A STUDY

ON

SPEECH ERRORS

OF

CANTONESE SPEAKERS

Peony LAU Pan Ying

(52186113)
Department of Chinese, Translation and Linguistics
City University of Hong Kong

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for CTL2204

Cecilia Y. H., CHAN
10 December, 2012

ABSTRACT
This paper examines speech errors among young native Hong Kong Cantonese speakers. The
study is based on a Chinese text, two picture books as well as a speech topic. Researcher
outlines several types of speech errors suggested by Fromkin (1971) and also occurrences of
hesitations and repairs. It is concluded that speech errors, hesitations and repairs often emerge
in both literary and colloquial readings. The study suggests that (1) types of speech errors
vary in different styles of speaking; (2) occurrence of repairs is related to the rate of speech;
and (3) hesitations seldom occur in reading aloud.
Keywords: Chinese, Cantonese, speech disfluency, speech planning, spontaneous speech,
automatic speech, speech error, stuttering, hesitation, monitoring, self-repair, instant
repair, anticipatory retracing, fresh start, repetition

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am indebted to Cecilia Chan Yuet-hung, my professor of this course, for her teaching and
guidance throughout my research. She has solved every single problem of my research.
Without her, I would have been so lost that I could hardly proceed with my research.

would like to give my special thanks to Dr. Lee Wai-sum and Professor Eric Zee Yun-yang.
They taught me a lot in phonetics and phonology, and aroused my interest in these fields.

am especially grateful to Dr. Peppina Lee Po-lun and Mr. Tom Lai Bong-yeung, who have
always been my good teachers and friends, for their continuous support and help.

It is them

who gave me much advice when I was at my study crossroads.

I thank all of my friends who helped me in this research, including Li Yan-chung, Wong
Hiu-lam, Wong Ching-fung, Ng Ka-chun, Chan Yik-lun, Wong Ka-wai and Cham Man-ho.
I particularly would like to express my deepest gratitude to Li Yan-chung, who provided a lot
of help intellectually.

He was always there whenever I needed help or someone to chat with,

and he encouraged me during the days I burnt out.

Wong Hiu-lam, being my friend and

fellow student in university, also helped pretty much in linguistics knowledge.

I am sincerely thankful to my parents, who have given me the greatest love and support in my
university life.
want.

They never demand me do well in schoolwork, but allow me do whatever I

Last but not least, I want to express my greatest love for God who has given me the

strength to go on with my university studies.

I dedicate this thesis to all the ones I love.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

iii

1.

2.

INTRODUCTION

1.1

DEFINITION AND LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1.1 Slips of the Tongue
1.1.2 Speech Disfluency
1.1.3 Structure of Self-repairs

1
1
2
3

1.2
1.3

AIMS OF STUDY
HYPOTHESIS

3
3

METHODOLOGY

2.1

DESIGN AND MATERIALS

2.1.1 Reading Aloud
2.1.2 Storytelling
2.1.3 Spontaneous Speech
RESEARCH PROCEDURES
2.2.1 Experiment Procedures
2.2.2 Transcription Procedures

5
5
5
6
6
6
7

SUBJECTS BACKGROUND

2.2

2.3
3.

RESULTS

10

3.1

SPEECH ERRORS
3.1.1 Speech Errors in Task 1
3.1.2 Speech Errors in Task 2
3.1.3 Speech Errors in Task 3
HESITATIONS
3.2.1 Unfilled Pauses
3.2.2 Filled Pauses
3.2.3 Clearing of Throat

10
11
16
32
43
43
44
45

3.2.4 Lengthening of Sounds

3.2.5 Laughters and Breaths
REPAIRS
3.3.1 Instant Repairs
3.3.2 Anticipatory Retracing

45
46
47
47
47

3.2

3.3

iii

4.

48

3.3.4 Repetitions

48

DISCUSSION

49

4.1

SPEECH ERRORS
4.1.1 Types
4.1.2 Distribution
4.1.3 Phonetic Variations
4.1.4 Literary Reading and Colloquial Reading
HESITATIONS AND REPAIRS
4.2.1 Types
4.2.2 Rates

49
49
50
50
51
52
52
52

4.2.3 Locations
4.2.4 Grammaticalization of Lexicon

53
54

LIMITATION
4.3.1 Ambiguity on Error Judgement
4.3.2 Weakness of Hesitation Study
FUTURE DIRECTIONS

55
55
56
56

4.2

4.3

4.4
5.

3.3.3 Fresh Starts

CONCLUSION

57

REFERENCES

58

APPENDICES

60

I.

TASK MATERIALS
i.
Reading Aloud Text
ii.
Storytelling Materials
1.
2.

60
60
61
61
64

II.
III.

TRANSCRIPTION NOTATIONS
TRANSCRIPTS
i.
Subject A
ii.
Subject B
iii.
Subject C
iv.
Subject D

67
68
68
71
73
75

v.

79

Subject E

iv

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition and Literature Review
1.1.1

Slips of the Tongue

Speech errors, commonly called slips of the tongue, have been studied since before
the time of Freud. They tend to occur in highly regular patterns (Fromkin, The
non-anomalous nature of anomalous utterances, 1971; Garrett, 1975).

Slips of the

tongue can be categorized into eight basic types (Hockett, 1967; Fromkin, The
non-anomalous nature of anomalous utterances, 1971; Garrett, 1975; Carroll, 2008),
including shift, exchange, anticipation, perseveration, addition, deletion, substitution
and blend.

They can affect different kinds of linguistic units, such as phonemes,

morphemes and phrase (Boomer, 1968; Nooteboom, 1969).

Hesitations, changes of

mind, repetition of sounds or words, and so forth, are also counted as errors, but they
are not part of the same class of slips of the tongue.
Table 1.1 Major Types of Slips of the Tongue
Type

Example

1.

Shift

()

2.

Exchange

jang4 san1 (: jan4 sang1)

3.

Anticipation

gak3 (: gok3)

4.

Perseveration

can4 (: san4, : cang4)

5.

Addition

()
ngaa1 (: aa1)

6.

Deletion

()
o5 o3 (: ngo5 gok3)

7.

Substitution

()
lang4 (: nang4)
seok6 (: suk6)

8.

Blend

lek1 ()
tyun6 (: dyun6/tyun5)

Previous studies indicate that speech errors are more common when speakers are
nervous or under stress, tired, anxious, or drunk. Some people are more prone to
speech errors than others.

1.1.2

Speech Disfluency

During linguistic planning, there are often cycles of hesitation and fluency.
Linguistic planning is very cognitively demanding. Studies suggest that sentences
are not planned in their entirety before the initiation of speech (Lindsley, 1975).
Hesitation helps speakers decide what to say next (Bortfeld, Leon, Bloom, Schober, &
Brennan, 2001), as we express a portion of intended message, pause to plan the next
portion, articulate, and so on. (Beattie, 1983). On the other hand, it also happens
because of high uncertainty (Lounsbury 1965, Brennan and Schober 2001).

Levelts

(1983) study support this hypothesis by finding that pauses occurred more often
before low-frequency words.
The sheer number of words from which we choose also influence hesitation pauses
(Taylor, 1976).

Schachter et al. (1991) examined the number of filled pauses in

lecturers in humanities, social science and natural science.

The findings of the

experiment suggest that humanists use far more filled pauses in their lectures than
scientists do, as there are fewer synonyms of science terms.
Hesitations are presented on two levels suprasegmental and segmental.
Suprasegmental hesitations can be in the form of paralinguistic means, such as
coughing and laughing; presegmental means, such as filled pauses, lengthening of
sounds, glottal stop, etc.; and unfilled pauses (silent pause).

Segmental hesitations

are pauses with discourse markers or repetitions.

According to Mahls (1987) research, disturbances of spontaneous speech are
positively related to the speakers anxiety. However, there is no significant evidence
that filled pauses increase with anxiety.
The rate of FPs is correlated to gender.

Shribergs (1994) study shows that men

produced significantly higher rates of filled pauses than women.

In light of the view

that filled pauses may serve to hold the floor, an inference is men may tend to control
the floor more than women.
For hesitations, there are various forms, such as editing expressions (Hockett, 1967;
Carroll, 2008), which are also known as fillers (Maclay & Osgood, 1959).
are /uh/ and I mean.

Examples

Clearing of throat and silence pauses could also be hesitation

2

markers.
1.1.3

Structure of Self-repairs

Levelt (1983, 1984, 1989) analyzed three ways of restarting. The first one is called
instant repairing, which is to replace the troublesome item with a new one. The
interruption can be delayed; instant repairs do not require immediate interruption.
Another way is anticipatory retracing.
to the troublesome element.

It is to retrace to and repeat some word prior

The third way is by making a fresh start. The speaker

drops the original syntactic structure and starts with a new construction. There is
also a special type of fresh start prespecification, which is to start with fresh
material but still repeat part of the original utterance.
1.2 Aims of Study
This research aims at collecting and analyzing spontaneous errors, hesitations and repairs
in speech production, and examines their amount and locations in reading aloud,
storytelling and spontaneous speech.

By comparing the number of occurrences of

speech errors in formal speech and casual speech, I would like to account for the
differences.
Apart from studying the nature of speech errors, I would like to investigate the factors
that may influence the frequency of speech errors and why some people are more prone to
speech errors than others.

Several hypotheses would be proposed in the next section.

On the other hand, I would like to find out where hesitations and repairs appear and
whether there are regular patterns on the occurrences.
1.3 Hypothesis
This research suggests that speech errors occur in all types of speech, but their amount
and types vary in different speech styles.
A hypothesis on stylistic aspects is proposed.

As spontaneous speech requires more

linguistic planning, which is very cognitively demanding, repairs and hesitations might be
more frequent in informal and casual discourse contexts as in storytelling and
spontaneous speech.

It is assumed that more hesitations would be found in casual

3

speaking style correlating with brainstorming from mental lexicon than in the part of
reading aloud.

Repairs would be found in both reading aloud and casual speaking, in

which those in reading aloud are due to mispronunciation or related to sight-reading of

the text, while those in casual speaking are owing unclear organization or thoughts.
In terms of suprasegmental features, it is suggested that slow speaking rate is associated
with fewer speech errors (Carroll, 2008).
Lastly, although Schachter et al. (1991) states that speech disfluency does not depend on
which subject the speaker is in, I propose that subjects studying language or linguistics
would have better speech performance than those stuying pure science or engineering.
Analyses would be made in terms of the amount of speech errors and disfluency.
No hypothesis is made on sociolinguistic aspects as the all subjects are of the same gender,
while information of their economic background was not collected.

2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Design and Materials
This paper will look into speech performances of native Hong Kong Cantonese speakers.
Experiments on subjects were carried out.

Three tasks are required to complete by the

subjects:
2.1.1 Reading Aloud
The first task aims at recording speech sounds in the most formal style when
speakers are supposed to be very aware of their articulation, intonation and fluency
of speech.

A text of purely Chinese words should be used in this part.

To ensure

the text is new to all subjects, the text should not be from famous books or writers.
Plus, the words used in the text should not be too difficult lest subjects do not know
how to pronounce, but the words and syntax of the text should not be too easy or
there would be very few speech errors and little amount of disfluency.

A text of

about 450 words extracted from a preface (Hunger, Fasting

and Art) written by Dung Kai-cheung for a drama performance, was selected.
passage is written in modern Chinese in a moderate level of difficulty.

The

Subjects

were asked to read aloud the text formally and literarily for about 2 minutes without
former preparation.
2.1.2 Storytelling
Task 2 aims at recording subjects colloquial speeches in a casual, relaxed and
informal style.

As it requires subjects imagination to construct an intact story, pure

pictures or cartoons without words should be used.

Researcher discovered that

most comics contain descripting text, while those without text are often too short or
not easy to understand.

Two short picture story books were chosen at last. They are

(The Crow Drinks Water) and (The Ants and the

Cricket).

Subjects were asked to tell the two stories informally and colloquially

for 3-5 minutes, based on the pictures in the books and elaborate with their own
imagination.

2.1.3 Spontaneous Speech

The last task aims at studying speech in the most casual and extemporaneous way.
A topic is specified by researcher.
the topic.

Some points should be considered while setting

First, the spontaneous speaking ability might differ among subjects.

Plus, the topic should not be discipline-specialized so that there would not be any
bias against certain subjects.

In light of the above factors, a common question has

been set:
(As a university student, what are your goals and wishes in your university life, and,
how do you think is a meaningful university life?) Subjects were asked to give an
improvisation informally and colloquially for 3-5 minutes, immediately after he had
been told the topic.
2.2 Research Procedures
2.2.1 Experiment Procedures
Experiments were carried out on an individual basis, with a briefing session before
the interview.

A quiet place was arranged by researcher for every subject.

Background information of the subject was inquired, and subjects were reminded to
speak in merely Cantonese, in tasks 2 and 3, if possible.

All subjects are told to

perform the three tasks in the sequence of this: reading aloud, spontaneous speech
and finally storytelling.
Researcher started the sound recorder.

The reading passage was given to the

subject and he was instructed to read a part of it.

Then, researcher told the subject

the specified speech topic, and the subject should perform a spontaneous speech
promptly, without any preparation time.

Lastly, researcher gave the subject the first

picture book, instructing that he should tell a story from the pictures and describe
each picture as much as he could.

With no time glancing through the book, the

speaker should tell the first story.

After finishing the first book, researcher

immediately guided the subject tell the second story, as the sound recording
continued.
All speeches were measured with a stop watch in Sony Xperia Ion mobile phone.

All interviews were recorded using the phone recorder.

2.2.2 Transcription Procedures
All recordings were transcribed in Jyutping, the Cantonese Romanization system
designed and proposed by the Linguistic Society of Hong Kong (LSHK) (The
Linguistics Society of Hong Kong - The Jyutping Scheme, 1993).

Unless

necessary, IPA symbols would not be not used in transcripts as the phonetic and
phonology variations of speech sounds are not main foci of this research.
For unfilled pauses (UFPs), the lengths of short UFPs (less than 1.0 second) were
not recorded.

Durations of longer ones (over 1.0 second) were estimated roughly,

as this research does not demand the precision of the quantitative data on the span of
pauses.
As for filled pauses (FPs), the distribution of FPs was determined in the following
way: if an FP occurred between two phrases, it was analyzed as being at the
beginning of the second phrase, rather than at the end of the first one.

Filler sounds

of subjects which cannot be transcribed in Cantonese characters are marked as uh

(//), um (/m/), hm (/hm/) or mm (/m/).

The filler sound // is transcribed as

as in the Linguistic Corpus of Mid-20th Century Hong Kong Cantonese (

- Word : , 2012).
All transcription notations used in this research is attached in the appendices.
2.3 Subjects Background
Five subjects are invited for the research.

The following personal information of

speakers was collected for data analysis.

1.

Gender
All speakers must be of the same gender for similar linguistic performances.
this research, all subjects are male.
rate of fillers produced.

In

Gender, as a sociolinguistic variable, affects the

In Shribergs (1994) study, men produced significantly

higher rates of filled pauses than women.

2.

Age
In this research, age is set to be an independent variable, so all subjects should be
of similar age.

Age correlates to cognitive, motor and perceptual functioning,

which may affect speech performance.

According to Bortfeld et al. (2001), older

speakers have more difficulty retrieving words than younger speakers do, although
the ability to define words may improve with age.

Plus, regarding the difficulty of

the passage for task 1, subjects should have acquired enough Chinese knowledge.
Therefore, in this research, speakers aged between 20 and 21 years old (those who
were born in 1991) are selected to guarantee similar linguistic performances.
3.

Handedness
All subjects ought to have the same handedness because of the fact that brain
dominance of right-handed people and that of left-handed people are different, hence
influencing their language processing ability.

In this research, right handed

subjects are selected because of their popularity.

4.

Educational background
Similar educational background of subjects should be ensured.

Current university

students are chosen for adequate knowledge of Chinese and full language
development.
5.

Program of study
University program that the speaker is studying might have an impact on his/her
language ability such as usage of vocabularies.

For example, it is suggested that

students studying engineering or mathematics may not have the same level of
language performance as students in Language or Linguistics do. Researcher hopes
to compare their differentiations under this hypothesis.

Plus, students in humanities

may make more self-repairs in spontaneous speech than students in engineering.

6.

HKALE Chinese oral examination grade

It is assumed that language ability correlates with the amount of speech errors,

hesitations and repairs.

(There are definitely other factors leading to speech errors

and self-monitoring.)

Ones language ability could partly be reflected by oral

examination grade.

Though ones oral grade might not be a strong evidence for his

speaking performance, but it is still recorded as reference.

Apart from the above stratifications, all subjects are healthy native Hong Kong Cantonese
speakers who are born in and reside in Hong Kong.

Also, they possess normal reading

and speaking ability and normal intelligence. None of them have any history of speech
and language disorders, such as dyslexia or cerebral dysfunction.

3. RESULTS
3.1 Speech Errors
In this section, errors for each of the three tasks are listed. The Speech Error Sample
column shows only the core part where the error occurs, which is usually either sentence
constituents or phrases.

The Remarks column makes notes on the possible triggers or

causes of an error, or the correct form.

It may also refer to a previous similar speech

error.
Here are the basic keys of eight types of speech errors:
S Shift; E Exchange; N Anticipation; P Perseveration; A Addition; D Deletion;
T Substitution; B Blend
To distinguish different linguistics types of speech errors, small letter alphabets m, p,
c, t, o or i are added after the error key if applicable.

A p stands for phoneme

or sound level; an m stands for morpheme or word level; a c stands for constituent or
phrase level; a t stands for tonal or any other suprasegmental levels; and an o means
that the error is one occurred across two different linguistic levels.

There is a special

deletion error where a sound is cut off abruptly, leaving an incomplete sound segment.
These cases are represented by an i.
Here are some rules and constraints on defining speech errors:
1. Incomplete sound segments or sounds which the meaning is unclear are marked in
italics, while mispronunciations are in parentheses after the target character.
2. If the error type is vague and undefined, a question mark is added in the Type
column.
3. If the source or original target of an error is unclear, a question mark is added in the
Remarks column.
4. If the error type is ambiguous, all possibilities are listed and ordered by their
likelihood, with a slash (/) between the possible types.
5. In this research, the sounds of sentence final particles (SFP) are not considered.
10

For

instance, for the particle , pronunciations of ne1 and le1 are both accepted.
Variations of sounds and tones of most SFPs are not considered to be speech errors.
6. Similar to rule 5, Sounds and tones of all editing expressions are not analyzed. Even
if one pronounced ze1 e6 in the editing expression , the lazy pronunciation
would not be considered.
7. A colloquial reading of a character instead of its literary reading in task 1 is counted
as a speech error.

However, tonal assimilation in vernacular speech, such as

pronouncing as dong1 jin2, is not regarded as error.

8. For deletions of sounds, every omitted phoneme counted as one deletion error.

For

example, for a mispronounced lan4 in bat1 nang4, Tp occurred twice, as the onset
/n/ was substituted by a /l/ and the coda /ng/ was replaced by a /n/.
9. For deletion of sounds, say, in s- , the s sound is produced but cut off
abruptly. Situations like this are counted as only one deletion error.

The deletion

of the original sound segment (Dp) and the deletion of the word (Dm) that would have
been uttered otherwise are combined to a deletion error for incomplete sound segment
(Di).
10. Unclear utterances are not analyzed.
3.1.1 Speech Errors in Task 1
Table 3.1 List of all speech errors occurred in Task 1
# [Speaker].
[Error no.]

Speech Error Sample

Type

Remarks

A01 3

o6

Dp

ngo6

A02

zon6

Tp

zong6

A03

at1

Dp

jat1

A04

a1

Dp, Dp

jat1

A05

don1

Tp

A06

Tm

dong1

A07

ba1b- {.}

Dp

A08

b- {.}

Di

11

bat1

A09

Dc

A10

ja1

Dp

A11

Tm

jan1

A12

a4

Dp, Dp, Pt

A13

Dm

A14

{.} s-

Tc, Di

Line skip

A15

jek4{.}

Tp

? (jim4)

A16

s-

Di

B01 5

tyun5

Tp

B02

Tm

dyun6

B03

bak1

Tp

bat1

B04

gan3:

Dp

gang3

B05

zon6

Tp

zong6

B06

tyun6

Bm

dyun6/tyun5

B07

zat1{.}

Tp

B08

Tm

zak1

B09

Dm

B10

s-

Dp

B11

: laan6

Tp

naan6

B12 2

can4

Pp/Tp

cang4

B13

can4

Tp

B14

lek1{.}

Bp

cang4

B15

lang4

Tp

nang4

B16 2

lan4

Tp, Tp

B17

ng-

Di

B15

B18

won5

Tp

wong5

B19

ba1

Dp

bat1

B20 2

nan4

Tp

nang4

B21

mon4

Tp

mong4

B22

hoen3

Tp

hoeng3

B23 4

san1

Tp

B24

Sm

sang1

B25

{.}

Tm

C01

zat1

Tp

B06

C02

laan4

Tp

naan4

C03

Dm

A04

12

jau6

C04

noi4

Tp

loi4

C05

Dm

A07

D01 4

o6

Dp

A01

D02 6

tyun5

Tp

B01

D03 2

bak1

Tp

B03

D04

gan3

Tp

D05

{.}

Tc

B04

D06

Tm

D07 3

zon6

Tp

A02

D08

zak1

Tp

D09

Dc

zat1

D10

s- {.}

Dp

D11

han4

Tp

hang4

D12

ai6

Dp

ngai6

D13

Tm

D14

loi6

Tp

noi6

D15

don1

Tp

A05

D16

{.}kwu3

Tm, Dp

A01

D17

laan4

Tp

C02

D18 4

san1

Tp

sang3

D19 3

lan4

Tp, Tp

nang4

D20

laan6

Tp

naan6

D21

seok6 *Assimilation (vowel)

Tp

suk6

D22 2

can4

Pp/Tp

B11

D23

can4

Tp

B12

D24 2

lang4

Tp

nang4

D25

laa5

Tp

naa5

D26

ba1

Dp

B18

D27

won5{.}

Tp

wong5

D28 2

{.}mon4

Tp

mong5

D29

hoen3

Tp

D30

Tm

hoeng3

D31

j- {.}

Di

D32

joen6{.}

Tp

joeng6

D33

o5

Dp

ngo5

E01 17

o6

Dp

A01

E02 3

tyun5

Tp

D02

13

E03

gan3

Dp

B04

E04 2

zon6

Tp

A02

E05

zo6

Dp

A02

E06 2

dyun5

Bm

B05

E07

zat1{.}

Tp

B06

E08

oi6

Dp

E09

: sip6{.} d- {.}

Bp

ngoi6

E10

: sip6{.} d- {.}

Di

E11 13

ai6

Dp

E12

Tm

D12

E13

z- {.}

Di

E14

z- {.}{.} j-

Di

E15

j- {.}

Di

E16

j- {.}

Dm

E17

don1

Tp

A05

E18

b- {.}{.}

Di

A08

E19

b- {.}{.}

Dm

A06

E20

ja1

Dp

E21

{.}{.} s-

Di

A07

E22

laan4

Tp

C02

E23

laan6

Tp

B10

E24 3

o5

Dp

D34

E25 2

can4

Pp/Tp

B11

E26

daa6

Dp

daan6

E27

can4

Tp

B12

E28

mi2

Dp

min2

E29 4

lan4

Tp, Tp

B15

E30

{.}baan2

Tp

baa2

E31

{.}naak5

Ap

naa5

E32

wo5

Dp

wong5

E33

ba1

Dp

B18

E34

hoen3

Tp

D29

E35

Tm

E36

Tm

E37

gi6

Dp

gik6

E38

dyu1

Dp

dyun1

E39

haa4

Dp

hang4

14

E40

toen5

Tp

teon5

E41

zoen3

Tp

zeon3

(Note that duplicated speech errors by each subject are not included. The N in the first
column represents the number of occurrences of that error in the whole task.)

15

Table 3.2 Amount of Different Speech Errors made by Subjects in Task 1

Subjects
A

Types

Total

Shift

Exchange

Anticipation

Perseveration

1(2)

1(2)

1(2)

3(6)

Addition

phoneme

morpheme

15(17)

12(17)

19(30)

27(59)

75(125)

phoneme

11(13)

11(16)

18(29)

25(57)

65(115)

morpheme

10

Substitution

8(15)

15(24)

12(17)

42(63)

phoneme

5(12)

10(19)

7(12)

26(47)

morpheme

16

phoneme

morpheme

sound & tone

19(21)

25(38)

35(56)

42(80)

200

Deletion

of
Speech
Errors

Blend

Total

(The numbers in brackets include duplicated errors.)

3.1.2 Speech Errors in Task 2
Table 3.3 List of all speech errors occurred in Task 2
# [Speaker].

Speech Error Sample

Type

Remarks

A01 5

ja5:

Dp

jau5

A02 8

a1:

Dp, Dp

jat1

A03 15

o3

Dp

go3

A04

c- {.}

Di

[Error no.]

16

A05

ha6

Dp

hai6

A06

joen4

Tp

joeng4

A07 8

za6

Dp

zau6

A08

ou2

Dp

hou2

A09

f- {.}{}{.}: {.}{}

Di

? (fei1)

A10

go1

Dp

goi1

A11 6

moen2

Tp

moeng2

A12

ga2

Dp

gan2

A13 10

:heoi5

Tp

keoi5

A14 6

au6

Dp

A15

jaung6

Bp

hau6
?

A16

do1

Dp

dong1

A17

eoi5

Dp

keoi5

Dp

ge3

e3

A18 4

(zau6 jung6)

A19

f- {.}

Di

A20 2

da6

Dp

daan6

A21 5

ai6

Dp

A22

s- {.}{.}

Di

hai6
/?

A23

ngo3

Dp/Tp

go3

A24 2

o6:

Dp, Dp

dou6

A25

: d-

Di

A26 5

:lam2

Dp

nam2

A27

ba1

Dp

A28

ze2

Bp

bat1

A29

daai6

Bp

A30

fa3

Dp

A31

sa6

Dp

A32

le4

Dp

lei4

A33

haa4

Dp

haang4

A34 2

ou6

Dp

dou6

A35

za1

Dp

zau1

17

(soeng2, san1)

zi gei2

daan6 hai6
fat3
/
sat6 zoi6 hai6

A36

am2:

Dp

gam2

A37

bi1

Dp

A38

ze6

Bp, Tp

bin1

A39

coe1

Dp

ceot1

A40

do1

Dp

dou1

A41

zoen1

Tp

zoeng1

A42

moe2

Dp/Tp, Dp

joeng2

A43

ma6

Dp

maan6

A44

ma2

Dp

maan2

zau6 hai6

A45

ze3

Dp

zek3

A46

jit1

Tp

ji1

A47

joen2

Tp

joeng2

A48

ha2

Dp

hai2

A49 2

at1

Dp

A50

((.h)) ha-

Di

jai1
? (hau2)

A51

ha6-

Di

A52

i1

Dp

zi1

A53

o6

Dp

ngo6

A54

f- {.}{.}{: }{.}

Di

? (fung1)

A55

soeng2

Dp, Tt

A56

nou4

Tp

lou4

A57

don1

Tp

dong1

A58

hoen3

Tp

hoeng3

Di

? (maa5)

A59

m- {.}{}{.}<h>

/
soeng4 zi1

A60

nga5

Dp

ngai5

A61

</h> {.}oe

Dp, Dp

A62

s- {.}

Di

heoi3
? (sat6)

A63

loe5

Dp

loeng5

A64

ek3

Dp

zek3

A65 2

moeng2

Dp/Tp

joeng2

A66

noi4

Tp

A67

zai6

Bp

loi4

18

zau6 hai6

A68

oe4

Dp, Dp

soeng4

A69 2

te1

Dp

teng1

A70 2

ou2

Dp

dou2

A71

au6

Dp

hau6

A72

ai5

Dp

A73

zy- {: }

Di

ngai5
? (zyu6)

A74

hoen2{.}

Tp

hoeng2

A75

taai3

Tp

paai3

B01

ngaa1

Ap

aa1

B02 2

ou6

Dp

dou6

B03

ja1

Dp

jan1

B04

wa6/waa6

Dp

wai6

B05 3

heoi5:

Tp

keoi5

B06 3

da6/daa6

Dp

daan6

B07 3

ai6

Dp

hai6

B08 2

o3

Dp

go3

B09

o2

Dp

B10

do2

Bp/Dp

ho2
/?

B11

aa6

Dp, Dp

hai6

B12

lam2

Tp

nam2

B13 7

o5

Dp

ngo5

B14 3

au6

Dp, Tp/Pp

B15

: s::-

Di

hai2 dou6
?

B16

ge1

Tp, Dp

gan1

B17

da1

Tp, Dp

dou1

B18

aa6

Dp

B19

o6

Dp, Dp /N

jau6
? (ngoi)

B20 2

o6 o3

Dp/P

go3

B21 2

za6

Dp

zau6

B22 2

ja1

Dp

jat1

B23

la1

Dp/P

lap1

B24

moen2

Dp/Tp, Tp

joeng2

B25

hoe5

Tp, Dp

keoi5

B26

moe2

Dp/Tp, Dp

joeng2

B27 2

ou6

Dp

dou6

B28

loi6

Tp

noi6

19

(dou2 go2)

B29 2

o6

Dp

ngo6

B30 2

lan4

Tp, Tp

nang4

B31

{.} d-

Dp

B32

za1

Dp

zan1

B33

heoi3

Tp, Tt

keoi5

B34 4

ai5

Dp

B35

m- aa5

Di

ngai5
? (maa5)

B36

aa5

Di

maa5

B37 2

o2/jo2

Dp/Tp

zo2

B38 2

e3

Dp

ge3

B39

joen2

Tp

B40

: {} c- {}:

Di

joeng2
? (co5)

B41

:go1

Dp

goi1

B42

mei6

Tp

bei6

C01

mat6

Dp/Tp

jat6

C02 2

ngaa1

Ap

aa1

C03 4

ja5

Dp

jau5

C04 6

a1

Dp, Dp

jat1

C05 3

za6

Dp

za6

C06

au5

Dp

jau5

C07 4

heoi5

Tp

keoi5

C08

{ aa6} j- {.}

Di

C09

leo5

Dp

leoi5

C10 4

daa6

Dp

daan6

C11 4

ai6

Dp

hai6

C12 2

ngo3

Dp/Tp

go3

C13

lai6{.}

Tp

C14 3

moen2

Dp/Tp, Tp

joeng2

C15 4

o3

Dp

go3

C16 5

lam2

Tp

nam2

C17

aan1

Dp

gaan1

C18

au6

Dp

jau6

C19 2

o2

Dp

gwo2

C20

se6

Dp

sek6

C21

d- m

Di

C22

m- ma6

Di

?
? (m4)

C23

ma6

Dp/Tp, Dp

hai6

20

C24

ja1

Dp

jat1

C25 2

e3

Dp

ge3

C26

c-

Di

C27

o2/jo2

Dp

zo2

C28

nim2

Dp/Tp

dim2

C29

he5

Tp, Dp

keoi5

C30

o5

Dp

ngo5

C31

de6

Dp, Tp, Dp

ding6

C32

he2

Tp, Dp

hai2

C33

a3

Dp, Tp

C34

w- {.} s- s-

Di

go3
? (wai2)

C35 2

s- s-

Di

? (seoi2)

C36

lin4

Tp

nin4

C37

ut6{.}{}{.}

C38

at1

Dp

jat1

C39

go3

Dp

gok3

C40

e3

Dp, Dp

zek3

C41

hoe5

Dp

heoi5

C42

j- {}

Di

C43

j- naak3

Di

C44

maang5

Ap

maa5

C45

ai5

Dp

C46

mo2

Bp

ngai5

C47

am2

Dp

gam2

C48

moeng2

Dp/Tp

D01

{mm: }{.}ta- []

Di

joeng2
? (tai3)

D02

d-

Di

D03 4

((clear throat)) pi- h{.} ci- h-

Di

D05 2

l- {.} j-

Di

D06

s-

Di

D07

soe- {.}

Di

?
? (syu1)

D08 2

i1

Dp

D09

t- {.}

Di

zi1
? (tin1)

D10 14

e3

Dp

ge3

D11

c- {.}

Di

21

(m4 ho2)

D12

m2

Dp

gam2

D13 3

da6/daa6

Di

daan6

D14 4

go3

Dp

D15

t- {.}

Di

gok3
? (tou5)

D16 2

hok3

Tp

hot3

D17

gaa2

Dp

gang2

D18 8

ai6

Dp

hai6

D19 7

za6

Dp

D20

ha3

Tp

zau6
?

D21

daa6

Dp

D22 20

lam2

Tp

D23

{.} s-

Di

D24

au4

Dp, Pt

D25

h- {.}

Di

si4 hau6
? (hou2)

D26 15

o5

Dp

ngo5

D27

gaak3

Tp

gaap3

D28

aang2

Dp

ngaang2

D29 2

sat1

Tp

sak1

D30

ja6

Dp

jap6

D31

soeng1

Tp

zoeng1

D32 4

o3

Dp

go3

D33

do1

Dp

dou1

D34 5

za1

Dp

zan1

D35 4

a6

Dp, Dp

hai6

D36 3

ji4

Dp

jin4

D37

d- {.}

Di

D38

ji4

Tp

jiu4

D39 2

da6

Dp

dat6

D40

aa1

Dp, Dp

D41

Dm

gaan1

D42

oe5

Dp, Dp

? (keoi5)

D43 5

heoi5

Tp

keoi5

D44 2

ou6

Dp

D45

se3{.}

Bp/Bm

dou6
?

D46

koe- {.}

Di

22

/?
(daan6 hai6)
nam2
? (seoi2)

(sai3 sek6)
?

D47

g- lam4{.}

Di

D48

lam4{.}

Bm

D49

lim6

Tp

D50

soe-

Di

nim6
?

D52

f- {.}

Di

D53

d- {}

Di

D54

laang6

Tp

laan6

D55

{.}
{.}

Dc

D56

Dm

D57

zem2

Bp

D58 2

g- s- {}

Di

(zau6 nam2)
()?

D59

zeo2

Dp, Pt

? (zoen1)

D60

Dp

D61 3

zoen1{.}

Tp

zoeng1

D62

moeng2

Dp/Tp

joeng2

D63

la6

Tp, Dp

lok6

D64

eoi3

Dp

heoi3

D65 2

ji2- si-

Di

D66 4

au6

Dp

D67

Sm/Dm

hau6

D68 7

za6

Dp

zau6

D69 2

a5

Dp, Dp

jau5

D70

am2

Dp

D71

fa6- gaai3-

Di

jam2
?

D72

gaai3-

Bp

D73 2

moen2

Dp/Tp, Tp

D74

soek6

Bm

D75

soek6 ba-

Di

D76

loi6

Bp

D77

a3

Dp, Tp

23

?
/?
(nam2, ling4)

?
(gaa1 faai3)
joeng2
/?
(sek6, sui2)
?
?
(lok6 heoi3)
go3

D78

go3

Tp

gwo3

D79 2

at1

Dp

jat1

D80

sin13

Bp, Dp

sin1 zi3

D81

m5

Tp

ng5

D82

ai5

Dp

ngai5

D83

lou5{.}

Tp

D84

z-

Di

nou5
?

D85 4

m5

Tp

ng5

D86

jyu6

Dp, Tp

de6

D87

got3

Tp

gok3

D88

zoek3

Tt

zoek6

D89

he2

Dp

hei2

D90

ja1

Dp

jat1

D91

la1

Dp

lap1

D92

e6

Dp, Dp

dei6

D93

hoe3

Dp

D94

Bc

heoi3
/

D95

o3

Dp, Tp

D96

ja51 {.}

Bp

D97 2

a3

Dp, Dp

D98 2

am2

Dp

gam2

D99 3

moe2

Dp/Tp, Dp

joeng2

D100

en- ((clear throat)) <h>

Di

enjoy?

D101

ja- {uh : }:

Di

D102

han4

Tp

D103

ja-

Di

hang4
?

D104

ok6/mok6

Dp/Tp

D105

{.}hou- soeng2

Di

D106

soeng2

Dp, Bt

D107 11

mot6

Dp/Tp, Tp

ngok6

D108 2

ten1

Tp

teng1

24

/
(ge3, gaa3)
?
(jau5 jat1)
/?
(jat1, zek3)

ngok6
?

(soeng4 zi1)

D109

Dp

D110 2

au6

Dp

D111

za- {.}

Di

hau6
?

D112

gan-

Di

D113

te- :

Di

D114

te1

Dp

teng1

D115

jyu4

Dp

jyun4

D116
D117

s- ((clear throat)) Di
ji- {}
Di

?
?

D118

sa6

Dp

sat6

D119

a1gyun6:

Dp, Dp

D120

gyun6:

Tp

jat1
? (dyun6)

D121

mu5

Dp

mou5

D122 2

aai4

Dp

ngaai4

D123 4

o6

Dp

D124

ha-

Di

ngo6
?

D125

hung1((clear throat))
ha- ((clear throat)) gei1 ha- ?

D126

ha- ((clear throat)) gei1 ha-

Di

D127

gei1 ha-

D128

gei1 ha-

Di

D129

ci4

Dp

cin4

D130

h- {.}

Di

D131 3

za- ha- ja-

Di

?
?

D132

mo1

Tp

? (mat1)

D133

go- {em }{.} g-

Di

D134

g-

Di

D135

ji3

Dp

D136

sap-

Di

jiu3
? (sam1)

D137

j-

Di

D138

soe2

Dp

soeng2

D139

mo6

Dp

D140

g-

Di

mong6
? (gei1)

D141

zoen1noi4

Tp/Dp

loi4

D142 3

o2

Dp

zo2

25

D143

hong4

Np/Tp

D144

ceo-

Di

hon4 dung1
? (cou5)

D145

zy- ((clear throat)) {

}{.}

Di

? (zyu6)

D146 2

ma6

Dp

D147

{.}le-

Di

mat6
? (lei4)

D148

swit1

Bm/Tp/Bp

D149

zik- {}:

Di

D150

san1

Tp

sang1

D151

oi6

Dp

ngoi6

D152

koe5{.}

Dp

keoi5

D153 3

saan1

Dp

saang1

D154

mang6

Tp

man6

D155

s- au6 aa6

Di

D156 2

au6 aa6

Di

?
?

D157

ja- ((h))

Di

D158

ning5

Tp

ling5

D159

ja- {uh}{.} ho((.h))

Di

? (jau1)

D160

ho- ((.h))

Di

? (hou2)

D161

gap-

Di

? (gam2)

D162 2

ba1

Dp

bat1

D163

a1

Dp, Tp, Dp

dou1

D164

e2

Dp

ge2

D165

ak1

Tp

uk1

D166

go3

Dp

gok3

D167

an4

Dp

jan4

D168

ho- ((clear throat))

Di

E01 9

o5

Dp

ngo5

E02

go2

Dp

gong2

E03 10

za6:

Dp

zau6

E04 11

:ai6

Dp

E05

lat1

E06

fong1

/?
(bit1 seoi1)

(zau6 waa6)

hai6
Bm/Bp/Ap/ //?
Tp
(li1 jat1)
(fung1)
Tp

26

E07

ei2

Dp, Tp

hai2

E08

lul1- {.} c-

Di

E09

go1

Dp

E10

ja5

Dp

goi1
/?

E11

ja5 w- {.}

Di

(jau5 jat1)
? (wu1)

E12 4

sa6

Dp

sat6

E13 2

a6

Dp, Tp

E14

seo1- {.}

Di

zoi6
? (seoi1)

E15

l- :

Di

E16

{}

Dp, Tp

?
? (keoi5)

E17 4

ja5 a1

Dp

jau5

E18 4

a1

Dp, Dp

E19

gwo3

Bp

jat1
?

E20 11

ja1

Dp

jan1

E21 2

loi6

Tp

noi6

E22 10

heoi5

Tp

keoi5

E23

{.} h-

Di

E24 8

au6

Dp

hau6

E25 7

lam2

Dp

nam2

Di

E26

: d- seoi-

(gaa3 wo3)

E27

: d- seoi-

Di

? (seoi2)

E28 15

da6/daa6

Dp

E29

o6

Dp, Tp

daan6
? (keoi5)

E30

s- {.} s-

Di

E31

s- {.} s-

Di

E32

maa3

Dp

E33

si-

Di

maak3
? (si4)

E34

i2

Dp, Bp/Tp

zi6 gei2

E35

go-

Di

E36 2

mun2

Dp/Tp

E37

{.} s-

Di

bun2
? (sat6)

E38 4

soen2

Tp

soeng2

E39

zu-

Tp

27

E40

si2

Tp

? (zi2)

E41

o3

Dp

E42

go-

Di

gwo3
? (go3)

E43 2

o2

Dp

go2

E44 3

faa3

Dp

faat3

E45

zoen1

Tp

zoeng1

E46 3

ma6

Dp

mai6

E47 2

wu3

Dp

wui3

E48

ceo1

Dp

ceot1

E49 2

ei4

Dp

lei4

E50

hoe3

Dp

E51 2

daa6

Dp

hoeng3
/?

E52 2

a6/aa6

Dp, Dp

jau6

E53

eoi5

Dp

keoi5

E54

wu5

Dp

wui2

E55

mui5

Bp

m4 wui3

E56

li1

Tp

di1

E57

{.}: {.}

Di

E58

:o3

Dp

go3

E59 4

: {.}ngo3

Tp/Dp

go3

E60

moe2

Dp/Tp, Dp

E61

wu-

Di

joeng2
? (wui3)

E62

maa6

Dp

maan6

E63

dek6

Tp

E64

l- lam2

Di

dik6
lam2?

E65 2

go2

Tp

E66

: ge23

Tt?

gwo2
? (ge3)

E67

c- {.}

Di

E68

s- {.}

Di

E69

b1

Dp

bat1

E70 2

i1

Dp

E71

ci- {.}

Di

di1
? (ci5)

E72

{.} s- {.}

Di

? (seoi2)

E73

ngo2

Dp/Tp

zo2

E74

dek1

Tp

E75

s:-

Di

dik1
? (seoi2)

28

(daan6 hai6)

E76

waa6

Dp/Tp, Dp

mou5 baan6

E77

{.} j- s- {.}

Di

E78

s- {.}

Di

E79

aa6

Dp, Dp

?
? (zau6)

E80 2

eo5/oe5

Dp, Dp

keoi5

E81 2

za1

Dp

E82

w-

Di

zan1
? (wai4)

E83

ja1

Dp

jat1

E84

ai2

Dp

hai2

E85 3

jyun4

Pp/Tp

seoi1 jin4

E86

zaa1

Dp

E87

b- {.}

Di

zaang1
? (bat1)

E88 7

faa1

Dp

faan1

E89

gaa1

Dp

gan1

E90

mu2

Tp/Dp, Dp

bun2

E91

seoi5

Tt/Bt

seoi3
? (seoi5)

E92 2

gau4

Tt

gau6

E93

i3

Dp

zi3

E94

j-

Di

E95

j-

Di

E96

ji1 lat1

Ep

(li1 jat1)

E97

lik1

Tp

E98

di1

Bp/Np/Tp

?
(li1 di1)

E99

i1

Dp/Bp

? (li1 di1)

E100 4

go3

Tp

gwo3

E101

{.} c- {.}

Di

E102 3

e3

Dp

ge3

E103

go3

Dp

go3

E104

m- z- m-
{.}{}{.}

Di

? (maa5)

E105

m- z- m-
{.}{}{.}

Di

E106

m- {.}{}{.}

Di

? (maa5)

E107 7

ai5

Dp

ngai5

29

E108 2

lan4

Tp, Tp

nang4

E109

a6

Dp, Dp

gan6

E110

a3

Dp, Dp

gau3

E111

ji3

Dp

E112

s-

Di

jiu3
? (sik6)

E113

o6

Dp, Dp

E114

f- {.}

Di

dou6
? (fo3)

E115 2

au4

Dp, Pt/Tt

si4 hau6

E116

jat51

Bp

jau5 jat1

E117 3

a2

Dp, Tp, Dp

hai2

E118 2

ou6

Dp

dou6

E119

c- {}

Di

E120

bo1- {.} wa6- {.}

Di

E121

bo1- {.} wa6- {.}

Di

E122

swu- {.}

Di

E123 2

o6

Dp, Dp

zoi6

E124

l6

Tp

lik6

E125 3

ka4

Dp

kam4

E126 2

a3

Dp, Tp

E127

gwu3

Bp

ge3
?

E128

da3

Dp/Tp/Bp

E129

j- {.} gaa3

Di

(ge3 gu2)
/?
(daat3, go3)
?

E130

gaa3

Bp

E131

ha2

Dp

E132

j- {.}

Di

hai2
? (jau5)

E133 2

bo1

Dp

bong1

E134

da1

Dp

dat1

E135

nga- {.}
Di

E136

{.} zum1

Np/Pp

E137

h- {.}{.}

Di

E138

la4

Tp, Dp

E139

syu:23

Bp

30

(kam4 ge3)

? (ngai5)
/?
sum1
? (ho2)
nang4

so2 ji3
E140

an4

Dp

jan4

E141

ou3

Dp

E142

ge2

Bm/Tt/Tp

dou3
/?

E143

do1

Dp

dong1

E144

Tt

E145 3

ge2

Tp, Dp

E146

aa4 m- {.}

Dp, Bp

ging2

E147

m- {.}

Di

kam4 ge3
? (maa5)

E148

go3

Dp

gok3

E149

aai4

Dp

ngaai4

E150 3

o6

Dp

ngo6

E151

z- {.}

Di

E152

oe1

Dp, Dp, Tt

joeng2

E153

soe6

Dp

E154

e3

Dp, Dp

seon6
/?

E155

mu- {.}

Tp

mou5

E156

ji- {.}

Di

E157 3

koe5

Dp

keoi5

E158

baa6

Dp

E159

{.} d- {.} z- {.}

Di

baan6
? (dup1)

E160

{.} d- {.} z- {.}

Di

E161

bu6

Dp

E162

o2 i1

Dp, Dp

bun6
?

E163

sa6

Dp

E164

do1

Dp

dou1

E165

o2

Dp

zo2

E166

do3

Dp

dou3

E167

heoi6

Tt

heoi3

E168

mai6

Dp/Tp

hai6

E169

ha6:

Dp

hai6

E170 2

ja1a6

Dp, Dp

wai6

31

(ge3, go2)

(zek3, ge3)

(go2 di1)
/
sat6 zoi6 hai6

E171

d-

Di

? (dei6)

E172

man2

Dp/Tp, Tp

hang2

E173

loi6

Tp

E174

b- {.}

Di

noi6
? (bong1)

E175

min4 baa3 goe5-

E176

m-

?
Tp, Dp, Tp,
(ming4 baak3
Di
keoi5)
? (ming4)
Di

E177

s-

Di

E178

am3

E179

{.} coe- {.}

Di

? (coeng3)

3.1.3 Speech Errors in Task 3

Table 3.5 List of all speech errors occurred in Task 3
# [Speaker].
[Error no.]

Speech Error Sample

Type

Remarks

A01 12

o5

Dp

ngo5

A02 17

e3

Dp

ge3

A03

lam2

Tp

nam2

A04

ong4

Dp

tung4

A05 6

za6

Dp

zau6

A06 4

ai6

Dp

hai6

A07 6

daa6/da6

Dp

daai6

A08

moe2

Dp/Tp, Dp

joeng2

A09 4

at1

Dp

A10

ze1

Dp, Tp

jat1
?

A11

gak3

Np

gok3 dak1

A12 2

ho6

Dp

hok6

A13 2

ze1

Tp, Dp

zik1

A14 3

e6

Dp, Tp, Dp

hai6

A15

a1

Dp, Dp

jat1

A16

neoi5

Tp

leoi5

A17

soen6

Tp

soeng6

A18

zoen2

Tp

zoeng2

32

(zik1 hai6)

A19

ga3

Tp

A20

: {: } g- {.}{}

Di

A21

o6

Dp, Dp

ngoi6

A22

: {: } t-

Di

A23

e2

Dp, Tp, Dp

hai2

A24 2

ji6

Dp

jik6

A25

{: }{.} s- :

Di

A26

do1

Dp

dou1

A27

ei2

Dp, Tp

A28

: j- {.}

Di

A29 3

du1

Tp

A30

j- {.}

Di

A31

zak1

Tp

A32

Am

zan1

A33 4

moeng2

Dp/Tp

joeng2

A34

mon6

Tp

mong6

A35

moen2

Dp/Tp, Tp

A33

A36 5

ei2

Dp

gei2

A37 3

lang4

Tp

nang4

A38

ngaak1

Ap, Tp

ak1

A39 2

:au5

Dp

jau5

A40

zak1

Sub

zat1

A41

sa1

Dp

sang1

A42

min6

Tp

ming6

A43 2

dan2

Tp

A44

da- {.}

Di

dang2
? (daai6)

A45

sa6

Dp

sat6

A46 2

ak1:

Dp, Tp

jat1

A47

waa6

Dp

waak6

A48 3

go3

Dp

gok3

A49 4

heoi5

Tp

keoi5

A50

d- {.} c- {.}

Di

A51

d- {.} c- {.}

Di

A52 3

soen2

Tp

soeng2

A53

dat1

Tp

dak1

33

ge3
/?
(gei1, ge3)

hai2
*low mid
? (jik6)
dou1
?

A54 2

lei5

Tp

nei5

A55

hei3

Pp, Tt

hai6

A56 2

o3

Dp

go3

A57

fo1

Dp

fong1

A58

ok6

Dp

hok6

A59

jam2

Dp/ Tp

gam2

A60

eoi5

Dp

keoi5

A61

{ze1 e6} g- {.}

Di

A62

lang4

Tp

nang4

A63

sak6{.}

Tp

sat6

A64 2

da6

Dp

daan6

A65

da1

Dp

dak1

B01 17

o5

Dp

ngo5

B02 2

san1

Tp

sang1

B03 5

ai6

Dp

hai6

B04

gaa3

Dp

gaan3

B05

e2

Dp, Tp, Dp

B06

zoe3-

Dp

hai2
? (zeoi3)

B07 4

da6

Dp

daai6

B08 5

ho6

Dp

hok6

B09

waa6

Dp

waak6

B10 6

moen2

Dp/Tp, Tp

joeng2

B11 3

ja1

Dp

jan1

B12 2

wa6

Dp

wai6

B13 4

go3

Dp

gok3

B14

hak6

Pp

daai6 hok6

B15

an6

Dp/Tp

zan6? go3?

B16

au6

Dp

hau6

B17

an6 au5

Dp

jau5

B18

gyun3

Tp

hyun3

B19

za6

Dp

zau6

B20 3

soen5

Tp

soeng5

B21

mou2

Dp

hou2

B22 3

go3

Tp

gwo3

B23 2

:zoen1

Tp

zoeng1

B24

o2::

Dp

go2

B25 2

e3

Dp

ge3

34

B26

::soen2

Tp

soeng2

B27

gan3

Tp

gang3

B28

e2

Dp, Dp

gei2

B29

hot6

Tp

B30

hot6s-

Dp

hok6
?

B31

: {: }{.}soe- {}

Di

B32

: g- {}

Di

B33

c- {: }

Di

B34 3

lam2

Tp

nam2

B35 2

ei2

Dp

gei2

B36

a1

Dp, Dp

jat1

B37

ba1

Dp

bat1

B38

o3

Dp

gwo3

B39

maa4

Dp

maai4

B40

gaa1

Dp

gaan1

B41

z-

Di

B42

o1

Dp, Dp

dou1

B43

wu3

Dp

wui3

B44

gon2

Tp

gong2

C01 9

o5

Dp

ngo5

C02 2

do1

Dp

dou1

C03 3

da6/daa6

Dp

C04

d- {.}

Di

daan6
/?

C05 2

gon2{.}

Tp

gong2

C06 2

moeng2

Dp/Tp

joeng2

C07 4

za6

Dp

zau6

C08 6

:lang4

Tp

C09

ham2

Tp

nang4
? (gam2)

C10

o2

Dp

zo2

C11

oi6

Dp

ngoi6

C12

au5

Dp

C13

pj- {em: }{.}

Di

jau5
?

C14 4

o3

Dp

C15

wa6- {.}

Di

gok3
? (wai6)

C16

da6- {}:

Di

? (daai6)

35

(dyun2, dong1)

(pei3 jyu4)

C17 2

lei5

Tp

nei5

C18 2

lan4

Tp, Tp

nang4

C19 2

at1

Dp

jat1

C20 3

wa6/waa6

Dp

waak6

C21

e2

Dp

ze2

C22

ai6

Dp

hai6

C23

pan4

Tp

pang4

C24 2

ja1

Dp

jan1

C25

nan4

Tp

nang4

C26

lin4

Tp

nin4

C27

go3

Dp

gok3

C28

h- {em: }soe- {}

Di

? (heoi3)

C29

soe- {}

Di

? (soeng4)

C30 2

ngaak1

Ap, Tp

ak1

C31

soen2

Tp

soeng2

C32

ma6

Dp/Tp, Dp

hai6

C33

nga6

Dp/Tp, Dp

hai6

C34

o2

Dp

go2

C35

am2

Dp

gam2

C36

zoen1

Tp

C37

h- {.}

Di

zoeng1
? (hai6)

C38

ap6

Dp

C39

: j-

Di

jap6
? (jau5)

C40

wu- {.}

Di

? (wui3)

C41

go2

Tp

C42

h- {}{.}

Di

gwo2
? (hai2)

C43

{.}

Tp

C44

{.}

Sm

D01

d- ((clear throat))

Di

D02

e1

Dp, Tp, Dp

ging1

D03 3

ai6

Dp

hai6

D04

j-

Di

D05

saa1

Dp

saang1

D06 23

o5

Dp

ngo5

D07 2

lin4

Tp

nin4

D08 5

o2

Dp

gwo2

36

D09 4

lei5

Tp

D10

w-

Di

D11 7

da6/daa6

Dp

D12

hei4

Bm

D13

e2

Dp, Tp, Dp

D14

wut6

Tp

hai6

D15

wut6 s-

Di

D16

: g-

Dp

D17

ga2

gang2

D18

o3

P/N

D19

ji1 so-

Tp

ho2 ji3 gwo3

?

D20

ji1 so-

Di

D21 4

san1

Tp

sang1

D22

gon2

Tp

gong2

D23

:soen2

Tp

soeng2

D24

wu6

Dp

wut6

D25

go3

Dp

gok3

D26

da1

Dp

dak1

D27 2

a1:

Dp

jat1

D28

ta3-

Dp

tau3?

D29

hot6

Tp

hok6

D30 7

ho6

Dp

D31

o5 wu-

Di

hok6
?

D32

sa-

Di

D33 4

e3

Dp

ge3

D34

loen6

Tp

leon6

D35

{.}g- {: }{.}

Di

D36

{.}{.}j- {: }

Di

D37

fo1

Dp

D38

deo- {.}{: }

Di

fong1
?

Di

Di

Di

D39
D40
D41

{em} le- li- ((clear

throat))
{em} le- li- ((clear
throat))
gwo- :

37

nei5
?
daai6
/
(hei1, kei4)

D42

o5ho- o5

Di

D43

zoen1

Tp

D44

: s- {}

Di

zoeng1
?

D45 2

wu3

Dp

wui3

D46

gan3

Tp

gang3

D47

le5

Tp, Dp

nei5

D48

m- {.}

Di

D49

dang2 {.}

Tp

?
?

D50

: z-

Di

D52

e6

Tp

D53

bak6

Tp

baak6

D54

sa6

Dp

sat6

D55

a1

Dp/P

D56

Dm

jat1

D57

ma6

Dp/Tp, Dp

hai6

D58

jin6

Tp

joeng6

D59

ha6

Dp

hai6

D60

j- {.}

Di

D61 3

lan4

Tp, Tp

nang4

D62

g-

Dp

D63 2

lam2

Tp

nam2

D64 2

ha6:

Dp

hai6

D65 2

go2

Tp

gwo2
/

D66

sok3gwo2

Bp, Tp

gaa3 waa2
/ge3 waa2

D67 2

za6bi-

Dp

D68

bi- {:}{.}

Di

zau6
?

D69

ou2

Dp

hou2

D70

moe2

Dp/Tp, Dp

joeng2

D71

a6

Dp, Dp

hai6

D72

faak3

Tp

faat3

D73

gwaak6

Pp, Tp

faat3 gwat6

D74

fon1

Tp

fong1

D75

h-

Di

D76

ngam2/am2

Dp/Tp

gam2

D77

moen2

Dp/Tp, Tp

joeng2

38

D78

at1

Dp

jat1

D79

m- :

Di

D80

{.} o2{.}

D81

{.}

Am

D82

{.}g-

Di

D83

me2

Dp/Tp, Tp,
Dp

(joeng2)

D84

ma- {}

Di

? (maai4)

D85

eo3

Dp, Dp

heoi3

D86

{.} gi6<h>{: }

D87

{: }{.} da-

Di

?
? (daai6)

D88

</h> {.}s-

Di

E01 22

o5

Dp

ngo5

E02

mat6

Dp/Tp

jat6

E03 8

za6

Dp

zau6

E04 6

da6

Dp

daai6

E05

e2

Dp, Dp

gei2

E06

go2

Dp

gong2

E07 5

nge3

Tp

ge3

E08

sa1

Dp

E09

j- {.}

Di

sang1
? (jiu3/jiu6)

E10 2

ze1

Tp

zik1

E11 3

e6

Dp, Tp

hai6

E12

m- {.}: {.}

Di

? (muk6)

E13

jy- {.}

Di

E14

i1

Dp, Dp

ging1

E15

bwo1

Np

bat1 gwo3

E16 5

lin4

Tp

nin4

E17 2

gaa3

Dp

gaan3

E18 2

da6

Dp

E19

h- {.}

Di

daan6
? (hou2)

E20 3

faa3

Dp

faat3

E21

j- {.}

Di

? (jik6)

E22

g-

Di

? (ge3)

39

E23

jang4san1

Ep

jan4 sang1

E24 11

lei5

Tp

nei5

E25 3

p3

Dp

pei3

E26

s- {.} s- {}{.}

Di

? (se5)

E27 4

moen2

Dp/Tp, Tp

moeng2

E28

h-

Di

E29

lang4

Tp

nang4

E30

j- {.}

Di

E31

{.}{}{.}

Am

E32

g-

Di

? (geoi1)

E33 2

hoen1

Tp

heong1

E34

ngon2

Tp/Dp, Tp

gong2

E35

saa1

Dp

saang1

E36 7

ja1

Dp

jan1

E37

wa6

Dp

wai6

E38 8

e3

Dp

ge3

E39 3

moe2

Dp/Tp, Dp

moeng2

E40 5

ho6

Dp

hok6

E41

koen4

Tp

koeng4

E42

w- {.}{.}

Di

E43

go6- wu6-

Di

E44

go6- wu6-

Di

E45

e6

Am

E46

ma6

Dp/Tp, Dp

hai6

E47

laa2

Pt

laa3/laa1

E48

do1

Dp

E49

do- jy- {.}

Di

dong1
? (dou3)

E50

do- jy- {.}

Di

? (jap6)

E51 3

o3

Dp

go3

E52

au6

Dp

E53

j- {.}{.}

Di

hau6
? (jiu3)

E54

: {.}j- {.}{.}

Nt

hai6 jiu3 sik1

E55 2

ai6

Dp

hai6

E56

mo6

Dp

mong6

E57 2

go2

Tp

gwo2

40

E58

aan5

Dp

ngaan5

E59

ou2

Dp

hou2

E60

ma6

Dp

E61

f- : {.}

Di

mat6
?

E62

zyi6::

Pp/Tp

ceot1 zi6
*back front

E63

saan1

Tp

saang1

E64 2

soen5

Tp

soeng5

E65

got3{.}

Tp, Tp

E66

k-

Di

gwok3
? (keoi1)

E67 2

faa6

faan6

E68

mai6

Dp/Tp

hai6

E69

g-

Di

E70

dik1

Tp

dak1

E71

go- {.} s-

Di

E72

go- {.} s-

Di

?
? (soeng5)

E73

za1

Dp

zan1

E74

san1

Pp/Tp

zan1 sam1

E75

pan4

Tp

pang4

E76

faa2

Dp

faan2

E77

a1

Dp, Dp

dak1

E78 2

l2

Tp, Dp

E79

j- {.}

Di

nei5
? (jau5)

E80 2

dat1

Tp

dak1

E81

zyu6

Pp/Tp, Dp

E82

Dm

zeoi3 zung6
E63

E83

m- {.}{: }{.}

Di

? (m4)

Di

? (seoi1)

E84

s- {.}

E85

jyun4

Pp/Tp

E86

g-

Am

seoi1 jin4
E63, E82

E87

g-

Di

E88

ei4

Dp

lei4

E89

Dp

gaa3

E90

{.} j- {.} ji- o- {.} lei- o{.} o- lo- {.}

Di

41

E91

{.}: {.}

Ec

E92

joen6

Tp

joeng6

E93

dyut3{.}

Tp

dou3

E94

ja4

Dp

jan4

E95

la4

Tp, Dp

nang4

E96

faa1

Dp

faan1

E97

eoi5

Dp

E98

za6-

Di

leoi5
? (zau6)

E99

w- {ze1 e6}

Di

? (waa6)

E100

ja1

Dp

jat1

E101

heoi5

Tp

keoi5

E102

e5

Dp

je5

E103

hei6

Pp

ze2 hai6

E104 2

e6

Dp, Dp

dei6

E105

e- z-

Di

E106

e- z-

Di

E107

Dm

E108

lei5j- {.}

Di

E109

j- {.}

Di

?
? (jing6)

E110

m- {.} s- {.}

Di

E111

m- {.} s- {.}

Di

E112

s:- {.}

Di

?
? (sei3)

E113

wu6

Dp

wut6

E114

go3

Tp

gwo3

E115

saam1

Np/Tp

E116

d- {.}:

Di

sam1 faai3
? (dim2)

E117

: d- {.}{: }{.}{.}
{.}

Di

? (dim2)

E118

o2

Dp

E119

z- :

Du

gwo2
? (zi1)

42

3.2 Hesitations
3.2.1 Unfilled Pauses
Table 3.7 Distribution of Short UFPs (Indicated by {.})
Subjects

Task

Total

T1

41

26

29

38

135

T2

78

41

60

116

137

432

T3

66

43

60

60

178

407

Total

185

110

121

205

353

974

Table 3.8 Distribution of Timed (Long) UFPs

Subjects

T1
Task

T2
T3
Total

Total

No. of Occurrences

Duration (sec)

3.5

3.5

No. of Occurrences

12

15

18

30

75

29.5

27

45.5

68

170

No. of Occurrences

19

Duration (sec)

13.5

1.5

18

8.5

45.5

No. of Occurrences

15

18

25

36

95

33.5

40.5

1.5

67

76.5

219

Duration (sec)

Duration (sec)

43

3.2.2 Filled Pauses

Table 3.9 Distribution of Pause Fillers
Task

No. of
Occurrences by
Speaker

T2

T3

34

45

79

17

31

48

14

33

47

14

22

38

39

74

161

235

19

25

20

27

12

15

18

64

25

89

11

11

13

13

33

33

17

23

21

27

Total

No. of
Occurrences by
Speaker
Total

Filler

No. of
Occurrences by
Speaker
Total

uh

No. of
Occurrences by
Speaker

Total

T1

Total

44

em

No. of
Occurrences by
Speaker

10

13

13

16

10

Total

mm

No. of
Occurrences by
Speaker
Total

um

No. of
Occurrences by
Speaker
Total

There are some other interjections or discourse markers found in the speech data
which may function as pause fillers. They are (kei4 sat6), / (hai6
aa3 / hai6 laa3), (ho2 nang4) and (zan1 hai6).

3.2.3 Clearing of Throat

Clearing of throat did not occur in any of the tasks performed by Speaker A, Speaker
B and Speaker E. Speaker C made two times of clearing of throat in task 2.
Speaker D made a total of 26 times: 1 in task 1, 19 times in task 2 and 6 times in task
3.
3.2.4 Lengthening of Sounds
Table 3.10 Number of Cases of Sound Lengthening
Subjects

Task

T1

45

Total
15

T2

44

62

22

20

30

178

T3

43

65

58

48

69

283

Total

87

132

80

69

108

476

From the data above, we can see that lengthening of sounds occurs the least in task 1
and the most in task 3.

We can conclude that sound lengthening is extremely rare

when speakers speak with the help of a provided text.

Given that the span of tasks

2 and 3 are close, comparing the total number of cases of sound lengthening, we can
say that lengthening of sounds occur more in spontaneous speech than in storytelling
generally.
3.2.5 Laughters and Breaths
Table 3.11 Distribution of In-breaths
Subjects

Task

Total

T1

T2

10

T3

14

Total

24

Table 3.12 Distribution of Laughter or Aspirations in Pausing

Subjects

Task

Total

T1

T2

10

T3

Total

12

Table 3.13 Distribution of Laughter or Aspirations within Speech

Subjects
A

46

Total

Task

T1

T2

T3

Total

10

From the above tables, laughter or aspirations in task 1 are very uncommon.
Distributions of these elements do not seem to have a regular pattern.
3.3 Repairs
Examples of different types of repairs are provided in this section.

Apart from the three

types of repairs distinguished by Levelt (1983, 1989), there are also a kind of repetition of
sentence constituent which may function as a hesitation marker.
3.3.1 Instant Repairs
{.} {.} {.}
da- {.}
s-
j- naak3
mo2 {.} :
o5: z-
c- {.}
{.} c- {.} gau4
do1{.}

3.3.2 Anticipatory Retracing

{.} s- jek4{.}
{.}
{.} {.}

m- {.} {} {.} <h>

{.} e1
lek1 {.}
{.}{}
kwu3 {.} ((clear throat))
j-
47

3.3.3 Fresh Starts

{.} { i } {.}
{3.0}

{ ze1 e6}

ho-
c- {.} m2
{} d- ((clear throat))
:

3.3.4 Repetitions
: {.}
{.}
{.}
{.}
{.}
: {.}
{1.5} {.}
{.} {3.0} {2.0}
{.} {.}

48

4. DISCUSSION
4.1 Speech Errors
4.1.1 Types
Since the size of error data is very large, I extract only one typical sample for every
type of erros appeared in the speech data.
Shift (Sm)

(B24, Task 1) *

Exchange (Ep)

ji1 lat1 (E96, Task 2) *li1 jat1

Anticipation (Np)

gak3 (A11, Task 3)

Perseveration (Pp)

zyi6:: (E62, Task 3) *zi6

Perseveration (Pt)

E47 laa2 Pt

Blend (Bp)

lek1 (B14, Task 1) *

Blend (Bm)

dyun5 (E06, Task 1) *dyun6

Blend (Bc)

{} (D94, Task 2) *

Substitution (Tm)

(E36, Task 1) *

Substitution (Tp)

won5{.}mon4hoen3

laa3/laa1

(D27-29, Task 1) *wong5, mong4, hoeng3

Substitution (Tt)

zoek3(D88, Task 2) *zoek6

Addition (Am)

(A32, Task 3) *

Addition (Ap)

ngaa1(B01, Task 2) *aa1

Deletion (Dm)

(E107, Task 3) *

Deletion (Dp)

o6(A01, Task 1) *ngo

49

4.1.2 Distribution
Speech errors appear mostly in spontaneous speech and storytelling, while those in
reading aloud are relatively fewer. Since the speech setting is a formal one in the
reading aloud task, speakers are aware of their articulations, hence reducing the
chances of mispronouncing. Plus, they articulate sounds by looking at the text,
thus no planning of speech content nor grammatical organization is needed.
Obviously, high speech rate is another factor for speech errors.

In reading aloud, a

stable and moderate speed is maintained by speakers, so they can articulate every
word accurately. However, during fast production of speech, assimilations and
coarticulations of sounds often occur, resulting in vowel or tonal assimilations,
deletions of onsets or rimes and other form of phonetic variations.

Details of these

phonetic variations will be discussed in the next section.

4.1.3 Phonetic Variations
Phonetic variations are especially prominent in colloquial speech.

Many of them

are so-called lazy sounds, which are due to rapid or unaware speech.

Types of

phonetic variations found in the speech data are summarized below:

Initial Consonants
/l/ ~ /n/

e.g. naan4 laan4, nam2 lam2

/k/ ~ /h/

e.g. keoi5 heoi5

/ng/ ~

e.g. ngo o2, aa1 ngaa1

/gw/ ~ /g/

e.g. gwo3 go3

/ng/ ~ /m/

e.g. ng5 m5, ng5 m4

Rimes
Alveolarization of velar nasal endings and velar stop ending, and glottalization of
the latter are common in the speech data.
/aang/ ~ /aan/

e.g. sin1 saang1 sin1 saan1

/ang/ ~ /an/

e.g. cang4 min2 can4 min2, dang2 dan2

/eng/ ~ /en/

e.g. teng1 ten1

50

/ong/ ~ /on/

e.g. zong6 zon6, gong2 gon2

/oeng/ ~ /oen/

e.g. gam2 joeng2 gam2 joen2, hoeng1 hoen1

/k/ ~ /t/ ~ //

e.g. dak1 dou3 dat1 dou3,

jat1 go3 ja1 go3,
bat1 gwo3 bak1 gwo3

Why speakers tend to produce lazy sounds or phonetic variations?

could be the tendency to produce sound with least effort.

One inference

This can be supported by

the evidence that vowels are often replaced by more central vowel near schwa, and
onsets and codas are often omitted.
4.1.4 Literary Reading and Colloquial Reading
Some Cantonese lexical items have literary reading and colloquial reading.

It is

observed that subjects were prone to colloquial readings in storytelling and

spontaneous speech.

For example, was pronounced as diu6 or deu6 in literary

None of the subjects pronounced as diu6

and colloquial readings respectively.

in tasks 2 and 3.

Other examples found in the speech data are (hang4 v.s.

haang4), (cyu5 v.s. cou5), (mei5 v.s. mei1), (zoek3 v.s. zoek2),
(dong1 jin4 v.s. dong1 jin2), etc.
In the reading aloud in task 1, which is of a formal speech setting, subjects are
supposed to produce literary reading.

However, Subject B, Subject D and Subject

E tended to choose the colloquial reading for , which is tyun5 instead of the
literary dyun6.

Inspite of this, they had the literary pronunciation in mind. This is

shown by their blending of the mid-low level tone of dyun6 and the onset consonant
of tyun to become tyun6 (B06, Task1), or the mid-low rising tone of tyun5 and the
onset consonant of dyun6 to become dyun5 (E06, Task1).
One interesting example is a subject awaring of his literary reading when telling the
story.

In the first story, he started with {}{.}.

The pronunciation of the first was gu3, he repeated by a second time sounded
as gu2. There was nothing wrong in his pronunciations; both gu3 and gu2 are
acceptable. However, he probably thought that a colloquial reading in storytelling
is more appropriate and consequently said the word again.

51

4.2 Hesitations and Repairs

4.2.1 Types
Several types of hesitations and four types of repairs are discussed in the previous
chapter.

I would discuss a special finding here.

Consider the following example:

{.} ((.h)) ha-
It shows that Speaker A first used to describe the suit, but he later found
another more suitable adjective .

Yet, he cut of the sound suddenly as he

found that it was that was the most appropriate adjective.

Therefore, we

can see that self-repairs are sometimes for narrowing the meaning of message that
the speaker want to convey. Also, this example supports the idea that sheer number
of words to be chosen would cause speech disfluency.
As for extended duration of sounds, it is found that lengthening of sounds occur the
most in spontaneous speech but the least in reading aloud.
Clearing of throat seems to be a habit of certain speakers, but not all of them.

In

the speech data, only Speaker C and Speaker D made short coughs in their speech.
There occurrences were 2 times and 26 times respectively.

By definition, the

functions of throat clearing include hiding embarrassment and filling a pause in

speech (Soukhanov, 2007).

It is observed that when Subject D made clearing of

throat (especially in task 3), he was trying to cover his speech planning process,
making his hesitation seems shorter.
Lip smacking and tutting are not common in subjects.

These two non-verbal

activities may also act as a hesitation device, but they are only habits of certain
speakers.

In this research, lip smacking and tutting are only found in the speeches

by Speaker B for once, as well as Speaker C and Speaker D for twice.

4.2.2 Rates
The reason accounting for more hesitations and repairs in spontaneous speech is that

52

spontaneous speech requires more of linguistic planning in speech production. To

produce an utterance, lexicon retrieval systematic planning of organization and
specification of phonetic units are required.

Formulation of linguistic plans is

much easier in reading aloud, as identification of meaning and selection of words are
not needed.
From the speech data of five subjects, it is obvious that Subject C and Subject A
make fewer hesitations or repairs.

However, it would be rather reckless to

conclude that student studying language and linguistic subjects have better
spontaneous speech performance as evidence is not significant.
It is found that rates of repairs and hesitations of Speaker D and E are relatively high.
There are two reasons that account for this phenomenon, anxiety and the tendency to
hold the floor.

It was observed that Speaker D seemed nervous while performing

the tasks, while Speaker E tended to produce long sentences to control the floor.
4.2.3 Locations
The distribution of hesitations was found to be related to the syntactic structure of
speech. There was a significant tendency for hesitations to occur at the beginnings
of clauses, especially in the clause-initial position.

UFPs and FPs also tend to

occur in the clause-initial position, especially in long clauses.

Two dominant

Cantonese pause fillers found in the speech data are and , which are
often used by speakers to start a new clauses or phrases in casual speech.

Note that

only appeared in spontaneous speech but not the storytelling task, owing to
its function as an explanation marker. As for , it was overwhelmingly used in
both storytelling and spontaneous speech.
Here are some examples randomly taken from the speech data.

Generally, all of

them show constituent or phrasal segmentation as locations of hesitation pauses or

repairing fillers occurred between consituents and at the beginnings of clauses.
-

{.} {} {.} {1.0} : {.} :

:

/ / / / /
/
53

{.} {} : : {.} {} {.} : {.} :

{.}

/ / / / / / / /

{.} {.} : {} :

:: {.} {.} {.} :

/ / / /

{.} {uh} {.} : {.} zoek3 {.}

/ / / / /

/ uh / / zoek3 / /

{.} {.} {} {.} {.} j- {: }

{.}

/ / / / / / j- / /
/

4.2.4 Grammaticalization of Lexicon

In the five tasks of spontaneous speech, several lexical items were commonly used,
such as the following examples: ////////
These particles or phrases are sometimes overwhelmingly used as discourse markers,
surpassing their original semantic functions. For example, in Zhang's (2012) study,
(zik1 hai6) can not only be functioned as a copula and a textual connective, it
can also act as an explanation marker, a repair initiator and a pause filler.

Another

study shows that the filler function of (kei4 sat6) is quite common in
Cantonses spoken context (Szeto, 2012).
However, some may retain their functions. Consider the morpheme (gam2)
in (Now that my beak cannot reach
the water, how can I drink?)

It is better to regard as a connective meaning in

this way () than just a pause filler.

Meanwhile, the functions of the above words are not examined in details. Further
studies on their grammaticalization are needed.
54

4.3 Limitation
There are a few limitations in this research, in terms of speech error and hesitation
studies.
4.3.1 Ambiguity on Error Judgement
When transcribing speech data, I encountered some cases of error ambiguity.
There could be more than one possible error types in an error sample.
In task 1, the phrase zing1 san4 cang4 min2 was produced as zing1 san4 can4
min2 (B12, D22 & E25, Task 1). As we have discuss, the confusion between /n/
and /ng/ is prominent in casual speech, the replacement of cang4 by can4 could be
due to this phonetic variation.

However, the error may also be triggered by the

preceding san4, which assimilated the following sound. Therefore, it could be a

substitution or a preserveration error.
There were instances that a sound produced appeared to be a homophone to another,
we do not know whether the subject mispronounced that word.

For example, in the

storytelling by Speaker E, a phrase di1 di1 seoi2 was uttered (E98, Task 2).
However, we could not tell whether he was intended to say li1 di1 seoi2 but turned
out to anticipate the onset /d/ of the second syllable, or he tried to say di1 seoi2 but
repeated di1 once.

Thus, judgment on the type of error in the first syllable is

ambiguous.
Another ambiguous error sample from Subject E is hai2 lat1go3 (E05, Task 2).
We do not know whether the intended utterance was hai2 at1 go3, hai2 li1 go3
or hai2 li1 jat1 go3.

Hence it could be an addition error (addition of /l/), a

substitution error (/at/ replacing /i/), or a blend (merging /li/ and /jat/). Even if we
could conclude it to be a blend, we could not justify wheher it is a blend due to fast
production (Bp) or a blend of two separate morphemes (Bm) because the subject
was thinking of both li1 and jat1 simultaneously.
It was not easy to study some rapid utterances with incomplete sound segments.
Compared with task 1, the rates of speech of subjects in tasks 2 and 3 are relatively
high and unstable.

As tasks 2 and 3 require more speech planning than task 1 does,

55

many sound fragments are produced.

It is hard to tell whether the broken sound

segments are resulted from mispronounciation or semantic imperfectness, or any

other extralinguistic causes.
4.3.2 Weakness of Hesitation Study
The cause of any specific hesitation is not generally obvious.

A short pause

between two clauses may be interpreted as consisting a juncture pause component

associated with the first clause and a hesitation pause component associated with the
second clause.

Pauses at sentence junctures can potentially serve for breathing or

juncture marking as well as for planning (Barik, 1968).

Even if the hesitation is for

planning, we cannot distinguish between advance planning and correction of

decisions made earlier.

Therefore, reasons behind some very short UFPs in the

speech data could not be identified.

4.4 Future Directions
Similar studies with larger sample size are needed to confirm the present findings.
Also, variations of speech errors and speech disfluency in terms of age and gender
differences could be analyzed as well.

If time allowed, calculations on quantitative

data of hesitation span could be carried out in the future.

Plus, it is found that error types are not evenly distributed in all tasks. Addition,
shift and exchange errors are rather rare.
uncommon especially in Cantonese?

Is it the case that certain types of errors

And what are the reasons?

Futher studies

could be on these three types of speech errors in Cantonese.

The variations of functions of different pause fillers in spoken Cantonese and the use
of some particles or phrases as pause fillers could also be further analysed.

As the

use of language changes through time, it is important and fascinating to examine the
changes and their causes.

56

5. CONCLUSION
In this research, we have probed into speech performance by Hong Kong Cantonese speakers
in various speech tasks.

Speech errors and speech disfluency of formal and informal speech

have been analyzed. We have found that most of the speech errors occurred in speech tasks
are deletions and substitution of sounds, and many of them are lazy sound caused by unaware
or rapid speech production. Evidence shows that speakers are extremely aware of their
articulation when reading aloud the provided text.
in the reading aloud task.

Thus, phonetic errors are relatively few

Speech errors commonly happen in casual speech such as

storytelling and spontaneous speech.

In the speech data, addition errors, shift errors,

exchange errors are extremely uncommon.

Repairs and hesitations appear mostly in spontaneous speech, but the least in reading aloud.
It is because spontaneous speech requires very much of linguistic planning, both semantically
and syntactically.

Occurrences of repairs and hesitations are always between constituents

and most likely at the initial positions of long clauses.

57

REFERENCES
The Linguistics Society of Hong Kong - The Jyutping Scheme. (1993). (The Linguistic Society of
Hong Kong) Retrieved November 2012, from The Linguistics Society of Hong Kong:
http://www.lshk.org/node/47
. (2003, 1). ()
Retrieved November 2012, from :
http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-can/
hem2. (2007). (Boston: Houghton Mifflin) Retrieved December 2012, from The American
Heritage Dictionary of the English Language:
http://www.credoreference.com.ezproxy.cityu.edu.hk/entry/hmdictenglang/hem2
. (2012). Retrieved November 2012, from
http://resources.savepropercantonese.com/chan1939/
- Word : . (2012, 3). (
) Retrieved November 2012, from :
http://hkcc.livac.org/corpus/word.php?wordid=8913
Arkin, R. M., & Rucks, L. (2007). Anxiety. In R. F. Baumeister, & K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Encyclopedia
of Social Psychology (pp. 43-44). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Barik, H. C. (1968, 7). On Defining Juncture Pauses: A Note On Boomer's "Hesitation and
Grammatical Encoding". Language and Speech , 11(3), pp. 156-159.
Bauer, R. S. (2010). LING6014 Lecture 1: Introduction to Cantonese Phonology.
Boomer, D. S. (1968). Slips of the tongue. British Journal of Disorders of Communication, 3,
pp. 1-12.
Bortfeld, H., Leon, S., Bloom, J., Schober, M., & Brennan, S. (2001). Disfluency rates in
conversation: Effects of age, relationship, topic, role, and gender. Language and
Speech, 44(Jun 2001), pp. 123-147.
Carroll, D. W. (2008). Production of Speech and Language. In D. W. Carroll, Psychology of
Language (5th ed., pp. 191-216). Thomson Learning.
Clark, H. H., & Wasow, T. (1998). Repeating Words in Spontaneous Speech. Cognitive
Psychology, 37, pp. 201-242.
Fromkin, V. A. (1971). The non-anomalous nature of anomalous utterances. Language, 47,
pp. 27-52.
Fromkin, V. A. (1973). Speech errors as linguistic evidence. The Hague: Mouton.
Garrett, M. F. (1975). The analysis of sentence production. In G. Bower (Ed.), Psychology of
learning and motivation: Vol. 9 (pp. 133-177). New York: Academic Press.
Hockett, C. F. (1967). Where the tongue slips there slip I. To honor Roman Jakobson: Vol.2.
Lee, W. S. (2012). CTL3232 Phonetics Lecture 12: Sound system of Cantonese.
Levelt, W. J. (1983). Monitoring and self-repair in speech. Cognition, 14, pp. 41-104.

58

Levelt, W. J. (1984). Spontaneous self-repairs in speech: Processes and representations. In M.

P. Broecke, & A. Cohen (Ed.), Proceedings of the Tenth International Congress of
Phonetic Sciences (pp. 105-115). Dordrecht: Foris.
Levelt, W. J. (1989). Speaking: From Intention to Articultaion. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Lindsley, J. (1975, 1). Producing simple utterances: How far ahead do we plan? Cognitive
Psychology, 7(1), pp. 1-19.
Mahl, G. F. (1987). Explorations in nonverbal and vocal behavior. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Nooteboom, S. G. (1969). The tongue slips into patterns. In A. G. Sciarone, A. J. Essen, & A. A.
Raad (Eds.), Nomen: Leyden studies in linguistics and phonetics (pp. 114-132). The
Hague: Mouton.
Schachter, S., Christenfeld, N., Ravina, B., & Bilous, F. (1991). Speech Disfluency and the
Structure of Knowledge. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, pp.
362-367.
Shriberg, E. E. (1994). Preliminaries to a Theory of Speech Disfluencies.
Soukhanov, A. (Ed.). (2007). hem2. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin) Retrieved December 2012,
from The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language:
http://www.credoreference.com.ezproxy.cityu.edu.hk/entry/hmdictenglang/hem2
Szeto, P. Y. (2012). A Comparative Study on the Use of Qishi in Hong Kong Chinese, Mainland
Chinese, and Taiwanese Chinese.
Taylor, I. .. (1976). Introduction to Psycholinguistics. New York.
Zhang, W., & Gao, H. (2012, 7). The Functions of "Zikhai" in Cantonese Conversation
and Its Grammaticalization. , 11(4), pp. 387-395.

- . (n.d.). Retrieved November 2012, from :

http://input.foruto.com/ccc/jyt/023.htm
, . . (Ed.). (1997). . .
(Ed.). (1997). (1 ed.).
.

59

APPENDICES
I. Task Materials
i.

Reading Aloud Text

60

(extracted fromby , 459words)

ii.

Storytelling Materials
1.

61

62

63

2.

64

65

66

II. Transcription Notations

Short and untimed pause

{.}

Long and timed pause

{4.0} (for 4 seconds)

Abrupt cut-off of sound

Abrupt cut-off of phrase

Lengthening of sound

Continuing intonation

Final intonation

Rising intonation

Exclaiming intonation

Rising tone

Falling tone

Aspiration or laughter

((h)) / ((hh, 3.0))

Aspiration or laughter during speech

<h></h>

Inhalation

((.h))

Lip smack or tutting

((pt))

Non-verbal gesture

((clear throat))

Editing expression (Filler)

{} / {mm} / {uh: }

Unclear utterance

[] / [XX]

Lost material

[]

Others: Sound with no corresponding written Chinese characters are represented in Jyutping,
a Cantonese romanization system developed by the Linguistic Society of Hong Kong (LSHK)
in 1993.

67

III. Transcripts
i.

Subject A

Reading Aloud
o6
{.} zon6
{.} at1

{.}
{.}
{.} {.} {.}
{.} {.} a1don1ba1b- {.}
{.} ja1 <h> {.} </h>
<h> </h> {.}
a4 {.} {.} {.}
{.} {.} {.}
{.} {.} {.} {.}
{.} s- jek4 {.} {.} o6 {.}
{.} {.} {.} {.} o6
{.} {.} {.} {.} {.}
s- {.} {.}
{.} {.} {.}

Spontaneous Speech
{} {.} {} o5: o5: {: } {.} e3
ong4 {ze1 ei6} o5lam2e3za6 ai6 {.}
{} daa6 {.} {} {.} {.} moe2
at1 {.} { i } {.} at1 {.} {} {2.0} ze1 {
aa6} {.} o5gak3{: } {.} {} {.} daa6 ho6
at1ze1 e6 {.} {}

a1neoi5

{ aa6 . : } at1e3:ze1 ei6soen6

zoen2ga3{ze1 e6} {.} : e3
{} {.} : {: } g- {.} {} {.} {em}
{.} {}{ e1} {.} o6 {1.0} : {: } t- ho6
{} {.} : : {} e2da6 {}
: ji6: {ze1 e6} ((.h)) {.} {: } {.} s-

68

: {: } e3e3do1 ei2o5
{.} {.} {ze1 e6} ma1 : {ze1 e6} : {ze1 e6}
: ((.h)) {: } : j- {.} du1j- {.} zak1
{ze1 e6} e6e6moeng2: {.}
:: {.} {ze1 e6} {: } {.} : {.} {: } {.} za6
: mon6{} {.} e6: moen2 {.} {} {.} {}
{.} ei2e3o5 {ze1 e6} za6 ai6{.} {}
e3{} e1 za6lang4 {.} {} ei2::
{}e3ngaak1: {} ei2e3
moeng2
[... technical error for 1-2 sec cut of recording] ze1 ei6{.}
: du1 au5{.} {} {} ji6 du1{.} {} {.} : e3
zak1{} sa1 min6e3dan2 dan2
{} za6 {.} da- {.} e3 {.} sa6
ak1: : waa6o5ei2go3{} daa6
heoi5ze1 e6 d- {.} c- {.} da6
heoi5soen2{.} dat1o5e3
{.} {} {.} lei5 {1.0} : {.} : : {: } {.} lei5
hei3o3fo1o5za6go3e3{ze1 e6}
o3 {.} soen2soen2 {.} {} {.}

MPhil

Doctor ok6{} {.} {}

jam2 moeng2 e3{: } {.} eoi5: {.} {ze1 e6} g- {.}
au5 {.} heoi5e3lang4 {.} {: }
sak6{.} o5{.} moeng2da6 ai6lang4
heoi5o5{.} {.} e6 ai2da6 ai6
da6{} {.} ei2e3o5go3 da1:
{.} e3

Storytelling
{} {3.5} {} ja5 a1: {} {} o3
{.} {} : : {.} {} {.} : {.} : {.} {}
{.} {: } {.} {} {.} : {4.0} ((hh)) : c- {.} {}
ha6 a1{} {.} {} {.} joen4za6
ou2{1.5} {} o3ja5 a1: {.}
ja5 a1zoek2 f- {.} {} {.} a1: {.} {}
{} {.} {: } : go1 {.} moen2
{.}
ga2{ e1} {.} {: } : heoi5au6
{.} {} ja5 a1 {.} ja5 a1{.} { e1} e1 jaung6

69

do1 eoi5

e3za6moen2{.} {}

f- {.} e3 naak3da6 ai6{: } {.} au6

{: } heoi5s- {.} {.} ngo3: e3
au6{.} o3heoi5o3
{.} e1: {.} {} aa6{
e1} {.} {.}

: ((.h)) {: } heoi5o6:

lam2d- ba1 {.} {.} ngo3

zat6{.} ze2 {.} { e1} daai6fa3
o3 sa6/?
o6le4haa4{: } ou6za1:am2 moen2
ou6lam2{1.0} o3au6: bi1
lam2: ze6 {.} {.} o3 naak3
coe1za6{2.0} {} {.} {} {4.0} ((hh)) <h> {} </h>
da6 ai6lam2 lam2

o3do1 ai6ai6

a1 {.} za6 ai6zoen1o3{.} se6

moe2 e1{} {.} ma6 ma2
{} {.}

ze3moen2

naak3

o3

jit1 {.} {.}

heoi5 {.} : {.} joen2

Storytelling
ha2 at1{} {.} {} {.}

o3: <h>

((hhhhh, 9.0)) </h>((.h)) moen2

heoi5 {: }at1:
{.} : {.} {: } {.} {.} ((.h)) ha- {
} ha6- za6ha2: : {.} moen2
{3.0}
za6: naa3{: } {: } ak3{m2}
o3

: {}i1cou5

heoi5za6o6{3.0} : {.}
{1.5} {} {.} {.} {} : {.}
heoi5heoi5 f- {.} {.} {: } {.} e3au6za6
soeng2nou4
{.} don1 {.}
hoen3{.}

m- {.} {} {.} o4<h> </h> {.} nga5

oeau6 s- {.} {.} {: } {.} {m2 } {.}

o3{3.0} loe5 ek3moeng2
<h> {1.0}
</h> {.} noi4zai6oe4heoi5
te1 ou2 {.} heoite1 ou2{.}

o3au6

: {.} moeng2heoi {.} heoi {.} ai5: {} zy-

70

{: } { e1} hoen2{.} : {: } taai3o3 naak3

ii.

Subject B

Reading Aloud

{.}tyun5

tyun5
bak1gan3: zon6

tyun6zat1 {.}
tyun5
{.} {.}

{.} : : tyun5 {.}

{.} {.} {.}
{.} s- : {.} :
laan6
{.} can4
can4can4 lek1 {.}
:lang4 {.} lan4
lan4tyun5 {.}
ng- {.} won5ba1nan4 {.}
mon4hoen3{.} san1 {.}
san1 {.} san1 {.}
nan4 {.} {.} san1
{.} {.} {.}

Spontaneous Speech
{: } o5san1o5ai6{: }
{.} ai6: {.} o5 {.} {: } o5
: : gaa3{: } e2zoe3-
{.} da6 ho6{ha6 aa3} {} {.} :: :: ::
{} :: : {.} {uh::} waa6moen2 {ha6 aa3} {.}
{} da6 ho6ja1 wa6o5go3 {.} {} hak6
o5 {.} {ze1 ei6} {.} an6 au6au5gyun3
{ha6 aa3} za6 ai6: {.} da6 ho6san1moen2
o5:: {: } :: da6 ho6: {.} {:: } {1.5}
moen2 {.} {} soen5 {.} {.} {uh:: ze1 aa6} join
{: } o5go3 {.} mai6/ai6mou2go3

: : : : ((.h)) {: } :zoen1{.} {.} {uh: } o2:: {.} {uh: }

71

 {.} {: } {.} {: } : { lan4::: } {} : o5

e3moen2{: } : o5:: ::soen2:: gan3
: {: } o5: { lan4} {.} {.} {ha6 aa3} ja1 wa6o5
e2au5 {uh} o5go3 {.} {.} {.}
e3 {.} o5 {.} hot6s- {.} {.} soen5: {: }
{.} soe- {} soen5moen2: : g- {} {.} { meme}
{.} : :::: {.} {4.5} {} {7.5} : c- {: } {.} {: }
o5
go3 {.} :: :: ((h)) lam2ei2a1{ha6 aa3}
ba1 o3: : :lam2:go3: {}maa4
ho6: {.} ((pt)) {} {.} career talk {.} {}
gaa1o5: {.h} : {.} lam2:go3 {.} ((.h)) {: } {.} zoen1
{ uh: } : {.} ja1: {: }mai6
{ze1 e6} {uh: } z- o1 ((.h)) ((.h)) {}
o5wu3:: gon2ei2: ((.h)) {}

Storytelling
{:: } ngaa1{} ou6{gam2
e1} {.} ja1 waa6: {uh} heoi5:
{.} {.} {uh} {1.0} {} : am4: {.}
{2.5} da6 ai6::{ } o3: {.} {.}
: {} : : heoi5 {.} o2
do2/?{3.0} ((.h)) : {.} {.} :: {uh::}
{uh} {.} :daa6 aa6lam2lam2 ((.h)) o5
: : {.} {m2 uh} ::lam2((.h)) lam2aa6 ::
lam2
au6::lam2{.} {uh:: } : :: {uh: } : s::-
{.} ge1da1 ai6 {.} {2.0}
{uh:: } aa6lam2 {.} o6?o3za6 ai6
{.} : :o5{.} : {: } {.} {.} {1.0}
o5{} : : ja1 la1 ja1 lap1
moen2{.} {} : {.} {uh} {.} {} {1.0} :
{gam2 e1} {.}{} : {}
{uh:} {3.0} m : {} :

Storytelling
: : {.} {} hoe5moe2ou6 {.}
((.h)) {1.5} : {.} {.} {4.0}

72

:: {:: } {1.0} lan4loi6{gam2 e1} {.} {.} o6

{.} {: } : lan4: : : {.} {: } ::
{.} {2.0} {.} d- : : :: za1 ai6
{} {.} daa6 {.} {} {.} heoi3 ((.h)) {uh:: } {2.0}
: : {uh: } za6 {.} ai5 m- aa5
ai5jo2 {uh} { uh: } heoi5::: {uh:: } {.}
:: o6e3joen2 {uh} : {} c- {}:
{1.0} {gam2 e1} {.} : :: ai5
ai5:go1 party :: {uh:: } {1.0} mei6
jo2::: {1.0} e3 {uh: } :: {.} {.} {uh: } :

iii. Subject C
Reading Aloud

zat1

laan4

{.}
noi4

Spontaneous Speech
{: } : o5: {.} {: } :

{ ze1 e6}

{ ho2 lang4: } {.} {: } do1: {.}

{} daa6{em: } d- gon2{.} {.}
{} {.} {.} moeng2{: } {:: } {.}
for : {: } za6:lang4{.} :
{1.5} {.} {em: } {.} : {.} {}
ham2lang4: {.} o2oi6

73

o5 {.} : {.} do1 au5 pj- {em: } {.} :

{} : {.} {}: {.} {.} : {} :
o3 {.} : {.} lang4o5{em: }{.}
wa6- {.} da6- {}:((pt)) {: ze1 e6} lei5 {.}
{ ze1 e6} {.} {.} {} {.} :
:lan4{.} {.} at1: {.} {em:: }
at1{ze1 e6} wa6 e2gon2
((h)){} daa6
ai6{} mai6{ze1} mai6: {.}
{} pan4{} ((clear throat)) o5
za6: {em: }{.} ja1 {.} {.} {} : waa6
nan4lin4((.h)) {:: } mai6mai6
o5go3za6 ai6 h- {em: } soe- {}
{.} ngaak1{.} : : soen2{em: }
{.} : {: } {.} ma6nga6 {} o2
lang4 {.} :: : {.} {.}{} :
waa6lan4
even am2 moeng2
((.h)) {.} {en: }{}
ca2: :zoen1{.} {.} {:: em} {} {.} o5o3
h- {.} : {ho2 lan4} {.} ap6za6 {.}
ja1: {: } {.}{} o5o3 {.}
((clear throat)) {.} {: } o5: j-
e3{: } {.} wu- {.} : {.}
{} {} lei5{em:: } ((pt)) da6 ai6
{} : {.} e3: {hai6 la1} {} :go2

{ze1 e6} h- {} {.} daa6:: {.} {.} ngaak1

{.} : lang4lang4o5o3
{.} e3

Storytelling
{} mat6 {.} gu2ngaa1{} {.}
{.} ja5 a1{em: } {.} {}{.} ja5 a1 {.} {}
{.} {.} {} {} {.} za6
au5 a1ngaa1: {.} {} {.}
{.} heoi5 {.}
ja5 a1 { aa6} j- {.} {.} {.}
{.} leo5 {.} {} {}
daa6 ai6 {.} ngo3 {.} : {.}
{} {.} {.} {} za6 {.}
lai6 {.} ngo3:

74

: : {} : moen2ai6
{.} o3{} lam2
aan1au6lam2
o2se6 {: } {.} o3d- m-
ma6ja1e3 {} daa6c- lam2o2
jo2o3nim2he5lam2
o5de6lam2a1o3e3heoi5
moen2
deu6he2a3
{.}
za6
{ moen1 } {.} : : moen2
: { moen2 } {.} w- {.} s- s-
{.} {.}
{.} :

Storytelling
{aam6: } {.} lin4ja5 a1 {.} {.} {em6: } {.} {.}
{.} {.} c- { e1 } {.} daa6 ai6 {.}
ut6 {.} {} {.} at1 {.} { moen2 } {.} {}
{.} go3 {.} e3{} daa6 ai6hoe5
{.} heoi5{} : {} {}
{en: } { moen2 } j- {} {.}
{.} {.} j- naak3 {.}
maang5 ai5
mo2 {.} : { moeng2} {.} { moen1}
heoi5am2: {: }
{.} {m2}

: {.} {} : {.} {}

{.} moeng2: ((hh)) ((hh))

iv.

Subject D

Reading Aloud

o6tyun5

tyun5
bak1gan3 {.} zon6
{.} zon6
tyun5 {.} han4

tyun5
zak1o6 {.} s- {.}
: o6 {.} ai6
o6tyun5 {.}
zon6 {.} loi6don1 {.} {.}

75

kwu3 {.} ((clear throat)) laan4

san1lan4 {.} laan6
{.} {.} {.} seok6can4
{2.0} can4can4
{.} {.} lang4 {.} lan4
tyun5 {.} {.} {1.5} {.}
laa5 {.} ba1lan4
{.} won5 {.} mon4hoen3san1
san1mon4 j- {.} joen6 {.}
lang4san1
bak1 {.} {.} {.} o5

Spontaneous Speech
{m2 } {3.5} : ((clear throat)) {} d- ((clear throat)) o5
aa1e1ai6 j- saa1o5ai6{.} {: }
lin4 {.} : o2lei5w- o5: daa6
: {.}o5hei4/?e2 wut6 s- ((clear throat)) : {.} :
: g- {m2 } {.} ga2 {.} o3{} ::
ji1 so- san1{: } {: } o5gon2

: o5: soen2wu6le1: o5go3

da1: a1: {.} : ((pt pt)) {.} o5
ta3- san1{a6} hot6
da6 ho6o5 wu- {.} {mm: } {.} sa-
e3{: } loen6 {.} g- {: } {.} gwaa1soe6
{: } {.} {.} {.} {} {.} {.} j- {: }
{.} fo1

{.} o5: ((.h)) ((pt))

((clear throat)) ((pt)) {mm: } {hai la} {.} deo- {.} {: }

o5: {em} le- li- ((clear throat)) gwo- : ho6
{.} o5ho- o5o5zoen1: s-
{} wu3 {.} {.} gan3e3{mm: } {5.0} {mm: }
go2le5san1o5: {.} : {.} m- {.}
dang2 {.} : : o5: z-
{: } e6 {.} : : lin4
{}bak6sa6a1{m2} {.}
ma6o5da6 ho6 {.} {.} wu3 {.}
jin6ha6o5 j- o5 {.} {.} {.}
lan4 {.} g- lam2
{.} o5ha6: : go2{.} o2

76

lei5sok3gwo2 {}da6 ho6za6bi- {:} {.} da6 ho6

{} za6{.} : {.} ou2{mm: } {5.5} {hai la} {: }
{.} {.} {3.0} : {.} o5go3moe2
{.} e3a6 {.} ((.h)) faak3gwaak6 {.} :
{.} e3fon1 h- lan4o5ngam2
moen2: {.} at1 m- : {.} lan4{.} o2 {.}
{.} {m2} daa6{}o2lei5 {.}
g- o2ai6 me2 lam2o5 {1.0} ((clear throat))
{.} zoen1 ma- {} zoen1[XX]
o2lei5 {.} eo3 {.} gi6
<h>{: } {.} da- da6 ho6san1</h> {.} s- da6 ho6

Storytelling
{mm hm} {.} {} {mm: } {.} ta- [] d-
((clear throat)) pi- h- {.} ci- h- {mm: } l- {.} j-
s- soe- {.} i1{mm:
} {.} t- {.} e3
c- {.} m2daa6go3 t- {.}
hok3 {.} {} {.} {2.0}
gaa2ai6
za6 {.} haa3
ha3 {3.0} daa6 lam2 {.}
{.} {.} s- siau4
za6 h- {.}
o5 {.} o5
gaak3 aang2sat1ja6 {.} soeng1sat1o3
do1e3
{3.5} za1 a6hok3
{1.5} ung2lam3
{3.0} ji4 d- {.} ji4da6
ji4aa1lam2
o5 oe5 {1.5}
heoi5ou6lam2{5.5}
{.} {.} {za1 ai6} se3 {.} {.}
koe- {.} g- lam4 {.} lam2lim6{.}
{.} soe-
da6 ai6
{.} f- {.} d-
{} e3
{.} a6{3.0} mei1
lam2
laang6da6 ai6o5
{.} {.} zem2?lam2
lam2
lam2
lam2{.} {.} g- s- {} zeo2

77

 m zoen1 {.} {.} {.}

moeng2{.} la6 eoi3{3.0} {.}
ji2- si- o3{2.5} lam2
au6
za6a5am2 / lam2
{.} {.}fa6- gaai3- moen2zoen1
{.} {3.0} soek6 ba- loi6?
{.} {.} a3{2.5}
:e3((.h)) ((clear throat)) go3at1
e3sin13{ rr } {.} e3au6

Storytelling
m5
((clear throat)) ai5 {.} ou6lou5{.} lou5
moen2z- {um:: } {.} ai5{.} za6
m5{} m5heoi5 jyu6got3 {.} {uh} {.}
: {.} zoek3 {.} {.} he2lou5{um: }
{.} lam2 {.} : {.} {.} za6ai6ja1
la1e3{1.0} heoi5 e6lam2 {.}
hoe3za6 {.} {} o3 ((clear throat))
{.} [XX] {.} e3 {.} {.} {2.0} heoi5
{.} {.} ja51 {.} a3 / {.}am2 moe2
{.} en- ((clear throat)) <h>am2 moe2</h>{.} heoi5
ja- {uh : } : han4 ja-
mok6
go3 {.} hou- soeng2 {.}go3 {.}
go3 a3 / {.} [X] ((clear throat)) e3mot6{.}
{.} za1 ai6ten1
: {.} {.}mok6 g
{.} au6 {.} {.} za- {.} m5 {.} {
maa} m5ai5{.} : {.} gan- lam2
mok6 {.} te- : ten1d- {uh: }
te1mok6jyu4mok6 {.}
moe2lei5 s- ((clear throat)) lei5e3
mok6za1 a6lei5 {.} ai6 ji- {}
sa6o5o5a1gyun6: {.}
mok6{.} ((h)) ((clear throat)) ((clear
throat)) i1mu5aai4o6
o3
{.} o5 {.} {.}((h)) {} ha-
hung1((clear throat)) ha- ((clear throat)) gei1 ha- ci4 h-
{.} za- ha- ja- {.} : ((clear throat)) {.}

78

mo1 {.} {4.0} ((.h)) ((h)) {um} {ha la} {.} {}

((clear throat)) go- {em } {.} g-lei5ji3 sap- lei5
((clear throat)) {1.0} o5 j- o5soe2lei5e3
mok6mo6 g- zoen1noi4lei5mok6
{.} {} o2hong4e3 ceo-
cou5e3lam2zy- ((clear throat)) {} {.} {.} cou5
o2{um: } lam2: {.} lam2 {.} {.}
cou5ma6 {.} le- ing1 swit1
{1.5} zik- {} : {.} san1
da6ji4oi6koe5 {.} {.}
za6 ai6saan1au6mang6
saan1
lei5: s- au6 aa6
o5o5 ((clear throat)) {.}
<h>ok6</h>((.h)) ja- ((h)) <h>[XX]
</h>o5o6o3au6lam2 {.}
at1ning5
ja- {uh} {.} ho- ((.h))
e3mok6
lam2 {.} gap- o2o6
za1 a6ba1
lei5: o5o2ma6o5
a1e2ba1lei5o5{2.0}
saan1 {.} ((clear throat)) {.} ak1 {.} go3an4
ho- ((clear throat)) au6
a5((clear throat)) lam2
o5aai4o6za1 ai6

v.

Subject E

Reading Aloud
o6 {.}tyun5
tyun5
o6gan3
: o6
zon6
zo6
dyun5{.} zat1 {.} oi6

dyun5
o6: o6sip6 {.} d-
{.} {.} : : o6ai6o6
ai6
: o6ai6ai6 {.} z- {.}
{.} j- ai6o6 {.} zon6 j- {.}
don1 b- {.} {.} {.} ja1 {.} {.}
o6 {.} ai6 s- o6 {.} laan4

79

: {.} laan6
: :
o5can4daa6 {.} can4
mi2can4 {.} o6 {.} ai6
{.} {.} ai6 {.} lan4lan4o5
tyun5 {.} o6 {.} o6
ai6 {.} {.} {.} ban2naak5{.} o6 {.}
wo5ba1lan4hoen3{.} o6ai6
{.} {.} hoen3 {.} : gi6dyu1haa4
ai6lan4ai6
toen5zoen3 {.} o6
ai6 {.} o5

Spontaneous Speech
{} {.} o5mat6za6 {.} da6:

{.}

{: } {.} o5e2go2o5: {.} nge3

sa1za6 {.} j- {.} {.}
ze1 e6 {.} {: } {.} m- {.} : {.}
: {.} o5 jy- {.} i1 {.}
{1.5} bwo1 {.} lin4gaa3
da6 h- {.} lin4gaa3{: } {1.5}
{.} faa3nge3

: {.} : {.} {.}

j- {.} {.} {: } {.} lin4g- jang4

san1: {.}

{ze1 e6} lei5

nge3p3 {.} {: } {.} : {.} lei5: s-

{.} s- {} {.} p3lei5: moen2
lei5e6
h- {.} lang4{.} {.} p3 {.}
{} {.} j- {.} {.} {} {.} g-
{: } {.} nge3za6 {.} {} :
:

:: {.} hoen1 ngon2saa1ja1 wa6

o5faa3{: } {.} e3: {.} {}{.} ((pt)) {.}

((pt)) : {.} {} {: }{.} {} moe2 {.}
hoen1ho6lang4 {.} {} {.} {ze1}
koen4 {.} {.} {: } ((pt)) w- {.} {.}

e3

{.} moen2 {.} {ze16} go6- wu6- go3 {.} {: } {.}

{.} go3 e6 ma6
laa2{ze1 ei6} {.} do1 do- jy- {.}

o3da6au6

e1 za6faa3 {.} ((pt)) {} {.} {} {.} : {.} j- {.} {.}

: {} za6 {.} {.}

80

{} {.} {.} o5e3o5o3za6 ai6

{: } {.} {em6} {1.5} {1.5} mo6

lin4: {1.0}

go2o5aan5ou2: {.} {:: } {.}

go2{.} {: } o5za6: {1.5} {: } {.}
ma6{} o5: {.} o5 f- o5: {.} da6
za6 {.} zyi6:: {.} {: } {.} : {.} {} {.}
o5 {.} {.} da6 ho6 saan1{.} :: {.}
lei5 {.} {.} {.} soen5: {.} got3{.}
moen2
{.} {.} : {.} k- faa6ja1 {.}
mai6 {.}

g- o5go3 dik1

{.}

((.h)) {.} {ze1 ei6} {.} ai6

moen2 go- {.} s- lei5soen5{: } {.}

za1 san1nge3pan4{: } {.} faa2 {.}
{.} {.}

ja1 {.} {.} {:: }

a1lei5{.} {.} ja1lei5{.} {.}

l2lei5 j- {.}
o5go3 dat1
da6 ho6zyu6 m-
{.} {: } {.} :: {.} {: } {.} : {.}

s- {.}

jyun4o5{.} e3da6 g-
ei4 gja1 {.} j- {.} ji- o- {.} lei- o- {.} o- lo- {.} o5
{ze1 hei6} {.} {ze1} : {.} {em: } o3
{.} e3lang4: {.} joen6{} {.}
mo6 {.} dyut3{.} {.} e3ja4la4
((.h)) o5go3o5: {.} faa1: {.} faa6
eoi5 za6- {.} lei5 w-
{ze1 e6} {.} {ze1 ei6} : {.} ja1e3 j- {: } {.}
{.} at1 {.} {} {.} : {.} {em: } {.} heoi5 {.}
: e5hei6{.} da6san1 {: } {.} ja1
ja1 {.} {.} {} {.} : {.}
{.} e6e6e3{.}
{ze1} {.} o5 e- z- {.}
ze1 e6 {.} {: } {.} lei5j- {.} : l
((.h)) o5j- {.} o5{ze1 e6} m- {.} s-
{.} {.} {ze1 e6} ho6 {.} {.} {: } {.} s:- {.}
lin4ho6wu6eoi5go3 dat1{.} saam1
{ze1 e6} {.} {.} d- {.} moe2: d- {.} {: } {.}
{.} {.} moe2

: {.} : {.}

{.} o2heoi5go3 z- : {.}

81

Storytelling
{mm} {.} o5: {.} go2: za6 ai6{.} {} lat1
{.} fong1?ei2{.} lul1- {.} c-
: {.} {.} go1 {.}

{.} {2.0} {} {.}

ja5/? w- {.} {} {.} :

{.}

sa6 a6 {.} {.} {.} seo1-

{.} l- { o3: } ((pt)) {.} {} {.} {.}
((pt))

{.} : {1.5} : ((pt)) {} : {.}

ja5 a1 gwo3?
{ e1} {.}
ja1loi6
o5heoi5 {.} h-
{.} au6lam2o5: d-
seoi-
da6 ai6 o6 s- {.} s-
maa3
{.} si- au6i2go- mun2
{.} heoi5{.} s- soen2
da6mun2 zu- si2?o3 go-
o2{} {.} lam2a1faa3
zoen1{.} {.} heoi5
ma6wu3ceo1
ei4ja1au6hoe3daa6
/?aa6lam2
{2.0} o5heoi5 {.}
o5o5eoi5{.} lam2
wu5 mui5
: {.} li1heoi5

{.} o5: o2 o3{.} ngo3moe2wu-

maa6 {.} dek6dek6moe2{2.0} daa6 ai6
l- lam2
daa6 ai6go2o5 {.} : ge23 au6

c- {.} moe2 s- {.} lam2o3

za6b1i1 {.} deu6
ci- {.} moe2 {.} s- {.} heoi5ma6
ma6 wu3ngo2dek1
s:- o3daa6 ai6: {.}
waa6 faa3 {.} j- s- {.} aa6?
eo5: za1 ai6 {.} daa6
w- ja1a1za6ai2{}
{.} daa6jyun4 {.} jyun4 {.} daa6
zaa1 b- {.} faa1 ei4
ja1
gaa1 mu2seoi5gau4
{1.5} {.} : i3{} {2.5} heoi5
{1.0} j- heoi5heo5

82

 j- ji1 lat1?{} {.}

lik1{} oe5a6lam2
di1
?i1at1 i1? {.} go3 ((.h))
{.} c- {.} gau4e3
{.}
go3

Storytelling
{} go3za6 m- z- m- {.} {}
{.} {1.5} {} ai5 {.} {.} {3.0}
{} {.} lan4za6ja1za6 ai6{.} a6
a3 {.} {

} ji3cou5

{.} au6heo5au6za6 ai6

{.} {.} za6 s- {} {.} ai5
o6 f- {.} au4
: {.} go2{1.5}
{2.0} ja5 at1{.} jat51{3.0} ja5 at1
{2.0} ja5 at1nga5go3{.} : za6
a2a2 ou6a2{6.0} za6
soen2{1.0} : {.} : {.} c- {} {3.0} {
} bo1- {.} wa6- {.} ja1swu- {.} sa6 o6::
l6{.} {.} ka4a3ai5gwu3
?lan4za6: da3 {.} faa1
{} {.}

j- {.} gaa3ai5 {.}

{.} {2.5} ha2 ou6nge: nge nge{2.0} {}daa6jyun4

: {.} {.}

: {.} soen2naa3soen2

daa6{2.0} {2.0} j-
{.} bo1au6da1
daa6 ai6((pt)) nga- {.} daa6 ai6ka4e3
ai5 {.} zum1 h- {.} {.} la4{.}
syu:23daa6an4{2.0} ou3
ge2/?au6do1{.} au4

{3.0} ge2{.} ge2

aa4m- {.} ai5 {.}

ja1go3 {.} {3.0} {.} :

{.} {.} aai4o6daa6 ai6z- {.}
sa6 o6oe1
{3.0} soe6{1.5} e3
/?{3.0} {.} mu- {.} faa3 ji- {.}
: {.} faa1ja1 wa6koe5 {.}
ai5: {.} daa6koe5baa6za1
{.} d- {.} z- {.} faa1faa1 {.} : {.} {.}

83

{3.0} h- {.} {.} {.}

{1.5} {.} bu6 o2 i1?

heoi5heoi5doe1ja1
sa6/?o6o5{.} {.} {.} do1
{.} o2faa1s- a1do3
heoi6
ge2mai6ha6: {.}
ja1 {2.0} ja1 a6 d- ja1 a6
{.} ka4a3man2
faa1sa6 a6loi6 b- {.} bo1daa6
/?min4 baa3 goe5- m- e3s-
{.} am3o6
koe5 {.} {2.0} {.}
{.}

{.} coe- {.}

o3

{.} {.} loi6go3{: } {.}

84