INTRODUCTION

The tachometer also called revolution counter is an instrument used to measure the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as with electric motors. Generally these measurements are rated in round per minute (R.P.M). The word is formed from Greek roots tachos, meaning speed and metron, meaning measure. The traditional tachometer is laid out as a dial, with a needle indicating the current reading and marking safe and dangerous levels. Recently, digital tachometers giving a direct numeric output have become more common. In its most familiar form, a tachometer measures the speed at which a mechanical device is rotating. A common example is the tachometer found on automobile dashboards. The traditional tachometer requires physical contact between the instrument and the device being measured. In applications where this is not feasible for technical or safety reasons, it may be possible to use a contactless tachometer to take measurements from a distance. A contactless tachometer can be a permanent part of the system, or it can be handheld for occasional spot measurements.

This device is built on an AT89C2051 microcontroller, a 7-segment display and a phototransistor to detect the rotation of the shaft whose speed is being measured.

The idea behind most digital counting device, frequency meters and tachometer, is a microcontroller, used to count the pulses coming from a sensor or any other electronic device. In the case of this tachometer, the counted pulses will come from phototransistor, which will detect any reflective element passing in front of it, and thus, will give an output pulse for each and every rotation of the shaft, as show in the picture. Those pulses will be fed to the microcontroller and counted.

The pulses picked up by the phototransistor are sensed by the internal comparator of AT89C2051 and, through software, each pulse representing one rotation of the object is detected. By counting the number of such pulses, on an average per minute basis, the RPM is evaluated.

Just point the light-sensitive probe tip atop the spinning shaft towards the spinning blade, disk or chuck and read the rpm. The only requirement is that you first place a contrasting colour mask. A strip of white adhesive tape is ideal on the spinning object. Position it such that the intensity of light reflected from the objects surface changes as it rotates. Each time the tape spins past the probe, the momentary increase in reflected light is detected by the phototransistor. The signal processor and microcontroller circuit counts the increase in the number of such light reflections sensed by it and thereby evaluates the rpm, which is displayed on the 4-digit, 7segment display. The phototransistor is kept inside a plastic tube, which has a convex lens fitted at one end. A convex lens of about 1cm diameter and 8-10cm focal length is a common item used by watch repairers and in cine film viewer toys. It can be obtained from them to set up the experiment. The phototransistor is fixed on a piece of cardboard such that it faces the lens at a distance of about 8 cm. The leads from the phototransistor are taken out and connected.

Literature Review: 2.1. Working of Tachometer

Benfield, A. E. in Sep 1949 [1] .This paper appears in the Proceedings of the IEEE.Volume: 20 , Issue: 9 Page(s): 663-667

The theory and operation of a simple tachometer are described, in which a direct electrical e.m.f. is generated by attaching a magnet to the rotating member. It is shown how the position and orientation of the magnet affect the magnitude of the generated e.m.f., and suggestions are made for further increasing the e.m.f. generated per rate of revolution.

2.2. Induction type digital tachometer

Ahmad, M. in Aug 1984 This paper appears in the Proceedings of the IEEE. Volume: 72 , Issue: 9 Page(s): 1096 An induction-type digital tachometer in which the number of pulses is proportional to the speed is described. Even for very low speeds the number of pulses is high, making it very suitable for extremely low speed measurement.

Problem Identification:
Comparison of the contactless digital tachometer with the use of the 8051 microcontroller revealed the disadvantage with its usage. Many problems were realized in its application, thus limiting the functionality of its usage. Some of these problems are

It was realized that the sensor produces a very small signal used to reflect infra red light from the LED into the detector and the distance from the material.

Measuring revolution per minute values less than 60 rpm with a single pulse was problematic.

Obtaining multiple pulses to increase the accuracy of the tachometer was also another challenge.

The microcontroller AT89C2051 is being connected to an external crystal oscillator.

This initial printed circuit board (PCB) was designed to work only with the optical sensor mentioned above .No other sensor can be used to replace it should it get spoilt hence limiting its usage.

Methodology:

4.1. PCB DESIGN:

Layout of desired circuit diagram and preparation is first and most important operation in any printed circuit board manufacturing process. First of all layout of component side is to be made in accordance with available component dimensions. The following points are to be observed while forming the layout of P.C.B. a) Between two components, sufficient space should be maintained. b) High wattage/max. Dissipated components should be mounted at a sufficient distance from semiconductors and electrolytic capacitors. c) The most important point is that the components layout is making proper compromisation with copper side circuit layout. d) The two most popular boards are single sided boards and the double sided boards. The single sided P.C.B. is widely used for general purpose application where the cost is to be low and the layout is simple.

4.2. PREPARING CIRCUIT LAYOUT:

First of all the actual size circuit layout is to be drawn on the copper side of the copper clad board. Then enamel paint is applied on the tracks of connection with the help of a sharp brush. We have to apply the paints surrounding the point at which the connection is to be made. It avoids the disconnection between the leg of the component and circuit track. After completion of painting work, it is allowed to dry.

4.3. DRILLING:
After completion of painting work, holes of 1/32 inch (1mm) diameter are drilled at desired points where we have to fix the components.

4.4. ETCHING:

The removal of excess of copper on the plate apart from the printed circuit is known as etching. For this process the copper clad board with printed circuit is placed in the solution of FeCl3 (Ferric chloride) with 3-4 drop of HCl in it and is kept so for about 2 hrs. And is taken out when all the excess copper is removed from the P.C.B. After etching, the P.C.B. is kept in clean water for about half an hour in order to get P.C.B. away from dry acidic profile which may cause poor performance of the circuit. After the P.C.B. has been thoroughly washed paint is removed by soft piece of cloth dipped in thinner or turpentine. Then P.C.B. is checked as per the layout. Now the P.C.B. is ready for use.

4.5. SOLDERING:
Soldering is the process of joining two metallic conductors, the joint where the two metal conductors are to be joined or fused is heated with a device called soldering iron and then an alloy of tin and lead called solder is applied which melts and covers the joint. The solder cools and solidifies quickly to ensure a good and durable connection between the joined metals. Covering the joint with solder also prevents oxidation.

4.6. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

4.7. LIST OF COMPONENTS: No. COMPONENT SPECIFICATION QTY.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Transformer Microcontroller Current Buffer Operational Amplifier pnp Transistor npn transistor LED

220/12V AT89C2051 ULN2003 CA3140 BC557 2N2222 Blue

1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1

Phototransistor L14F1 Rectifier diode, 1N4007 D1

10 .

4- digit, 7 segment display

KLQ564

11 .

Resistor

1KOhm,10KOhm, 1.2KOhm

11

12.

Resistor Network, RNW1

10KOhm

13.

Preset

4.7KOhm

14.

Electrolytic capacitor, C1

10F, 16V

15.

Ceramic disk capacitor,C2, C5, C6

0.1F

16.

Ceramic disk capacitor, C3, C4

22pF

17.

Push-to-on switch, S1

18.

Crystal Oscillator, XTAL

12MHz

19.

DC Motor

150rpm, 60rpm

4.7.1. POWER SUPPLY:

The Regulated Power Supply is required for the proper functioning of all the components in an electronic system. The microcontroller requires regulated output of 5V for its operation, while 12V is required for operating relays and motors. The Regulated Power Supply circuit basically requires an AC supply of 220-230V, stepdown transformer, rectifier circuit, regulator and stabilizing capacitors.

Power supply circuits are built using Filters Rectifiers Voltage regulators.

Starting with an ac voltage, a steady dc voltage is obtained by rectifying the ac voltage, then filtering to a dc level, and finally, regulating to obtain a desired fixed dc voltage. The regulation is usually obtained from an IC voltage regulator. The ac voltage, typically 120 V rms, is connected to a transformer, which steps that ac voltage down to the level for the desired dc output. A diode rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a dc voltage. This resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation. A regulator circuit can use this dc input to provide a dc voltage that not only has much less ripple voltage but also remains the same dc value even if the input dc voltage varies somewhat, or the load connected to the output dc voltage changes. This voltage regulation is usually obtained using one of a number of popular voltage regulator IC units.

In this project, two voltage regulator ICs are used. One is LM7812, for 12V regulated output and the other is LM7805, for 5V regulated output.

IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS:
Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used ICs. Regulator IC units contain the circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier, control device, and
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overload protection all in a single IC. Although the internal construction of the IC is somewhat different from that described for discrete voltage regulator circuits, the external operation is much the same. IC units provide regulation of a fixed positive voltage, a fixed negative voltage or an adjustably set voltage.

A power supply can be built using a transformer connected to the ac supply line to step the ac voltage to desired amplitude, then rectifying that ac voltage, filtering with a capacitor and RC filter, if desired, and finally regulating the dc voltage using an IC regulator. The regulators can be selected for operation with load currents from hundreds of mille amperes to tens of amperes, corresponding to power ratings from mill watts to tens of watts.

THREE-TERMINAL VOLTAGE REGULATORS:

1. Input 2. GND 3. Output Figure no. 4.1

The fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage, VI, applied to one input terminal, a regulated output dc voltage, VO, from a second terminal, with the third terminal connected to ground. For a selected regulator, IC device specifications list a voltage range over which the input voltage can vary to maintain a regulated output voltage over a range of load current. The specifications also list the amount of output voltage change resulting from a change in load current (load regulation) or in input voltage.

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4.7.2. TRANSFORMER:

Figure no. 4.2 A transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. It can raise or lower the voltage in a circuit but with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. The physical basis of a transformer is mutual

induction between two circuits linked by a common magnetic flux. A transformer consists of two coils having mutual inductance and a laminated steel core. The two coils are insulated from each other and the steel core, other necessary parts are some suitable container for the assembled core and winding; a suitable medium for insulating the core and its windings from its container; suitable bushing for insulating and bringing out the terminal of winding from the tank.

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4.7.3. DIODE:

Figure no. 4.3

PN Junction diodes:It is a P type region and an N type region formed in the same crystal structure, a PN junction diode is produced. Some of the conduction electrons near the junction diffuse into the P type semiconductor from the N type semiconductor across the junction combining with the holes. The loss of electron makes the N type

semiconductor positively charged and hence the neutralization of the holes. On the other hand makes the P type semiconductor negatively charged. This region where positive and negative charges develop is called depletion region. If a P region is made positive with respect to the N region by an external circuit, then junction is forward biased and junction has a very low resistance to the flow of current.

4.7.4. Microcontroller (AT89C2051):

The AT89C2051 is a low-voltage, high-performance CMOS 8-bit

microcomputer with 2K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C2051 is a power-ful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and costeffective solution to many embedded control applications.

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Features

Compatible with MCS-51 Products 2K Bytes of Reprogrammable Flash Memory Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles

2.7V to 6V Operating Range Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz Two-level Program Memory Lock 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM 15 Programmable I/O Lines Two 16-bit Timer/Counters Six Interrupt Sources Programmable Serial UART Channel Direct LED Drive Outputs On-chip Analog Comparator Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

4.7.5. Current Buffer (ULN2003):

These versatile devices are useful for driving a wide range of loads including solenoids, relays DC motors, LED displays filament lamps, thermal print- heads and high power buffers in the situations when the input signal is not providing enough currents. Here we need to drive DC motor and the motor needs a specific amount of current. Its in the range of 30-100 mA. But such high currents cannot be delivered by simple ICs or parallel port etc. Hence we need a current buffer for that. So we select Uln-2003 in this case.The pin connection of ULN 2003 is as follow:

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Figure no. 4.4

The ULN 2003 is an inversion buffer and hence output is taken from pin 9 and the output pin.If we are driving motor according to the signal from some IC which is not able to provide enough current, then

Firstly we input that signal to one of the 7 input pins of ULN 2003, say pin 1. Then output I taken from the Pin 9 and the corresponding output pin i.e. pin 16 as shown below:

Figure no. 4.5

15

We also connect a high current power source of appropriate voltage between pin 9 and pin 8.

When the input signal to the IC ULN 2003 is HIGH, then the output of the IC at the corresponding output pin is LOW. But if input signal to the IC ULN 2003 is LOW, then the output of the IC at the corresponding output pin is HIGH. Hence in the above circuit, when input at pin 1 is HIGH, then the DC motor would start running as at the positive terminal of motor we have a HIGH and at the negative terminal we have a LOW (pin 16). But if input signal is LOW, the DC motor would not work as we have HIGH at both terminals of the motor.

4.7.6. Operational Amplifier (CA3140):

The CA3140 is an integrated circuit operational amplifiers that combine the advantages of high voltage PMOS transistors with high voltage bipolar transistors on a single monolithic chip. The CA3140A and CA3140 BiMOS operational amplifiers feature gate protected MOSFET (PMOS) transistors in the input circuit to provide very high input impedance, very low input current, and high speed performance. The CA3140A and CA3140 operate at supply voltage from 4V to 36V (either single or dual supply). These operational amplifiers are internally phase compensated to achieve stable operation in unity gain follower operation, and additionally, have access terminal for a supplementary external capacitor if additional frequency roll-off is desired. Terminals are also provided for use in applications requiring input offset voltage nulling. The use of PMOS field effect transistors in the input stage results in common mode input voltage capability down to 0.5V below the negative supply terminal, an important attribute for single supply applications. The output stage uses bipolar transistors and includes built-in protection against damage from load terminal short circuiting to either supply rail or to ground.FN957 The CA3140A and CA3140 are intended for operation at supply voltages up to 36V (18V).

FEATURES:

MOSFET Input Stage Very High Input Impedance (ZIN) -1.5T (Typ)
16

Very Low Input Current (Il) -10pA (Typ) at 15V Wide Common Mode Input Voltage Range (VlCR) - Can be Swung 0.5V Below Negative Supply Voltage Rail

Output Swing Complements Input Common Mode Range Directly Replaces Industry Type 741 in Most Applications Pb-Free Plus Anneal Available (RoHS Compliant)

4.7.7. Transistor:

A transistor consists of two pn junctions formed by sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductor between a pair two types of transistors, namely:(1) n-p-n-transistor (2) p-n-p transistor An n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductor separated by a thin section of p-type. However a p-n-p transistor is formed by two p-sections of opposite types. Accordingly; there are

separated by a thin section of n-type. In each type of transistor, the following points may be noted:1. There are two pn junctions. Therefore, transistor may be regarded as a

combination of two diodes connected back to back. 2. There are three terminals, taken from each type of semiconductor 3. The middle section is very thin layear. This is the most important factor in the function of a transistor.

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npn Transistor (2N2222):

Figure no. 4.6 The 2N2222 is a common NPN bipolar junction transistor used for general purpose low-power amplifying or switching applications. It is designed for low to medium current, low power, medium voltage, and can operate at moderately high speeds. The 2N2222 is considered a very common transistor and is used as an exemplar of an NPN transistor. It is frequently used as a small-signal transistor.

Pnp Transistor (BC557):

The BC557 is general purpose silicon, PNP, bipolar junction transistor. It has maximum VCE rated at -65V and can sink maximum current of -98mA. It has typical power dissipation of 495mW. It can give gain more than 200. Specifications:

Maximum VCE : -16V Maximum collector current: -98mA Typical Gain: Between 124 to 798 Maximum power dissipation: 495mW Package: TO-92

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4.7.8. Light Emitting Diode (LED):

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, early LEDs emitted lowintensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

Figure no. 4.7 When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.[6] LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy

consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared

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LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances.

4.7.9. Phototransistor (L14F1):

A phototransistor is in essence a bipolar transistor encased in a transparent case so that light can reach the base-collector junction. It was invented by Dr. John N. Shive (more famous for his wave machine) at Bell Labs in 1948, but it wasn't announced until 1950. The electrons that are generated by photons in the basecollector junction are injected into the base, and this photodiode current is amplified by the transistor's current gain (or hfe). If the emitter is left unconnected, the phototransistor becomes a photodiode. While phototransistors have a high erresponsivity for light they are not able to detect low levels of light any better than photodiodes.[ Phototransistors also have significantly longer response times.

Figure no. 4.8

Photo transistors are operated in their active regime, although the base connection is left open circuit or disconnected because it is not required. The base of the photo transistor would only be used to bias the transistor so that additional collector current was flowing and this would mask any current flowing as a result of the photo-action. For operation the bias conditions are quite simple. The collector of an n-p-n transistor is made positive with respect to the emitter or negative for a p-n-p transistor. The light enters the base region of the phototransistor where it causes hole electron pairs to be generated. This mainly occurs in the reverse biased base-collector junction. The hole-electron pairs move under the influence of the electric field and provide the base current, causing electrons to be injected into the emitter.

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Characteristics:
Phototransistor has a high level of gain. phototransistor has a much lower level of noise.

4.7.10. 7-Segment Display:

A seven segment display is the most basic electronic display device that can display digits from 0-9. They find wide application in devices that display numeric information like digital clocks, radio, microwave ovens, electronic meters etc. The most common configuration has an array of eight LEDs arranged in a special pattern to display these digits. They are laid out as a squared-off figure 8. Every LED is assigned a name from 'a' to 'h' and is identified by its name. Seven LEDs 'a' to 'g' are used to display the numerals while eighth LED 'h' is used to display the dot/decimal.

Figure no. 4.9 A seven segment is generally available in ten pin package. While eight pins correspond to the eight LEDs, the remaining two pins (at middle) are common and internally shorted. These segments come in two configurations, namely, Common cathode (CC) and Common anode (CA). In CC configuration, the negative terminals of all LEDs are connected to the common pins. The common is connected to ground and a particular LED glows when its corresponding pin is given high. In CA arrangement, the common pin is given a high logic and the LED pins are given low to display a number.
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The seven elements of the display can be lit in different combinations to represent the arabic numerals. Often the seven segments are arranged in an oblique (slanted) arrangement, which aids readability. In most applications, the seven segments are of nearly uniform shape and size, though in the case of adding machines, the vertical segments are longer and more oddly shaped at the ends in an effort to further enhance readability. The numerals 0,1,6, 7 and 9 may be represented by two or more different glyphs on seven-segment displays. The seven segments are arranged as a rectangle of two vertical segments on each side with one horizontal segment on the top, middle, and bottom. Seven-segment displays may use a liquid crystal display (LCD), arrays of light-emitting diodes (LEDs), or other lightgenerating or controlling techniques such as cold cathode gas discharge, A vacuum fluorescent, incandescent filaments, and others.

4.7.11. CAPACITOR:
Capacitor essentially consists of two conducting surface separating by a layer of an insulating medium called dielectric. The conducting surface may be in the form of either circular or rectangular plates or be of spherical or cylindrical shape. The purpose of a capacitor is to store the electrical energy by electrostatic stress in the dielectric (the word condenser is a misnomer since a capacitor does not condense electric as such it merely stores it). The property of a capacitor to store electricity may be called its capacitance. A capacitors ability to store energy, its capacitance is dependent on three factors (a) the surface area of the plates of which it is composed (b) the thickness of the insulating material (c) the material of which the dielectric is composed of. Essentially a system in which two or more metal plates (conductor) are placed in close proximity to each other & are separated by an insulating material called the dielectric. When the plates of the capacitor are connected to a voltage source there will be a surplus of electrons on the plate connected to the negative side and a shortage of electron on a plate connected to the positive side of the voltage source. The surpluses of electrons on the negative plate will repel the electrons on the other plate driving them back toward the positive plate will attract electrons from the negative plate of the voltage source. The electron flow will continue until the

negative and positive charges on the capacitor plates are equal to the Voltage source.
22

When the condition exists the capacitor is said to be charged. When the voltage source is disconnected the condition of unbalance that has been setup on the capacitor plates will remain thus providing a means of storing electricity in the capacitor ratio between the magnitude of the charge on the plates and the voltage difference between the plate is called the capacitance c.

Types of Capacitor:
There are a very, very large variety of different types of capacitors: Dielectric Capacitor Film Capacitor Ceramic Capacitors Electrolytic Capacitors

In this project, electrolytic & ceramic capacitors are used:

Ceramic Capacitors:
Ceramic Capacitors or Disc Capacitors as they are generally called, are made by coating two sides of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with silver and are then stacked together to make a capacitor. For very low capacitance values a single ceramic disc of about 3-6mm is used. Ceramic capacitors have a high dielectric constant (High-K) and are available so that relatively high capacitances can be obtained in a small physical size.

Ceramic Capacitor Figure no. 4.10

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They exhibit large non-linear changes in capacitance against temperature and as a result are used as de-coupling or by-pass capacitors as they are also non-polarized devices. Ceramic capacitors have values ranging from a few picofarads to one or two microfarads but their voltage ratings are generally quite low.Ceramic types of capacitors generally have a 3-digit code printed onto their body to identify their capacitance value in pico-farads.

Electrolytic Capacitors:
Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used when very large capacitance values are required. Here instead of using a very thin metallic film layer for one of the electrodes, a semi-liquid electrolyte solution in the form of a jelly or paste is used which serves as the second electrode (usually the cathode). The dielectric is a very thin layer of oxide which is grown electro-chemically in production with the thickness of the film being less than ten microns. This insulating layer is so thin that it is possible to make capacitors with a large value of capacitance for a small physical size as the distance between the plates, d is very small.

Figure no. 4.11 The majority of electrolytic types of capacitors are Polarised, that is the DC voltage applied to the capacitor terminals must be of the correct polarity. Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used in DC power supply circuits due to their large capacitances and small size to help reduce the ripple voltage or for coupling and decoupling applications.
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4.7.12. RESISTOR:
Resistors are the electronic components used to control the current passing through the circuit. They are calibrated in ohms. In other word resistance are circuit elements having the function of introducing electrical resistance into the circuit. There are three basic types :( a) Fixed resistor (b) Rheostat (c) Potentiometer A fixed resistor is a two terminal resistor whose electrical resistance is constant. A rheostat is a resistor that can be changed in resistance value without opening the circuit to make adjustment. A potentiometer is an adjustable resistor with three terminals, one at each end of the resistor element and third movable along its length.

4.8. PCB Layout:

The PCB layout of the project is:-

Figure no.4.12

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4.9. Working:
The tachometer comprises AT89C2051 microcontroller, ULN2003 highcurrent Darlington transistor array, CA3140 operational amplifier, common-anode 7segment (4-digit multiplexed) display and its four anode-driving transistors. The AT89C2051 is a 20-pin, 8-bit microcontroller of Intels 8051 family made by Atmel Corporation. Port-1 pins P1.7 through P1.2, and port-3 pin P3.7 are connected to input pins 1 through 7 of ULN2003. Port-1 pins are pulled up with 10-kilo-ohm resistor network RNW1. They drive all the seven segments of the display with the help of internal inverters. Port-3 pins P3.0 through P3.3 of the microcontroller are connected to the base of transistors T1 through T4, respectively, to select one digit out of the four at a time and to supply anode-drive currents to the common anode pin of respective digit. When pin P3.0 of microcontroller IC1 goes low, it drives transistor T1 into saturation, which provides the drive current to anode pin 6 of 4- digit, 7segment, common-anode display DIS1. Similarly, transistors T2 through T4, respectively, provide supply to common-anode pins 8, 9 and 12 of DIS1. Thus microrocontroller IC1 drives the segment in multiplexed manner using its port pins. This is time-division multi-plexing process. Segment data and display-enable pulse for display are refreshed every 5ms. Thus, the dis-play appears to be continuous even though it lights up one by one. Switch S1 is used to manually reset the microcontroller, while the power-on-reset signal for the microcontroller is given by C1 and R6. A 12MHz crystal is connected to pins 4 and 5 of IC1 to generate the basic clock frequency for the microcontroller. The circuit uses a 6V battery for power supply or alternatively mains derived low voltage supply.

4.9. Software:
The software is written in Assembly language and assembled using 8051 cross-assembler. It is well commented and easy to understand. It uses AT89C2051s internal timer for measuring the period of one cycle of the rotation in units of 100 microseconds. Thus if the speed is 1500 rpm, it is 25 rps, and the time taken for one cycle is 40 ms. The timer uses an interrupt to count overflows every 100 microseconds and so the number counted by the timer program in this case will be 400. This is divided by 600,000 (so many 100/s present in a minute), giving a result of 1500. This gives the rpm. These digits are displayed on the 4-digit, 726

segment display. To perform the division, subroutine UDIV32 is employed, which is a standard subroutine available for 8051 family for 32-bit number by 16-bit number division. It has an accuracy of 5 rpm in a 6000rpm count. The software for this project is given below;

Program burned in microcontroller

$mod51 ORG 0H AJMP 30H ORG 0BH; TIMER 0 INTERRUPT VECTOR AJMP TIMER0ISR; Timer 0 Interrupt service routine address ORG 30H MOV SP,#60H ;set stack pointer MOV P3,#0FFH ;set all port 3 bits high to enable inputs also MOV P1,#03 ;set port 1 to all zeros expect bits 0,1 MOV TMOD,#01100001B ;TIMER 1 - MODE 2 COUNTER,TIMR-0 TO 16 bit timer BEG: MOV TH0,#0ffH ;TIMER REG.0 IS SET TO 0, GIVES 64ms MOV TL0,#-99 ; timer low reg. is also so setb et0 setb ea mov 44h,#0 mov 45h,#0 acall delay ajmp lowsig delay: mov r2,#10 djnz r2,$ ;wait 20 us ret lowsig: jb p3.6,lowsig call delay jnb p3.6,$ setb tr0 ; start timer mov c,p3.6 ;high begins mov p3.5,c acall delay jb p3.6, $ mov c,p3.6 ;low now mov p3.5,c acall delay jnb p3.6,$ mov c,p3.6 ;high begins again mov p3.5,c clr tr0 ;stop timer clr et0 ;and interrupt by timer mov r3,#0 ;number 600000 or 927c0 hex as Dividend
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mov r2,#09h ; 9 mov r1,#27h ;27 mov r0,#0c0h ; c0 mov r5,45h ;divisor is time for one cycle mov r4,44h call UDIV32 ;divide 60000/t mov 40h,r0 mov 41h,r1 mov r1,41h mov r2,40h CALL HEX2BCD mov 50h,#0FFH call refresh disp: call refresh1 djnz 50h,disp ; so many times for a visible time limit jmp beg ;16 Bit Hex to BCD Conversion for 8051 Microcontroller ;This routine is for 16 bit Hex to BCD conversion; ;Accepts a 16 bit binary number in R1,R2 and returns 5 digit BCD in ;R7,R6,R5,R4,R3(upto 64K ) Hex2BCD: ;r1=high byte, r7 most significant digit, R2 = LSByte MOV R3,#00D MOV R4,#00D MOV R5,#00D MOV R6,#00D MOV R7,#00D MOV B,#10D MOV A,R2 DIV AB MOV R3,B ; MOV B,#10 ; R7,R6,R5,R4,R3 DIV AB MOV R4,B MOV R5,A CJNE R1,#0H,HIGH_BYTE ; CHECK FOR HIGH BYTE SJMP ENDD HIGH_BYTE: MOV A,#6 ADD A,R3 MOV B,#10 DIV AB MOV R3,B ADD A,#5 ADD A,R4 MOV B,#10 DIV AB MOV R4,B ADD A,#2 ADD A,R5
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MOV B,#10 DIV AB MOV R5,B CJNE R6,#00D,ADD_IT SJMP CONTINUE ADD_IT: ADD A,R6 CONTINUE: MOV R6,A DJNZ R1,HIGH_BYTE MOV B, #10D MOV A,R6 DIV AB MOV R6,B MOV R7,A ENDD: ret DISP1: REFRESH:; content of 18 to 1B memory locations are output on LEDs ; only numbers 0 to 9 and A to F are valid data in these locations MOV 18H,r3 ; least significant digit MOV 19H,r4 ; next significant digit MOV 1AH,r5 MOV 1BH,R6 ; most significant digit (max:9999) RET refresh1: MOV R0,#1bh ; 1b,1a,19,18, holds values for 4 digits MOV R4,#8 ; pin p3.3_ 0 made low one by one starts wth 18 mov r7,#2 ; decimal pt.on 3rd digit from left (2 nd fromright) PQ2: CALL SEGDISP dec R0 mov a,r4 rrc a mov r4,a jnc pQ2 PV3:RET SEGDISP:mov dptr,#ledcode MOV A,@R0 ANL A,#0FH MOVC A,@A+dptr segcode:MOV R5,A ORL A,#03H ; WE WANT TO USE PORT 1 BITS 0 AND 1 FOR INPUT ANLOG ; so retain them high S3: MOV P1,A ; SEGMENT_PORT MOV A,R5 ;we use p3.7 for the segment a of display RRC A ;so get that bit D0into carry rrc a mov p3.7,c ;segment a;
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S1: MOV A,R4 ; get digit code from r4 00001000 cpl a ;11110111 rrc a ;11111011-1 mov p3.0,c ; output to drive transsitors for digit lighting rrc a ;11111101-1 mov p3.1,c rrc a ;11111110-1 mov p3.2,c rrc a ;1111111-0 yes low makes left most digit show msdigit mov p3.3,c S5: S4: ACALL DELAY1 ; let it burn for some time MOV A,#0ffH ; extinguish the digit after that time MOV P3,A ; to prevent shadow s6: RET ledcode:DB 7EH,0CH,0B6H,9EH,0CCH,0DAH,0FAH ;these are code for the numbers 0 to 9 and A to F DB 0EH,0FEH,0CEH,0EEH,0F8H,72H,0BCH,0F6H, 0E2H DELAY1:MOV 55h,#0ffH ; 1ms N: NOP DJNZ 55h,N RET TIMER0ISR:mov th0,#0ffh mov tl0,#-90 ; in 100 us steps push acc mov a,#1 clr c add a, 44h ;count time btwn pulses mov 44h,a mov a,#0 addc a,45h ;add carry to most sign. byte mov 45h,a pop acc reti ; subroutine UDIV32 ;32 bit /16 bit to 32 bit quotient and remainder unsigned ;input r3,r2,r1,r0 = dividend X ;input r5,r4 = divisor y ;output r3-r0 = quotient Q of X/Y ;r7,r6,r5,r4 =remainder ;alters acc, flags UDIV32: push 08 ;save reg. bank 1 push 09 push 0AH push 0BH push 0CH
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push 0DH push 0EH push 0Fh push dpl push dph push B setb RS0 ;select reg.bank 1 mov r7,#0 mov r6,#0 mov r5,#0 mov r4,#0 mov B,#32 ;set loop count div_lp32:clr RS0 ;selet reg.bank 0 clr C mov a,r0 ;shift highestbit of X rlc a mov r0,a mov a,r1 ;shift next bit of X rlc a mov r1,a mov a,r2 ;shift next bit of X rlc a mov r2,a mov a,r3 ;shift next bit of X rlc a mov r3,a setb rs0 ;reg. bank 1 mov a,r4 ;lowest bit of remainder rlc a mov r4,a mov a,r5 ;shift next bit of rem rlc a mov r5,a mov a,r6 ;shift next bit of rem rlc a mov r6,a mov a,r7 ;shift next bit of rem rlc a mov r7,a mov a,r4 clr C subb a,04 mov dpl,a mov a,r5 subb a,5 mov dph,a mov a, r6 subb a,#0 mov 06,a mov a,r7
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subb a,#0 mov 07,a cpl C jnc div_321 mov r7,7 mov r6,6 mov r5,dph mov r4,dpl div_321: mov a,r0 rlc a mov r0,a ; shift result bit into partial quotient mov a,r1 rlc a mov r1,a mov a,r2 rlc a mov r2,a mov a,r3 rlc a mov r3,a djnz B,div_lp32 mov 7,r7 mov 6,r6 mov 5,r5 mov 4,r4 mov 3,r3 mov 2,r2 mov 1,r1 mov 0,r0 clr rs0 pop B pop dph pop dpl pop 0Fh pop 0EH pop 0Dh pop 0Ch pop 0bh pop 0ah pop 09 pop 08 ret END

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Advantages of Contactless Tachometer:

It takes less than a minute to read out r.p.m. It reads the r.p.m. with the maximum speed and the average speed It gives better performance and reliability. It is portable so we can carry it to large rotating machine to note the r.p.m. It does not interfere with the motor on test because we are not touching any component. It refreshes the L.C.D. after the reset key is pressed. Compact in size. It can measure maximum r.p.m. of 9900.

Applications:
It can be used by the companies that prepare the fan. It can be used to check the performance of the fan. This can be used by the companies that manufacture motor that has the r.p.m. less than 9900. It can be used as optical counter. It can be used to check the r.p.m. for the hard disk drives, floppy disk drives in the field of electronics.

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Result:
Digital tachometers are particularly suitable for the precision measurement and monitoring of time related quantities, which are able to be converted into a proportional frequency using appropriate sensors. Time-related quantities include rotational and linear velocity, flow rate and related quantities. In this project, the rotational speed of dc motor is measured using phototransistor which is then displayed in the 7-segment display. In our project, we have used two dc motors of different speeds i.e. of 150 rpm and 60 rpm. By using two different dc motors, we can show variable speed readings without the use of a variable motor which is costly.Thus, the cost of the project is reduced. The operation of the digital tachometer with the use of Atmel AT89C2051 microcontroller had problems and limitations in that the measurement of revolution per minute values less than 60 rpm with a single pulse was problematic. Also to obtaining multiple pulses to increase the accuracy of the tachometer was also another challenge. The microcontroller AT89C2051 is connected to an external crystal oscillator.

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Conclusion:
The specific objectives and scope of this project was to:

Reduce cabling works by the use of electronic printed control board (PCB) Showing variable speed readings by the use of two dc motors. Change from ATMEL AT89C2052 to AT89C2051. In this project we have used two dc motors of different speeds instead of a variable motor which reduces the cost of the project.

A digital tachometer based on phototransistors infrared light reflection technique has been demonstrated successfully. Its major advantage is that it does not require any physical contact with the rotating shaft to measure its speed. This project can be extended further by adding data logging feature to the design. This is required in certain applications where the RPM of a rotating shaft is needed to be monitored. The data logger keeps the records of varying RPM over time, and those records are later transferred to a PC through the USB interface.

There are some few recommendations for further research in developing or expanding this project design. These recommendations are

1. The project could be enhanced to regulate the power supply, and also to provide a very simple battery monitor, with a green and a red LED, indicating whether the battery needs to be changed or not. 2. The project could also be enhanced to detect the direction of rotation of the shaft. 3. More effective and efficient kind of sensor with the same functionality could be used so that the distance from the infra red sensor to the shaft could be positioned further than the present distance

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Reference:
1. Andrew Huang -1998 (contactless Tachometer) 2. Sourabh Biyani- contactless Tachometer using IR sensor 3. Jim McGhee- 1999 (contactless Tachometer using PIC16C715) 4. www.4crawler.com/Diesel/Cheap Tricks/Tachometer/index.shtml 5. www.geocities.com/steves_workshopwas/tachometer.htm

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