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INTRODUCTION
Flow measurement is an everyday event. The world market in flowmeters was estimated to be worth $2500 million in 1995, and is expected to grow steadily. The value of product being measured by these meters is also very large. For example, in the U.K. alone, it was estimated that in 1994 the value of crude oil produced was worth $15 billion. It is somewhat surprising that both the accuracy and capability of many flowmeters are poor in comparison to those instruments used for measurement of other common process variables such as pressure and temperature.
INTRODUCTION
For example, the orifice plate flowmeter, which was first used commercially in the early 1900s and has a typical accuracy of 2% of reading, is still the only flowmeter approved by most countries for the fiscal measurement of natural gas. Although newer techniques such as Coriolis flowmeters have become increasingly popular in recent years, the flow measurement industry is by nature conservative and still dominated by traditional measurement techniques. Fluid motion in a pipe can be characterized as one of three types: laminar, transitional, or turbulent.
If Re < 2000, the flow will be laminar. If Re > 4000, the flow will be turbulent. If 2000<Re<4000, the flow is transitional The Reynolds number is a good guide to the type of flow
Bernoullis equation can be used to measure flow rate. Consider the pipe section shown in figure below. Since the pipe is horizontal, h 1 = h 2, and the equation reduces to:
The classical or Herschel Venturi tube is the oldest type of differential pressure flowmeter (1887). The restriction is introduced into the flow in a more gradual way The resulting flow through a Venturi tube is closer to that predicted in theory so the discharge coefficient C is much nearer unity (0.95). The pressure loss caused by the Venturi tube is lower, but the differential pressure is also lower than for an orifice plate of the same diameter ratio.
The Nozzle
The nozzle combines some of the best features of the orifice plate and Venturi tube. It is compact and yet, because of its curved inlet, has a discharge coefficient close to unity. There are a number of designs of nozzle, but one of the most commonly used in Europe is the ISA-1932 nozzle, while in the U.S., the ASME long radius nozzle is more popular. Both of these nozzles are covered by international standards.
Choosing which flowmeter is best for a particular application can be very difficult. The main factors that influence this choice are the required performance, the properties of the fluid to be metered, the installation requirements, the environment in which the instrument is to be used, and, of course, cost. There are two standards that can be used to help select a flowmeter: BS 1042: Section 1.4, which is a guide to the use of the standard differential pressure flowmeters BS 7405, which is concerned with the wider principles of flowmeter selection
Installation
Correct installation is essential for successful use of a DP flowmeter because the assumption of a steady flow, with a fully developed turbulent velocity profile, is passing through the flowmeter. Standards contain detailed recommendations for the minimum straight lengths of pipe required before and after the flowmeter, in order to ensure a fully developed flow profile. Straight lengths of pipe are required after the flowmeter because disturbances caused by a valve or bend can travel upstream and thus also affect the installed flowmeter. If it is not possible to fit the recommended lengths of straight pipe before and after the flowmeter, then the flowmeter must be calibrated once it has been installed.
Installation
The Minimum Straight Lengths of Pipe Required between Various Fittings and an Orifice Plate or Venturi Tube (as recommended in ISO 5167-1) to Ensure That a Fully Developed Flow Profile Exists in the Measurement Section. All Lengths Are Multiples of the Pipe Diameter
Installation
The other problem one faces during installation is the presence of a rotating flow or swirl. This condition distorts the flow velocity profile in a very unpredictable way, and is obviously not desirable. Situations that create swirl, such as two 90 bends in different planes, should preferably be avoided. However, if this is not possible, then swirl can be removed by placing a flow conditioner (also known as a flow straightener) between the source of the swirl and the flowmeter. There many flow conditioner designs which can be used to both remove swirl and correct a distorted velocity profile. Because they obstruct the flow, all flow conditioners produce an unrecoverable pressure loss, which in general increases with their capability (and complexity).
Rotameter
Rotameter consists of a conical transparent vertical glass tube containing a bob. The flow rate is proportional to the height of the bob. The rotameter is characterized by:
Simple and robust construction High reliability Low pressure drop
Rotameter
Applicable to a wide variety of gases and liquids Flow range 0.04 L/h to 150 m3/h for water Flow range 0.5 L/h to 3000 m3/h for air Uncertainty 0.4% to 4% of maximum flow Insensitivity to nonuniformity in the inflow (no upstream straight piping needed) Typical maximum temperature 400C Typical maximum pressure 4 MPa (40 bar) Low investment cost Low installation cost
Weir
Summary
For pipe flows, variable area flowmeters are suitable for low flow rates of gases or liquids at moderate temperatures and pressures. Advantage rugged construction, high reliability, low pressure drop, easy installation, and low cost. Disadvantages measurement uncertainty of 1% or more, limited range (10:1), slow response, and restrictions on the meter orientation. Variable area flowmeters in open-channel flows have applications for flow measurements in waste water plants, waterworks, rivers and streams, irrigation, and drainage canals.
Advantages PD Meters
Advantages PD Meters High-quality, high accuracy, a wide range, and are very reliable, insensitive to inlet flow profile distortions, low pressure drop across the meter. Until the introduction of electronic correctors and flow controls on other types of meters, PD meters were most widely used in batch loading and dispensing applications. All mechanical units can be installed in remote locations.
Disadvantages PD Meters
bulky, especially in the larger sizes. the fluid must be clean for measurement accuracy and longevity of themeter. More accurate PD meters are quite expensive. Have high inertia of the moving parts; a sudden change in the flow rate can damage the meter. Only for limited ranges of pressure and temperature Most PD meters require a good maintenance schedule and are high repair and maintenance meters. Recurring costs in maintaining a positive displacement flowmeter can be a significant factor in overall flowmeter cost.
Sizes range from 6 mm to 760 mm, (1/4 in. to 30 in.). Maximum measurement capacities range from 0.025 m3 h1 to 25,500 m3 h1, (0.015 CFM to 15,000 CFM), for gases and 0.036 m3 h1 to 13,000 m3 h1, (0.16 gpm to 57,000 gpm or 82,000 barrels per hour), for liquids. Typical repeatability is 0.1% for liquids and 0.25% for gases with up to 0.02% for high-accuracy meters. Typical linearities are between 0.25% and 0.5% for liquids, and 0.5% and 1.0% for gases. High-accuracy meters have linearities of 0.15% for liquids and 0.25% for gases, usually specified over a 10:1dynamic range below maximum rated flow.
Traceability to NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) is frequently available, allowing one to estimate the overall absolute accuracy Rangeability, when defined as the ratio of flow rates over which the linearity specification applies, is typically between 10:1 and 100:1. Operating temperature 270C to 650C, (450F to 1200F). Operating pressure ranges span coarse vacuum to 414 MPa (60,000 psi). Pressure drop at the maximum rated flow rate ranges from around 0.3 kPa (0.05 psi) for gases to 70 kPa (10 psi) for liquids.
Impeller Flowmeters