Teresa Foster DIET 385 April 21, 2012

Fiber and Satiety

As an obesity epidemic continues to spread worldwide, fiber has come into the spotlight as a possible solution to reduce feelings of hunger. Fiber is defined as plant polysaccharides and lignin that resist hydrolysis by human digestive enzymes. It is not a simple nutrient; fiber contains many complex compounds that determine its specific properties. Reviews have linked fiber consumption to increased satiety and decreased total caloric intake (Samra); however, the type of fiber consumed may determine the extent of its effect on satiety. This paper will describe the various properties of fiber that influence hunger and satiety, and differentiate between the effectiveness of insoluble and soluble fibers in inducing satiety. It will also examine the role that fiber can play in weight loss by helping dieters feel satiated longer after meals. Fiber is categorized as one of two types: dietary or functional. Dietary fiber is defined as indigestible or low digestible carbohydrates that can be found naturally in plants and plant products (Monsivais, Carter, Christiansen, Perrigue, & Drewnowski, 2011). In contrast, functional fiber is added to food for physiological or metabolic benefits, or to increase volume and reduce calories. It is isolated biochemically from plant sources (Monsivais et. al, 2011). Both types have been found to promote satiety in intervention research trials. Dietary and functional fibers are further differentiated by their solubility characteristics. Both water-soluble and water-insoluble fibers promote health by different mechanisms. Soluble fibers delays gastric

emptying by slowing the transit time of food through the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Insoluble fibers have the opposite effect, speeding up GI transit time and increasing fecal bulk. The solubility of a fiber may affect its health benefits and alter its effect on satiety. The Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine recommends a fiber intake of 25 grams per day for the average adult woman and 38 grams per day for the average adult man (Food and Nutrition Board, 2002). Consuming fiber in amounts exceeding these recommended amounts may increase weight loss success by inducing feelings of satiety. It has been proposed that fiber decreases appetite by influencing the levels of gut hormones (Willis et. al., 2010). Ghrelin is known as the hunger hormone, and researchers hypothesize that ghrelin levels decrease after fibrous foods are consumed; however, this postulation is not supported by research. A study performed by Willis and colleagues found that ghrelin levels were higher after subjects consumed a muffin containing 12 grams of fiber than subjects who ate a muffin containing 4 or 8 grams of fiber, contradicting the proposition that fiber can reduce hunger sensations. Many studies have been performed to determine whether insoluble or soluble fiber is better at inducing satiety. In a study directed by Samra and Anderson, it was found that participants who consumed insoluble fiber in the form of high fiber cereal had reduced caloric intake and overall appetite. They concluded that insoluble fiber is directly related to the mechanisms of satiety and prospective food intake (Samra & Anderson, 2007). Insoluble fibers do increase fecal bulk and speed gastric transit time; however, this study is one of few linking insoluble fiber to increased satiety. Soluble fibers, in contrast, slow gastric transit time, which may extend feelings of satiety after consumption. Several studies have found a correlation between short-term satiety and soluble fibers.

Three studies were evaluated to determine the influence of soluble fibers on satiety. Mathern et. al. used isolated fenugreek fiber to bulk up a blended low-calorie beverage, while Pasman et. al. dissolved guar gum in drinks and a study directed by Hess, Birkett, Thomas, and Slavin served treatments of short-chain fructooligosaccharides in hot cocoa. In Matherns and Hess studies, participants consumed a preloaded beverage with added fiber before consuming a standard breakfast and, later, a pre-weighed lunch. Pasmans study was conducted while participants followed their usual dietary pattern, with the exclusion of any snacks between meals. Mathern and colleagues observed significantly higher levels of satiety and fullness after meals in participants who consumed a preload containing 8 grams of soluble fenugreek fiber. These participants also reported much lower levels of hunger and prospective food consumption, and consumed less at the buffet lunch served three and a half hours later. It was concluded that a larger dose of 8 grams increased satiety and suppressed appetite, perhaps due to its viscous properties which slow gastric emptying (Mathern, Raatz, Thomas & Slavin, 2009). This finding is reinforced by Pasmans research. Pasman et. al. found that energy intake was much lower for participants taking a soluble fiber supplement daily, and discovered that fiber intake had an inverse relationship with daily energy intake. Participants consuming 50 or more grams of soluble fiber daily reduced their caloric intake by nearly a fifth, compared to subjects who consumed fiber in conventionally recommended amounts. Additionally, soluble fiber supplementation helped subjects adhere to a reduced-calorie diet without reporting feelings of deprivation or hunger (Pasman & Saris, 1997). This indicates that soluble fiber could play a key role in ensuring that dieters follow a lower energy plan and still feel satiated. These positive results concerning soluble fiber and increased satiety are contradicted by a study performed by Hess, Birkett, Thomas, and Slavin. Although Hess and her fellow

researchers hypothesized that increased consumption of short-chain fructooligosaccharides (scFOS) would decrease hunger and food intake, increase satisfaction, and induce fullness, the opposite outcome was observed in male subjects. They consumed more food and energy throughout the day after being administered a dose of scFOS. The opposite was true for women, whose overall caloric intake decreased after consuming 16 grams of scFOS in the test breakfast (Hess, Birkett, Thomas, & Slavin, 2011). No conclusive results could be extracted from this study, showing the limited role of scFOS in inducing satiety. The doubt cast by Hess inconclusive results indicates that the usefulness of a mixture of fibers should be explored. Monsivais et. al. examined the relationship between mixed fiber consumption and satiety. The researchers determined that participants who consumed preloads containing both soluble and insoluble forms of resistant starch and soluble fiber dextrin had the highest fullness ratings after breakfast and lunch visual analog scale (VAS) testing. Additionally, consuming a preload containing solely soluble fiber dextrin was determined to directly correlate with considerably lower caloric intakes at lunch (Monsivais et. al, 2011). A review published in 2010 by Papathanasopoulos and Camilleri reinforces this conclusion. After evaluating the results of various studies, they concluded that the use of different forms of fiber to maximize viscosity and perfect dosage could be used to assist obese patients in achieving a healthier weight. The frequency of consumption and dosage consumed can also influence the effect of soluble and insoluble fibers. It may be necessary to consume increased doses daily for an extended period of time for weight loss results. Gilhooly and his research team followed subjects for nearly a year (48 weeks) to observe the long-term effects of fiber consumption. Initially, negligible effects from increased fiber consumption above the daily recommended

intake (DRI) were observed in the preliminary observation component of the study. However, those who continued to maintain a high fiber diet voluntarily after leaving clinical observation had much lower caloric intakes and lower body mass indexes (BMI), indicating weight reduction. They also reported greater satisfaction with their diets. Gilhoolys study is the longest to date that observes participants with prolonged high fiber intakes. It can be concluded that consuming fiber in excess of the DRI has pronounced effects on satiety and weight loss over time. The Gilhooly study offers insight into the benefits of increasing fiber intake long-term, and indicates that it could assist dieters in maintaining weight loss. There is a decreased likelihood of confounding variables due to the design of the study as compared to similar studies. In the first part, participants were provided all of their meals and snacks for twenty-four weeks, preventing them from consuming other foods that could influence the calculated fiber intake. This increases its accuracy and makes it more reliable than similar studies conducted. However, further studies of this type are needed. The current research studies concerning long-term dietary fiber increases are not adequate in length, and it is necessary to conduct more studies over an extended period of time to bolster or discount Gilhoolys findings. The research reviewed supports previous evidence that high dosages of fiber play a role in hunger reduction and feelings of satiety. The effectiveness of fiber is dependent upon the type of fiber or combination of fiber consumed, and the time period during which it is consumed. Soluble fiber may decrease feelings of hunger and prospective food intake after meals, and research indicates that it could assist dieters following a reduced-energy diet; however, Hess inconclusive data casts doubt on this postulate and indicates that more research is necessary.

Insoluble fiber induces satiety and reduces overall food intake, but a mixture of fibers could also be used to optimize feelings of satiety and ensure that patients following a low-calorie diet do not feel deprived. More research is necessary before any definitive conclusions are determined. Further research is also needed as to the effects of increasing fiber consumption long-term and should be conducted over an extended period of time, similar to the Gilhooly study.

Bibliography Food and Nutrition Board (2002). Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate. Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Retrieved from http://www.iom.edu Gilhooly, C. H., Das, S. K., Golden, J. K., McCrory, M. A., Rochon, J., DeLany, J. P., Freed, A. M., Fuss, P. J., Dallal, G. E., Saltzman, E., & Roberts, S. B. (2008). Use of cereal fiber to facilitate adherence to a human caloric restriction program. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 20(6): 513-520. Hess, J. R, Birkett, A. M., Thomas, W., & Slavin, J. L. (2011). Effects of short-chain fructooligosaccharides on satiety responses in healthy men and women. Appetite, 56, 128-134. Doi:10.1016/j.appet.2010.12.005 Mathern, J. R., Raatz, S. K., Thomas, W., & Slavin, J. L. (2009). Effect of fenugreek fiber on satiety, blood glucose and insulin response and energy intake in obese subjects. Phytotherapy Research, 23: 1543-1548. Doi:10.1002/ptr.2795. Monsivais, P., Carter, B. E., Christiansen, M., Perrigue, M. M., & Drewnowski (2011). Soluble fiber dextrin enhances the satiating power of beverages. Appetite, 56, 9-14. Doi:10.1016/j.appet.2010.10.010 Papathanasopoulos, A., & Camilleri, M. (2010). Dietary fiber supplements: effects in obesity and metabolic syndrome and relationship to gastrointestinal functions. Gastroenterology, 138(1): 65-72. Doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2009.11.045. Pasman, W. J., & Saris, W. H. M. (1997). Effect of one week of fibre supplementation on hunger and satiety ratings and energy intake. Appetite, 29: 77-87. Samra, R. A, & Anderson, G. H. (2007). Insoluble cereal fiber reduces appetite and short-term food intake and glycemic response to food consumed 75 minutes later by healthy men. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 86: 972-979. Willis, H. J., Thomas, W., Eldridge, A. L., Harkness, L., Green, H., & Slavin, J. L. (2010). Increasing doses of fiber do not influence short-term satiety or food intake and are inconsistently linked to gut hormone levels. Food and Nutrition Research, 54: 5135. Doi: 10.3402/fnr.v54i0.5135