http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/grammar/tenses.

html

In English, there are three basic tenses: present, past, and future. Each
has a perfect form, indicating completed action; each has a progressive
form, indicating ongoing action; and each has a perfect progressive form,
indicating ongoing action that will be completed at some definite time.
Here is a list of examples of these tenses and their definitions:

Simple Progressive Perfect Perfect Progressive

Forms Forms Forms Forms
Present take/s am/is/are taking have/has taken have/has been taking
Past took was/were taking had taken had been taking
will have
Future will/shall take will be taking will have been taking
taken

Simple Forms

Present Tense

Present tense expresses an unchanging, repeated, or reoccurring action or

situation that exists only now. It can also represent a widespread truth.
Example Meaning
Unchanging
The mountains are tall and white.
action
Every year, the school council
Recurring action
elects new members.
Pb is the chemical symbol for
Widespread truth
lead.

Past Tense

Past tense expresses an action or situation that was started and finished in
the past. Most past tense verbs end in -ed. The irregular verbs have
special past tense forms which must be memorized.

Example Form
Regular -ed
W.W.II ended in 1945.
past
Ernest Hemmingway wrote "The Old
Irregular form
Man and the Sea."

Future Tense
Future tense expresses an action or situation that will occur in the future.
This tense is formed by using will/shall with the simple form of the verb.
The speaker of the House will finish her term in May of 1998.
The future tense can also be expressed by using am, is, or are with going
to.
The surgeon is going to perform the first bypass in Minnesota.
We can also use the present tense form with an adverb or adverbial
phrase to show future time.
The president speaks tomorrow. (Tomorrow is a future time adverb.)

Progressive Forms

Present Progressive Tense

Present progressive tense describes an ongoing action that is happening

at the same time the statement is written. This tense is formed by using
am/is/are with the verb form ending in -ing.
The sociologist is examining the effects that racial discrimination has on society.

Past Progressive Tense

Past progressive tense describes a past action which was happening when
another action occurred. This tense is formed by using was/were with the
verb form ending in -ing.
The explorer was explaining the lastest discovery in Egypt when protests began on the
streets.

Future Progressive Tense

Future progressive tense describes an ongoing or continuous action that

will take place in the future. This tense is formed by using will be or shall
be with the verb form ending in -ing.
Dr. Jones will be presenting ongoing research on sexist language next week.

Perfect Forms

Present Perfect Tense

Present perfect tense describes an action that happened at an indefinite

time in the past or that began in the past and continues in the present.This
tense is formed by using has/have with the past participle of the verb.
Most past participles end in -ed. Irregular verbs have special past
participles that must be memorized.
Example Meaning
 The researchers have traveled to many countries At an indefinite
in order to collect more significant data. time
Women have voted in presidential elections Continues in the
since 1921. present

Past Perfect Tense

Past perfect tense describes an action that took place in the past before
another past action. This tense is formed by using had with the past
participle of the verb.
By the time the troops arrived, the war had ended.

Future Perfect Tense

Future perfect tense describes an action that will occur in the future before
some other action. This tense is formed by using will have with the past
participle of the verb.
By the time the troops arrive, the combat group will have spent several weeks waiting.

Perfect Progressive Forms

Present Perfect Progressive

Present perfect progressive tense describes an action that began in the

past, continues in the present, and may continue into the future. This
tense is formed by using has/have been and the present participle of
the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).
The CEO has been considering a transfer to the state of Texas where profits would be
larger.

Past Perfect Progressive

Past perfect progressive tense describes a past, ongoing action that was
completed before some other past action. This tense is formed by using
had been and the present perfect of the verb (the verb form ending in
-ing).
Before the budget cuts, the students had been participating in many extracurricular
activities.

Future Perfect Progressive

Future perfect progressive tense describes a future, ongoing action that

will occur before some specified future time. This tense is formed by using
will have been and the present participle of the verb (the verb form
ending in -ing).
By the year 2020, linguists will have been studying and defining the Indo-European
language family for more than 200 years.
Reported Speech - Indirect
Speech
Indirect Speech (also referred to as 'reported speech') refers to a sentence
reporting what someone has said. It is almost always used in spoken
English.

• If the reporting verb (i.e. said) is in the past, the reported clause will be in a past form.
This form is usually one step back into the past from the original.

For example:

o He said the test was difficult.

o She said she watched TV every day.
o Jack said he came to school every day.
• If simple present, present perfect or the future is used in the reporting verb (i.e. says)
the tense is retained.

For example:

o He says the test is difficult.

o She has said that she watches TV every day.
o Jack will say that he comes to school every day.
• If reporting a general truth the present tense will be retained.

For example:The teacher said that phrasal verbs are very

important.

Changing Pronouns and Time Signifiers

When changing from direct speech to indirect speech, it is often necessary
to change the pronouns to match the subject of the sentence.
For example:

• She said, "I want to bring my children." BECOMES She said she wanted to bring her
children.
• Jack said, "My wife went with me to the show." BECOMES Jack said his wife had
gone with him to the show.
It is also important to change time words (signifiers) when referring to
present, past or future time to match the moment of speaking.
For example:

• She said, "I want to bring my children tomorrow." BECOMES She said she wanted to
bring her children the next day.
• Jack said, "My wife went with me to the show yesterday." BECOMES Jack said his
wife had gone with him to the show the day before.

Indirect Questions
When reporting questions, it is especially important to pay attention to
sentence order. When reporting yes/ no questions connect the reported
question using 'if'. When reporting questions using question words (why,
where, when, etc.) use the question word.
For example:

• She asked, "Do you want to come with me?" BECOMES She asked me if I wanted to
come with her.
• Dave asked, "Where did you go last weekend?" BECOMES Dave asked me where I
had gone the previous weekend.
• He asked, "Why are you studying English?" BECOMES She asked me why I was
studying English.

The following chart includes sentences changed from quoted speech to

reported speech using a past form. NoteSimple past, present perfect, and
past perfect allchange to past perfect in the reported form.
Check your understanding with this reported speech quiz:
Reported Speech Transformations Quiz
Advanced Reporting Verbs
He said, "I live in Paris." He said he lived in Paris.
He said, "I am cooking dinner." He said he was cooking dinner.
He said, "I have visted London twice." He said he had visited London twice.
He said, "I went to New York last week." He said he had gone to New York the week before.
He said, "I had already eaten." He said he had already eaten.
He said, "I am going to find a new job." He said he was going to find a new job.
He said, "I will give Jack a call." He said he would give Jack a call.

How to Write an Essay

There are many ways to write an essay. However, the standard essay form
follows the same basic patterns as discussed in this "how to".
Difficulty Level: Average Time Required: 30 minutes

Here's How:

1. Select the topic of your essay.

2. Choose the central idea, or thesis, of your essay. For example:
Information technology has revolutionized the way we work.
3. Outline your essay into introductory, body and summary paragraphs.
4. The introductory paragraph begins with an interesting sentence. For
example: Home workers have grown from 150,000 to over 12 million
in the past 5 years thanks to the wonders of the computer.
5. After this first sentence, add your thesis statement from above.
6. Use one sentence to introduce every body paragraph to follow. For
example: The Internet has made this possible by extending the
office into the home.
7. Finish the introductory paragraph with a short summary or goal
statement. For example: Technological innovation has thus made the
traditional workplace obsolete.
8. In each of the body paragraphs (usually two or three) the ideas first
presented in the introductory paragraph are developed.
9. Develop your body paragraphs by giving detailed information and
examples. For example: When the Internet was first introduced it
was used primarily by scientists, now it is common in every
classroom.
10.Body paragraphs should develop the central idea and finish with a
summary of that idea. There should be at least two examples or
facts in each body paragraph to support the central idea.
11.The summary paragraph summarizes your essay and is often a
reverse of the introductory paragrah.
12.Begin the summary paragrah by quickly restating the principal ideas
of your body paragraphs. For example: The Internet in the home,
benefits and ease of use of modern computer systems...
13.The penultimate sentence should restate your basic thesis of the
essay. For example: We have now passed from the industrial
revolution to the information revolution.
14.Your final statement can be a future prediction based on what you
have shown in the essay. For example: The next step: The complete
disappearance of the workplace.

Tips:
 1. Use strong verbs and avoid modals to state your opinion. It is better
to write: The workplace has evolved than THe workplace seems to
have evolved
2. Do not apologize for what you are saying. An essay is about your
opinion.
3. Do not translate from your mother tongue, it will quickly get you into
trouble!

Know your Auxiliary Verbs!

Auxiliary verbs are conjugated depending on the subject of a sentence.

Here are a few examples of auxiliary verbs:

Tom has lived in Boston for twenty years.

They didn't come to the party last night.
I was cooking dinner when you telephoned.
What are you doing tomorrow afternoon?

Knowing correct auxiliary verb usage is key to tense usage. Every tense
takes an auxiliary form of the verb. There are three exceptions to this rule:

1. Simple present positive: She works at a bank.

2. Simple past positive: He bought a new TV last week.
3. Positive imperative statements: Hurry up!

There are also a number of short forms that take ONLY the auxiliary form
of the verb:

• Yes / No answer short forms:

Do you live in England? - No, I don't.

Has she been to Paris? - Yes, she has.

• Question tags:

They enjoy learning English, don't they?

He won't agree with me, will he?

• Positive agreement / inclusion:

I went to the beach last weekend.

Writing Descriptive Paragraphs

Descriptive paragraphs are often used to describe what a person looks and
acts like. Read this example descriptive paragraph, notice how descriptive
paragraphs are arranged by putting together all the sentences about the
same thing.

Here is an example of a descriptive paragraph:

I am forty years old, rather tall and I have blue eyes and short black hair. I
wear casual clothes as I teach students in a relaxed atmosphere. I enjoy my job
because I get to meet and help so many different people from all over the
world. During my spare time, I like playing tennis which I play at least three
times a week. I also love listening to classical music and I must admit that I
spend a lot of money on buying new CDs! I live in a pretty seaside town on the
Italian coast. I enjoy eating great Italian food and laughing with the likable
people who live here.

Written Exercise I

Answer these questions about yourself on a piece of paper.

• How old are you?

• What do you look like?
• What kind of clothes do you wear? Why?
• What kind of job do you do? Do you like it?
• What are your favorite hobbies? Why do you like them?
• Where do you live?
• Do you like living there? Why or why not?

Written Exercise II
Now that you have the information about yourself ready. Fill in the gaps in
to complete this descriptive paragraph about yourself.
I am _________ years old, I _________________ (your looks). I wear
________________ because ______________. I am a ______________. I like / don't
like my job because _____________________. I enjoy ______________. I often
_____________ (describe how often you do your hobby). I also like
________________ (write about another hobby) because ________________. I
live in ____________. People in ____________ are ________________ . I enjoy /
don't enjoy living in ______________ because ____________.
Practice
Ask your friends the same questions as in exercise I and write paragraphs
about them.
Practice

Ask your friends the same questions as in exercise I and write paragraphs
about them.

Conditionals
Listed below are examples, uses and formation of Conditionals followed by
a quiz.
Examples Usage
Conditional 0 Situations that are always true if something happens.

If I am late, my father NOTE

takes me to school.
This use is similiar to, and can usually be replaced by, a time
She doesn't worry if Jack clause using 'when' (example: When I am late, my father
stays out after school. takes me to school.)
Conditional 1
Often called the "real" conditional because it is used for real -
or possible - situations. These situations take place if a
If it rains, we will stay at
certain condition is met.
home.
NOTE
He will arrive late unless he
hurries up.
In the conditional 1 we often use unless which means 'if ...
not'. In other words, '...unless he hurries up.' could also be
Peter will buy a new car, if
written, '...if he doesn't hurry up.'.
he gets his raise.
Conditional 2
Often called the "unreal" conditional because it is used for
If he studied more, he
unreal - impossible or improbable - situations. This
would pass the exam.
conditional provides an imaginary result for a given situation.

I would lower taxes if I

NOTE
were the President.
The verb 'to be', when used in the 2nd conditional, is always
They would buy a new
conjugated as 'were'.
house if they had more
money.
Conditional 3

If he had known that, he

would have decided Often referred to as the "past" conditional because it concerns
differently. only past situations with hypothetical results. Used to express
a hypothetical result to a past given situation.
Jane would have found a
new job if she had stayed in
Boston.

Structure
Conditional 0 is formed by the use of the present simple in the if clause followed by a
comma the present simple in the result clause. You can also put the result clause first
without using a comma between the clauses.
If he comes to town, we have dinner

We have dinner if he comes to town.

Conditional 1 is formed by the use of the present simple in the if clause followed by a
comma will verb (base form) in the result clause. You can also put the result clause first
without using a comma between the clauses.
If he finishes on time, we will go to the movies.

We will go to the movies if he finishes on time.

Conditional 2 is formed by the use of the past simple in the if clause followed by a comma
would verb (base form) in the result clause. You can also put the result clause first without
using a comma between the clauses.
If they had more money, they would buy a new house.

They would buy a new house if they had more money.

Conditional 3 is formed by the use of the past perfect in the if clause followed by a comma
would have past participle in the result clause. You can also put the result clause first
without using a comma between the clauses.
If Alice had won the competition, life would have changed.

Life would have changed if Alice had won the competition.

Punctuation

This guide provides instruction on the basic rules of using a period,

comma, colon, semicolon, question mark and exclamation point. Each type
of punctuation is followed by an explanation and example sentences for
reference purposes.

Period

Use a period to end a complete sentence. A sentence is a group of words

containing a subject and predicate. In British English a period is called a
'full stop'.

Examples:
He went to Detroit last week.
They are going to visit.

Comma

There are a number of different uses for a common in English. Commas

are used to:

• Separate a list of items. This is one of the most common uses of a comma. Notice that
a comma is included before the conjunction 'and' which comes before the final
element of a list.

Examples:

I like reading, listening to music, taking long walks, and visiting with
my friends.
They would like books, magazines, DVDs, video cassettes, and other
learning materials for their library.

• Separate phrases (clauses).

• This is especially true after a beginning dependent clause or a long prepositional

phrase.

Examples:

In order to qualify for your certificate, you will need to take the
TOEFL exam.
Although he wanted to come, he wasn't able to attend the course.

• Separate two independent clauses that are connected by a conjunction such as 'but'.

Examples:

They wanted to purchase a new car, but their financial situation

would not allow it.
I'd really enjoy seeing a film this evening, and I'd like to go out for a
drink.

• Introduce a direct quote (as opposed to indirect speech i.e. He said he wanted to come
...).

Examples:

The boy said, "My father is often away during the week on business
trips."
His doctor replied, "If you don't stop smoking, you run the risk of a
heart attack."
 • Separate appositives (a noun, or noun phrase) or non-defining relative clauses.

Examples:

Bill Gates, the richest man in the world, comes from Seattle.
My only sister, who is a fantastic tennis player, is in great shape.

Question Mark
The question mark is used at the end of a question.
Examples:
Where do you live?
How long have they been studying?
Exclamation Point
The exclamation point is used at the end of a sentence to indicate great
surprise. It is also used for emphasis when making a point. Be careful not
to use an exclamation point too often.
Examples:
That ride was fantastic!
I can't believe he is going to marry her!
Semicolon
There are two uses for a semicolon:

• To separate two independent clauses. One or both of the clauses are short and the ideas
expressed are usually very similar.

Examples:

He loves studying; He can't get enough of school.

What an incredible situation; it must make you nervous.

• To separate groups of words that are themselves separated by commas.

Examples:

I took a holiday and played golf, which I love; read a lot, which I
needed to do; and slept late; which I hadn't done for quite a while.
They plan to study German, for their travels; chemistry, for their
work; and literature, for their own enjoyment.

Colon
A colon can be used for two purposes:

• To provide additional details and explanation.

Examples:

He had many reasons for joining the club: to get in shape, to make
new friends, to lose some weight, and to get out of the house.
 She gave notice for the following reasons: bad pay, horrible hours,
poor relations with colleagues, and her boss.

• To introduce a direct quote (a comma can also be used in this situation).

Examples:

He announced to his friends: "I'm getting married!"

She cried out: "I never want to see you again!"

http://www.arts.uottawa.ca/writcent/hypergrammar/bldsent.htm
l
What Is An Adjective?
An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or
quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun
which it modifies.
In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:
The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.
Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen walls with hideous wall paper.
The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.
The coal mines are dark and dank.
Many stores have already begun to play irritating Christmas music.
A battered music box sat on the mahogany sideboard.
The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots.
An adjective can be modified by an adverb, or by a phrase or clause
functioning as an adverb. In the sentence
My husband knits intricately patterned mittens.
for example, the adverb ``intricately'' modifies the adjective ``patterned.''
Some nouns, many pronouns, and many participle phrases can also act as
adjectives. In the sentence
Eleanor listened to the muffled sounds of the radio hidden under her pillow.
for example, both highlighted adjectives are past participles.
Grammarians also consider articles (``the,'' ``a,'' ``an'') to be adjectives.
Possessive Adjectives
A possessive adjective (``my,'' ``your,'' ``his,'' ``her,'' ``its,'' ``our,''
``their'') is similar or identical to a possessive pronoun; however, it is used
as an adjective and modifies a noun or a noun phrase, as in the following
sentences:
I can't complete my assignment because I don't have the textbook.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective ``my'' modifies ``assignment''
and the noun phrase ``my assignment'' functions as an object. Note that
the possessive pronoun form ``mine'' is not used to modify a noun or noun
phrase.
What is your phone number.
Here the possessive adjective ``your'' is used to modify the noun phrase
``phone number''; the entire noun phrase ``your phone number'' is a
subject complement. Note that the possessive pronoun form ``yours'' is
not used to modify a noun or a noun phrase.
The bakery sold his favourite type of bread.
In this example, the possessive adjective ``his'' modifies the noun phrase
``favourite type of bread'' and the entire noun phrase ``his favourite type
of bread'' is the direct object of the verb ``sold.''
After many years, she returned to her homeland.
Here the possessive adjective ``her'' modifies the noun ``homeland'' and
the noun phrase ``her homeland'' is the object of the preposition ``to.''
Note also that the form ``hers'' is not used to modify nouns or noun
phrases.
We have lost our way in this wood.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective ``our'' modifies ``way'' and the
noun phrase ``our way'' is the direct object of the compound verb ``have
lost''. Note that the possessive pronoun form ``ours'' is not used to modify
nouns or noun phrases.
In many fairy tales, children are neglected by their parents.
Here the possessive adjective ``their'' modifies ``parents'' and the noun
phrase ``their parents'' is the object of the preposition ``by.'' Note that the
possessive pronoun form ``theirs'' is not used to modify nouns or noun
phrases.
The cat chased its ball down the stairs and into the backyard.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective ``its'' modifies ``ball'' and the
noun phrase ``its ball'' is the object of the verb ``chased.'' Note that ``its''
is the possessive adjective and ``it's'' is a contraction for ``it is.''
Demonstrative Adjectives
The demonstrative adjectives ``this,'' ``these,'' ``that,'' ``those,'' and
``what'' are identical to the demonstrative pronouns, but are used as
adjectives to modify nouns or noun phrases, as in the following sentences:
When the librarian tripped over that cord, she dropped a pile of books.
In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective ``that'' modifies the noun
``cord'' and the noun phrase ``that cord'' is the object of the preposition
``over.''
This apartment needs to be fumigated.
Here ``this'' modifies ``apartment'' and the noun phrase ``this
apartment'' is the subject of the sentence.
Even though my friend preferred those plates, I bought these.
In the subordinate clause, ``those'' modifies ``plates'' and the noun
phrase ``those plates'' is the object of the verb ``preferred.'' In the
independent clause, ``these'' is the direct object of the verb ``bought.''
Note that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a
demonstrative pronoun is similar to the relationship between a possessive
adjective and a possessive pronoun, or to that between a interrogative
adjective and an interrogative pronoun.
Interrogative Adjectives
An interrogative adjective (``which'' or ``what'') is like an interrogative
pronoun, except that it modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than
standing on its own (see also demonstrative adjectives and possessive
adjectives):
Which plants should be watered twice a week?
Like other adjectives, ``which'' can be used to modify a noun or a noun
phrase. In this example, ``which'' modifies ``plants'' and the noun phrase
``which paints'' is the subject of the compound verb ``should be watered'':
What book are you reading?
In this sentence, ``what'' modifies ``book'' and the noun phrase ``what
book'' is the direct object of the compound verb ``are reading.''
Indefinite Adjectives
An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun, except that it
modifies a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, as in the following sentences:
Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed.
The indefinite adjective ``many'' modifies the noun ``people'' and the
noun phrase ``many people'' is the subject of the sentence.
I will send you any mail that arrives after you have moved to Sudbury.
The indefinite adjective ``any'' modifies the noun ``mail'' and the noun
phrase ``any mail'' is the direct object of the compound verb ``will send.''
They found a few goldfish floating belly up in the swan pound.
In this example the indefinite adjective modifies the noun ``goldfish'' and
the noun phrase is the direct object of the verb ``found'':
The title of Kelly's favourite game is ``All dogs go to heaven.''
Here the indefinite pronoun ``all'' modifies ``dogs'' and the full title is a
subject complement.

What is a Conjunction?
You can use a conjunction to link words, phrases, and clauses, as in the
following example:
I ate the pizza and the pasta.
Call the movers when you are ready.
Co-ordinating Conjunctions
You use a co-ordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for,"
"so," or "yet") to join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses.
Note that you can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as
prepositions.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a co-
ordinating conjunction:
Lilacs and violets are usually purple.
In this example, the co-ordinating conjunction "and" links two nouns.
This movie is particularly interesting to feminist film theorists, for the screenplay was
written by Mae West.
In this example, the co-ordinating conjunction "for" is used to link two
independent clauses.
Daniel's uncle claimed that he spent most of his youth dancing on rooftops and
swallowing goldfish.
Here the co-ordinating conjunction "and" links two participle phrases
("dancing on rooftops" and "swallowing goldfish") which act as adverbs
describing the verb "spends."
Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and
indicates the nature of the relationship among the independent clause(s)
and the dependent clause(s).
The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although," "as,"
"because," "before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though,"
"till," "until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while."
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a
subordinating conjunction:
After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.
The subordinating conjunction "after" introduces the dependent clause
"After she had learned to drive."
If the paperwork arrives on time, your cheque will be mailed on Tuesday.
Similarly, the subordinating conjunction "if" introduces the dependent
clause "If the paperwork arrives on time."
Gerald had to begun his thesis over again when his computer crashed.
The subordinating conjunction "when" introduces the dependent clause
"when his computer crashed."
Midwifery advocates argue that home births are safer because the mother and baby
are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs.
In this sentence, the dependent clause "because the mother and baby are
exposed to fewer people and fewer germs" is introduced by the
subordinating conjunction "because."
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link
equivalent sentence elements. The most common correlative conjunctions
are "both...and," "either...or," "neither...nor,", "not only...but also,"
"so...as," and "whether...or." (Technically correlative conjunctions consist
simply of a co-ordinating conjunction linked to an adjective or adverb.)
The highlighted words in the following sentences are correlative
conjunctions:
Both my grandfather and my father worked in the steel plant.
In this sentence, the correlative conjunction "both...and" is used to link the
two noun phrases that act as the compound subject of the sentence: "my
grandfather" and "my father".
Bring either a Jello salad or a potato scallop.
Here the correlative conjunction "either...or" links two noun phrases: "a
Jello salad" and "a potato scallop."
Corinne is trying to decide whether to go to medical school or to go to law school.
Similarly, the correlative conjunction "whether ... or" links the two infinitive
phrases "to go to medical school" and "to go to law school."
The explosion destroyed not only the school but also the neighbouring pub.
In this example the correlative conjunction "not only ... but also" links the
two noun phrases ("the school" and "neighbouring pub") which act as
direct objects.
Note: some words which appear as conjunctions can also appear as
prepositions or as adverbs.
What is a Pronoun?
A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. You use pronouns like
"he," "which," "none," and "you" to make your sentences less cumbersome
and less repetitive.
Grammarians classify pronouns into several types, including the personal
pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun, the interrogative pronoun, the
indefinite pronoun, the relative pronoun, the reflexive pronoun, and the
intensive pronoun.
Personal Pronouns
A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its
form to indicate person, number, gender, and case.
Subjective Personal Pronouns
A subjective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as
the subject of the sentence. The subjective personal pronouns are "I,"
"you," "she," "he," "it," "we," "you," "they."
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a subjective
personal pronoun and acts as the subject of the sentence:
I was glad to find the bus pass in the bottom of the green knapsack.
You are surely the strangest child I have ever met.
He stole the selkie's skin and forced her to live with him.
When she was a young woman, she earned her living as a coal miner.
After many years, they returned to their homeland.
We will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m.
It is on the counter.
Are you the delegates from Malagawatch?
Objective Personal Pronouns
An objective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as
an object of a verb, compound verb, preposition, or infinitive phrase. The
objective personal pronouns are: "me," "you," "her," "him," "it," "us,"
"you," and "them."
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is an objective
personal pronoun:
Seamus stole the selkie's skin and forced her to live with him.
The objective personal pronoun "her" is the direct object of the verb
"forced" and the objective personal pronoun "him" is the object of the
preposition "with."
After reading the pamphlet, Judy threw it into the garbage can.
The pronoun "it" is the direct object of the verb "threw".
The agitated assistant stood up and faced the angry delegates and said, "Our leader
will address you in five minutes."
In this sentence, the pronoun "you" is the direct object of the verb
"address."
Deborah and Roberta will meet us at the newest café in the market.
Here the objective personal pronoun "us" is the direct object of the
compound verb "will meet."
Give the list to me.
Here the objective personal pronoun "me" is the object of the preposition
"to".
I'm not sure that my contact will talk to you.
Similarly in this example, the objective personal pronoun "you" is the
object of the preposition "to".
Christopher was surprised to see her at the drag races.
Here the objective personal pronoun "her" is the object of the infinitive
phrase "to see."
Possessive Personal Pronouns
A possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker
of possession and defines who owns a particular object or person. The
possessive personal pronouns are "mine," "yours," "hers," "his," "its,"
"ours," and "theirs." Note that possessive personal pronouns are very
similar to possessive adjectives like "my," "her," and "their."
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a possessive
personal pronoun:
The smallest gift is mine.
Here the possessive pronoun "mine" functions as a subject complement.
This is yours.
Here too the possessive pronoun "yours" functions as a subject
complement.
His is on the kitchen counter.
In this example, the possessive pronoun "his" acts as the subject of the
sentence.
Theirs will be delivered tomorrow.
In this sentence, the possessive pronoun "theirs" is the subject of the
sentence.
Ours is the green one on the corner.
Here too the possessive pronoun "ours" function as the subject of the
sentence.
Demonstrative Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun.
"This" and "these" refer to things that are nearby either in space or in
time, while "that" and "those" refer to things that are farther away in
space or time.
The demonstrative pronouns are "this," "that," "these," and "those." "This"
and "that" are used to refer to singular nouns or noun phrases and "these"
and "those" are used to refer to plural nouns and noun phrases. Note that
the demonstrative pronouns are identical to demonstrative adjectives,
though, obviously, you use them differently. It is also important to note
that "that" can also be used as a relative pronoun.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a
demonstrative pronoun:
 This must not continue.
Here "this" is used as the subject of the compound verb "must not
continue."
This is puny; that is the tree I want.
In this example "this" is used as subject and refers to something close to
the speaker. The demonstrative pronoun "that" is also a subject but refers
to something farther away from the speaker.
Three customers wanted these.
Here "these" is the direct object of the verb "wanted".
Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is used to ask questions. The interrogative
pronouns are "who," "whom," "which," "what" and the compounds formed
with the suffix "ever" ("whoever," "whomever," "whichever," and
"whatever"). Note that either "which" or "what" can also be used as an
interrogative adjective, and that "who," "whom," or "which" can also be
used as a relative pronoun.
You will find "who," "whom," and occasionally "which" used to refer to
people, and "which" and "what" used to refer to things and to animals.
"Who" acts as the subject of a verb, while "whom" acts as the object of a
verb, preposition, or a verbal.
The highlighted word in each of the following sentences is an
interrogative pronoun:
Which wants to see the dentist first?
"Which" is the subject of the sentence.
Who wrote the novel Rockbound?
Similarly "who" is the subject of the sentence.
Whom do you think we should invite?
In this sentence, "whom" is the object of the verb "invite."
To whom do you wish to speak?
Here the interrogative pronoun "whom " is the object of the preposition
"to."
Who will meet the delegates at the train station?
In this sentence, the interrogative pronoun "who" is the subject of the
compound verb "will meet".
To whom did you give the paper?
In this example the interrogative pronoun "whom" is the object of the
preposition "to."
What did she say?
Here the interrogative pronoun "what" is the direct object of the verb
"say."
Relative Pronouns
You can use a relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or clause to
another phrase or clause. The relative pronouns are "who," "whom,"
"that," and "which." The compounds "whoever," "whomever," and
"whichever" are also relative pronouns.
You can use the relative pronouns "who" and "whoever" to refer to the
subject of a clause or sentence, and "whom" and "whomever" to refer to
the objects of a verb, a verbal or a preposition.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a relative
pronoun.
You may invite whomever you like to the party.
The relative pronoun "whomever" is the direct object of the compound
verb "may invite".
The candidate who wins the greatest popular vote is not always elected.
In this sentence, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb "wins" and
introduces the subordinate clause "who wins the greatest popular vote".
This subordinate clause acts as an adjective modifying "candidate."
In a time of crisis, the manager asks the workers whom she believes to be the most
efficient to arrive an hour earlier than usual.
In this sentence "whom" is the direct object of the verb "believes" and
introduces the subordinate clause "whom she believes to be the most
efficient". This subordinate clause modifies the noun "workers."
Whoever broke the window will have to replace it.
Here "whoever" functions as the subject of the verb "broke".
The crate which was left in the corridor has now been moved into the storage closet.
In this example "which" acts as the subject of the compound verb "was
left" and introduces the subordinate clause "which was left in the corridor."
The subordinate clause acts as an adjective modifying the noun "crate."
I will read whichever manuscript arrives first.
Here "whichever" modifies the noun "manuscript" and introduces the
subordinate clause "whichever manuscript arrives first." The subordinate
clause functions as the direct object of the compound verb "will read."
Indefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not
specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all,
any, none, or some.
The most common indefinite pronouns are "all," "another," "any,"
"anybody," "anyone," "anything," "each," "everybody," "everyone,"
"everything," "few," "many," "nobody," "none," "one," "several," "some,"
"somebody," and "someone." Note that some indefinite pronouns can also
be used as indefinite adjectives.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are indefinite pronouns:
Many were invited to the lunch but only twelve showed up.
Here "many" acts as the subject of the compound verb "were invited".
The office had been searched and everything was thrown onto the floor.
In this example ,"everything" acts as a subject of the compound verb "was
thrown."
We donated everything we found in the attic to the woman's shelter garage sale.
In this sentence, "everything" is the direct object of theverb "donated."
Although they looked everywhere for extra copies of the magazine, they found none.
Here too the indefinite pronoun functions as a direct object: "none" is the
direct object of "found."
Make sure you give everyone a copy of the amended bylaws.
In this example, "everyone" is the indirect object of the verb "give" -- the
direct object is the noun phrase "a copy of the amended bylaws."
Give a registration package to each.
Here "each" is the object of the preposition "to."
Reflexive Pronouns
You can use a reflexive pronoun to refer back to the subject of the
clause or sentence.
The reflexive pronouns are "myself," "yourself," "herself," "himself,"
"itself," "ourselves," "yourselves," and "themselves." Note each of these
can also act as an intensive pronoun.
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a reflexive
pronoun:
Diabetics give themselves insulin shots several times a day.
The Dean often does the photocopying herself so that the secretaries can do more
important work.
After the party, I asked myself why I had faxed invitations to everyone in my office
building.
Richard usually remembered to send a copy of his e-mail to himself.
Although the landlord promised to paint the apartment, we ended up doing it
ourselves.
Intensive Pronouns
An intensive pronoun is a pronoun used to emphasise its antecedent.
Intensive pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are intensive pronouns:
I myself believe that aliens should abduct my sister.
The Prime Minister himself said that he would lower taxes.
They themselves promised to come to the party even though they had a final exam at
the same time.
Building Phrases
A phrase is a group of two or more grammatically linked words without a
subject and predicate -- a group of grammatically-linked words with a
subject and predicate is called a clause.
The group "teacher both students and" is not a phrase because the words
have no grammatical relationship to one another. Similarly, the group "bay
the across" is not a phrase.
In both cases, the words need to be rearranged in order to create phrases.
The group "both teachers and students" and the group "across the bay"
are both phrases.
You use phrase to add information to a sentence and can perform the
functions of a subject, an object, a subject or object complement, a verb,
an adjective, or an adverb.
The highlighted words in each of the following sentences make up a
phrase:
She bought some spinach when she went to the corner store.
Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky.
They heard high pitched cries in the middle of the night.
In early October, Giselle planted twenty tulip bulbs; unfortunately, squirrels ate the
bulbs and none bloomed.
Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.

Building Sentences
Some English sentences are very basic:
Shakespeare was a writer.
Einstein said something.
The Inuit are a people.
You could write an entire essay using only simple sentences like these:
William Shakespeare was a writer. He wrote plays. It was the Elizabethan age. One
play was Hamlet. It was a tragedy. Hamlet died. The court died too.
It is not likely, however, that your essay would receive a passing grade.
This chapter helps you learn to recognise different types of sentences and
to use them effectively in your own writing.
Building Clauses
A clause is a collection of grammatically-related words including a
predicate and a subject (though sometimes is the subject is implied). A
collection of grammatically-related words without a subject or without a
predicate is called a phrase.
Clauses are the building blocks of sentences: every sentence consists of
one or more clauses. This chapter will help you to recognise and (more
importantly) to use different types of clauses in your own writing.

Definition of articles
English has two types of articles: definite (the) and indefinite (a, an.) The use of these
articles depends mainly on whether you are referring to any member of a group, or to
a specific member of a group:

1. Indefinite Articles: a and an

A and an signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a
group. These indefinite articles are used with singular nouns when the noun is
general; the corresponding indefinite quantity word some is used for plural general
nouns. The rule is:
 • a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy
• an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant
• a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like 'yoo-
zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used)
• some + plural noun: some girls

If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the
initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:

• a broken egg
• an unusual problem
• a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y'
sound)

Note also that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a
profession, nation, or religion.

• I am a teacher.
• Brian is an Irishman.
• Seiko is a practicing Buddhist.

2. Definite Article: the

The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is
particular or specific. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular
member of a group. Compare the indefinite and definite articles in the following
examples:
Indefinite (a or an) Definite (the)

Singular a dog (any dog) the dog (that specific dog)

an apple (any apple) the apple (that specific apple)

Plural some dogs (any dogs) the dogs (those specific dogs)
some apples (any apples) the apples (those specific apples)

The is not used with non countable nouns referring to something in a general sense:

[no article] Coffee is a popular drink.

[no article] Japanese was his native language.
[no article] Intelligence is difficult to quantify.
The is used with non countable nouns that are made more specific by a limiting
modifying phrase or clause:

The coffee in my cup is too hot to drink.

The Japanese he speaks is often heard in the countryside.
The intelligence of animals is variable but undeniable.

The is also used when a noun refers to something unique:

the White House

the theory of relativity
the 1999 federal budget

Note: Geographical uses of the

Do not use the before:

• names of countries (Italy, Mexico, Bolivia) except the Netherlands and the US
• names of cities, towns, or states (Seoul, Manitoba, Miami)
• names of streets (Washington Blvd., Main St.)
• names of lakes and bays (Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie) except with a group of
lakes like the Great Lakes
• names of mountains (Mount Everest, Mount Fuji) except with ranges of
mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn
• names of continents (Asia, Europe)
• names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains
like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands

Do use the before:

• names of rivers, oceans and seas (the Nile, the Pacific)

• points on the globe (the Equator, the North Pole)
• geographical areas (the Middle East, the West)
• deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas (the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black
Forest, the Iberian Peninsula)
Further Uses of Articles

In addition, use of a, an, and the also depends on whether the noun following the
article possesses one of these paired qualities:

• Countable vs. non countable

• First vs. subsequent mention
• General vs. specific

1. Countable vs. Non countable

A and an are used if the noun can be counted.

I stepped in a puddle. (How many puddles did you

step in? Just one. Therefore, use a.)

I drank a glass of milk. (Glasses of milk can be

counted)

I saw an apple tree. (Apple trees can be counted)

The must be used when the noun cannot be counted.

I dove into the water. (How many waters did you dive
into? The question doesn't make any sense because
water is non countable. Therefore, use the.)

I saw the milk spill. (How many milks? Milk cannot be

counted)
I admired the foliage. (How many foliages? Foliage
cannot be counted)

2. First vs. Subsequent Mention

A or an is used to introduce a noun when it is mentioned for the first time in a piece
of writing. The is used afterward each time you mention that same noun.

An awards ceremony at the Kremlin would not normally have attracted

so much attention. But when it was leaked that Soviet President
Konstantin Chernenko would be presenting medals to three
cosmonauts, interest in the ceremony intensified. Time, Sept. 17, 1984.

Note: There is and there are can be used to introduce an indefinite noun at the
beginning of a paragraph or essay.

There is a robin in the tree outside my window. When my cat jumps up

on the desk, the robin flies away.

3. General vs. Specific

A, an, and the can all be used to indicate that a noun refers to the whole class to
which individual countable nouns belong. This use of articles is called generic, from
the Latin word meaning "class."

A tiger is a dangerous animal. (any individual tiger)

The tiger is a dangerous animal. (all tigers: tiger as a generic category)
The difference between the indefinite a and an and the generic a and an is that the
former means any one member of a class while the latter means all of the members
of a class.

The omission of articles also expresses a generic (or general) meaning:

no article with a plural noun: Tigers are dangerous animals. (all tigers)
no article with a non countable noun: Anger is a destructive emotion.
(any kind of anger)

Omission of Articles

While some nouns combine with one article or the other based on whether they are
countable or non countable, others simply never take either article. Some common
types of nouns that don't take an article are:

1. Names of languages and nationalities

α.Chinese
β.English
χ.Spanish
δ.Russian

2. Names of sports

α.volleyball
β.hockey
χ.baseball

3. Names of academic subjects

α.mathematics
β.biology
χ.history
δ.computer science