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The works which are constructed at the head of the canal in order to divert the river towards the canal so as to ensure a regulated continuous supply of silt free water with a certain minimum head in to the canal are known as DIVERSION HEAD WORK.
If the major part or the entire ponding of water is achieved by a crest and a smaller part or nil part is achieved by the shutters then this barrier is known as WEIR. If most of the ponding is done by the gates and a smaller or nil part of it is done by the raised crest then the barrier is known as BARRAGE
When the weight of the weir (i.e its body and floor) balances the uplift pressure caused by the head of the water seeping below the weir it is called GRAVITY WEIR. If the weir floor is designed continuous with the divide piers as reinforced structure such that the weight of concrete slab together with weight of divide piers keep the structure safe against the uplift then the structure may be called as NON GRAVITY WEIR
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TYPES OF WEIRS
Weirs are divided into three classes Vertical drop weir Sloping Weir a ) Masonry or concrete slope weir b ) Dry stone slope weir Parabolic weir
This type of weir consist of horizontal floor and a masonry crest with vertical or nearly vertical downstream face. Raised masonry crest does the maximum ponding of water but a part of it is usually done by shutters at the top of the crest. The shutter can be dropped during floods so as to reduce the afflux by increasing the water way opening. To safe guard scoring action launching aprons are provided both at upstream and D/S end. A graded inverted filter is provided to relieve uplift pressures.
CONCRETE WEIR WITH SLOPING D/S GLACIS Sheet piles of sufficient depth are driven at the ends of U/s and D/s floor and sometimes an intermediate piles is provided to dissipates the energy formed due to hydraulic jump on the D/s sloping glacis This type of weir is provided on permeable foundations.
Rock fill weirs with sloping apron It is also called as Dry stone slope weir. It is suitable for fine sandy foundations U/s and D/s rockfill laid in the form glacis.
PIPING Rupture of floor due to uplift Rupture of floor due to suction caused by standing wave Scour on the U/s and D/s of the weir.
Piping : Water seeps under the base of the weir founded on permeable soils . When the flow lines emerge out at the D/s end of the impervious floor of the weir, the hydraulic gradient may exceed. With the removal of the surface soil there is further concentration of flow lines resulting depression and more soil is removed. This process of erosion thus progressively works backwards towards upstream and results in the formation of a channel or pipe underneath the floor of the weir causing failure.
Remedies
i) Providing sufficient length of impervious floor so that path of percolation is increased. ii) Providing pile at the downstream ends.
Rupture of floor due to uplift : If the weight of the floor is insufficient to resist uplift pressure the floor may burst and effective length of impervious floor is reduced and finally effective length reduced. Remedies i) Providing impervious floor of sufficient length and appropriate thickness ii) Providing pile at the U/s end so that uplift pressure to the d/s is reduced
Rupture of floor due to suction caused by standing wave The standing wave or hydraulic jump formed at the D/s of the weir causes suction which is also acts in the direction of uplift pressure. If the floor thickness is insufficient it may rupture
REMEDIES : i)Providing additional thickness of floor to counterbalance the extra pressure due to standing wave. ii) Constructing the floor thickness in one concrete mass instead of in masonry layers.
SCOUR ON THE U/s AND D/s OF THE WEIR. When the natural waterway of a river is contracted the water may scour the bed both at U/s and D/s of the structure. The scour holes so formed may progress towards the structure causing failure. Remedies : Taking piles at upstream and downstream ends of the impervious floor much below the calculated scour level. Providing suitable length and thickness of launching apron at U/s and D/s sides so that stones of the aprons may settle in the scour holes.
Afflux The rise in the maximum flood level (HFL) upstream of the weir caused due to the construction of the weir across the river is called afflux. Pond Level The water level required in the under sluice pocket upstream of the canal head regulator so as to feed the canal with its full supply is known as Pond Level.
Functions of under - sluice It helps in regulating less turbulent pocket of water near the canal head regulator As the crest level of the under sluice pocket is at low level than the crest level of the weir a deep channel develops towards this pocket which helps in bringing low dry weather discharge towards this pocket. The under sluiced length of weir is divided into no.of ways by piers and separate gates are installed on these ways. Each way thus be opened to any desired height by lifting its gate. Each way can thus act as gate controlled opening and will help in by passing the excess supplies to the downstream side of the river. These openings will also help in scouring and removing the deposited silt from the under-sluiced pocket and hence called the SCOURING SLUICES
The crest level of the head regulator is also kept higher than the crest level of the under-sluices so that only silt free water is admitted into the canal through the head sluices Apart from the two important function served by the under-sluice they help in passing the dry weather flow and low floods without dropping the weir shutters.
DIVIDE WALL
The divide wall is a masonry or a concrete wall constructed at right angles to the axis of the weir and separate the weir proper from under-sluice. Divide wall extends on the upstream side beyond the beginning of the canal head regulator and on the D/s side it extends up to the end of the loose protection of under- sluice. The top width of divide wall is about 1.5m to 2.5m
DIVIDE WALL
Functions of divide wall a) It separates the under-sluices from the weir proper .Since crest level of the under-sluice is lower than of weir proper the two must be operated and this is being done by Divide wall. b) It helps in providing a comparatively less turbulent pocket near the and thus to help in the entry of silt free water into the canal c) Divide wall may keep the cross current away from the weir which causes vortices and deep scours Divide walls can be designed as cantilever retaining walls subjected silt pressure and water pressure from the under sluice side.
Guide banks : Guide banks force the river into restricted channel and thus ensuring a smooth and an almost axial flow near the weir site. Marginal bunds : They are provided on the upstream side of the works in order to protect the area from submergence due to rise in HFL caused by afflux. Groyne : Groynes are structures constructed transverse to the river and extend from the bank into the river upto limit. Main purpose of Groyne are contracts a river channel to improve its depth, protects the river bank, Silts up the area in the vicinity by creating a slack flow and trains the flow along a certain course.
FISH LADDER
A structure which enables the fish to pass upstream is called FISH LADDER. It is a device by which flow energy can be dissipated in such a manner as to provide smooth low velocity not exceeding 3 to 3.5m/sec. This object is generally accomplished by providing a narrow opening adjacent to the divide wall and provide suitable baffle walls so as to control flow velocity.
H A d1 D d2 l E
Total creep length is L=2d1+l+2d2 If H is total loss of head the loss of head per unit length is creep c =H/(2d1+l+2d2) = H/L
Design criteria ; Safe against piping:The length of creep should be sufficient to provide a safe hydraulic gradient Thus safe creep length L= CH Safe against Uplift pressure; let h= Uplift pressure Uplift pressure = wh Downad forces = t w G Hence Equating h=tG h-t=t(G-1) hence t=h/(G-1) Providing factor t = 4/3 h/(G-1)
Blighs made no distinction between horizontal and vertical creep Blighs method hold goods so long as the horizontal distance between the pile lines is greater than twice their depth. Bligh did not explain the idea of exit gradient. Blighs makes no distinction between the outer and inner faces of sheet piles or the intermediate sheet pile. Loss of head does not take place in the same proportion as creep length.
HEAD REGULATOR
Regulate the supplies of the off taking channel is called Head Regulator. Parent channel is regulated by Cross regulator. The distributaries head regulator is provided at the head of the distributaries and controls the supply entering the distributaries. A link between parent channel & distributing channel is done by Head regulator.
Cross Regulator : It is provided on the main canal at the downstream of the off take to head up the water level and to enable the offtaking channel to draw the required supply. Functions of distributary Head regulator 1. They regulate or control the supplies to the off taking channel 2. They serve as a meter for measuring the discharge entering 3. They control silt entry in the off taking canal 4. They help in shutting off the supplies when not needed in the offtaking canal
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The effective regulation of the whole canal system can be done with help of cross regulator. During the periods of low discharges in the parent channel cross regulator raises water level of the U/s and feeds the offtake channel in rotation It helps in closing the supply to the D/s of the parent channels for the purpose of repairs Bridges & communications works can be combined with it.
5. Earthquake Zone : If the dam is so situated in an earthquake zone, its design must include the earthquake forces. Its safety should be ensured against increased stress induced by an earthquake of worst intensity. The type of structures best suited to resist earthquake shocks without danger are earthen dams and concrete gravity dams. 6. Height of the dam: Earthen dams are usually not provided for heights more than 30 m or so. Hence for greater heights, gravity dams are generally preferred. 7. Other considerations : Various other factors such as life of the dam the width of the road way to be provided over the dam problem of the skilled labour legal and aesthetic point must also considered befor final decision taken,
Ridge canal or water shed canal is aligned along a watershed and runs for most of its length on a watershed. When a channel is on the watershed it can command areas on both banks and so a large area can be brought under cultivation. Contour canal : A channel aligned nearly parallel to the contours of the country is called a contour canal. Side slope canal : It is channel aligned roughly at right angles to the contours of the country and is neither on the water shed nor in the valley. Such channel would be roughly parallel to the natural drainage of the country and hence does not intercept any cross drainage. However it has very steep bed slope since the direction of the steepest slope of the ground is at right angles to the contours of the country.
Hydropower plants may be classified on the basis of operating head Low head scheme (< 15 m ) Medium head scheme ( 15 m to 60 m) High head scheme ( > 60 m)
Runoff river plants : Utilise minimum flow in river having no appreciable pondage on its upstream A weir or barrgae is constructed to raise level of water Suitable for only on a perennial river having sufficient dry weather flow It has very limited storage so can be used to meet hourly fluctuations of load. When available discharge is more it can be stored and can be used during peak hours E.g Kotla power house in Nangal hydel plant
Storage plants: It essentially have upstream storage reservoir of sufficient size so as to permit sufficient storage from the monsoon to dry weather season so as to develop a firm flow substantially more than the minimum natural flow. Dams are constructed across the river and power house located at the foot of the dam When the power house is located near the dam as is generally in the low head installations ; it is called concentrated fall When the water is carried to the power house at considerable distance through a canal ,tunnel or penstock it is called Divided fall development
Pumped storage plant: It generates power during peak hours During off peak hours water is pumped back from tail water pool to head tower Pumps run by some secondary power primarily meant for assisting an existing thermal plant or some other hydel plant During peak hours water flows from the reservoir to the turbine during off peak hours the excess power available from other plant is utilised for pumping water from tail pool to head pool.
Tidal plant Works on the principle that rise in sea water during high tide period and fall during the low ebb period. Water rises and fall twice a day,each fall cycle occupying about 12 hrs and 25 minutes. Difference between high and low tide is utilised to generate power. This is accomplished by constructing basin seperated from ocean by a partition wall and installing turbines in opening through this wall. Water passes from the ocean to the basin during high tides, and thus running the turbines and generating electric power. During low tide, the water from the basin runs back to ocean which can be utilised to generate electric power, provided special turbines which can generate power for either direction of flow are installed. Rance power in france is an example
Load factor is defined as ratio of the average load over a certain period of time to the peak load during the same period. Load factor = Average load over a certain period Peak load during that period.
Annual load factor = Total yearly electrical units(kWh) produced Max power demand in kW x 365 x 24
Capacity factor or Plant factor : It may be defined as the ratio of average output for a given period of time to the plant capacity.
Capacity factor=Average load (Over a given period of time) Plant capacity Utilisation factor = Water actually utilised for power station Water available in the river U.F = Max. power utilised Max.power available.
includes a diversion structure, a conduit (penstock) to carry water to the turbines, turbines and governing mechanisms, generators, control and switching apparatus, housing for the equipment, transformers and transmission lines to distribution centres. In addition to these major components trash racks at the entrance to penstock, canal and penstock gates a foreway a surge tank and other appurtenances may be required.
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The major components of a hydroelectric scheme are described below : The foreway Intake structure Penstock Surge tank or Surge chamber. Hydraulic turbines. The power house The Draft tube The tail race.