of a decade long armed conflict. There is always need of communication management to limit, control, and balance the negative information conveyed through the media before and during the crisis and throughout the crisis recovery phase. The negative perception and drastic measures of tourists can be avoided if tourists (not only potential tourists but also would be travellers who have already booked their holidays, tourists experiencing their holidays on-site, and those returning from their recent trips) become exposed to accurate, balanced, comprehensive, up-to-date, interpretative, and evaluative information on the travel and security information and the ways it changes over time and space. Insisting media to take positive attitude in disseminating authentic information about the existing situation in the country would be desirable. For it, formulating code of conducts (Dos and Donts) for media sector through intense interactions and coordination among all stakeholders of tourism at local level and following such conducts as disciplinary and voluntary commitments by media in real practice can also be effective. Furthermore, formulating and strengthening media cells and proactively mobilizing local crisis response action unit in case of political instability led crisis would be desirable and far-sighted communication management in mitigating possible media exploitation. Acknowledgments The research for this publication was conducted within the framework of the Working Package 1 of the Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) North-South: Research Partnerships for Mitigating Syndromes of Global Change, co-funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation and the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation. The author would like to thank Prof. Dr. Ramesh Raj Kunwar (former Dean, Tribhuvan University), Dr. Bishnu Raj Upreti (Regional Coordinator, NCCR JACS South Asia) and Associate Prof. Dr. Sagar Raj Sharma (School of Development Studies, Kathmandu University) for their encouragements and valuable suggestions to complete this paper.
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MoTCA. (2011). Nepal Tourism Statistics 2010. Kathmandu: Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation (MoTCA). Nielsen, C. (2001). Tourism and the Media, Melbourne: Hospitality Press Pty Ltd. NTB. (2008). In focus 2008. Kathmandu: Nepal Tourism Board (NTB). NTB. (2010). In focus 2010.Kathmandu: Nepal Tourism Board (NTB). Pearce, P.L. (2006). Tourist Behaviour: Themes and Conceptual Schemes, First Indian Edition, New Delhi: Viva Books Pvt. Ltd. Rajdhani, (2004, August 27). Paryataudhogama Naratmak Prachar ko Sikar Dhukka sanga ghumne barabaran cha: Payatamantri (Tourism Industry in trap of negative media advertisenment, Availing of complete safe environment for tourists: Tourism Minister). Rajdhani, page. 12. Richter, L. K. (1997). Political instability and tourism in the Third World. In D. Harrison (Ed.), Tourism and the Less Developed Countries (pp. 35 - 46). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Shakya, K. (2008). Tourism-Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow (pp. 31-42). In R.P. Upadhyay (Ed.). Readings in Rural Tourism. Kathmandu: Sunlight Publication. Sharma, S. & Upadhayaya, P.K. (Eds.). (2008). Report on the proceedings of National Workshop on Post-Conflict Tourism in Nepal: Opportunities and Challenges, Kathmandu: Human and Natural Resources Studies Centre, Kathmandu University & Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) North-South. Snmez, S.F. (1998). Tourism, Terrorism and Political Instability. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(2), 416 - 456. Snmez, S.F., Apostolopoulos, Y., & Tarlow, P. (1999). Tourism in Crisis: Managing the Effects of Terrorism. Journal of Travel Research, 38, 13 - 18. Snmez, S.F. & Graefe, A.R. (1998). Determining future travel behaviour from past travel experiences and perceptions of risk and safety. Journal of Travel Research, 37:171-177. TAAN. (2003). There is no security threat for the trekkers in Nepal (as a press release). Kathmandu: Trekking Agents Association of Nepal (TAAN). Thapa, B. (2003). Tourism in Nepal: Shangri-Las troubled times. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 15(2/3), 117-138. Thapa, B. (2009). Tourism in Nepal: Shangri-Las Troubled Times, In C. M. Hall, D.J. Trimothy, & D.T. Duval (Eds.), Safety and Security in Tourism Relationships, Management and Marketing (pp. 117-138). Mumbai: Jaico Publishing House. The Rising Nepal. (2005, June 25) Nepals tourism victim of negative publicity: Pandey. The Rising Nepal, p.2. Upadhayaya, P. K. (2008). Lasting Peace as the Precondition for Sustainable Tourism. Nepal Travel Trade Reporter, X (51), 24-25. Upadhayaya, P. K. (2011). Peace through Tourism. A Critical Look in Nepalese Tourism. Nepal Tourism & Development Review, 1(1), 15-40. Retrieved May 25, 2012 from Nepal Tourism Board website http://welcomenepal.com/corporate/images/Journal.pdf
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Heritage Tourism in Panauti, Nepal

Biswo Nath Ulak*
Abstract Nepal is one of the country in the world at it has many historic cultures having a lot of potential for tourism apart from the natural beauty. Panauti is one of the destinations for cultural heritage tourists for internal (domestic) tourist as pilgrimage devoting god and goddess with their religion. Panauti can promote as culture heritage city for international visitors.Heritage tourism in Panauti is more than simply visiting natural sites, where the personal encounter with traditions, history and culture built by ancestors at early climate and environment. Heritage tourism in Panauti is based upon the concept that each community has a history or story to tell which they have received from their predecessors and maintained by current society. This could contribute into rapidly growing niche market that is directed towards experiencing the local customs, traditions, arts, historical sites and cultures that authentically represent the Panauti for live heritage site. The heritage tourist can visit historic houses, natural palaces, religious, traditional places and learns the life style (wearing, farming, industry, food habit, rituals of the people etc.) and revitalize historic rivers, culture and traditions of Panauti and her neighborhoods. Key words: Heritage, economic development, mythology, glory, devotee, religious sanctity Heritage Tourism The word "heritage" is North American term, and incorporated into British and Antipodean use covered a wide range of attractions as set out in the 1994 paper. The term fitted well with the observed behaviour of North Americans trying to find their roots in Europe, and more recently in Africa and growing towards Asia. In Britain the term "heritage" had fitted well with Thatcheriate "Victorian" values (Cooper, 2006: 165-166). Thus the evolution of the idea of "heritage" came from the preservation of aspects of a past. The growth of leisure activity, "heritage tourism" based upon the resources of a preserved past. (Gregory,1995: 68). Heritage is the item that inherits from one generation to another. This includes the nature as well as human creations. It encompasses geology, historic place, sites and building infrastructures as well as biodiversity, collections, past and continuing cultural practices,
* Biswo Nath Ulak has done Master in Political Science from Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal
Ulak: Heritage Tourism in Panauti 65
knowledge and living experiences - (Kunwar, 2006:125). Heritage could be the object and infrastructure made for the livelihoods or entertaining transferred for next generation. This may be some entertainment or culture or events etc which followed generation to generation. This would made for enjoyment, successful functions or sorrow ceremony indicate the peoples desire and requirement for event and the culture in past, represent the creativity, skills, knowledge and education of those days. The custom may president for individual, family, community and society to follow in future as tradition or entertainment. This is a custom for educating present and future prediction and driving society and community. Heritage is any items and evidences preserved and transmitted from the past to current communities (Nurick 2000: 1), especially; Original culture and natural beauties/materials/evidences The built environment The archaeological resources The intangible practices and The natural preservations Visiting from one place to another place by a person or a group of persons with a purpose of study, or entertaining or any activity related is known as tourism. Traveling from one community/society/country to another communities/ societies/ countries with a purpose of specific task or visit to a place or several places with the purpose of study and entertaining etc. Heritage Tourism is a study as well as entertaining aspect which lead to awareness of other civilizations, localities, traditions and cultures, also increasing the skills and knowledge of communities, societies and countries on culture and history. This is the opportunities for exchange of their skills and knowledge for betterment and new innovations. Tourist and local communities can learn more techniques and increase their skills and knowledge from the heritage tourism. In Nepal tourism have direct impact on the national revenue1. It creates work opportunities for maximisation of their productions and productivity, fine tuning in their product attracting to tourist. In other hand the services sector has benefit with more tourist in their area. Now it is taken as industry in the modern economy. Heritage tourism industry
1
Travel & Tourism generated 412,500 jobs directly in 2011 (3.3% of total employment) and this is forecast to grow by 3.7% in 2012 to 428,000 (3.4% of total employment). The total contribution of Travel & Tourism to GDP (including wider effects from investment, the supply chain and induced income impacts ) was NPR119.1bn in 2011 (8.8% of GDP) and is expected to grow by 4.8% to NPR124.7bn (8.9% of GDP) - (Travel and Tourism Economic Impact 2012:2)
is an important industry that depends on culture and science of the creativity, ideology and innovation. This will contribute boosting the new creation in technology and science. Methodological Note Studied the books and articles from different authors; visit different webportal and review of literatures from different writers and focus group discussions and interviewed with individuals for developing this paper. Therefore, this study is an out come of empirical research. Information, practices and guidance on heritage tourism are accessed from national and internal literatures and webportal. The purpose of this study is to explore the natural and cultural heritage treasury hidden in Panauti. This assignment expected to support increasing tourism contributing to economic development as well as conservation awaking to local people of Panauti. Geography of Panauti Panauti is one of the quaint and interesting tourist destinations in Nepal. This city is locates 32km southeast from Kathmandu, capital city of Nepal. It feels as if it has been left exactly the way the founders had built the town. A nostalgic atmosphere covers the narrow town streets and ancient structures. Geographically, Panauti town is situated at the confluence between a locally famous live river Rosi and environmentally dying river Punyamata. The population of the town is around 10,000 mainly the Newars, Brahmins, Chhetris, Giris, Magars and Tamangs. There are various Newar sub-castes, they are; Achaju (Archarya), Amatya, Bajracharya, Banmali, Basi, Bhaa, Bhuju Bijukchhen, Bikhala, Buddhacharya, Deula, Dhanju, Dhaugoda, Dhraju, Dhussa, Dobate, Duiie, Duwal, Ghoraju, Hatti, Horaju, Hyaju, Hyanju, Jakibarjar, Jhyaba, Joshi, Kapil, Karmacharya, Kasaju, Khadgi, Khimbanjar, Khyaju, Kisane, Konga, Lakoj, Lathya, Madhikarnikar, Mahaju, Majhi Shrestha, Manandhar, Maskey, Matanchhen, Minna, Misanayo, Napit, Nasnani, Pasachhen, Phachhi, Piya, Poju, Pote, Pradhan, Pradhananga, Prajapati, Putuwar, Raghu Shrestha, Rajbhandari, Rajkarnikar, Rajoupadhya, Ranjitkar, Sainju, Sanyasi, Shahi, Shakya, Shrestha, Singamu, Sipani, Somname(Sonam), Sudhakar, Suryabansi, Sutibanjar, Suwal, Syaula, Takha, Tamrakar, Taujale, Tuladhar, Udas and Ulak etc (www.hamropanauti.com.np). The shape of the city is triangular as it is shaped by joining two rivers at a corner of the Triveni Ghat. Panauti is a small town under the Panauti Municipality of Kavre Palanchowk District, Bagmati Zone, Central Development Region of Nepal. This city falls at the longitude of 270 35 00" N and Latitude 850 31 00" E. This city is linked with black-topped road of 32 km from Kathmandu and located at southeast of Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal. People can easily travel by direct public bus (vehicle) from Kathmandu old bus stand or the travel up to Banepa 24km and catch the local bus from Banepa to Panauti for 8km. This historic city is situated at the centre of small ancient villages, Khopasi, Malpi, Taukhal, Subba Gaun and Sunthan. These all villages are carrying ancient value as well as the natural beauties of valley. Generally, people visiting Panauti visits to Khopasi to see the beauty of geography. Khopasi was the industrial estate of Kirat dynasty (They ruled in
ancient Nepal before Lichhavis) and still known as industrial estate of Kavre Palanchowk District of Nepal. There are two main tourist areas a) Namobuddha and b) Dhulikhel are in walking distance of about 5km from Panauti for good trekking. History It is believed that Panauti is made up on a single rock. It is interesting that there are no effects of earthquakes in a single house in Panauti. So no earthquake has taken place in this area till date. The stone situated at the confluence of the two rivers Rosi (Rudrawati) from Phulchowki forest and Punyamata (Punyawati) from Tukcha Nala forest. People of Panauti believe Rurdawati (Rudra2) river and Punyawati (Parvati3) river came from different direction and meet at the junction where the Lilawati (Durga4) was impending to get together. Later this place became Triveni. The conjunction of three rivers regards as an important religious site since very early time. In Nepali society, such junction regards for a sacred place. A visit or just an ablution in such places enables a man to be freed from many sins and anxieties. Moreover, it is also believed that at Panauti, in addition to aforesaid two rivers, a third river Lilawati also converges making it again a tri-junction called Triveni. However, the last one is said to be visible only to the sheers (Dharmatma) and the mercies (intellectuals). The presence of triveni at Panauti has added and remarkably enhanced its religious sanctity and popularity as well. On account of this, every festive occasion, a great number of devotees from all across the country pour in here for a holy ablution and to pay homage to the nearby Indreshwor Mahadev Temple and other holy sites located here. Triveni site is also regarded as Uttar Prayag Tirtha5 of Hinduism (http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Panauti). The history of Panauti can be found after the unified Nepal by King Yakcha Malla. Panauti is one of the oldest towns in Nepal, consisting of many temples that are still present till this day dating back to the 15th Century or earlier. It has been debated that Panauti was founded by Ananda Malla (1274-1310BC), others believe that there is a golden scripture dated 1385, which is located within the Indreswor temple stating that King Harisingh Dev founded the town. At the end of 13th century, Panauti was finally integrated into the unified kingdom of Nepal, along with Banepa, Sanga, Nala, Palanchowk with a capital city in Kathmandu. The kingdom of Nepal was split up in many states immediately after the death of King Yakcha Malla. Among them Bhaktapur was the larger and strong state among them. Panauti was covered by the kingdom of Bhaktapur. King Bhupatendra Malla had given the Panauti state to his sister as dowry (http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Panauti). The culture of Panauti is similar to the Kathmandu valley, mainly follows Bhaktapur customs. There was a heavy rain in the valley and there lurked the danger in Panauti from flood from Rosi and Punyamata. Immediately, the Queen ordered to establish Aastha Matrika similar that of Bhaktapur, for the safety of Panauti. Mainly Maneswori
2 3 4 5
Rudra is another name of Shiva (Mahadev) Parvati (Mahadevi) is the wife of Shiva Durga was a brave women created by goddess to eradicate evils Prayag Tirtha is situated in Bihar State of India is famous place for ritual function for past soul for Hinduism.
(Maheswori), Kathang Kumari (Ganesh) and Itawari (Sankata) established outside at three corners of Panauti to save Panauti city. They built the canal for Rosi river to save the fertile land and city. The wall of canal is known as Ga Dyang. This was built from Kathang Kumari to Triveni Ghat to save the disturbances from Rosi River. Unfortunately, the tantrik customs were broken after the integration of Panauti in Nepal in 1783 AD. Then Rosi river again attacked Panauti and start floating inside and sweep away one side of Ga Dyang towards the city and the Itawari (Sankata)s goddess falls opposite the Rosi river. The fertile land between the present Rosi river and the other side of Ga Dyang is known as Khusi Bu (river field). Panauti is a historic city from early days. However, most of the recent archaeologies were renovated and built from malla dynasty, as it was originally small state given by King Bhupatendra Malla as a dowry to her sister. In the process of integrating Nepal, King Prithvi Narayan Shah was in ambivalent, how to attack and capture the Panauti state as this was ruled by a woman. A warrior should not make war with the weaken party as per the war principle of "Geeta" (religion)6. He was in difficult position as he had to win Panauti state expanding Nepal territory towards Kathmandu valley and, on the other hand he was worried if he was defeated by the Queen of Panauti, he had to lose those credentials capturing (unifying) territory. The advisors of King Prithvi Narayan advised to identify the person "man or woman" ruling Panauti. The queen dress difficult to distinguish man and women. However, they identified that the ruler was a woman, while the person (ruler) came to Triveni Ghat at early morning and washed her face with both hands. Then it became more difficult to attack upon the woman ruled state. Then Prithvi Narayan Shah used a technique of gun firing from other side of Punyamata river, pointing at the Gajur (cap of the temple) of Indreswori Temple at the time of morning walk of the Queen at Triveni Ghat. She ran away from Panauti due to the sudden surprising attack (big sound) and Prithvi Narayan involved Panauti in 1763 (1820 BS) under unification of Nepal without any losses in both parties. The bullet point is still can be seen at Gajur of Indreswori Temple (Interviewed with local people at Panauti Ghat). Legend of Uttar Prayag (Triveni) The name "Panauti" is formation of the Sanskrit word "Purnamati" which symbolically means wholeness, completeness. Also known as the name derived from the "Padmawati" river which is coming from Tukcha Nala forest, northwest of Panauti. There is a story about Uttar Prayag Tirtha. Long ago in early days the Juju (king) of Panauti had a wish for a top ritual place for Hindu at the configuration of Punyamata and Rosi joining the Lilawati making Triveni. The story says that Triveni Ghat was built in a night, unfortunately it could not complete in time before the day started. The vision of the builder was incomplete and could not been happened the Uttar Prayag Tirtha as people cant see the Himalaya from Triveni Ghat. Therefore, still the pilgrims people go to the top of Dalinchok hill (later on known as Gorakhnath hill) to pay homage Himalayas with holy
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War code of conduct in Mahabharat was not to attack women. Therefore, on the tenth day the Pandavas, unable to withstand Bhishma's prowess, decided to put Shikhandi, who had been a woman in a prior life in front of Bhishma, as Bhishma has taken a vow not to attack a woman as per Hinduism.
water7 from Triveni Ghat. But these days, most of pilgrims who do not know the value and history homage the holly water to Himalaya and they homage to Gorakhnath. HIndu people visiting at Chardham (pilgrimages) usually visit Prayag Tirtha at Uttar Pradesh State of India for the final ritual function for their past soul and past families. Pilgrims from Panauti says the Pandas (Priest) of Prayag used to tease them why you are coming to tail (end of body Prayag) leaving the head (Triveni Ghat in Panauti). The city which is rich in religious monuments is also known as Uttar Prayag. The domestic including Indian pilgrims visit Panauti to homage mainly in following places/occasion (interviewed with Chardham8 returnee from Panauti); Triveni (Prayag Tirtha) and King Birat It is interesting that people of Khopasi believed King Birat has the summer palace in Khopasi. There are stories and places indicated on Guptabas (incognito) of one year life of Pandavas where they have stored (hide) their weapons; where the kitchen of King Birat; the cattle field; Kinchak Badh place etc. Evidence is the Pahari (cast) of Khopasi can speak Palse language which was used by Pandava during their Guptabas life. Pahari is known as Kirat as they follow the Bhume Puja and respect the Mai Goddess there are two Mai Mandirs (temples), Kamala Mai Mandir and Lalita Mai Mandir. However, history said Kirati had participated in Maha Bharat Yuddha (war) as the solder of King Birat. The king Birat travelled to Panauti Triveni on daily basis with the 40 horses carts. He traveled in cart from Mayalboat of Khopasi to "Firfire" station (nearby Panauti Ga Dyang) The evidence of the cart road story is supported by the width and same level of the field just above (west) the present motorable road from Khopasi to Panauti. Let us introduce of "Firfire9 Station" at the other side Ga Dyang. This is a tantric pole with a wind fan staged by the Mahayan Buddhist. A lama from Patikharka was last person who carried this tradition and he used to collect grains from farmers while harvesting. This Firfire fan staged at early spring at each year to save the crops (wheat and potato etc) from hailstones and thunder rains. This was the culture of Mahayan Buddhism which was carried until 1980s. Now, this is disappeared. Cremation Place Cremation is a ritual designed to do much more than dispose of the body; it is intended to release the soul from its earthly existence. "Hindus believe that cremation (compared to burial or outside disintegration) is most spiritually beneficial to the departed soul." This is based on the belief that the "astral body10" will linger "as long as the physical body remains
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Pilgrim took the holy water in their opposite side of thumb finger (a tiny bowl can made while stretching thumb finger more behind) or palm of hand all the way from Triveni to Gorakhnath. Chardham is four religious place in Hinduism at uttaranchal of India. They are Kedarnath, Badrinath, Gangotri and Yamunotri. Prayag falls at the confluence of Ganga and Yamuna rivers of India. Firfire is similar to present tall fan or wind mill.
visible." If the body is not cremated, "the soul remains nearby for days or months." The only bodies that are not generally burned are unnamed babies and the lowliest of castes, who will return to the earth (http://mailerindia.com/hindu/veda/index.php?death). Therefore, "Antyesti" or Hindu funeral rites also refer to as Antim Sanskar (after death of a human being) is an important ritual of Hindu society. Each and every person of Hindu society wishes to have their Antim Sanskar at neat, clean and holy place mainly at Triveni or Dovan (joining) of rivers. Hinduism believes the mother Goddesses are most frequently located at the confluences of rivers, places made more sacred by the cremation grounds located there (www.keithdowman.net/books/ppk.htm). Similarly, there is Bramhayani Godess (one of the aastha matrika) at Triveni of Panauti. There were permanent stone pyres according to ethnicity and casts, but it is turned into cemented some of them. People from this valley wishes to have their Antim Sanskar (last ritual in the life) at this Triveni. Apart from the Panauti valley, dead body used to bring from Phaphar Bari of Makanpur District, Durlung of Lalitpur District and few numbers from Kathmandu valley for crimination in Triveni Ghat. This Triveni Ghat was famous for criminations from different parts of the country until 1990. Now, it is limited to resident of Panauti and around villages due to the sewage of Banepa put into Punyamata River. Basuki Naga It was believed the Basuki naga (snake) resided in Triveni of Rosi, Punyamata and Lilawati rivers. Once upon a time the Basuki naga was attacked by Garuda11 the mount of god Vishnu. Basuki started running toward Rosi river and Punyamata river one after another, to escape from the attack of Garuda. Basuki was not aware of the stone and rock of the river bed which turned with Basukis move, - the stone and rock of river bed turned their faces up when the Basuki drove to the upper side of the river, similarly they down their faces when Basuki ran downside of river. It was easy for Gurada to follow Basuki. Finally, Basuki understood that the stone and rock of river bed are turning their face with her movement. Basuki naga managaed to turn the faces of stone and rock of Rosi and Punyamata river beds up to about 500 meters from centre of Triveni and was managae to hide at the centre of Triveni Gaht. Generally, the stone and rock of river bed faced down towards river flow. It is rear to be seen such natural structure that the faces of stone and rock of the river bed at opposite faces. Unfortunately, the first elected Panauti Municipality people representative of 1990s multi-party system, has taken decision to vanish such heritage knowingly and unknowingly in the name of modernizations and in the name of local livelihoods. The Municipality had sold the land to private parties along to river side of both rivers, where the land owner has built the retention wall from river to protect their
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Astral body is more than the physical body that we sense. Our mind, emotions, and soul have their own bodies. These bodies are distinct from yet connected to our physical body. We have many bodies. Highly sensitive people have always been able to perceive one or more of these nonphysical bodies. Recent advances in science and technology are verifying their existence. Our day to day experience confirms their reality. However, the evidence for the existence of the astral body remains a mystery. There is no scientific evidence for such an entity. Garuda is a large mythical bird or bird-like creature that appears in both Hindu and Buddhist mythology - that eats snakes
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individual property. This has been vanished the natural beauty of river and river heritage of Panauti. However, still there are few stones and some rock at river seen facing opposite (upward) to river flow as an evidence of the story. It is needed to add the Machhindranaths arrival in Kathmandu to complete the story of Basuki naga. There is an interesting story. Once, lord Gorakhnath had come to visit Nepal. He sheltered at a woman's house at Boudha and requested her to feed him. The woman had a Ghyampo (big jar) of Jand (local beer) and she provided the jand to Gorakhnath. He continued taking a lot as he was very much hungry, but the Jand never ended. Gorakhnath became very much surprised on how the woman has been supplying him the Jand. He identified the woman as a witchcraft practitioner and she was getting help from a nine headed naga (snake) filling the Ghyampo. Gorakhnath became very much angry with the naga and gathered all the naga of Kathmandu valley and put under his custody and sat upon them with meditation. This causes no rain fall in Kathmandu valley (www.colorfulnepal.com/rato-machhindranath-and-bhoto-jatra.html). Kathmandu Valley suffered from famine due to drought. Lack of rain and water resulted in poor food production leading to shortage of food. The people approached to the king with the problem and asked for some kind of solution and help. The king consulted with the priests to find out why the valley was not getting rain; the priests found that Gorakhnath by means of sadhana (meditation - tantric power) had captured all the nagas in the valley and gone for meditation. They also found out that the meditation was not likely to be broken unless his Guru, Machhendranath appeared at the area. There was no chance of rain unless Machhendranath was brought from Sinhal Deep. So it was decided that king Narendradeva of Bhaktapur along with Gubhaju Bandhudatta Vajracharya from Kathmandu, and Jyapu (farmer) from Patan, would go and fetch Machhendranath. They decided to take Basuki naga from Triveni, Panauti (out from Kathmandu valley) for making bridge (crossing the sea) approaching to Sinhle Deep. They reached Panauti and Gubhaju Bandhudatta Vajracharya request Basuki naga to show his length (big size). The naga start became bigger and bigger and made 3 rounds in the present Gorakhnath hill (about 1.5 km) and put his head on the top of Indreswore temple. Then the Gubhaju asked him to become small. The naga became very small in the size of an ant. Then the Gubhaju immediately pick-up the naga and put into a karuwa (water jug) with cover. Basuki cried and request with Panauti resident to help her to be freed. No one heard his request. Basuki naga went in the control of Gubhaju and promised to support in their mission. The king, jyapu and Basuki naga with their tantric were power finally able to bring Machhendranath to Kathmandu. Gorakhnath broke his mediation in order to pay homage to Machhendranath; the nagas were set free and there was rain in the Kathmandu valley. Then the god Machhendranath is established in Bungamati (Gurung, 2000: 77-84). In completion of bringing Machhendtanath, unfortunately, Basuki was annoyed with the resident of Panauti as they did not helped her while she cried to be freed from the Gubhajus control. The Jyapu from Patan had made good friendship with Basuki in their journey to receiving Machhendranath. The friendship attracted Basuki to migrate from Panauti to Sankhamul of Patan with her return from Sinhle Deep. There is saying in Panauti that naga gave shrap (cruse) to Panauti resident before leaving "never be multi
millionars and never be hunger and they believed on it. Interesting, the Naga is invited at every year at Panauti (Jestha) Purne Jatra (Jya Punhi) in Panauti The resident of Panauti believed that the Naga comes 4 days ahead from the Panauti Jya Puni Jatra (main festival day). Justification to this event is the rain and storm with clouds happened for a while at each year before 4 days of Jatra and after the 4 days of Jatra. The Panauti people believe, the symbol of Basuki naga coming and going to and from Panauti. This can be observed even these days during the festival. Sati Ban Sati was a religious funeral practices among some Hindu communities in which a recently widowed woman would have immolated herself on her husband's funeral pyre. By about the 10th century sati, as understood today, was known across much of the subcontinent (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sati_%28practice %29). It continued to occur, usually at a low frequency and with regional variations, until the early 18th century. The queen Bhubaneswori of King Bhupatindra Malla from Bhaktaur also went for Sati. In the medieval era at Panauti a widow was taken for sati at her husbands death. She is successful ran away near to a forest from the burning wooden pyre and was able to hide. No one could find her after searching for many days. She disappeared in the jungle and that jungle is named with "Sati Ban". Then the system of Sati system is stopped in Panauti. Heritage Sites The small country of Nepal is blessed with such astonishing and unique sites that within the areas of 140,800 sq km Nepal holds a considerably high number of places recongnised by UNESCO (United Nations Educational Scientific Cultural Organisation) as 'World Heritage Sites'. There are altogether ten World Heritage Sites in Nepal, seven of which are in Kathmandu itself. The list includes both natural as well as cultural sites. Panauti comes under another valley next to Kathmandu valley could be an another world heritage site. This city was well followed by Malla regime in 12th to 17th century. This is the proof of culture and architect available from Bardhan family (Khanal, 2010:6) at 13th century to 17th century of Malla regime. Unfortunately, the ancient architects and culture were not maintained properly. Triveni Ghat Triveni Ghat is the main attraction of internal tourist and pilgrims from different corners of country and visitors from other countries, It is taken as one of the big religious destination for Hindus. There are many types of sculptures and varieties of temples (infrastructures). Most of them are medieval Nepal. The story tells the Ghat is far earlier than the medieval Nepal. It will be worth researching the Triveni Ghat for the value of history. However, it can be taken as "world heritage site", if it is renovated properly as it has many evidences of ancestors contribution as well as a lot of contribution at medieval Nepal. There are so many pagoda styled temples as well the numbers of goddess architect and houses with four
types of roof: a) open, b) pagoda, c) shikhar and d) domed and streets-steps paved with bricks and stones and inn etc. Types of Temples in Panauti; Pagoda Style Three storeyed Temple 1. Indreshwor Temple 2. Bhramhayani Temple 3. Krishna Temple Shikhar Style 1. Badrinath Temple 2. Kedar nath Temple 3. Ram Janaki Temple 4. Dhaneshwor Temple 5. Karunamaya Temple 6. Tola Narayan Temple
Two storeyed Temple 1. Kathan Ganesh Temple 2. Bishwo Nath Temple 3. Pashupati Nath Temple Opened (Ground floor) 1. Bhimsen Temple 2. Sankata Temple 3. Maneshwori Temple 4. Indrayani Temple 5. Mahalaxmi Temple 6. Natyashwori Temple 7. Bhairabnath Temple
Layaku (Dabali - Durbar Square) There was a palace in Agha Tole12 before Malla regime. The Malla regime had built a palace at Yachhe Tole known as Layaku Durbar, where research (Department of Archaeology initiate excavation) is underway since 2008. Layaku is the Durbar Square of Panauti. It is believe that there was a big palace with 9 Chowks13 and, the then ruler has established Taleju Bhawani and many goddesses in and out of the palace. The residents of Panauti are still continuing the Kha Me14 (he buffalo) puja and Nalaswang (barley plants jamara) puja in Dashami at the Layaku similar to Bhaktapur tradition. The custom of sacrificing a Kha Me and numbers of he goats at different goddess and seedling the Nalaswang at Layaku area are continuing. The custom of distributing meat of Kha Me and he goats plus the Nalaswang to every household in Panauti is continuing even after Layaku Durbar is vanished. They are continuing plantation of Nalaswang in a house at the corner of Layaku Durbar square. Indreshwori Mahadev Temple Area
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Tole - small geographical area of city with people residence Chowk - yard within or among the buildings Kha Me is a he buffalo put in a dark room at the first day of Dashami with Tantrik Puja. He will be fed only jand (local beer) for 7 days considering the ghost. On the eight day (Aasthami) he will killed and the meat will distributed every households of Panauti.
A strange legend - Ahilya was the beautiful wife of a Maharshi whom the god Indra came passionately to desire, eventually seducing her by adopting human form. The Maharshi laid a curse on Indra whose body became covered with yonis (vagins), condemning the god to live in seclusion at the Triveni. Indra sat in neuter (tapasya) homage to Maheswor to free from shrap (curse) of Maharshi. Indrayani wife of Indra also came from haven and reside nearby Triveni Ghat, company to Indra's neuter. Eventually Shiva's consort Parvati, taking pity on the innocent Indrayani, turned her into the invisible third river. Later Shiva, appearing in the form of the temple lingam, freed Indra from the curse. Among the many temples located in Panauti, Indreshwor Mahadeva temple is the most significant temple and is located in the heart of this city. Indreshwor Mahadeva is the oldest preserved Hindu temple, standing on a single base. The doors of the principle facade are decorated with sculptures, while the entrances to the other sides are simply molded.) This pagoda type temple is the religious centre of this area and thousands of devotees pray for salvation and liberation here. The area around the temple can be considered an open museum which is surrounded by many other different temples such as Unmatta Bhairav, Krishna mandir and Ahilya mandir. The ancient square courtyard is around 1514.5m large. There are three main gates in the south, east, and west. Around the temple many small monuments and temples have been built. This Degas-type three-storeyed temple has multiple bases composed of several tiers and the use of columns symbolizes the differences to the eyes of devotees. There are all together six tudals in the temple each side tilting 45 degrees to support the roof. The big tudals are around 15 feet long, carved with different gods and goddesses and a lot of different household goods have been offered by different devotees which hang from (it is disappeared). This type of Nepali architecture probably originated in Nepal around or before the 5th century. This temple has a unique and fictitious third roof, which has been painted and protected by copper-gold marble. This degas-type temple with accurate corners, equal distance from the middle of the structure and lions as guards on the stairs is a brilliant example of Newari architecture. This Temple was re-built in the time of Pratap Mall at 1670 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Kathmandu_Durbar_Square) and renovated by French assistance in 1990s. Festivals Panauti does not only stand upon single stone and situated at the confluence of two rivers; it also conserves the varieties of festivals from the early days. There are more than 50 festivals celebrated in Panauti every year. While the national festivals have fixed dates, religious festivals are set by astrologers following the lunar calendar. The best part about the festivals in Panauti is that all the events are celebrated with the same enthusiasm and glory the way it used to be in early days when people had no other means of entertainment. Here are few special festivals which are celebrated in Panauti;
Jya Punhi (Panauti/Jestha Purne)
Jya Punhi15 which is known as Panauti Jatra is celebrate during the main farming season, i.e harvesting of wheat and planting of rice plant. In early days this Jatra complete (happened) before the day light began. There are two versions on it, 1) The Jatra completes at night or before day light began, to free them for going to their farm for work and 2) This Jatra's main purpose is sexual intercourse between Unmatta Bhairab and Bhadrakali. The sexual intercourse is taken as secret between the goddesses and should happened in the darkness. Therefore, the Jatra must happen before day light. However, now the Jatra starts after the day light and completes before afternoon, i.e. 12:00 O'Clock of the day. Myth of this festival is Bhadrakali (super goddess incarnation of Parvati - to destroy evils) became more emotional and uncontrolled. Indreswor Mahadev tried to satisfy her. He could not satisfy her and driven by Bhadrakali. Immediately Indreswor Mahadev dived into Triveni Ghat and turned into Unmatta Bhairab. The Unmatta Bhairab received big organ. Then Unmatta Bhairab went straight to Bhadrakali where they met at the Dabali16 (present Layaku) and had sexual intercourse and fully satisfied her. Panauti Jatra is a combination of the palanquin and chariot festivals. It is the nine-day festival starting off on the tenth day of the bright fortnight of Jyestha (May-June) and ending on the third day of the dark fortnight in Ashad (June-July). The major Jatra to be held on the full moon day starts off early in the morning. God Bhairava's chariot collides with that of Goddess Bhadrakali from the rear and then it is pulled out. Then, Goddess Bhadrakali's chariot collides with that of God Unmantta Bhairava symbolizing the divine sexual intercourse of God Unmantta Bhairava with Goddess Bhadrakali. This action is repeated three times. Each time, the chariots collide; devotees throw vermillion at each other expressing their joy at the happy union of the divine couple. The palanquin carrying God Indreswore Mahadev and the chariot carrying Goddess Bhadrakali also collides head-on with each other. The palanquin is carried back and forth a number of times before it finally collide with the chariot carrying Goddess Bhadrakali. After that the palanquin makes the last collision with the chariot before it is finally pulled off. This symbolizes the divine sexual intercourse of God Indreswore Mahadev with Goddess Bhadrakali (http://hamropanauti.com.np/panauti). Among them the fourth day of the festival - fourteenth day of the bright fortnight is interesting, a festival of Duin17 -cha-nya-ya-ke-gu' (Duin waking) is held in the late evening. This typical walking is one of the great attractions of the Panauti Jatra. A team of a Priest, a Duin (woman) and a Jyapu (porter) crosses the bridge over Punyamati River to go to make Tantric offerings to Goddess Brahmayani along with Goddess Bhadrakali. In early days, at the puja night there was big rain and big flow in Punyamata. Puja has to taken to Brahmayani at the mid of the night. No bridge. Basuki naga agreed to became bridge for
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Jya means the work and Punhi means full moon night. This festival falls at the main working days (longest day of the year), therefore it is known as Jya Punhi. In early days people of Panauti goes to their farm after celebrating Jatra at early morning. Dabali - Public gathering place at Malla regime Duin (Putwar) was a professional newar cast of midwife works as auxiliary ritual workers.
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them. No women from Panauti claimed to cross the river through the back of Basuki naga. Only a Duin (cast/professionally by midwife) was prepared to do so. The Duin moved forward creeping by her fingers of the feet on the back of naga to cross the river along with other team member. This custom is continuing in the present wooden/suspension bridge of 20 meters length with an attraction of devotees. Makar Mela One of the holiest sites for Hindus, a month long Makar Mela is held here once every 12 years. It is believed to be the same as the Kumbha Mela, which takes place in Prayag, Bihar State, India. Hindu pilgrims from all over the country as well as India take part in this carnival. It is celebrated according to the solar system of the calendar when the sun enters from Kumbha to Makar rashi (Astrology). It is believed that during this Mela, taking a dip in the holy river, Triveni Ghat (junction of three rivers: Rudrawati, Lilawati and Punyawati), is believed to wash away all your sins as well as cure skin diseases. According to mythology, Lord Indra, the king of Heaven, was suffering from an incurable disease. He meditated for 12 years to please Lord Shiva in the hope that his disease would be cured. As Lord Indra used to bathe in the Triveni Ghat, Shiva decided to mix the nectar of his cure in the waters of Rudrawati. When Indra bathed in the holy water of this river, he was instantly cured from his ailment. Since then, it is said that every 12 years, the nectar of cure for all diseases flows through this river. It is also believed that if you take a bath in Triveni Ghat, you will be relieved from all your earthly sins and receive salvation. Another mythology has it that if you mix the water of Triveni Ghat with oil during the time of Makar Mela, then the oil will settle on the base whereas the water will float! (Bhattarai, Siddartha 2010:15) Namo Buddha Panchala Desh now called Panauti, the birthplace of Mahasatva (who later became Namo Buddha) (Manandhar, n.d.). The people of Panauti believe that there was a king in Panauti who had three princes. Among them first and second prince focused on ruling the kingdom and the third seemed as social. He was very bright and endowed with spontaneous kindness and compassion. One day while he met with a mother tiger with child hungry, he cut his body to draw blood, which he allowed the tigress to lick. The mother tiger pounced on the prince and devoured him (http://www.namo-buddha.org/ namobuddha.html). In the memory of the prince, king made a symbolic of his son and it was turned into a nine stupas in the town among which the "Nhubha" known as Dyochhen of Namobuddha is another important Bihar of the town. In this Dyochhen festival of Namobuddha is performed every year in the month of Gunla18 (August). Harisiddhi Dance
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Gunla is a monthly newari festival falls at 9th month of newari calendar. People visit and homage many gods and goddesses with dance and music.
Harisiddhi dance is the oldest traditional dance in Nepal. This dance was initiated about 2,400 years ago by King Vikramaditya. The dancers while performing the dance are believed to be in direct communion with gods and spirits. This dance is performed every 12 years interval from the people of Harisiddhi, Kathmandu valley. This dance will perform at limited cities of Nepal. One of them is Panauti. Madhav Narayan Mela Shree Swasthani Bratha Katha is a popular ritual observed in Nepal in the month of Magh (January-February). A month long festival of Magh Mela (Madhav Narayan Brata) and Swasthani Brata begins in Sankhu of Kathmandu Valley. Madhav Narayan Brata19 is one of the most difficult brata practiced in Hindu Religion in Nepal. These pilgrims goes different god and goddess temple around Kathmandu valley to homage god and goddess. Panauti is only place these pilgrims visit out of Kathmandu valley and spent a night praying all god and goddess at Panauti and return to Sankhu next day. Nava Durga Nach In Dashain, the nine forms of Goddess Durga are worshipped each Goddess known as devis, famous for their different aspects and power. The dance of Nava Durga begins each year during Dashain in Bhaktapur. The Nava Durgas, together with four attendant Gods dance the step of tradition. It is believed that in many of her aspects, the Goddess will come down to inhabit the body of a dancer to be worshipped. Most of the members of the dance troupe, also known as devgan go to perform the dance in several places including Panauti. Yomari20 Punhi The festival is said to have started from Panchal Desh - "Panauti". Myth is - Suchandra and Krita, a married couple, first experimented with fresh yield of rice from their field. And what took shape turned out to be delicious bread. The new delicacy was eventually distributed among the community. As the food was liked by all, the bread was named yomari, which literally means 'tasty bread'. The myth further states that on the same day the couple offered to the god of wealth, Kuber, the new delicacy, who was passing by in a disguise. Following them, this Kuber disclosed his real identity and blessed the couple with wealth. He also declared that whoever will prepare yomari in the form of gods and goddesses on the full moon of Mansir (December) and observe four days of devotion to god, will get rid of poverty. The festival is celebrated on the second day when prayers are offered during which the yomaris are stored and not eaten on that very day. On the fourth and the final day the people belonging to the Newar community consume the sweet bread as a gift from gods and this practice also marks the end of the festival (http://www.nepalhomepage.com/
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Fasting for a month eating one meal in a day without any salt, walking barefoot in the chilly cold winter mornings, taking a holy dip bath every morning in Salinadi (river) together with God Madhav Narayan, going pilgrimage in different part of goddess at Kathmandu valley. Yomari - in newari term Yo means liked and Mari means bread = lovely bread
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society/festivals/yompun.htm). Yomari was started from Panauti and spread in the Nepal amongst Newar community. This may not available in the other countries of the world. Therefore, this can be means to promote tourism (Kunwar, 2011:77) in Panauti. Heritage Development and Conservation The evidences, stories and history of Panauti said that the art and culture were established in ancient age and developed in Mall regime. Unfortunately, lack of awareness, skills, knowledge and resources it cold not expand as well as preserve the gifted by predecessors during Shah Regime and democratic period and difficult to expect in federalism. Panauti Integrated Project was launched under the assistance from French Government from 1991 to end of 1990s. French Project has contributed renovating ruining ancient historic infrastructures. They have renovated many temples - Brahmayani, Indreswor, Unmattta Bhairab, Triveni Ghat, Jagannath and many temples and royal palace and many old public buildings and inns etc. including the brick paving on the street. They made Panauti a new bride, supporting in sanitary system. The project did not conduct the detail study with long-term impact and good treatment mechanism result river pollution. This is the chronic problem of Nepalese cities around Kathmandu Valley. Youth from Panauti has learned the importance of heritage from this project and they were encouraged to participate and contribute and conservation of art and culture. Contribution and conservation in art and culture are not an easy task. It is creativity and innovation from mankind with the mercy from nature. It needs a big devotion and, started by youth will bring something solution for development and conservation of Panauti. Tourism Infrastructure Tourism business and profession is a new phenomenon in Panauti. People are not aware of and educated on tourism business/industry on how to handle the customer services. Therefore, they are not aware of different levels of minimum requirement of services, infrastructure including human resources required for promoting tourism industry. Some people have invested in infrastructure, mainly in accommodations of tourism business which has to be improved and increased. Day Tour Panauti is a famous place for one day tour for tourist visiting in Kathmandu. Panauti is just 32km from Kathmandu with a good road. Most of the tourist agencies in Kathmandu started a day tour in Panauti for their passengers. This city is known as one of the small living heritage city around Kathmandu valley. Tourist can enjoy travelling from Kathmandu valley through Sanga along with greenery land, forest and crossing small business town Banepa. Tourist enjoy travelling along the farming lands with half an hour drive from end of Kathmandu valley (Sanga) to Panauti seeing the natural greenery and seasonal farming and farmers working at their field. Half day tour is sufficient to viewing the historical place and the touring ancient city. It will required more time and days even a year if the tourist wants
to study more on Panauti and participate in different festival and culture of Panauti. In the season, the day tourist will be around 200 in a day in group visit. Beside this, there will be 4 - 5 tourists in a day tourist from abroad apart from domestic and Indian tourist. There is no any record maintained by local authority on tourist arrival in Panauti. Hotels and Restaurants Hotel Panauti was made considering to foreign tourist flow in Panauti (http:// www.panautihotel.com). This is a reasonable accommodation for tourist from abroad. Most of the standard tourist preferred to a day tour and return to Kathmandu. There are few local hotels and lodges made for viewing to tourist from India and abroad which need to be improved. As part of internal tourist place and centre of places those local hotels and lodges are running with in-country visitors. There are numbers of restaurant made considering the flow of visitors and city users. However, there are couples of restaurant which are hygienic and clean and can be used by visitors from abroad. There are plenty of rooms for improvement in this sector. The youth from Panauti have realized the importance of heritage as the contribution from ancestors and value of materializing for the livelihoods of community satisfying the visitors from the different corner of world. The youth are demonstrating their performance from different communication media promoting tourism of Panauti. There are some hurdles in the development of Panauti. They are a) Fragmentation of effort and lack of integrated leadership, b) Lack of public education and awareness, c) Uneven quality in site restoration and interpretation, d) Inadequate visitor service infrastructure, e) Lack of aggressive marketing and f) Insufficient investment There was a couple of heritage tourism activities organized on the initiation of the youth of Panauti. Unfortunately, those activities were organized without set strategic plan and limited to a festival and event as it was not owned by respective authority. The authority also enjoyed (photo session, talk programmer etc) as a festival ignoring the commitment they promised in public forum. Political leadership ignored the value of heritage handed by generation and, misused in the name of livelihoods and supremacy of their power. Local authority has demonstrated their competencies being not accountable to public property and conservation of heritage city. Citizens, local government officials, preservation and tourism practitioners, traditional economic development professionals and others are not aware of the wide range of benefits offered from Panauti heritage tourism development. Panauti needs to build a broader constituency that understands what heritage tourism development is and what it can contribute to economic development, conservation of natural resources, and quality of life in Panauti. "Atithi Devo Bhaba" is a code of conduct for Hindu society respecting the guest as "Guest is God". It was well received by Nepali society until 1980s. Visitors in village were well respected by individual and communities. It is deteriorating with moderniastion and selfishness. People could not afford to guest fulfilling their personal demand with the capacity of host. In the mean time unfortunately, the arm conflict raised the big gap of truest with in-country
visitors as well as unnecessary target to foreign visitors from rebels. However, local community and society respects to foreign visitors/tourist as good guest. During the arm conflict the foreign tourist became tools for communicating means for reality of area. The conflicting parties could not exercise their activities openly in the presence of international tourist. They proved "Tourism as a force of Peace" (Kunwar, 2012:58). Finally, UNMIN came to Nepal to mediate between two conflicting parties. Considering, the recent history and value of Panauti, it is essential educate Panauti people on dimension of peace from tourism. The quality and authenticity of historic site restoration and interpretation are uneven. There is no systematic effort to provide guidelines, technical assistance, or incentives to private sector developers, non-profit organizations and local communities to help them develop their heritage sites to a uniformly high standard. The local authority has to promote private sector for development and conservation of heritage site of Panauti providing the community ownership and making them accountable. 90% of Panauti population is based upon the seasonal agriculture employment, i.e. they will unemployed for about 8 months in a year. Their time can be utilise turning into entrepreneurship (floriculture, handcrafts etc) on local craft or material production intending to export or focusing to visitors and tourist from in-country and abroad. This will re-generate the skills and knowledge of ancestors making live cultural city and boosting economy. Tourism shopping is considered as one of the most important activities of the tourist destination. Travellers enjoy purchasing unusual gifts and personal items are disappointed when they find little selection or nothing to buy at a destination. There must be adequate information to facilitate and attract tourist, but there is no sufficient information package made for tourist for guiding city and providing the information about historic and natural sites. These informations will be tools for tourist guide determining the kinds of visitor services they should have to handle different numbers and types of visitors. Beside the information bulletin, more careful attention needs to be given to the quality of directional and interpretive signs at heritage attractions to improve visibility, access and the quality of the visitor experience. The heritage sites and areas have engaged in creative marketing initiatives, but there is need for more aggressive and integrated marketing effort (Lagroup and Interants, 2010: viii) at the municipality level that will draw new visitors to the Panauti's heritage attractions and encourage them to extend their visits. There has been a nominal amount of investment in heritage tourism at the local level from private and government sectors. However, investments to date do not reflect the quantity and quality of the municipality's heritage development, where tremendous potentialities opportunity available for heritage tourism in Panauti. Conclusion Tourism reaches into the varied aspects of Nepalese life and its benefits are encompassed by diverse sectors directly and indirectly. It generates employment opportunities and helps in the promotion and conservation of the art and culture. The tourism industry is one of the foreign currency earners in the country and thus makes a significant contribution to the
economy. It is my personal request not to destroy the creation of ancestors even if not able to contribute adding in their investment. This will be an investment for the future generation even the present generation could not make the cash from this. I would like to recommend some points considering the weakness in tourism industry of Panauti require; * Leadership; * Vision; * Action; * Investment; and * Education It is necessary to identify leaders at the municipality, wards and community levels to carry out the efforts forward. These leaders need to provide a vision and show how heritage tourism can contribute to broad municipality and local goals-economic development, farmland and open space preservation, revitalizing existing towns, and growing smarterand improve the quality of individual life in communities. Once the leadership and vision are in place, Panauti needs a municipality wide action plan for heritage tourism that identifies the next generation of creative initiatives, sets priorities, and recruits a wide range of public and private partners to move these forward. It will also require additional public and private investment to make these priorities in reality. A core component of this strategy must include educational institutes to encourage an understanding of and appreciation for Panauti's rich heritage. Teachers and students comprise a large percentage of visitors to historic sites and they will play a critical role in the future on issue related to preservation and promotion. References Acharya, B. (1961). Prachin Kalko Nepal, Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar. Bhattarai, Siddartha, (2010). "Makar Mela" ESC Nepal Magazine, March, pp18 Cheryl M. H, (2001). Heritage Tourism, Simons Island, Vol 1 pp1-2. . (2006), Culture Heritage and Tourism, Research Informing Policy and Planning, Gold Cost Campus Griffith University, Australia: CRC for Sustainable Tourism Pvt. Ltd. Cooper, C. (ed.) (2006). Classic Reviews in Tourism, New Delhi: Viva Books Pvt. Ltd. Green, B. (2010). Heritage Tourism Handbook: A how to guide for Georgia, Georgia, Historic Preservation Division, Georgia: Department of Natural Resources. Gregory, A.A., 1995, Heritage, Tourism And Europe: a European Future for a European Past?, London: Mansell Publishing Ltd. Gurung, Poonam, (2000). Bungamati, The Life World of a Newar Community Explored Through the Natural and Social Life of Water, Unpublished M. Phil Thesis Submitted to the University of Bergen, Norway Herbert, David T (1995). Heritage Tourism and Society, London: Mancell Publishing Limited. Jin, H. (2002). Tourist Satisfaction with Cultural/Heritage Sites:The Virginia Historic Triangle, Unpublished MSc Thesis Submitted to the Virginia Political Institute and State University.
Khanal, Sundar, (2010). "Panauti dig Seeks New Light on Medival Nepal", My Republica, Daily English News Paper, March 14 Kathmandu: Nagarik Publication Kunwar, Ramesh Raj, (2006). Tourists & Tourism: Science and Industry Interface, Kathmandu: IST Kunwar, Ramesh Raj (2012). "Safety and Security in Tourism:A Study of Crisis and Disaster Management", Journal of Tourism Hospitality Education, vol 2. .......... (2011). "Special Interest Tourism: A Study of Growing Significance of Food Tourism", The GAZE Journal of Tourism and Hospitality,Vol 3, No1, pp77-97. Lagroup and Interarts, 2005: City Tourism and Culture:The European Experience, A Report Produce for the Research Group of European Travel Commission (ETC) and for the World Tourism Organisation, Brussels: ETC Research Group, pp viii. ........ (2001). Moving Heritage Tourism Forwarding Pennsylvania, The Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Pennsylvania: Centre for Pennsylvania. Manandhar, G.,n.d. Nabuddha Book, Banepa Municipality: Himalaya Printing Press Newland, K. and Taylo, C (2010). Heritage Tourism and Nostalgia Trade: A Diaspora Niche in the Development Landscape, Washington: Migration Policy Institute. Nurick, John, (2000). " Locum Destination Review" Analysia, vol 2. Poria Y., Buttler R., Airey D. (2003) "The Core of Heritage Tourism", Annals of Tourism Research, Vol 30, No1 pp 238-254. Raymond A. R, (2005). Culture and Heritage Tourism, Eastern Michigan University, unpublished. Sofield, T.B.H., (2010). Pilgrim Tourism to Scared Power Places in the Kathmanu Valley of Nepal, Western Australia: Murdoch University Walter J. (2000). The Challenge of Sustainable Community Culture Heritage Tourism, Bangkok: Asian Institute of Technology. Xuan J. and Homsey A., (2008). Heritage Tourism, Planning Guidebook, Method for Implementing Heritage Tourism, Delaware: The University of Delaware. http://www.hamropanauti.com.np/panauti.php#geo" http://.www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panauti http://www.keithdowman.net/books/ppk.htm http://www.colorfulnepal.com/rato-machhindranath-and-bhoto-jatra.html" http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sati_%28practice%29" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathmandu_Durbar_Square http://www.hamropanauti.com.np/panauti http://www.namo-buddha.org/namobuddha.html http://www.nepalhomepage.com/society/festivals/yompun.html. http://www.panautihotel.com
Book Review
Shanti Barmashkha* Sangmo Yonjan-Tamang Mahesh Upadhyay
Book Title: Five Treasures of Great Snow: The Story of Kangchenjunga Editors: Jon Gangdal & Karl Kerner Publisher: Buddha Publication, Kathmandu, Nepal Year of Publication:2011 ISBN: 978-9937-30-193-5 Email: shanti_barma2008@yahoo.com;sangmo_16@hotmail.com; maheshupadhyay@gmail.com White snow, natural beauty, altitude, calmness and riskiness of Himalayas lure people. People climb Himalayas for many reasons, some climb for fame and glory, some climb for experience. Mountaineering is an adventurous form of travelling. It has become a dream for many adventure enthusiastic people in the world. Mountaineering is considered as one of the main economic activities, every year many national and international expedition teams attempt climbing different mountains of Nepal. The expedition to Himalayas is considered as both conquest and tragedy. Jon Gangdal and Karl Kerner's book Five Treasures of Great Snow: The story of Kangchenjunga describes those conquest and tragedy of expedition to Kangchenjunga of many climbers belonging to different nations. Though there are two authors of this book, Karl Kerner especially helps in translating and editing. This book explains the experience of author, Jon Gangdal of whole journey to Kangchenjunga and his experiences with local porters and other climbers. This book is a collection of expeditions to Kangchenjunga by different nationals concerning the challenges and experiences faced by climbers. It gives insights to new climbers and readers about different difficulties and adventures that climbers face. There are sixteen chapters in this book which are well structured in which author has mostly included the experiences of expedition of different peaks. In chapter one, "Five Treasures of Great Snow", the author provides the different names of Mount Everest along with dispute on meaning of both Tibetan and Nepali names. The original name is Chomolungma but the official Nepali name is Sagarmatha. As the title of this chapter, it gives the title to Kangchenjunga as ' Five Treasures of Great Snow'
* Shanti Barmashkha, Sangmo Yonjan - Tamang and Mahesh Upadhyay are the ex-students of Master in Conflict, Peace and Development Studies, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal.
whose spelling in Tibetan is Gans- chhen-mdzod-inga but pronounced as Kang- chen-dzo-nga, Kang means snow, Chen means great, Dzo means treasure and Nga means five. This chapter also highlights Sherpa culture and their extraordinary capacity of coping with high altitudes so they are given a title of ' real heroes of the Himalayas'. The belief of Sherpa as Kangchenjunga one of the five sisters having red face, connected with mountain goat and home of Kangchenjunga Demon make reader to find this chapter more interesting and exciting. Chapter two, "Farewell Everest" describes the Norwegian attempts for Everest expedition of 1994, 1996, 2005, and The Golden Jubilee Everest Expedition 2003. Though 1994 Everest expedition is the author's first expedition, could not get success and also lost nine climbers including Mingma Norbu Sherpa. Similarly, 1996 expedition become an unsuccessful year where fifteen people died though it has good teambuilding. 2005 expedition though considers as the longest Everest expedition, reach to the summit whereas the attempt for 2003 is not success. As many sherpas lost their life during these expeditions, the author shows his humanity by providing a seasonal work in Norway for many Sherpas to support the family of the deceased, contributing in redeveloping the Rolwaling community and building infrastructures like health center, school and micro power plant. Chapter three "Into The Great Adventure" explains the great contribution of experienced climbers Douglas Freshfield and Vittorio Sella during an expedition of Kabru, a southern peak of Kangchenjunga and the vital role of Sherpa for success of expedition are explored in this chapter. This chapter also explains the disputed claims of W.W. Graham who make an attempt in Kangchenjunga massif in 1882. Similarly, the expedition of Kabru by two young Norwegian climbers, Carl Wilhelm Rubenson and Ingvald Monrad who make a good relationship with their porters and claim their experiences different from others in regard to the courage and good qualities of native people in success of expedition. This chapter also portrays mischief of porters where they steal fuel for campfire and fill water in canister instead of fuel but later on they have to carry firewood to the way to the highest camp. Chapter four entitled, "A Lonely Birthday party" explores the ten reasons of not attempting to Kangchenjunga such as remote, cold, expensive, fear of Maoist, difficult route, complicated logistics, difficult to reach summit and return back, less media coverage and less famous then Mount Everest but the author stresses that "Kangchenjunga is one of those mountains which shall be climbed for oneself instead of obtaining name and fame. In this chapter, the author also compares the old and modern value of expedition. The expedition to Everest has become commercialized with the increase of different climbers from different nations having motive of getting benefit in terms of money and name rather than finding any new thing. The author is delighted that he climbed Everest when all things were new and challenging but he expresses sorrow for new climbers those who are trying to find new and attractive things to do in mountain. Chapter five, "The Beast" explains an expedition to Kangchenjunga in 1905 in a leadership of an Irish Journalist, Aleister Crowly along with other Swiss climbers. This chapter primarily centers on the leadership style of Aleister Crowly who is given a nickname of 'The Beast' or even 'The Great Beast' by the other climbers for his addiction to sex, drug,
Barmashkha/Tamang/Upadhyay: Book Review 85
black magic and his psychopathic dictatorship. Despite his psychopathic leadership, he maintains a good relationship with Sherpa porters by giving them prize, increasing their salary and gathering in camp fire which show Crowly a good guardian. This chapter shows the clashes between Aleister Crowly and other expedition members who are trying to expel Crowly from his position of expedition leader. Similarly it also mentionsthe unusual activities of Tartarin and Rigo de Righi such as threatening porter with knife and revolver, trying to give bribe of boots and claws to make porters to obey their orders. Chapter six, "Break A Leg", 2008 illustrates positive answers for those ten disadvantages of Kangchenjunga which are discussed in chapter four. The author along with other climbers publishes a book named 'White Book' where they briefly write the positive aspects of those ten reasons of not attempting to Kangchenjunga. Learning new thing, feeling of old days, friendly Maoists, absence of fixed ropes, no journalists or photographers, feeling of different level of risks, etc make the journey of Kangchenjunga more adventurous. Similarly, this chapter also highlights the ten reasons of choosing southwest face of Kangchenjunga such as more warmth of sun, need of less oxygen, less chances of avalanches, less risk, chances of meeting with other expeditions,etc. As the title of this chapter suggests, the author breaks a leg during his journey to Kangchenjunga. Although this expedition could not get success due to strong winds and heavy snowfalls but their attempt is considered as challenging and making impossible possible. Chapter seven "The Third Pole" describes the first three British attempts to climb the world's highest peak, Mount Everest, in the year 1921, 1922 and 1924, which were not successful. Heavy snowfalls, avalanches, lack of oxygen equipment, inflicted disease are some of the factors for the death casualties and failure of expedition. Climbing Everest was a issue of criticism and objectionable at that time saying it senseless and waste of money and time. The author writes about the disheartened British climbers' feeling upon the death of seven Sherpas in 1922 expedition. However, British's strong determination to summit Everest at any cost no matter how difficult the journey is, can be sensed in the chapter. The author presents the speculation that two climbers of 1924 expedition might have reached the summit and died on their way back but has not yet officially proved due to lack of evidence. It also notifies the reader the British's plan to ascend Everest is to regain their old pride through some heroic deed like climbing Everest as they had won the war together with their allies. Chapter eight "Transport and Trouble" explores the transport difficulties and other challenges on the way to the destination. The author describes their journey from Kathmandu to Suketar and troubles they faced such as cancellation of flight due to bad weather; travel by local bus, which the author feel risky, and at the same time adventurous. It also deals with the concept of culture shock explaining author's awkwardness regarding hotel and transport services in the areas. Author also expresses positive side of such experiences as they had an opportunity to observe local culture and lifestyle during the journey. The author is concerned about the sufficient number of porters in the expedition and was also troubled with Internet service, which he blames himself for carelessness and refers it as bad luck for the expedition.
Chapter nine entitled, "The Fight for Himalaya" gives reader an overview of German expedition to Kanchenjunga launched in the year 1929. Paul Bauer, most skilled mountain climber and German army fascinated with Himalayan beauty heads expedition challenging British Everest expedition failure. The expedition experience shows the adequate budget, equipment, dedicated and qualified climbers are most essential for a successful expedition. The chapter also mentions that the German expedition had also received all the assistance from British and Indian. The expedition team faced several hurdles and challenges: encounter with leeches, spending night undersnow cave, downpour, snowstorm, landslide and others. The chapter also reveals German's goal to climb up Kanchenjunga to show rest of the world how powerful they are even though they lost the war. Chapter ten "A Long Walk" is the description of author's long walk to the destination. It depicts joy and pleasure walking through forest; pine, riverside in a pleasant weather and at the same time author's disappointment due to poor logistic and unorganized porter that cause hindrance on the trek to Kanchenjunga. It sheds light on child labor issue as many kids work as porter and the author's discomfort with it.The author observes hailstorm, thunder lightning while making journey and expresses concerns on porters' arrival on time in order to make the trek more organized. The author is pleased to have walked through such a beautiful valley like Yamphudin, a Sherpa settlement and passes many other valleys on the way. Chapter eleven "Beautiful and Dangerous" deals with the nature of Kanchenjunga i.e. Beauty and Dangerous which affect the first international Himalayan expedition and one more time to Bauer's expedition. It clearly demonstrates the problem encountered by the expedition team of deep-water snow, high altitude sickness, frostbite and other inevitable accident way up to summit. It shows how strong the climber need to be even in the desperate situation like death of climbing mates and move ahead keeping promise of the team to reach the goal. The author praises Sherpa's bravery, their extreme tolerance of high altitude and ability to carry heaviest load. The climbers choose different climbing routes taking into consideration its many aspects that make the ascending less dangerous and difficult. The incident of falling down, wounded, death all are inevitable situation while climbing mountain however good coordination among the members is most important to make sure that everyone is in good spirit and well. Chapter twelve "The Biggest Mountain I Ever Saw" explains a depiction of difficulties faced during the expedition such as disorientation, exhaustion, altitude sickness, chilly wind and so on, faced both by the mountaineers and the local Sherpas is portrayed in the twelfth chapter. The importance of preparedness with all the climbing gears to technological stuffs presence is of high value during this climbing period is fostered in this unit. An awareness of the pathological condition i.e. altitude sickness with its symptoms are highlighted here which provides the beginners to prepare and prevent oneself from this condition. Gamow bag, oxygen and drinking plenty of water can be safer means to acclimatize high altitude rather than risky medication. The beauty of the Ramche, Nepal and its snow capped mountains is beautifully portrayed here in this chapter. The positive message of indestructible courage and determination shown here really overwhelm the fear of the great peaks.
Barmashkha/Tamang/Upadhyay: Book Review 87
Chapter thirteen" A Brown Shadow" explains that the British were very enthusiastic to climb Mount Everest. Various aerial photographs were taken to gain information of both Everest and Kanchenjunga. The British had fear that German and other countries would make attempts for Everest so it made close ties with Dalai Lama for the permit to climb Everest from the Tibetan side in 1940, 1941 and 1942. This caused other countries to raise their voice for the expedition permit to Everest. This chapter clearly shows the struggle between the Americans and the Germans to make an attempt on Mount Everest which would be the biggest heroic deed of all had not been achieved by the nations. This chapter argues on the idea of successful climbing by having a team of well- trained and matched climbers of the first rank rather than the assemblage of small un-experienced parties. Chapter fourteen "Slowly Hurry" highlights on the techniques of moving on the mountain and ways of making a final bid to the summit. It focuses on the tough routes to the peak and the ways and importance to acclimatize the high altitude. Despite of the hassles on the route, the author shows the positive energy and determination of the climbers to be on the hype. Here the writer must have devoted some extra effort on highlighting the importance of Sherpa rather that showing the just as a potter because of their involvement in many critical phases during expedition. Chapter fifteen "On The Rope Again" deals with the Everest Committees application seeking permit with Dalai Lama was turned down the British eyed on Nepal for the route to Everest. This chapter not only talks about a Sherpa Norgay Tenzing as an actual climbing team but talks about the historical moment of climbing to summit of the worlds highest peak in 1953 led by Edmund Hilary. This summiting further led to rise of political crisis among Britain, Nepal and India for claiming the victory to themselves. This unit also shows the wide heartedness of female climber Bremer-Kamp by improvising the educational and health services. Chapter sixteen "The Summit" elaborates the conquest of mountaineers for reaching the summit of Kanchenjunga. The weather is shown to be the major limiting factor in the expedition rather than having all high tech climbing gears and instruments. Experience and technique are the major tools required but luck as well cannot be foreseen. The weather is shown to be the greatest retarding factor during the expedition and climbing to the summit. In spite of this challenge, Nepal has its weather station at only 5500 m high which does not account for the weather at high altitudes. This forces the mountaineers to rely upon the detailed Meteorological forecasts from their home countrys resources. This book proves itself to be one of the mountaineering gazettes for the climbers who are on their beginning steps on the expedition to the worlds 8000 meter peaks which mostly lie on the Asian region of the globe. It clearly guides the climbers on the aspect of cultural assimilation of Sherpas with the people from rest of the world. Not only it shows the love and affection forwarded by the locals to the foreigners but the same from the climbers to the local people, children and a society as a whole assisting to their final societal development. After reading this book, even if reader has not climbed mountain, one can feel that expedition is not only a dangerous but also full of adventurous, excitement, enjoyment and recreation.
As the book establishes itself as a complete guide to the climbers to the eight thousanders, but it doesnt elaborate on the real ways of getting a permit to climb the mountain in Nepal and also does not focus on the real hurdles to achieve it which would be a real asset to the beginners. When we go through the book, we find that the author has been less elaborative to show whether there were practices of cultural assimilation in mountaineering between the local sherpas and the climbers from other countries. It would be a real guide to new comers if the book fostered the ways to live in Nepal with the local inhabitants. This book also lacks in mentioning the cross cultural behavior of both climbers and porters. If assimilated this aspect, this book could be a total guiding package to all the climbers seeking to conquer the Asian eight thousanders Despite some shortcomings, there is no doubt the author presents enthusiastic and adventurous travel experience of mountain expedition in an interesting way. The major strength of the book is that there are many photographs including historical images, which make readers, realize how adventures the journey was and also helps in making this work more authentic. The author explores the history of mountain expedition and presents tussle between British and Germany for ascending the Nepal's Himalayas. The book explains climbers' experiences in attempting Mt. Everest and Kanchenjunga in the past, which gives reader a real picture of expedition. The book also raises issue of child labor which the climbers encountered during their journey where many child work as porter for them. The Sherpa porters' poor economic condition also seems to be one of the major concerns for the climbers. Five Treasurers of Great Snow is a book that gives reader an overview of different aspect of mountaineering. It is a very well organized book that follows a sequential order in its sixteen chapters making it easy for the expert and the amateur to understand about Himalayan expedition and history of mountain travelling. This book will be useful not only for the mountaineers, but also for the new climbers, general readers, researchers, academics, policy makers and tourism entrepreneurs.
THE GAZE
JOURNAL OF TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY
Vol. 4 No. 1 Year 2012
International School of Tourism and Hotel Management

(Affiliated to Salzburg University of Applied Sciences, Austria)
THE GAZE
Editorial Board Chief Editor
Prof. Dr. Ramesh Raj Kunwar

Managing Editor: Tej Bahadur Dhakal Editor: Dr. Tika Nath Sharma Associate Editor: Shamjhana Basnyat Advisory Board Narendra Bajracharya Prof. (FH) Mag. Leonhard Wrndl Prof. Dr. Govinda Prasad Acharya Dr. Tirtha Bahadur Shrestha Dr. Shree Govinda Shah
Published by International School of Tourism and Hotel Management Dillibazaar, P.O.Box: 5196, Kathmandu, Nepal Tel: 977 1 4434350, 4434185 Email: info@ist.org.np Website: www.ist.org.np
THE GAZE
CONTENTS
Ramesh Raj Kunwar Him Lal Ghimire Monika Bretbacher Roman Egger Pranil Kumar Upadhayaya 1 Lumbini as International Pilgrimage Destination: Authenticity and Significance Trans-Real Space in the Tourism Service Portfolio Media with dual effects for peace image in politically toppled destinations: A case study of Nepal Heritage Tourism in Panauti, Nepal Book Review: Five Treasures of Great Snow: The Story of Kangchenjunga
34 50
Biswo Nath Ulak Shanti Barmashkha Sangmo Yonjan-Tamang Mahesh Upadhyay
64 83
Editorial Note We are very happy to offer The GAZE, the Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Vol. 4, No. 1 to our readers. This journal is published annually in English by International School of Tourism and Hotel Management, which is affiliated to Salzburg University of Applied Sciences of Austria. The purpose of this journal is to disseminate the knowledge and ideas of tourism to the students, researchers, journalists, policy makers, planners, entrepreneurs and other general readers. Articles and reviews in the journal represent neither the views of the concerned publishers nor those of editorial board. Responsibility for opinions expressed and for the accuracy of the facts published in the articles or reviews are solely with the individual authors. We have realized that it is high time that we made this effort for tourism innovation and development. We strongly believe that this knowledge based platform will make the industry and the institutions stronger. The Editorial Board THE GAZE International School of Tourism and Hotel Management Dillibazaar, P.O.Box: 5196, Kathmandu, Nepal Tel: 977 1 4434350, 4434185 Email: info@ist.org.np Website: www.ist.org.np
Editorial Policy The Gaze is an interdisciplinary Journal which welcomes research articles, research abstracts and book reviews for the dissemination of knowledge about tourism and hospitality. Articles should be original and unpublished, based on primary sources or field work or reflecting new interpretations, written in English, but not exceed twenty pages. The research work should be based on global research methodology in which the researcher will be required to use parenthesis or author date system. The references should be based either on APA method, MLA method or mixed uniformity. Manuscripts should be typed double-space on A4 sized paper with a 4 cm margin on all four sides. The text should be not less than 3000 words. The author should underline nothing except words which are to be italicized. Notes and references should be typed double-space on separate pages which should be included at the end of the article. The text should refer to notes numbered consecutively throughout the article using raised numbers. Bibliographical references should be cited in the text by the Authors last name, date of publication and page number e.g. (Dhakal, 1991:110), or if authors name is mentioned in the text by the date and page reference only (1991:110). Entries in the references should be in alphabetical and chronological order of authors. They should include the details in the following order: name of the author(s) - surname first, date, title, name of the periodical, volume number (Arabic numerals to be used throughout), pagination (for articles in periodicals and books with several authors), place of publication and name of the publisher for a book. Tables and maps should be submitted on separate pages, numbered with headings. Notations in the text should indicate where these are to appear. The research should include any area such as ecotourism; rural tourism; sustainable tourism; community tourism; village tourism; cultural heritage tourism; agro-tourism; pasture tourism; pilgrimage tourism; medical tourism; tourism management; tourism administration; sociology of tourism; anthropology of tourism; psychology of tourism; geography of tourism; economics of tourism; sports tourism; shopping tourism; tourism and corporate culture; tourism and environment; tourism marketing; tourism and nationalities; tourism and hospitality management; tourism and law; tourism disaster management; tourism and hospitality education; tourism and media; tourism and conflict; tourism, conflict and peace; and tourism and research methodology. The Editorial Board has right to accept or reject the article for publication. If the article is rejected, it will be returned to the author. Authors receive five offprints free, and a copy of the issue in which their article appears. The editors welcome enquiries from readers willing to review books
Salzburg University of Applied Sciences Salzburg University of Applied Sciences and Technologies (FH Salzburg), is an accredited institution of Austrian higher education, recognized by the Austrian Ministry of Education, Science and Culture. It is one of the most modern universities for applied sciences in Europe. In its various levels of academic programs, it concentrates on current trends in tourism, product development and e-Business. FH Salzburg is situated in Salzburg, Austria, one of the most vibrant tourist regions in the world. The city at the Salzach River is the world famous for its summer and winter tourism. Not only does it boast 22 million overnight stays, but its wide variety of tourist attractions and offerings draws guests who come to attend conventions or music festivals as well as those seeking adventure, culture or relaxation. FH Salzburg aims to offer various programs tailored to the needs of current and future demand of the labor market combined with a sound theoretical underpinning. This is guaranteed by its qualified and highly committed staff from higher educational institutions as well as the industry. It has collaboration with more than 60 partner institutions in Europe, Americas, Asia, Australia and Nepal in international projects as well as faculty and student exchange. International School of Tourism and Hotel Management International School of Tourism and Hotel Management (IST) was established in the year 2003 with an objective to produce world class human resources to cater to the overwhelming need of the hospitality industry by offering various academic degrees and training packages as per the international standard. It is a center for excellence in hospitality education providing an enterprising and stimulating environment in which students can learn and develop their full potential. Hence, IST is also a suffix, which means a person with deep knowledge, practical exposure and appropriate attitude in the particular discipline. IST aims to add "ist" to its students and prepare professionals to become leading managers in the various tourism and hospitality outlets. Affiliated to Salzburg University of Applied Sciences (FHS), Austria, IST offers customized and fast track programs to provide students maximum flexibility and opportunity for progression. Various programs offered by IST is approved by Ministry of Education and Sports of Nepal Government. Since its inception it has established cooperation with numerous universities in Nepal, Singapore, Austria, Australia, Thailand, United Kingdom and United States of America. Likewise, FHS and Tribhuvan University of Nepal have already entered into the bilateral agreement to promote faculty and student exchange, joint research program and accreditation to each other's degree.
Published by International School of Tourism and Hotel Management Dillibazaar, P.O.Box: 5196, Kathmandu, Nepal Tel: 977 1 4434350, 4434185 Email: info@ist.org.np Website: www.ist.org.np

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Lumbini as International Pilgrimage Destination: Authenticity and Significance

Ramesh Raj Kunwar * Him Lal Ghimire **

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28 Journal of Tourism and Hospitality (Vol. 4)

Kunwar/Ghimire: Lumbini as International Pilgrimage... 29

30 Journal of Tourism and Hospitality (Vol. 4)

Kunwar/Ghimire: Lumbini as International Pilgrimage... 31

32 Journal of Tourism and Hospitality (Vol. 4)

Kunwar/Ghimire: Lumbini as International Pilgrimage... 33

34 Journal of Tourism and Hospitality (Vol. 4)

Trans-Real Space in the Tourism Service Portfolio

Bretbacher/Egger: Trans-Real Space in the Tourism... 35

36 Journal of Tourism and Hospitality (Vol. 4)

Bretbacher/Egger: Trans-Real Space in the Tourism... 37

38 Journal of Tourism and Hospitality (Vol. 4)

Source: Based on Kroeber-Riel & Weinberg 2003

Bretbacher/Egger: Trans-Real Space in the Tourism... 39

Source: Based on Egger 2005; Kroeber-Riel & Weinberg 2003

40 Journal of Tourism and Hospitality (Vol. 4)

Source: Based on Blackwell et al. (2001) quoted according to Ku/Tomczak 2007

Bretbacher/Egger: Trans-Real Space in the Tourism... 41

42 Journal of Tourism and Hospitality (Vol. 4)

Bretbacher/Egger: Trans-Real Space in the Tourism... 43

44 Journal of Tourism and Hospitality (Vol. 4)

Bretbacher/Egger: Trans-Real Space in the Tourism... 45

46 Journal of Tourism and Hospitality (Vol. 4)

Bretbacher/Egger: Trans-Real Space in the Tourism... 47

48 Journal of Tourism and Hospitality (Vol. 4)

Bretbacher/Egger: Trans-Real Space in the Tourism... 49

50 Journal of Tourism and Hospitality (Vol. 4)

Upadhayaya: Media with dual effects for peace... 51

Figure 1: Political instability and media in image making process

Source: Compilation modified from Hall & O Sullivan (1996)

52 Journal of Tourism and Hospitality (Vol. 4)

Upadhayaya: Media with dual effects for peace... 53

54 Journal of Tourism and Hospitality (Vol. 4)

Upadhayaya: Media with dual effects for peace... 55