FreePDFc

opy
Pr
i
nt
edc
opyoft
hi
sbooki
savai
l
abl
eat
At
henaBooks
,
Bhubanes
war
,
Odi
s
ha
+919437323152

fK]e
_eeK iR^gk Ra^]ee @]d^

id Kce aM

G[^ aKi, ba^ge

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

Printed and Published by Athena Books

Gouri Nagar, Bhubaneswar-2
Cel l:+9 1943 7323 152
Email: rkdas.athena@gmail.com
1st Edition
2012 Sanjaya Kumar Bag

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or

reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photo
copying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the author.
MARC 21 Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Cataloguer: Abhay Kuamr Sahu

02 0
08 2
10 0
24 5

#
0
1
1

#
4
#
0

$a
$a
$a
$a

26 0
30 0
50 0
54 6
65 0
65 0
65 0
65 0

#
#
#
#
1
1
1
1

#
#
#
#
0
4
4
4

$b
$a
$a
$a
$a
$a
$a
$a

9789980824208 $c ` 200.00
398 $b BAG $2 23
Bag, Sanjaya Kumar $d 1976Lokadhara: $b Paramparika Sarjanasla Jibanadharara
Adhyayana / $c Sanjaya Kumar Bag
Bhubaneswar: $b Athena Books, $c 2012
192 p.; $c 20 cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Text in Odia
Folklore $x Study and teaching
Folklore $x Performance
Folklore $x Theory
Folklore $x Fieldwork
for comments, and academic discussion :
+ 9 1 9 4 3 8 1 8 3 7 3 8 / sa n j a ya kum a rb a g@ gma il.c o m

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

_Kg ie Ga ^edY ieu,

~ju \M\g^ I _eY cZ fK]e @]d^ _A
CjZ KeQ...

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

i^d fK]e MahYK @^]^ Kf \L~G

~ fK Kjf i]eYZ Mc, @\ai Ga @^^Z
i\dK j aSG ij_e, ic^ue Ra^gk, _a_aY,
^PMZ I cLK ijZK j fK C_\^ bae MjY
Ke~A[G D^ag gZKe _ee @RZK ee c]
fK]e iKe Gj_e GK ]eY [f Za, \N \Xgj
ahe @]d^e fK]ee ime, _eee @a]eY
Ga _e ahY _K d e @^g k^e a_K _ea^
\L\AQ iZ fK]e, ^PMZ, _a_aY Z[ cLK
ijZ c]e icZ ^j ij_e, fK]ee Kak Mc
Ra^ I @\aic^ue _eeK @\^_\^e @]d^
Ke~A_ea, Gj a GK _eZ^ ]eY fK]ee _eie
a_K, Ga Gje aja] @dc @Q K, @ce i^d
fK]ee @]d^ I MahY D^ag gZKe _[ce
[a @RZK @a]eYe @MK aX_e^j Kjf @Zq
ja^j Gia @baK __e eL fK]e Ga Gje
ab^ @dc iKe Gj _Ke @fP^ Ke~AQ Gj
aZZ fK]e @]d^e HZjiK aKgKc C_e
il_e @fP^ Kea ijZ lZK~ a C_\^ iMj
Ga fK]e @^gk^e KZU MeZ_ \M C_e c]
@fP^ Ke~AQ
c ~Zak \f aga\kde MahY Ke[f
,
iZak ce \M\gK _`ie _Kg _^dK cZ
fK]e KY Ga fK C_\^ Z[ Zje ab^ @dc
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

C_e, ZK\MMWK iKe @^K _iwe, @^K [e

@aMZ KeQ @R Gj _Ke _eK^ _Qe Zue ~C
@a\^ @Q ZjK a^cZe ijZ Ke KeQ ij_e,
_`ie LMge cj_Z, _`ie ^edY ij, _`ie
iNcZ cg, _`ie aRd Kce gZ_[, _`ie geZP
e[, _`ie ih Z_
V, @P~ ba^, WKe @ea
_^dK, WKe c^[^[ NWA, WKe cj Kce cg @\
ce Me_Zc c^u _Zl Ga _el Cj _KUe
_Ze @^K ij~ KeQ; @ZGa, icu ce KZmZ
_Ke _ZKke @^K C_\^ _Aae cZ
ij~ Ke[a
fQc^ aM, @Lk ^dK, _ecge c, @Rd
Kce cg, _aZ cj^ \g Ga i]e Kce ij _bZ ce
@Zd Ga @MRc^u c] KZmZ RYCQ a], _aY Kce
]wWcS, ~ga _^, @cd Kce \i @\ cZ ab^
icde fK]e @]d^ iKZ @^K cfa^ M^ \g
a\ge ~MA \AQ, ~j Gj _Ke _ZK
ke aj
ij~ KeQ @ZGa, Gj @aiee ic^u c] ce
KZmZ KZm, f^^ Kce Ga @bd Kce iju _Le
_KUe _Kg^ \dZ zKZ bae ^A[ae G[^
aKi Z[ eRKge \iu c] ce @eK ]^a\
]^a\ RYCQ cj^ Keu ~G, @^K K Ke Ke
_Ke _` ig]^ KeQ ghe, _KU fK]ee
QZ, MahKc^u fK]e Ga fK C_\^ iKe KQ
@a]eY \A_ef, ic^u MahY K~e KZ
C_~Me @if gc i[K jf c^ Kea
id Kce aM

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

fK]e
_eeK iR^gk Ra^]ee @]d^
fK]e /9
fK M / 33
_ee / 51
_eahY /71
fK]e @]d^e AZji /101
fK C_\^ iMj: _Z, _Z, I _Kd /121
fK]ee @^gk^ /137
_K~a\
_eeK-a^cd _RZa\
@az\a\
_eg /153
ijdK M^ Ga _ea @]d^ ^c _K iP /163
@^KcYK / 189

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

fK]e
@^K icde c[ K @_ZZ iZ c^jC^[a @a KYi
_P^ NUYak a @L^ gYf @c Kj[C Gj GK fKK[! a
fK GcZ Kj / Kj[f fK]ee i^d MahYK c] @^gk^
Kf \L~G ~ Mc, @\ai Ga @^^Z i\de Ra^gk,
_a_aY, ^PMZ Z[ Gc^u _Le ck[ a
cLK ijZ j Gje _eiebq
Za, fK]e ^PMZ, _a_aY, Z[ cLK ijZ c]e icZ
^j ij_e, fK]ee Kak Mc Ra^ I @\aic^ue iZK
@]d^ Ke~A_ea, Gj a GK bc ]eY fK]ee _eie a_K Ga
Gje aja] @dc @Q Gj @baK __e eL fK]e I Gje ab^
\M iKe ic^ @fK_Z Keae _P GVe Ke~AQ

`Kfe1 _ebhU _[c 1846 cije CAfdc R^

[ci (William John Thoms)u \e The Athenaeum _ZKK fLZ GK
_Ze popular antiquities a popular literature _Za\ke _aZ
jA[f 2 Za, Gje aj_ae j^e a^ (Henery Bourne)
Antiquities Vulgares (Newcastle: J. White, 1725), [ci _e
(Thomas Perry) Reliques of Ancient English Poetry, 3 vols. (London:
J. Dodsley, 1765), `^ii MR (Francis Grose) The Antiquities of
England and Wales, 6 vols. (London: S. Hooper, 1773-1787), Ga
R^ j\e (Johann Gottfried von Herder) Stimmen der Volker in
Liedern, 2 vols. (Halle a.d.s.: Hendel, 1778-1779) _bZ fKMZ,
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

fKK[ iKZ iKk^MWK _Kg Ke[f Gc^ Zu M^e

Volkslied (folk song), Volksseele (folk soul) Ga Volksglauble (folk
belief ) bk _eb hc^ aaje Ke[ f 3 i ~jjC, [ci
`Kfe _ebh _aZ Kea_e `^g fUeUe iiAU
(1831), `^f GjK @_YA ^A[f Ga _eaKke aU
g
`Kfe iiAU (1878) I @ceK^ `Kfe iiAU
(1888) _bZ MVZ jA Gje a]a
@]d^ _A _bc ^cY
jf iZ icM age ab^ \ge Gje @^gk^ Ga @]d^K
^Z^ bae Kjae _di `ke Folkloristics a fKZ GK
@fP^ZK abM bae \L\AQ
`Kfe a fK]ee @[ jCQ fKue Z[
MUG Me icjK m^, ~j MUG _Xe @C MUG _XK
_eeK bae iieZ jA[G @ZGa, fK]e @]d^e
a fKZe fK GK MeZ_ @a]eY Za, fK]e
MahY icde, fK KY, KjK @c fK bae MjYKea,
KYiaK fK]ee C_\^ bae ^@~A_ea, Gj_e @^K
_g C_e \ \aK _W[G
_Ze fK]e @]d^e _eKKke @[Z D^ag
gZe _[ce fK Kjf ^cgY, Mc*kai, @\c, ^ele,
@\ai, @ib _bZu aS~C[f 4 Ga, GK[ a Kj~C[f ~
am^ I ge aKg Z[ @]^K ibZe aKg ijZ fK]e @]d^
c] ^Re iZ jeAaia 5 K, D^ag gZe \ZdakK
fK]e _ebhe _eie a_K ja iwiw fKK ^@
_bc e \LMf @f^ Wi Kjf fK @[ ~KYi MUG
\k a M ~ju bZe GK ia^c i]eYZ [a 6 Gj ia^c
i]eYZ KQ a jA_e, ~cZ
KYi GK aMZ i]eYZ,
a jA_e bh, RZ K ]c Za, M a \ke ia^c i]eYZ
~ja jC^ KjK, MeZ_
\MU jCQ iq Me GK _ee
[a, ~jK ic^ Zba ^Re af Kj_e[a; ~j Zu
@^c^uVe Z af _ePZ _\^ Ke_e[a Z\e, ~\I
10

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

MUG \k a M MV^ _A @Z Kce \ARY i\i @agK, Z[_

i]eYZ \k a M Kjf @^K fKu icjeK j aSA[G
MUG \k a Me RY i\i @^ RY i\iu ahde jGZ mZ
^[A_e K, Me _ee iKe i mZ [@, ~jK Zu
iq Me i\i bae Z _ePZ
_\^ Ke[G @ZGa, fKe
Gj im @^ie, MUG M bae @c MUG _eaeV icM
\gK c] MjY Ke_ea Gj @[e @c @ceK^ fK]e
(American folklore), aUg fK]e (British folklore), beZd
fK]e (Indian folklore)... bae ~KYi GK \gK GK
fK M e_ ^A @]d^ Ke_ea ij_e, _ZK
_eaee c] fK]e @Q _ZK _eae _[c KCV @if,
K_e _eae i_^ jf, _eaee _a_ehc^u _eeKZ K_e
@]^ c] _eaee @^ i\iu _Le _e\, _eae i\ic^u
c]e @\^_\^ jC[a C_L^ (anecdote), K\, _g (lingo),
PUKf (jokes)7 _bZK fK]ee C_\^ bae ^@~A_e
Gj aZZ, _eaee _ZK i\iu Ra^e ab^ NUY iKZ
aqMZ @L^ (personal narratives)K c] fK C_\^ bae MjY
Ke~A_ea 8
\g, _eae b^ bMkK-iZK \e c] fK
Me aMKeY Ke~A_e, ~cZ
KYi GK @*k, eR, ije,
Z[ Mc Gj_e ~KYi ^
a, _RZ, Z[ R^MK c] @c
@c @]d^e _eieK @Y_ea, C\jeYe_ Ka fK]e,
KKe fK]e, Wc fK]e, K fK]e, KeY fK]e,
_e_ fK]e, Ki (a\kd, cja\kd, aga\kd
_eie) fK]e, ^@Zf fK]e, Rwf@ (a^*kc^ue
^dcZ RwfK RaK^a j ^c ~C[a fK) fK]e Gbk
@^K C\jeY \@~A_e, KeY _ZK Me fK]e @Q
@ag Gj iZ ~, i^d fK]ee MahKc^ fKlZe
Gj _e a _e i e iK e KYi @]d^ Kea e _ P
Ke^j Za, _ZK Me ~ @L^ (story), C_L^,
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

11

K\, QU (pun), XM (riddles), _g, PUKf @Q Zj @Ke

Ke~A^_e 9 c C}k aga\kde IW@ abMe iZKe
gYe @]d^ Ke[a icde _`iec^u KKe K[Z jC[a
GK PUK f gYaK _A[f, ~jK GVe Ki fK]ee GK
C_\^ bae C\jeYe_ CfL Ke~A_e
@i< _`ie, @iiGU _`ie, Ga _`ie
c]e _[K KY?
@i < _`ie iG, ~G Zue KfR ake
^U@Y _X @iiGU _`ie, ~G Z^ PeU aje U_@ Y
_X Ga, ~G KYi aj _X ^j K Kie _X ^j;
Lf M_ ce Pf~@, iG jf _`ie
Gj PUK fe GK _Kee e_ (version) c] KQ\^ Zk
if_e Ga aj_e aga\kd Kie gYaK _A[f
@i< _`ie, @iiGU _`ie Ga _`ie
KjK Kj~G?
@i< _`ie iG, ~G _VK _X, aSaK P
Ke KQ aSAaK P Ke @iiGU _`ie, ~G _VK
_X aSaK P ^Ke aSAaK Pf@i Ga, ~G aSa
Z \ee K[ _VK @\ ^_X aSAaK cW@i... @C,
KC _e KY @Q iia a^ KeKe cUcU aj fL,
iG jf _`ie
@^e_ bae, aj_ee cjeR KP MR_Z bhR
cja\kd Kie Wqec^u _Le bf _i<, aU e_U,
cM bk KQ ajaajZ g (buzz word) gYaK _AQ, ~jK @c
ic^u _eeK @\^_\^ bae MjY Ke_ea Z[ ic^ue
fK]e Kj_ea 10 @ZGa, ~Zak _eag _eiZ
\e
^Z^
Me i jA[G, iZak ^Z^ fK]e c] i jA[G
C\jeYe_ gd^ Z[ am^e aK g `ke ~C ^Z^
Kc_eie R^fb KeQ, iA ^Z^ Kc _eieMWK c] ^Z^
fK]e i KeQ; ~_e KUe fK]e (folklore of
12

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

computer),11 ekeW fK]e (folklore of railroad)12 KUeK

KKe GK i^d EX KcZ i jAQ Zje C\jeY c] G

_iwe \a
^aew_e aie RY i^d ~aKu ijZ c V@
jA[aak Zu caAf `^e GK Kf @if Ga
K[a _iwe i Kjf, iG Z cZ iKk We \LA
K@W ~AQ ~ ~AQ, c KY Kea?
c jVZ aS_e^[f, We \LAa c^ KY?
iAV i Kjf, KUe ~cZ jw KeMf We (sand
clock-wait cursor) \LG, @C @^ KQ Kc KejG^j;
icZ, G _fU a cZ iKk @ia @ia Kj jw Ke
eL\AQ ZK @_l KeKe c ^ K@W ~A_eQ, ^ KQ
Ke_eQ 13
IWge @^K Mc*ke @i^ _ia^e iLe ek UKU
(KUeKZ UKU @ia _ae ck[a UKU) \LA\f gN _ia
jA[G af GK agi @Q ekMW _Pk^ K_e fK Ra^K
_baZ KeQ Ga fK]e i KeQ , Gj agiU Zje GK
C\jeY ij_e, Kkj Rfe Kf Mce fK _Ve eK
_gf ek ]eY ^KUi U`K L<e eK fM[a @MK jfK
bae Nha \L~G G_e Kea\e eK VK jG, Gbk GK
agi c] ic^u bZe @Q ic^ _Kee agi c c]_\ge
eZfc Rfe e^LW, K^Ii, ~Ie _bZ ek_[ ^KUa
Mce fKc^u _Le a \LaK _AQ @ZGa, fKe @[
Kak @ile K Mc Z[ @^^Z @*ke aiai Ke[a fK
K @\ai a ab^ _eeK a]e fK ^j, ae ije,
g*k, @]^K ahdK Kcii^; ia_e ic KcRa^, ic
RZ I icRK Me fK fK _eiebq
fK]e iaak _eZ^, @_ZZ c[ a K\ckK
ja c] Ree^j fK]ee MahKc^ iZ, @\c _e
_ebhK C_l Ke[, KeY Gje @[ fK]eU c[ Ga
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

13

_eZ^ C\jeYe_ @c eR_ae _W_V, ^@LAe ^@

LA[C @c ~Z icde ee afA \Lf _QK _j `e
@i[C _eaee Kje cZ jf ga\j _e aKU
u \e
_\ _Z MjY Ke[C ij_e, ai aiPK jf VKeY fMQ
Kj a i_ \g^e ahRke el_Aa _A _dZ PK ^Ke
_eeK C_Pe Ke[C Gia _eZ^ a @_ZZ c[ ^j Gj
@ce agi a _ee @C, Gj _eeKZ jCQ fK]e, ~j
@ZZe iZKKk ~G @c bZe _eeK bae Pk @iQ 14
fK]e Cyw Kk (elite art) a @^^K iZ (official
culture) ^j ab^ ieKe, aieKe @^^c^ue gl
Ke~C[a iZ a Kk fK]e ^j C\jeYe_ IWg ^Z
Gje _glY Ga _eahY @^^K bae j jA[G a^ @^^K
_glYe Gj gl Kea ia^j @ZGa, IWg ^Z IWge GK
iZ K _eP d jf a GjK IW@ fK]e bae MjY
Ke~A^_e 15 ij_e, R^_d iZ (popular culture) c]
fK]e ^j ~\I, Cyw Kk @_l R^_d iZe fK]ee
KQ @]K ag [G R^_d iZ, Cyw iZ _e @^^K
jA^_e, Ga Gje ajk _ie [A_e; Za, i]eYZ GK
^ icdic _e Gj ^Re @a\^ jeAai R^_d iZ GK
^
M\e _Z ja ijZ eWI, \e\g^, A<e^U _bZ
MYc]c Z[ @^ aPK-\g c]c (audio-video channel)e
ij~Me _PeZ Z[ _ieZ jA[G C\jeYe_, iZ aRee
ck[ a @^K if_e MZ K[ ^@~C Gj MZMWK @c KY
fK MZ bae MjY Ke_ea? GiaK fK]ee C_\^ bae
~ MjY Ke~A_e^, Gj ^ij KeY, if_e MZ ^ce
~j aRee C_f, Zj _c IWge K[Z bhe ePZ I ab^
a]e KkKec^u \e M^ Ke~A[a MZ, ~j aaidK
iic^u\e _Z; G[e KYi _eeKZ ^j 16
Gj _iwe @C GK _g c^K @i[G ~, iZ IWge
ab^ Rfe @dR^ Ke~C[a fK cja KY fK Ca
14

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

(folk festival)? Gj Cae _eahY Ke~C[a MZ, ^Z, ~jK

fK MZ, fK ^Z Kj~CQ, Zj KY fK]ee _KZ e_?

Gj fK cjac^ue _eahZ jC[a fK ^Z a fK
MZ KY _eeK? Gj _eahYe @gMjY Ke[a KkKec^
KY _eeK bae, a^ _glYe GjK gl KeQ? ~\, Ce
^ jGZa, @c GjK fK]ee _KZ _eahY Kj_ea
^j 17 @ZGa, fK]e Kjf MUG Me @^_PeK,
@Y@^ ^K m^, ~j iq Me i\i ic^ue \ ^^
Ra^P~ bZe _eeK bae gl Ke[; ~j _eeK
bae RYKVe @C RYK _LK Z[ MUG _Xe @C MUG
_XK iieZ jA[G 18
Cyw iZ , fK_ d i Z Ga fK]e c]e
akak _[K lY jA~G I iq C_\^U K_e GK fK
C_\^e bc i Ke[ G i iKe GVe KQ @fK_Z
Ke~A_e @fP^K Kea _A @c _c IWge
@be-Mc*kc^ue @^Z jC[a KKU Lke _eahYK
Gj _iwe ^A_ea Gj @*ke (IWge @^^ @beMc*ke c] Gj \LaK ck[G) KKU Lk GcZ GK _eiee
Ga G_e bae _eahY Ke~G ~ GjK GK fKKW bae
^ae KYi \] _Kg Ke~A^_e @ag, Gj _eahYK
@c KKU a Kj_ea ^j (?) ~\I, _eahYKec^ GjK
KKU bae j _ePZ Ke GA _eahYe Lkk ^aP^
fKKWe Lkk ^aP^ ijZ ic^ KW _eahY _A KKU
Lk bk GK ^ iLK Lkku @_l Ke~G^j Lkk
@\ka\k c] @^die Ke~A[G C_KeY a i^df Ga
^cZ (i^df ~KYi jfK KVe aU @KZe GK C_KeY,
@^K icde Re, QK^ Z@e af) fKKWe _eahY ~cZ
icd @bae _e\^ _A iMZ eL~G Ga ij Ve _ea
_e ahY @e Ke~A_e; K KUK a ij_ e _e ahY
Ke~A[G ij_e, RY GKK a ~Wj^ Lkk @gMjY
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

15

KeaK Pjf ZjK _ Lkk bae a ^@~A[G, ~cZ

fKKWe jG ia_e, Lkkc^ \k abR^e a fKKWe
\kabR^ _KdK @^ieY Ke[ Z[_, GjK fKKW bae
@c MjY Ke_ea^j KeY, Gj ijZ @ce i^d icRK
_ePZ (social identity) RWZ ^j a Gj @ce _ee ijZ iq
^j Ga, Gj MUG M\e ia jC[f c], _eeKc
MUG _Xe @C MUG _XK ~A[a bk c^jG ^j
fK C_\^e i^d icRK _ePZ _iwe @C GK
C\jeY \@~A_e, Zj jf gKae aZ a ih c@
aZ ih c@ _KZe GK\ Ce beZ Ga ^_ke fK
_eee _RZ jA @i[f K, _ea icde 1975 cije
Rd ih c@ i^c cqfb Kf_e Gj aZ icM beZe _kZ
jaK fMf 19 ac^ IWge @be-Mc*ke c] cjk Ga
Kgec^ Gj aZ _k^Kea \L~CQ G_eK, @^K i^e
cjkc^u gKae \^ ih c@ Kki c] @iQ GK\ Ce
beZe fK\a GK R^_d iZ (popular culture) c] \A
iieZ jA[f a @ce i^d ]cd agi ijZ RWZ jA
ej _ e Q Z[_ , ih c@K fK\a bae M j Y
Ke~A^_e (?) KeY, Gje iieY _eeK ^j, Gj GK
R^_ d i Z \A i i e Z jAQ Z[ GK i Z K
iiM(fK]eZK iiM ^j)e `kgZ Gj aZZ, Gje agh
_R^-_V (fixed ritual-text) c] aKgZ jAQ (~j fKK[
@_l i^c KjYK @]K @]e KeQ) Gj _Ve _Kee
e_ a b^ e_ (variant)20 \LaK ck^j, Ga GVe \a ~,
fK\a\au eZ^Z ^c
KYi f_a
_V ^[G Za,
ih c@ Kki fMaK GK fK C_\^ bae MjY Keae
KYi \^j
fK C_\^e _Kee e_ Z[ b^ e_K MeZ \a
_iwe RY fK]ee MahK Rmi Ke_ e ~, fK
^UKMWKe c] (C\jeYe_, Mc*kc^ue _eahZ jC[a
16

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

ecfk, beZ fk, fl i@w, eaY a], iZ Pe, \^U _bZ)

f_a KjY [G, Z[_ @c ZjK KjK fK^UK bae
^A[C? Cee Gj Kj~A_e ~, Gj ^UKMWKe _eahYe
_bc e ^d GK fLZ _V @Q, K MUG _VK ^A @c \L[a
ic ^UK _eahY jG^j G_eK, ic^ ahda a ic^ KjYK
^A _eahZ jC[a ^UKe a @fM @fM @L^ gYaK ck[G
Z[ Gje b^b^ i~R^ a _Kee e_ Ga b^ e_ \LaK
ck Gj ^UKMWK RYRY ^UMeu
\e ^gZ c] Za,
Gj ^UMeu ^gK ^Kj RY _eeK i@^ a _ee ajK
(tradition bearer) Kja @]K ~q~q KeY, i ^Ze_ KYi
^UK GKWce @^^K ba _glY fb Ke^[ _Y, ia_e
_eahYe c] @c ab^ _eeKZ fl Ke[C
fK C_\^e Gjia C\jeY Ga @dcK @]eKe @ce
@a]eYK ijR Kea _A @c GVe fK C_\^e KQ ag
K
Gj_e CfL Ke_ea
1. Gje e_ Ga iieY _eeK, @Y@^^K, Ga
@^_PeK (it is non-official, non-institutional in form and
transmission)
2. Gj Ka, KZak, KCV, KG i KeQ Zj ^
bae Kj~A^_e (it is usually anonymous) ~\a, KYi aq
agh GjK i Ke[a Za, icd Ga _iwKc Gje a_K
iieY ja ijZ aqiR^K MY Keie[a

3. GjK iZKee _Kg Ke~A_e[a
(it tends to became
formularized)
4. Gje _Kee e_ Z[ b^ e_ [a (it exists in different
variant and version)
5. iq fK Me Gje iZK _Pk^ [a (it is
alivenot archaic, or historical)
6. Gj iq fK Me _ePZ
e _e_KgK jA[a
(it could be identified by the community as their identity) 21
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

17

akak ab^ R^_d PeZ c] fK PeZe _eYZ

ja \L~G @\Ke Ga M u ^A ie beZe
Mc*kc^ue aj @L^, C_L^ gYaK ck[G 22lZ @]d^
icde ieMW, afwe I Kkj Rfe Mc*k Ga @\ai
ajk @*ke Mu ^A @^K KjY c gYaK _AQ, G_eK c
a_ c] Mu ^A KcZ ab^ @L^, C_L^ gY[f iia
Kja _fak gYQ C\jeYe_, GVe GK C_L^ @aZeY
Ke~A_e
M] Me ieKeK bMafM a\ Keef jZe
fM M] K Me ieKe AU MU aW a_\@G a@! af
baef @e M] K L^b^
Ke PGeKZ
LRa
f ef ieKe
af[f A aX^ ia, AZe fM @ce @GL ^ ^\ ^A K
_U _e^^A AZK K^Z Ke bZe, Rf be\f
@e S^SU ^A j^ i[e fM i \^eGZ MUK Ke
LRa
if... cZeK M] Me ieKeK ]e ^A \C[A ...
@Le^ Me ieKe aW K MU \^ M] K ]ef, @e
Rf ^ be\f Me ieKe baf Aj\ @e Scf ^A
j^! cZe @eKe \^ \LfafK M] MU M^ ai _GP
KeQ^ _fi , Me ieKe \Lf @e iic Mf, G a@! M] K
Z @c Rf ^ be[f! ! A ajef K^Z Ke? i^ `e
M] K ^ Rf bef `e @eKe \^ \Lf afK M]
MU Me _GP ^ jRe `e ^Ke bef... G^Z Me ieKe
^ be[ @e M] aje M K M _GP jRe jC[@^ ...G^Z
\^e KZ Rf ^Ke be\Lf, @e ghK [K Mf! Me
ieKe aff, ^Ae a@ A gf M] K @e _e^AjG
^!
...A[e @cK bMaK GK _Wa !! @e Ze \gK bMMf
[M Me ieKeK \ge aje Kea _A P Ke[ f
iA[ _A Me ieKe Mu GA MU aW a_\e a_!
af ba[ f ieKe Kj[ f GA aX j ia, Gje _A @c
@Le ^\ ^j K _Ue _Y ^j GjK KYi _Ke Rf
18

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

bZe b Ke\f @C KYi Scf eja ^j iA[_A

\^eZ GKKe LR aif ...K, M Me ieKeu ]e
\C^[f ...ghe Me ieKe aW Ke \^ Mu
]ef, @C Rf bZe ^A b Ke\f Me ieKe
baf GA^ @C Scf ^j K, Z _e\^ \LfakK
M MU Me ai ib KeQ _fi , Me ieKe \L Ka
jAMf, @e aa, @c Z Mu Rf bZe b Ke[f

AG ajef K_e? Ga, _Y[ e Rf bZe ^A b Kf
GcZ Me ieKe Mu ^A b Ke[ I M Rfe aje
MK M ib icZ e jRe jA~C[@ ...GcZ KZ [e
Rf bZe Mu ^A b KeKe a`k ja _e Me
ieKe Kjf, ^e aa Mu @C _eja ^j !...G[e
@cK j a\d ^aK _Wa Ga, ^R \gK PfMf ]
lZ @]d^ icde c ^@_W @*ke Mc*kc^ue gY[ a
M iKZ @^ GK C_L^e Mu aU
g
ieKe \ \aK _di
Ke K_e a`k jA[f I ghe \g QW Pf~a
K a] jA[f
i^d R^c^ie Zje iR^gk Ga K^K fKPZ \L
Me ieKe @e M]e fXA fMef, M] MeK
\g^ bMaK fwU LP ZGe j ef, iaK ZGe
Keef AZe fM Me ieKe c^c^ M]K ^eef
ChZ jef, aXK beKe Kf_^ L\\c Z^K
K^Z Kea \Lc gf! i^ Me ieKe _fi fMf
@e LR aif Ne Ne, M M, Lf Lf PeaeZK L^L^
Ke LRaff cZeK, M]K \L ^A _Gae i Z
A^ \Lf i^ cd Me ieKe @KfMWc jMf, Ze
a\ jRMf @Le^ MU \^ M]K Me ieKe ]ef GK
]ef cZeK, Kf_^ ^A ^Ke aGf gf aXK aU
_eM \@e Me i_jc^ M]K aU _eM \aK ia
ZGe Kf @e aW Me ijae @GL ic^ aU _eM
\f i\^ Me ieKe aGf, A[e `af a@!
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

19

gfaX @cK aiA CVA ^A \Cef!! cZe, AZe

\^KZ Mf CZe Me ieKe \Lf M] `e A M i M
Ke af Q^ `e[e Me ieKe aW Kfaf @e
je^jZGe jKe ]ef, @e baf AZK Kf_^ GK
_VaK _Wa, ^Ajf _e^A j @e Kf_^ _Vf
cZeK, M]K i^ a bM @iaK QG^NWK ^A fMf
Me ieKe baf, A gf aWUGe, AZK @c @e ^A
_e^ !! @e A \g QW Ze \gK bMMf... [Me
ieKe @C Mu fXA fM[f M Me ieKeK \ge
aje Kea_A icu _Z
Ke[ f iA[_A Me ieKe
Mu LR[f baba Li jC[f ~, aXK Kk_Y
_VA\a Z_e \La i KY Kea? iAV Me
ieKe _fi fMA Mu LRaif NeNe, MM, ijij,
Pe@W L^b^ Ke LRf K, Mu ]e _ef^j
i Z GAV \Lf iAV cd Me ieKeue a jRMf
ghe \^ Me ieKe Mu ]ef j ]ef Me
i_jc^ Mu aU _eM23 \aK _Z Kf Ga,
aW Me ijae @L ice Zu aU _eM \@Mf
i\^ Me ieKe baf, ac^ @c @ece eja!
gkaX @cK g e ^gi ceaK \C^[f !! K,
KQ\
^_e Me ieKe \Lf M _Y MK M NeafQ
_Y[e, Me ieKe aW jAeY jA Mu ]ef @C
baf, G[e Gju Kk_Y _VA \a, ^jf cKaf
Kea ia^j @C Kk_Y _VAf Za, iAV a
`e @iaK Mu UKG jf icd fMf ^j Me
ieKe baf, AG Z aW cjccd fK, Gju @C _ea
ia ^j! Ga, GA \g QW Zue \gK PfMf ]
Kak Mc*ke ^j, G_eK ije*ke, cja\kd,
aga
\kd Kie c] M, @\Ke bk @^K fK_d PeZ,
@b^Z, R^^Zu ^A ^^ C_L^, ^h PUKf (off-colour
20

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

gY a K c k [ G 24 @ZGa,GK _ i we P U K f Z[
C_L^c^ue Gj fK_d PeZ MWK fK @L^e PeZ
jA_W, Ga Gj ic^ C_L^ a ic^ ahd ab^ icde, ab^
bae _eahZ ja \L~G Gia @fP^ Keae KeY
jf R^_d iZ a C_\^ akak fK C_\^e bc
i Ke[G Ga, @^K icde R^_d iZe PeZMWK fK
PeZ (folk character) bae @aZ jA[, `kZ \AU iZ
bZe [a iceL lY jA_W[G ikaghe, _KZ fK
C_\^ PjU Ga @]d^ Keae abc jae ia^ c] [G
fKZ a fK]ee @]d^e fK a M Ga
_ee @Z MeZ_ _ee Kjf MUG icd L c]e
@ZZe ac^ ~G Pf@i[a ^eaz^ _Kd, ~CV _eag
Ga _eiZ ijZ Zk\A ckKZ elKea ijZ _ea^ c]
\L\A[G fK]ee _ee Kjf RWZ (static) K
@_ea^dZK aSG^j, ae Gj @ZZe GK ]e, ~j iZK
icRe c] _KdeZ Ga _PkZ ij_e, fK]e KYi
_Ke @^_c (sui generis) ^j iaZ Gje _Kee e_ ,
b^ e_ \MPe jA[G, ~j ia\ iq Me icRK
_bcK @]e Ke[G Gj @]e bMkK, bhK, _RZK
jA_e K aMZ, fwMZ c] jA_e @ZGa, MK
QW _ee a fK]e ia^j KeY, GK ^ m^Kgk
RYKVe @C RYK _LK _eeK bae iieZ jf j Zj
fK]e bae _eMYZ jA[G
fK]ee C_\^MWK c] Kak ^Z, MZ, ^UK,
KjY, _a_aY, icRK eZ^Z bZe icZ ^j _eeK
L\_d, Ra^~_^ gk, Lk KieZ, \a\a, @kue, @Pe
aajeV SW, SU; @L^, C_L^V ciY, K^ Z@e Ga
K^fL (graffiti) ~G iaKQ jCQ fK]ee C_\^ i^d
fK]e MahYe i]eYZ aPK fK C_\^K j fK]ee
C_\^ bae MjYKea \L~G Za, i^d fK]e
joke)

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

21

MahYe ^j, @RZK ee c] Gj ]eY [f 25 K, fK]e

aPK C_\^ bZe icZ ^j a iaak cLK bae iieZ
jG^j fKKWe RY Lkk KW Kgk @^ Lkku _eahY
_KdK \LK j gl Ke[ ij_e, RY _eahYKe @^ RYu
_eahYe j fK^Z gl Keae @aie _A[ @^e_ bae,
@^ ic ^a PK fK]e (non-verbal folklore) ~[ fK
^UK, fK Kk, _eeK gKc, ab^ _Kee icRK @^^ bk
@^K fK]eK cLK _ee Kj~A_ea ^j Gj aZZ
fK]ee @^K fLZ e_ @Q, ~jK @fL fK]e (written
folklore) bae fKZa\c^ aMKeY Ke, C\jeYe_
gvk-_Z (chain letters), K^fL, gPkd @fL (latrinalia), il
a (sms), _^ _\ (fly-leaf rhymes), gvk-a\ZK _Z (chainemail) AZ\ 26 G _e_le fK C_\^MWK @c @fP^e
ia] \e _*U abMe abq Ke_ea, ~[
1. aPK fK]e (verbal folklore),
2. _[^e_ fK]e (customary folklore),
3. _\g^gk fK]e (performative folklore),
4. bZK fK]e (material folklore) Ga
5. @fL fK]e
@fL fK]e iKe Gj _ae C\jeY \@~AQ
aPK fK]e bae c[, fKK[, fKMZ, fKKa, Ga
fKCq (_a\ _aP^, XMXck, QU-\dK, EX, PUKf, _g,
C_L^, il ge_ (mnemonic) C\jeYe_aN^ij^f)
_bZK c] Gje _eiebq Ke~A_e ij_e, _a_aY,
icRK eZ^Z, R^-cZ-aaj Kc (rites of passage) , ab^
\a\aZ Ga _KZ_R Z[ \^^ _eeK Ra^gk _bZK
_[^e_ fK]e bae MjY~A_e _\g^gk fK]e
bae fK^UK, fK^Z, fKKW, fKa\, fKKk,
_eeK i_Z (folk architecture) Ga ab^ _Kee _eeK
g _bZK MjY Ke_ea @^e_ bae, bZK fK]e a
22

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

fK C_KeY (folk artifact) c]e @c \^^ Ra^e aajZ

jC[a ab^ C_KeY, ~[- Mj_KeY, KhlZ C_KeY, ^Z^U C_KeY, iRi{-gwe C_KeY, _eeK KW C_KeY,
Z[ icRK eZ^Ze aajZ jC[a agh C_KeY _bZK
@bq Ke_ea 27
fK C_\^ iKe @fP^ Kfak @cK Gje
KZU \M_Z @aMZ ja @agK _[cZ @c C_\^U
iKe KcZ @aMZ jCQ? Gj @ce \^^ Ra^e K_e
bae RWZ? @c Cyw iZ gl^^c^ue a J_PeK
bae gl Ke[C ij_e, R^_d iZ c] MYc]c \A
@c_LK @i[G K, fK]e @c @ce M c]e RY
@^RYKVe gl Ke[C Gj ijZ @ce ijbMZ, agi, cfa]
Ga _eeKZ RWZ [G; ~j @cK GK Z Me _ePd _\^
Keae ijdK jA[G
fK C_\^e @^ GK MeZ_ \M jf Gj cZ a
@_PkZ (archaic) ]e ^j _eeK bae _X _e _X ]e ~j
iZKKk ~G _PkZ Zj jCQ fK]e @ZGa, GK C_\^K
iZKak fK C_\^ Kj_ea ~Zak Gj _eahZ
jC[a a iq Me Ra^P~e _PkZ [a C\jeYe_
_c IWge KKW fXA _e P fXA a P PXA fXA
GK _eeK KW K, @^K ah jfY Gje KYi _eahY
\LaK ck^j @ZGa, GjK @ce MahY lZe GK fKKW
bae MjY Keae KYi ~[[Z ^j 28 Za, i^d fK]eK
^A iZK icde c] @^K fK KjY iMje i\g M^c^
_Kg _Aa \LaK ckQ K, fKZ \e G_e KjY, fK
MZMWKe iKk^ Ga _Kg^e KYi ~[[Z ^j; Gj cPi
Lk, Lf a@e aZf, Ga aajZ WKUKU iMj Kea bk
K~ iw ic^ 29
fK C_\^e _Kee e_ I b^ e_, ~je CfL
GVe aee Ke~CQ, i iKe GVe KQ @fK_Z
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

23

Ke~A_e KeY, Gj fK]ee GK MeZ

_ @dc, ~j ic
C_\^ _A _~R @ZGa, MUG C_\^e ab^ _Kee e_K
iMj ^Ke Zje GKK _e_Kg (single expression)K @]d^ ^c
MjYKea iVK jA^_e, Ga C_\^Ue @ZK
c] Gj _g
Ke[G KeY, _ZK fK C_\^ GKGK icRK i _ZK
C_\^e icRK lZ ajZ Ga aeZ c] @ZGa, _eeKc
Gj ~Zak _X _e _X ]e iieZ jA[G, Gje b^ e_
Z[ _Kee e_ _Kg _Aae ~[ ia^ [G C\jeYe_
fKKW MW icM _c IWge Gj KW _eahYe _Kee
e_ \LaK ck[G, ~[ ]e^MW ij_e, Gje b^ e_
c] _e\, ~j ieMW
a eZWW bae _ePZ 30 Za,
MUG C_\^e _KeMZ e_ (typical form) ie Kea akak
ijR jA^[G, \ZdZ Gj _KeMZ e_e _[K KZ @]K
jf MUG _Kee e_K b^ e_ ba _eMYZ Kea Zj
c] ie Kea ijR ^j K, ab^ _eag I _eiZe MUG
fK C_\^e b^ e_ ~ eja ^Z Gj @cK Ke KeaK
_Wa @ZGa, fK C_\^e @]d^ icde ~\ @c Gj
_Kee e_ Z[ b^ e_K ^a^j Zjf @]d^ @i
jA ej~ae ia^ @Q
fK C_\^ iKZ @C GK MeZ _ ahd jCQ
fK]ee MahK KYi fK C_\^K ZU~q, @gk a GcZ
jae ^[f, Gj @ibZ G_e ]eY _hY Kea a cZcZ
_\^ Kea fKZ \e KYi _Ke ~[[ ^j KeY, _ZK
fK C_\^ MUG ^ Me @Pe aaje, agi, _[ _ee
Ga ic^u icRK _bcK @]e Ke[G @ZGa, iq Me
eZ^Z, agi, _[ _ee, ag\
K iVK bae ^aS GK ajK
aL (exoteric interpretation) Kea KYi\e CPZ c^
Ke~A^_e Gj KeYe fKZa\c^ C_\^ iKe iq
Me i@^ a _ee ajKc^ue cZcZK MeZ _\^ Ke[
KeY, @ce icRK Ga iZK _bce @^ GK icRK _iwK
24

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

iVK @[ _\^ Kea akak ijR jA^[G @ZGa,

fK]ee RY @fPK baa K[^j ~ _eahYKe
Kak _eahYKe cZ, i Gje ^jZ @[ a GjK ^A KYi
MeZ_ cZcZ \ae ilc ^j ~\ i G_e ba Ga ^RK
j fK C_\^e C_~q aLKe c^Ke Z jf aj_Ke
b c Z K ZK ic Ke a K _W a , Ga iV K @]d^ ia
jA_ea^j
_eghe fK]e, fK, fK C_\^, Ga fKZ
iKe GZK Kj~A_e ~1846 cije G~G @^K
_el ^el ijZ iZ icM age cja\kd, ag a\kd
c^ue Ga GKK bae c] a]a ba @]d^ ja ijZ Gje
^Z^ \M Z[ ajcL @dcMWKe @^gk^ Ke~CQ @ZGa, @ce
i^d fK]e @]d^ c] icZ _eie c]e @a ^ej a_K
ja CPZ
1. i^d MahKc^ `Kfee _ebh bae fK]e, c^aa\,
fKa\, fK~^, fK am^, fKiZ, fKP~ _bZ @^K g
aaje KeQ, G _ae K fK]e gK `Kfee C_~q _ebhK
g bae MjYKe~AQ KeY `Kfe, @[Z `K ~je @[
fKicj a M, Ga fe jCQ ij fKue a iq Me _eeK
m^ (Kak m^ cZ ^j), Z[ ~C m^ _eeK bae iq M c]e
@\^_\^ jA[G @ZGa, fe ge _ebh bae am^, iZ,
~^, P~, Ga a\ @_l ]e gU @_ZZ C_~q c^jG, ~\I Gj
gU c] fee _KZ _ebhK g ^j; jGZ fKa_ (folketymology) ce Gje KYi ic_~daP g [A_e
2. [ci Gj _Z @M 12 ZeLe fL[f Gj _Ze i ^Re _KZ ^c
CfL ^Ke Ambrose Merton bk GK Q\^c aaje Ke[f _Z _ee
j i popular antiquities or popular literature iKe fL[ f ...though
by-the-bye it is more a Lore then a Literature, and would most be aptly
described by a good Saxon compound, Folklore, the Lore of the people

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

25

3. Gj icde _KgZ jA[a ic^ _Kee @^ M^MWK c]e RKa I

Ifjc Mc (Jacob and Wilhem Grimm)u Kindergarund Hausmarchen 2
Vols. (Berlin: Realschulbuchhandlung, 1812-1815), R^ a (Johnn Brand)u
Observations on Popular Antiquities: Chiefly Illustrating the Origin of
our Vulgar Customs, Ceremonies, and Superstitions 2 vols. Arr. And rev.
Henery Ellis (London: R.C. and J. Rivington, 1813), @f^ K^jc (Allen
Cunningham)u Songs: Chiefly in the Rural Language of Scotland (London:
Smith and Davy, 1813), IfUe U (Walter Scott)u The Boarder Antiquities
of England and Scotland 2 Vols. (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme,
and Browne, 1814-1817), Ga Ifdc R^ [ciu Anecdotes and Traditions
(London: Printed for the Camden Society by J. B. Nichols and Son, 1839)

_bZ CfL~M
4. Andrew Lang Zu The Method of Folklore _ae fL ...folklore
is thus led to examine the usage, myths, and ideas of savages, which are still
retained, in rude enough shape, by the European peasantry (1884, 11)
ij_e, i`@ a^ (Charlotte Sophia Burne) c] Zu Handbook of
Folklore M^e fL, ...the generic term under which the traditional
beliefs, customs, stories, songs and sayings current among backward
peoples, or retained by the uncultured classes of more advanced peoples,
are comprehended and included (1914,1-2)

fK]ee i^d MahKu c]e G_e ]eY @^Kge iZK

Kke a akae @Q ab^ cja\kd, aga\kd G_eK Zba
Ke~C[a fK]e iKZ MahY Ga fK]e @fP^ M^MWK
@^]^ Kf Gj jG
5. RR `e (George McClelland Foster) Zu What is Folk Culture? _ae
fL ...folk cultures will disappear in those places where a high degree of
industrialization develops . True folk cultures can hardly be said to exist in
countries like the United States, Canada, England, and Germany, though in
peripheral areas there are perhaps marginal manifestations. It also seems
impossible, in view of the trends, that new folk culture will rise (1953, 171).
6. ...The term folk can refer to any group of people whatsoever who share at
least one common factor. It doesnt matter what the linking factor is it could
be a common occupation, language, or religion but what is important is that
a group formed for whatever reason will have some traditions which it calls
it own (Dundes 1965, 2).
26

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

7. PUKfK GK j g af KQ a\^ IW@e C_l Kea ijZ

[-_eji a [ ge _dM C_e MeZ \@ K, Joke Kjf
~cZ GK e_ (Genre)K aSG ij_e, [-_eji a Zci aSG ^j
@^e_ bae, PUKf g j g jf c] IW@e Gje aaje
^Z^ ^j c ba^_UY ieKe cja\kd Ga C}k aga\kde
Kie Gje _dM @^Kae gYQ IW@ bhe @^ bhe @^K
ge _Pk^K @c Ke KeQ; @ZGa, Gj gK C_l Keae KYi
KeY ^j
8. _eae fK]e iKZ @]d^ ^c Christine Tucker u MahY M^
Family Folklore (n. d.) \a ij_e, Ra^e ab^ NUY iKZ aqMZ
@L^ (personal narratives) iKZ @]d^ _A Sandra K. D. Stahl u
Personal Narrative as Folklore, John A. Robinsonu Personal Narratives
Reconsidered , Ga William Labov I Joshua Waletzkyu Personal
Narrative Analysis : Oral Version of Personal Experience _bZ _a Z[
Sandra K. D. Stahl u Literary Folkloristics and the Personal Narrative
(1989) _K \a
9. All folk groups have folklore and the folklore of such groups provides a
socially sanctioned problems as well as a cherished artistic vehicle for
communicating ethos and world-view(Dundes 1978, 9).

10. Gj iKZK g Ga aKgMWK

e @[ Wqec^u aM
Z Z[ PKMZ
M_^dZK _Kg Keae ia^ [ae Gje ag\ aL Ke~C^j, Z[
~C @i<< _`ieuV GMWK
iMj Ke~AQ Zue ^c _Kg KeaK CPZ
c^Ke^j
11. A<e^U, caAf Ga MYc]c K_e ^@^@ fK C_\^K R^
\AQ a fK C_\^K _baZ KeQ i iKZ
@^K @fP^ _KgZ
Gj _iwe, Joycee Jamesu The Folk Process through New Media, Ga
Veszprm, Mariann Domokosu Folklore and Mobile Communication SMS
and Folklore Text Research _a Ga Trevor J. Blanku i\Z Folklore and
the Internet: Vernacular Expression in a Digital World (2009) M^ \a
12. ekMWe _Pk^ age
iaZ fK]e i KeQ ekeW fK]e
iKZ
@]d^ ^c
Benjamin Albert Botkin Ga Alvin Fay Harlowu i\Z
MahY M^ A Treasury of Railroad Folklore: The Stories, Tall Tales, Traditions,
Ballads, and Songs of the American Railroad Man (1953) \a
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

27

13. Cq PUKfUe GK @gK _eaZ e_ c] c aj_ee cjeR KP

MR_Z bhR cja\kde K~eZ WKe fQc^ aMuVe ^KU @ZZe
gYaK _A[f
14. folklore is not simply the historical behaviors of other cultures;
folklore is alive, developing, and changing in our lifetimes. Every one of us
experiences and shares folklore (Sims and Stephens 2005, 2).
15. The term folklore refers to the knowledge we have about our
world and ourselves that, we dont learn in school or textbooks we
learn folklore from each other. Its the informally learned, unofficial
knowledge we share with our peers, families and other groups we belong
to (Sims and Stephens 2005, 3-4) .
16. fK C_\^e Gbk _eahY Ga C_i_^e ]eK Hans Moser
1962 cije Folklorism a Folklorismus bae @bjZ Ke[f ~j
_ea @^K fKZa\c^u _Le @Mj jA[f (Benedix 1997,
339) GVe CfL~M ~ if_e MZ KYi fKMZe e_

^j _ c IWge ab^ Rfe ab^ RZ I Me MZ @Q, GjK

icM K bae if_e MZ Kj a KYi @[ eL^j Gj Cf L
Keae KeY jf, @^K MahK afwe, Kkj, ieMW @*ke
fKMZM W K iM j Ke if_ e fKMZ bae @fP^ Ke a
\L~CQ
17. fK cjac^ue i]eYZ \L~CQ @^K a]e KkKe
(professional artists) j Gia _eahY KeQ iq fK]e ijZ Kak
aaidK \M aZZ @^K icde _eahYKeu KYi iq ^j Za,
_eeK KkKec^u \e Ke~C[a _eahYK fK C_\^ bae
MjY Keae ZkcZ \]^j K, Gj ~jZ _KZ lZe _eahZ
jC^j, GY GjK Gj _e ahYe iMj Ke @]d^ ^c C_~M
Ke~A_ea ^j
18. Folklore is informally learned, unofficial knowledge about the world,
ourselves, our communities, our beliefs, our cultures, and our traditions,
that is expressed creatively through words, music, customs, actions,
behaviors, and materials. It is also the interactive, dynamic process of
creating, communicating, and performing as we share that knowledge with
other people (Sims and Stephens 2005, 8).
28

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

fK]e iK Z @^ imM W K c] G _ i we @^ ] ^
Ke~A_e
Folklore is a meta-cultural category used to mark certain genres
and practices within modern societies as being not modern. By extension,
the word refers to the study of such materials. More specific definitions
place folklore on the far side of the various epistemological, aesthetic and
technological binary oppositions that distinguish the modern from its
presumptive contraries. Folklore therefore typically evokes both repudiation
and nostalgia (Dorothy 2004, 375).
Although the word folklore is regularly employed in our everyday
speech, its precise definition presents a problem. The term is clearly a
compound made up of folk, implies group of people, who have something
called loreeminent folklorist Alan Dundes attempts to simplify the issues
for the introductory students, folk can refer to any group of people
whatsoever who share one common factor (Oring 1986, 17).
...folklore is a word very much like culture; it represents a tremendous
spectrum of human expression that can be studied in a number of ways and
for a number of regions. Its primary characteristic is that its ingredients seem
too directly from dynamic interaction among human beings in communal
traditional performance rather than though the rigid lines and fossilized
structures of technical instructions or bureaucratized education, or through
the relatively stable of the classical traditions (Tolken 1979, 28-29).
Folklore is the traditional, unofficial non-institutional part of culture
that encompasses all knowledge, understandings, values, attitude, assumes
feeling and beliefes transmitted in traditional forms by word of mouth or by
customary examples (Brunvand 1978, 2).
Folklore is an artistic communication in small group (BenAmos 1971, 13).
19. Jai Santoshi Maa became a runaway, word-of-mouth hit, packing
cinemas in major urban centers and smaller provincial towns. the film
acquired the status of a cult classic, and was regularly revived, especially
for womens matinees on Friday, the day associated with the vrat or ritual fast
and worship of Santoshi Maa; by all accounts, hundreds of thousands and
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

29

perhaps millions of women periodically participated in such worship

(Lutgendorf 2002, 11).
20. ... any iteration of a text is a version. This, if one had ten texts of a
particular proverb; one would have ten version of that proverb.Versions
which depart to a lesser or greater degree from the more typical forms can be
labeled variants. Thus all variants must by definition be versions, but not
all versions are necessarily variants (Thompson 1950, 1154-1155 ).
21. John Harold Brunvand Zu The Study of American Folklore: An
Introduction M^e fK C_\^e _*U ag iKe @fP^ KeQ
(Brunvand 1978, 5) GVe fK C_\^e iZK @^gk^K @]e Ke

a^au KQ agK @gK _ea^ Kea ijZ ^Z^ GK ag iKe

CfL Ke~AQ
22. @\Keu ^A cje @*ke iZ c] @^K fKMZ _eahZ
ja gYaK ck G _iwe Indira Y. Junghareu _a Dr. Ambedkar:
The Hero of the Mahars, Ex-Untouchables of India \a
23. @MKke @[Z eReRW @cke, G_eK aUg gi^Kke c]
\hK \ e_ fKc^ icu iLe aU a Ik@e MW ~C[a
_k-\CW MWA ^@ fMA \C[f
24. A<e^U, A-cf Z[ ^^ _Z_ZKe cf ^ie^, eR^K, cjZ
M, ff _i\ ~\a _bZu ^A @^K PUKf, C_L^ \LaK ck[G;
@ZGa, KYi C\jeY @^agK
25. Properly speaking, folklore is only concerned with the legends, customs,
beliefs, of the folk, of the people, of the classes which have least been altered
by education, which have shared least in progress (Lang 1884, 11).
26. There are numerous written forms of folklore. Examples of folklore,
which are primarily written, include: autograph book verse, automobile
names, fly leaf rhymes (e.g. bookkeepers), latrilania, and traditional letters
(e.g. chain letters). its mode of transmission is a good many aspects of
culture are transmitted in exactly the same way that folklore is (Dundes
1978, 22-23).
Latrilania I Chain Letters iKZ iagh @fP^ _A Wiu
Here I Sit: A Study of American Latrilania, The Kushmaker, The folklore
of Wishing Wells, Herbert Halpertu Chain Letters Ga Robert J. Duncanu
Chain Letters: A Twentieth Century Folk Practice. _bZ _a \a
30

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

27. Gj GK icdK (working) abMKeY cZ fKZe MahKc^

^R^R \KYe fK C_\^MWK ab^ bae aMKeY KeQ a
Ke_ea Za, abMKeY ^j, C_\^ Ga Gje @^gk^ MeZ_
28. A traditional item (whether oral or material or gestural or musical) is
folklore only when it is actually used or performed in its indigenous set of
live contexts (Tolken 1979, 38).

fKKjY a fKMZM W K e iKk^e [ a fKMZ a

KjYMWK ~[[ bae fK C_\^ Kj~A^_e ~\I, Gia KYi
GK ^ _eahYe GK GK fKKjY a fKMZ [f KeY, _ZK
_eahYe GK @L^ a C_\^e ^Z^ e_, ^Z^ i~R^ \LaK
ck[G, GK ^Z^ _V i jA[G ~\I, Gje e_ ic^ [G
29. Folklore as an object of collection is often regarded as a useless
product of human activity just as cancelled stamps, empty beer bottles etc,
in and sense represent waste products, folklore as historically also been
regarded in much the same way. In fact, folklorists we still trying to
convince both the public and the foundations that folkloric materials are
valuable and worth collecting (Dundes 2007, 416).

ePW Wei^ fK]ee G_e @]d^ Ga _Kg^K @_KZKfK]e (fakelore) bae @bjZ Kea ijZ Gj ]eYe K~ Ke ^RK
fK]ee MahK bae _ePZ Ke[a a\^c^u _z^-fKZa\
(?)
(fakelorist) bae _eMYZ Ke G iKe Zue \AU _a Standards
for Collecting and Publishing American Folktales Ga Folklore and
Fakelore \a
30. fKKW MWe ab^ _Kee e_ Z[ b^ e_ iKe id
Kce aMu _c IWge _eeK KW: GK fKZK @]d^ (2012)
M^ \a Gj M^e @^ _eeK KWMWKe c] _Kee e_ Ga
b^ e_ iKe MeZ _\^ Ke~AQ

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

31

32

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

fK M

fK]e GK glY _Kd, GK _eeK @\^_\^e c]c GK

fK]e _eie _A M a \ke C_iZ @ZagK, ^PZ _eeK
]e a fK C_\^e @\^_\^ jA_ea^j ~\I, Gj fK
MU KYi GK ^ aq agh \e @^^K bae, GK ^Z^dcK
@]e Ke MVZ jA^[G Z[_, Me ic ib ^RK iq M ij
_ePZ Kea ijZ ic^ue _eeK m^ iKe @aMZ jA[@ Ga
@Y@^^K bae j ic^u c]e _eeK m^iae iieY jA[G
@ZGa, GVe Gj fK MU KY? Gj K_e iMVZ jA[G?
M c]e fK]ee iR^ _Kd, @a]eY K_e Z[ Gia K_e iq
Me _ePZ _e_Kge ijdK jA[G i iKe ~[ ia @fP^
Keae _di Ke~AQ

fK]e @]d^e _eK _~de fK Kjf @\ai,

Mc*ke R^i]eY, \e\, Z[ @^^Z
i\du MjY Ke~C[f
iZ fK Kjf ~KYi GK MK a GK \kK j aSG, Gj
ic fKZa\ Ke Ke ieQ Za, R^ ic\d a GK \kK
fK Kjf, _[cZ @c c^e GK baK _g @i ~ fK
Me ieP^ jG K_e? Gje KY KQ @^^K _Kd
@Q? ^,
Gj GK baK ieP^? c^Ke~C, MUG ije @V \gRY
_fue MUG \k @Q ic^ iaak cg, iw j@, Lk, M_
Ke, afa
K ~@ @c Gc^u GK \k bae MjY Ke_ea
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

33

@cc^u c]e _d ic G_e \k a iw Mc^u iKe @aMZ

K, ~\ Gc^u bZe RYK _Pe~G ~, Zcc^ K_e M
Kf, a KjK GK \k jA ejQ? Z, G _g ic^u ji\
c^ja ic^ Kj_e @ce K \k... Kj, @c Z Ka
Z@e Ke^? Za, _Kge jC K @_Kge, ic^u bZe
GK Z GKZ @Q, ~C[ _A ic^u bZe GK M Z@e
jA_eQ, KeY ic^u ije @je @^K icad _f [a,
jf ic^u ijZ Zue GZ N^ iK ^[a K, GA KQ _f,
~Cc^u @c GK \k bae MjY KeQ, ic^u bZe jC[a
@\^_\^, aajZ bh, @Peaaje, cfa] I \b
w @\e
ic^Z a ijbMZ @Q, ~j ic^u GKZZ Keae ijdK jAQ
Ga GK @Y@^^K Me _ePZ
\AQ ic^ Gj @Y@^^K
MaZ iKe @aMZ ^[A_e, GY Zu @ce _g ji\
c^jA_e Gj_e, @c @^K _Kee @Y@^^K Me
i\i @c GK icde _eaeV @e Ke iw, ij, Mc Z[ ijee
i\i ja ijZ _RZK, ]cK Ga @^ icRK, iZK
, a @]eZ
@^^c^ue i\i c] jA[C Gj c^eLaK ja ~ GVe
~C i\iZe K[ Kj~CQ, Zj @^^K i\iZ ^j ^d,
ae G i\iZ @Y@^^K, _eeK Ga, @c ~Z glZ, ~Z
ije Ra^ RAf a \^^ Ra^e fK]e c]ce j ^RK
_Kg Ke[C @[Z, \^^ Ra^e @ce @Pe aaje,
PfPkY, ag i, cfa] _bZ aajeKZ @ce _eae Z[ icRe
j @c _eeK bae gl Ke[C
Z\e _eae c] GK M a \k _eaee _ZK
aq jCQ Gj _eae ^cK GK fK Me i\i _Z
_eae ic^u RYZe @a @RYZe fK]e i Ke[@, ~j
ic^u _A @[_ jA[G _ZK _eaee _eaeK cfa],
eZ^Z, [cR, aaje, @wK _e_Kg (gesture), ^ \bw,
agi Ga @^ _eae _Z c] ^ @bcL @\ [G Gia iq
_eaee RY i\i @^ RY i\iuVe gl Ke[G, Ga @^
34

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

_eae i\iu _A Gj @[j^ c] jA_e C\jeYe_, _c

IWge Z age _eaee aWaj Ii^ WM1 @[Z @^ Ne
@i[a ZeKe a L\ _\[ L@ ^j ij_e, MX ew K Kk
ewe K_W aaje Ke ^j KeY, Gj Zu age @e] \aue
_d (i^^ 2009, 53) @*kbe jC_Q Gj ic Z
_eaee ajc^u _A @[_ eZ^Z @]eZ Gj C\jeY aZZ
@^ GK aajeK C\jeY c] G _iwe CfL Ke~A_e
MUG _eaee _* bA @Q Z^ bA aj jA
iefY ic bCR ia i^ bA a Zue i^ \@eK
Ue af WK PZ[ bA RYK aj jf ZZd ajU
@if i c] Ze ia i^ \@eK Ue af WKf Gj
Ue ^U Kak ij bCRc^u bZe icZ G_eK
_eaee @^ Kj Gj ^c aaje Ke ^j a @^c^u
_A Ue ^c @[j^ c], Z[_ ajc^u Me Gj
@[_ 2 ij_e, _ZK _eaee, ajc^u c]e
ggK, ^YK ^A ^^ C_L^ ^bZe @\^_\^ ja
\L~G ajc^ ^R^R aqMZ @L^e @\^_\^
c] Ke[@
Gj _e_le @ce @a]eYK Kea _A @C GK
aajeK C\jeY GVe CfL Ke~A_e ieMWe ce
RY iw, ~ju _eaee ic L ]ce \lZ, Zu Ne L\
MjY _ae ic ckZ bae _[^ Ke, G_eK iKke Pj_^
icde c] ic i\i Pj ^A @i GKZ ai ~gu _[^ Kea
_e _A[ Za, Gj _ee Kak Zu _eaee, iq @*ke
ic L ]cafu ^j ^d
_ePZ-iw M, _eae _e Mc a ije ee c]
fK M ia ij_e eR, \g, ^
KclZ Z[ ab^
@^^c^ue c] fK M _e\ jA[G @Me Kj~AQ
~, fK a MU MUG _eaeVe @e Ke MUG \g a
jA_e ij_e, \ARYu ^A c] \k a MUG MVZ ja
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

35

ia UfK^ (Barre Tolken) Gj_e GK MK \-aqK a

WdW (dyad) bae _ePZ
Ke (1996, 56) i Gje C\jeY
\aK ~A _f\^e a aj\^
e _eY
iw, Ra^i[ Z[ @^c^u
ahde CfL Ke, ~Cc^ K ic^u iK ijZ iKZ ab^
_g, Ve (gesture), Mk (verbal duel), cL_Kg (facial expression)
_bZe @\^_\^ @aM_ bae Ke[ IWg fK]e
_e_le @c ij-iwZ (?) ~cZ cf`f, MRcM, cfK,
a_fK, bGfK, MebA, cZ, cj_i\, _G^KU, iKe, cKe,
af`f
, icKU, aCk, IgK _e \-aqK @^^K iK (ritualized
relation), aj\^e \A iw, _cK
-_cK, c- _e icRK iK
_bZK c] Gje C\jeY bae ^A_ea ecf \f _cK

_cK
c]e [a iK KU~G Gbk GK ag i iKe @c _d
@aMZ @^e_ bae cZ, af`f, cKe, MRcM, Meb
A _bZ
Kj KjK ^ ]e WK ^[@ ij_e, c^Ke, \ARY S@ cKe
aiQ RY \^ @^ RYK NeK @if, \Lf Ze cKe ijZ Z
Nee @^ i\i c] @Q, i KQ KjaK Pj[f, GY Ve bhe
Kj\AMf, ieKeKaeKkeKeK @KfcKf Nc\ec\Kc\
@eKi eKaeK 3 ~j Ze cKe aZZ @^ Kj aS_ef
^j Gj aPK _e_Kg ij \Aiwu _eeK @\^_\^e GK
_K C\jeY ^d Gjia agi Ga _eeK @c Gj \-aqK
fK]ee C\jeY bae MjY Ke_ea
1970 cij _e_e @^K ^h @if fK]ee, ~j
aMZ \Xgj ahe _PkZ fK a Me @a]eYK a_K
Keae ijdK jf ePW aCc^ fK]e @]d^e C_\^e
icRK @]e (social matrix) C_e MeZ_\
^ Kf 4 _eahY
iK @]eKe i Kjf MUG Me ]e (lore) GK iKd
iieY Me ic i\i Gj _eahZ @\^_\^e @gMjY
Kea ijZ ^RK iq ]e ij _ePZ Ke KeY, fK]ee
icRe i\i a Me i\ic^u _eeK iK j _eeK
@\^_\^e cL @]e (Bauman 1971, 33) ia_e, _eahY
36

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

Ga M ijZ \gK, I _eahKe @iK icjK bae K_e

fK M Z@e Ke Gj C_e aCc^ @fK_Z Kf
M _ePZ Kak MUG Me @-@\^_\^ C_e
^be Ke^j ae @^ M ijZ Zje iK Ga a^cd C_e
c] Gj ^begk GY, @-aj e_ (esoteric-exsoteric factors)
(Jansen 1965) or S-X factor (Puckett)5 MUG Me @a]eY ^c
@Z MeZ
_, KeY fK]e GK ^
MK @]e Ke[G Ga
@^ M ijZ c] @^K icde Gj IZ_Z bae RWZ [a
RY~G GVe CfL^d ~, @-@\^_\ ^ (esoteric
communication) a GK Me _eeK ]e, ~j iq Me
i\iu c]e j @\^_\^ jA[G K, Gje iieY Kak
iq M c]e icZ, G_e Kj~A^_e fK]e _eahYe
ajK-@\^_\^ (exoteric communication) c] iMVZ jA[G
`ke_, MUG fK M ijZ @^ fKMe _ePZ
,
ZZ, cfa], ia_e ic^ue fK]e iKe @aMZ ja
ia jA[G GVe ajK-@\^_\^ a ajK-fK]e Kjf,
MUG M iKZ _eeK m^, Ga ic^u ij jC[a
@\^_\^ \A fK M c]e fK C_\^e @\^_\^
c] ia jA[G, `kZ fK]eZK iiM (folkloric contact)6
\L~A[G, Ga MUG M bZe @^ MK ^A @^K ajK
fK]e i]eYZ aPK _e_K
gMWK aKg fb Ke[G 7 GY,
fK]ee @a]eY Ga iZ ^c \k a M @ZagK _ecd
^d; K, Gje @\^_\^ _A Gj GKcZ i^^j @ZGa, MUG
Me @\^_\^ ic^u _eiee fK]e c]e jA[G,
Ga @^M ijZ ic^ ic^u ahde c] @\^_\^ Kea
\L~G Me Gj @-KK Ga aj-KK iieY ~M
fK]ee @MjY (assimilation) c] \LaK ck GK
C\jeY \A GjK Ke~A_ec\fK^ (aeK^e c\
fPAa _[) aajKce GK icRK eZ, ~j adc^u \e
@^ieY Ke~A[G ~\ @c ggc^u GK Z M bae
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

37

MjYKea, Za ~Zak Gj icRK _[U Gc^u iLe

_eahZ jAQ, Gj ic^u fK]eK _baZ KeQ; `ke_,
c\fK^ fKKWe i~R^ @c \LaK _AQ 8 Gj GK
C\jeY cZ, MUG Me @-KK Ga aj-KK iieY
Ga @MjYe e_ iKe @aMZ jaK jf @cK ab^ fK
C_\^ Ga Zje @\^_\^ I iieYe \MMWK @^gk^
KeaK ja
akak Gj ajK @\^_\^ fK]ee @bcL
e,
Ga iq Me iZ K @bc Le _ea^ c] @Y[ G
C\jeYe_, PZKUAa KZK R^RZ a i\d c]e icZ
[f iZ K Gj GK `g^ bae _eMYZ jCQ @]^K ~aK
~aZc^ c] Zu \je PZKUAa \LaK ckQ ij_e,
ab^ R^RZc^u \e aajZ KV aCge ^^ _Kee @kue
c] @]^K ~aK ~aZc^u \e aajZ jCQ @C GK C\jeY
\A GjK Ke~A_e RY Kge \ea Ze cc Ne
MK Mf i iVe KfaW a Mf\e (~j C_Kk IWge
K@KV bae _ePZ
) GK b^ _eahY \Lf i iVe ^R
MK `ea _e Z Me KfaW KWe @dR^ icde Gj
b^ e_K i~RZ Kf Ga Zj iq Me ic i\iu _Le
MjZ c] jf GVe @c \LaK _Af ~ MUG Me
fK]ee ajK iieY @^ GK Me fK]ee @bcLK
ikaghe a\kA c] \A_e
fKZe fK Me @a]eY iaV gqgk Ga
a_{^K (Noyes 2003, 7) fK]e @]d^e _ee j fK
MU KG, GjK ^A ^^ \ Ga a\^a\ fMejQ aCc^u
icRK @]e, R^i^u @-aj e_ Ga \e[ ^dR
(Dorothy Noyes)u M @^gk^, Me imK a_K Kf
fKZa\
c^ l\ R^MK fK M Kja ijZ \g,
RZ, fw bk a_k
R^icjK c] fK M bae MjY Ke;
K, ~Zak \g, RZ, gY, fw bk fK MK ^a,
38

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

iZak \La ~, GMWK _a-iMVZ @[Z GMWK M bae

MjY Kea _ae GK Z M bae iMVZ jA ejQ Gj
fK MMWK c]e @c Ga ic^e b^Z a ab\Z
a \LaK _A[C Ga, @^K icde MUG fK M @^
GK fK MVe b^ c^Kea ijZ @c ic^u @cVe
bf a ic^ a @c icKl, G_e Ka ba^[C Gj KeYe
^dR Ga @^ fKZa\
c ^ N^Z (proximity) Ga a a^cd
(interaction) C_e MeZ _\^ Kf MUG \e aP e Kf
fK M ^Z bae iZK, fwMZ, _RZK, gYMZ
bae KQ ^ KQ ag eL K, ~C KeYe ic^ MUG
fK M bae _eMYZ j@, Zj jf N^Z Ga
^dcZ a a^cd iA[ _A fKZa\c ^ Kj, ~C fK
^dcZ a a^cd Ke[G, i j fK]ee iR^ Ga iieY
Ke_e (Sims and Stephens 2005, 35) GVe @f^ Wiu
aqaK
c] ieY Ke~A_e, fK]e j fK MK im _\^ Ke[G
(1978, 12) @^ @[e, fK]e a C_\^Ue e_ j @cK
fK M ijZ _ePZ KeAae ijdK jA[G @^e_
bae aCc^ c] Kj, fK]ee _Kd j fK M
@a]eYe ckiZ (1971, 33) @ZGa, ckZ ~\ MUG Me
fK]e @Q, Zjf MU fK M ^d
ab^
bae fK M iePZ jA[G Gj aqe a
i\ie icRK _iZ (social status), Z[ _eiZ, @agKZ Ga
^begkZ ijZ Ze N^Z, ^dcZ a a^cd Ga m^ Kgke
@\^_\^ C_e ^be Ke N^Z fK Me @^Zc
_ePZ i Ke[a ag, cLZ ~Zak Gj MUG Me,
_RZK @dc ijZ iKZ i]eYZ, @c _k^ Ke[a _aV,
icRK eZ^ZV, _hK _ez\, L\_dV ~\ KYi GK Me
eZ^Z i b^, iZak @c ij MK @fM GK M af
ba[C @ZGa, @ce @a]eY _A Gj _RZK M K_e N^Ze
@]ee iMVZ jAQ, Zj GVe @fP^ Kea _RZK M
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

39

_e RZd, @*kK, G_eK i^d fK MMWK c] Gj

N^ZK @]e Ke MVZ jA[G Za, GVe CfL^d ~ Gj
_RZK M KYi GK ^ bMkK _eag c]e aiai
Ke^[A_e Z[, RY i\i @^ RY i\iu ijZ c] _ePZ
^[A_e GK _RZK M c]e _ee, _[, ag_hK,
bZK iZ (material culture) ic^u bb Md a g
(geographical feature) Ga _PkZ _eee @i[G C\jeYe_
ik @\aic^ GK ^ gke _eeK ba aY ~A[a
`Uj gX, `Uj ]Z aaje Ke[ Gj gX a ]Z _e]^
Ke[a aqu ~KYi aq, ~G Gj _ee ijZ mZ, Kj \A_ea
~ Gc^ ik ij_e, c^Ke~C, KYi i^e Xci ^P
@^ Z jCQ, Gj ^Z _ee ijZ ~\ RY _ePZ Za,
Kj\A_ea ~, _eahYKe @\ai M jCQ _eR
Gj_e, _RZK _ee @]eZ @^K C\jeY \@~A_e Za,
CfL^d ahd jCQ MUG _RZe ic i\i jGZ GKZ aiai
Ke^[A_e K Zu bZe [a _RZK N^Z ic^u ic^u
_ee ijZ Z[ Zue fK]e ijZ _ePZ
Ke[G, KeY ic^
ij fK Me i\i
@^K fNiLK fK Me _ee i^d Z[ ijaiZ

cgZ
-@*kK _eeK @]e Ke[G C\jeYe_, _c IWge
@^K ajY M ic^ue Ph Rce Pe \a9 \LaK ck
Gj _ee ic^ue ^R ^j ^d Za, ahah ]e @\ai
Ga ab^ R^RZ ijZ ijai^ Kea `ke ic^ Gj _[K
@_YA ^AQ @ZGa, KYi GK _RZK _ee ic^u _RZ
M ijZ @^K icde RWZ ^jA i^d bMkK _eage
_bae _baZ ja c] \L~A[G
N^Z bk @agKZ, ^begkZ, Ga _eagK _eiZ
c] fK Me i\iZ ^c _cL bcK ^cY Ke[G
@cc^ _ZK GK _eaee R^ jA ij _eaee aXa
bZe _eaee cfa], agi, Ga _eeK gl Ke[C @^
40

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

@[e, _eae jCQ @ce _[c M, ~CV @c ic GK GK

iKd i\i ij_e, _eagK _eiZe bcK c] MeZ_ @c
RYZe a @RYZe @c @ce ^KUZc _eag\e _baZ
jA[C _eae, _Wg, f, icRK @^^, KclZ aje
adi, @agKZ c] ^Z^ Me i\iZK _baZ Ke[G
C\jeYe_, adi K_e M i\iZK _baZ Ke[G, Zj
GVe CfL Ke~A_e RY K ge ~a^e _\_Y
Kf_e i adc^u Me @[ Z Zje icad
i\ic^uVe @_ZZ ad c^jC[a i\ic^u Me
MjZ jA[G Ga ^h PUKf _e KQ fK]ee _eahYe
c] @gMjY Ke[ KQ ah _ae i ~C MV \ee
ej[f, ij M ijZ i ^KUa ja ij @\^_\^ c]
Ke_ef
adi Ga aqZe aKg, _eae Ga _WgVe b^ GK
fK M ijZ @cK _ePZ KeA[G MUG \e
Gia Me
i_^ _[c N^Z \A jA[G Ga _e_e ^dcZ a a^cd
c]ce _Z Z jA[G @^^K bae @c ^R^R Kc _eiee
@ce GK M \LaK _A[C, Z aje @c @Y@^^K
bae @ce K~ _eiee c] @ce M iqK \LaK
_A_ea, ~j Kak ^dcZ a a^cd `ke ia jA[G
Gj Me @]e bMkKZ K _RZK jA^_e, Za c]
@c a a^cd c]ce @ce M Z@e Ke[C Gj M,
^dcZ baa^cd Ga @ce KQ KQ ^ Cge _eY _A ij~
Ke[G GjK @]K Kea _A @c iZK icde \LaK
ck[a `iaK MK C\jeY bae ^A_ea Gj MK
~\I, icdK M (part-time group) bae fKZa\c^
(Dundes 1978, 8) _eP Z Ke[ Z[_, Gc^ ic^ue fK]e
_e_Kg Kea ijZ _ee c]e @\^_\^ Ke[ @^e_
bae, @c fKf U^ ~Z, ^ UC^ aie ^dcZ ~Zu
c] icdK M bae ^A_ea, ~Cc^ ^dcZ ^R^R
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

41

Kc _eieK ~ZdZ Ke, ^dcZ _ee ijZ ckZ jA[@

Ga _eeK bae ^R^R bZe @\^_\^ Ke[
N^Z Ga a a^cd aZZ m^Kgk _Z __i c]
M Z@e Keae ijdK jA[G MUG Me i\ic^
GKZZ jA ic^ue m^e @\^_\^ Ke_e _Y, @^ Me
i\ic^u ijZ c] GKZZ jA m^e @\^_\^ jA_e
icMe i\i jGZ ^ m^Kgk ijZ _ePZ jA[A_e
K, GKZZ ja bZe ~\ @^ RY i\i ij m^ Kgke
KQ ^Z^Z @Y[G Za, Zje _eeK iieY ja c] ia
jA[G Ga, Gj GKZZ i\iicju c]e GK ^Z^ M MVZ
jae ia^ i Ke[G ij_e, @^ M ijZ c] Gj ia
Gj GKZZ MUG KVe c]e a GK ^ bMkK _eie
bZe ja Ree ^j, Gj @^ c]ce c] iieZ jA_e
~cZ `iaK M, P^ A-cf M _Y \L~G, @c
@^K icde MUG Me i\i [A @ce _ePZ i Kea
_A @C MUG MK Pd^ Ke[C @c @ce ^KUZc Z[
N^Z Ga _ePde _e_KgK @L @Me eL GK ^ M
ijZ iK ~Wa ijZ akak _eY MK _ZL^ c]
Ke[C Gbk MK fKZa\c^ CgckK M a
AzKZ Pd^ M (Tuleja 1997, 7) bae @bjZ Ke icRK
_eiZ Ga M @agKZe Gbk M Pd^ \LaK ck[G
C\jeYe_ KYi GK Me _PgU @\ai _eae @Q,
ic^u c]e ZAgU Ne L ]c MjY Kf aK Z^U _eae
L ]c MjY Kf ^j K aW\^, MW`AW bk _a_aYe
\LMf L ]c MjY Ke^[a @\ai _eae i\ic^ c] iia
_ae @gMjY Kea ijZ ZjK C_bM KeaK @Mj _Kg Kf
KeY, ijaiZ Me _eee @gMjY ^Kf L_QW fMae
ia^K C_l Ke^~A_e Ga, Gj @\^_\^ ^c
]c MjY
Keae KYi iK c] ^j ce bCY (cCi S@) ~G c]_\ge
eZfc Rfe ~Iee ej, \gje icde _ZK ah Mea ^Z
42

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

_eahY Ke[G ~\I, Mea ^Z _eahY Kea @ce _ee

^j @ZGa, ce bCYe Mea _eahY Ga Mea ^P[a Z
iw S@ Me ikZ
ja GK AzKZ Pd^ ^d ij_e,
ab^ m^Kgk gLae Az c] @^K icde KQ i\iu GKZ
Kea ijZ ^Z^ M i Keae ijdK jA[G C\jeYe_,
eRed fK cjaMWKe ab^ eRe _eeK gc^
ic^u C_\ ^A @i[ Gj @aiee IWge aCg KeMec^
Ce-_a*ke aCg KeMeu KkKZ \Lf, ~j Zu ajZ bf
fMf, ic^ Gj Ce-_a *ke KeMec^u ijZ GcZ ^dcZ
ilZ _e Gje _Z Kgk _PeaK ic^u ij aZ i_^
KeaK Pj_e
^RK ^RMe i\i bae _ePZ Kea _A @^z _Kg
Kea M @a]eYe GK RUkZ i Ke[G akak, RY
Zje -M _ePZK _Kg KeaK @^z _KgKe, ~Zak
i @^ba Ke ~ Ze Gj _ePZ i^d Me ehe gKe ja
a ici i Kea Z[ Ze iZK a_^ Kea @^ KZK lZe
i\i RYKe ^Z^ _ePZ ZjK ~\ GK icRK c~\ _\^ Ke[G
Za, i Ze _eY MK _ZL^ Keae c] ia^ [G Gj
_Kee Me @^KZ @c @-aj e_ fK]e _A_ea
Me im ^ e _ Y Kfak i\ie -_e P Z K C_l
Ke~A^_e RY KYi GK fK M ijZ RWZ [A_e
Z[_ ZjK _Kg KeaK Ka] Ke_e C\jeYe_, MUG
Me RY i\i GK ^
]cK
ag i ijZ RWZ, K @^ i\ic^
Gj ]cK agi ijZ GKcZ ^jA_e a Zu ae]e ic KeaK
_W_e ba i Zj _Kg ^Keae ia^ c] [A_e
MUG M c]e i]eYZ ~C iZK C_\^U
@\^_\^ jA[G, Zj jCQ agi @ce M Z[ @c M
b^ @^ Me c] agie aj-@dc _e_Kg @c \LaK
_A[C Gj agi _[MZ ja ijZ, @Pe aaje, C_\g, NeA
PK, ckK @a]eY, ~j @c @ce i@^ a _ee ajK Z[
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

43

_eae Ga icRK Me ad i\iu aPK @L^e Z[ c[,

K[^ a @^^ aPK _e_K
g I ic^ue _k^ @C _eahYK
\L gl Ke[C Gj aje @c @ce \KYe Z[ aPe ae
@^K icde ^^_Kee agi c] i Ke[C Gia @ce M
agie ^[A_e Za, @c GjK agi Ke _k^ Ke[C
C\jeYe_ @^K @\ai I KQ @Y@\ai _eee aaj
Z[ S@ \L icde a @if c\ [_a a c\_^ \e aK
@_dZ Kea GK _ee iZ c] @^K @\ai Me Gj
_k^ Ke~CQ K, @\ai Me KQ i\i gl Z[ @]^K
Ze
_ba jC a @^ KYi _bae jC c\_^e _eeK C_l
KeaK PjQ `ke_, KQ KQ @\ai Me KZK i\iu
c]e \AZ^ _X ]e a @if c\ ijZ @_dZ Keae ~C
_ee [f, Zj @C _k^ Ke~C^j iq _eaeMWKe i\iu
~\ Gj _ee iKe @aMZ Ke~G Za, ic^ ZjK C_l
Kea \L~CQ a Gj GK Le_ _ee af _Kge Kja
gY~CQ ij_e, @M c@, RR, RRcc^ _fc^u _e
KjY, eR_@ eRS@ KjY @\ @^K fKK[ Kj[f i
jf _L_Wge ic _@S@ GKV jA ~C[f aXc@c^u
_Le iZ Gj _ee \fb
ije Ga Mc*ke _eag I _eiZ

Kc \e\g^e _ieZ KU^
]eajK Gje i^ MjY KeQ @^K
icde c@c^ c] Gj KU^ ]eajKe KjY _fc^u Kja
gYa
K ckQ @ZGa, @Bc _Le eR_@, eRS@, aX @ieY K[
bk ~C KjY K[^e _ee _fc^u _A [f, ij _eee
_ea^ @if Gj _Kee agi @ce _ee @_l @ce aqMZ
gl, cfa] Ga \KY C_e ^be Ke[G @ZGa, agie
Gj @dcMWK
MUG Me @^ M, akak RY i\iuVe
@^ RY i\iu c]e @fM @fM jA_e KeY, Gj agi
@ce HZjiK, bMkK, fwMZ, eR^ZK, glK Ga _RZK
_eage _ba ijZ MZgk Ga RUk a a^c d (dynamic and
complex interaction) _Kd C_e @]eZ jA[G ckZ, G[e
44

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

@ce ^KUZc fK Me ag Ga @^bZe _e_Kg

NU[G GjK Kea _A GVe \AU fK C_L^ Ce
Ke~A_e C_L^ \AU GKfau a\ glK ^A \A fK
M \e _^K[Z _[c C_L^U G_e
\_e ~M GKfa eR gae Me\Yu _LK
g gLa _A ~AQ ZK Me\Y KjQ, Z ~jZ gae,
ZZ c _V _XA _ea ^j @c ~M]c @^ie gaeu
_V _XAa c^ Z ~\ Cyae jA[, Za ZZ
a\ @]d^ _A c ^d MjY Ke[ GKfa ^eg
jA `ef Kk~M Me\Y RY _`ie e_ KYi
aga\kde R^ ^A[@ GKfa Z_i Ke ae_A
GK Cyae R^ ^A[G ~[ icde GKfa ij
aga\kde _j*f ^RK Cyae af _ePd \f
_`ie \Y ZK i` c^ Ke\f, Kjf, c \LZ,
Zc ~jZ Cyae R^ ^AQ, Zce GV _Xa _A i^
^j GKfa Kjf, cjbM, c @_YuVe a\ @]d^
Kea af ^R RZ QW @^ RZe R^^f @[P @_Y
cZ _V _XAa ^j af KjQ cZ @C KZ
R^ ^aK ja, @_YuVe _V _Xa _A? _`ie \Y
Kjf, @c a\ \a eR]c C_e ^be Ke @c
eRZe Zk GY, j GKfa, Zc ~\ ^Re _a RZ
`e _Aa, Za c ZcK _V _Xa _A i~M \A_e
(cg 2012, 89) 10
GKfau ^A \Zd Ki C_L^U jCQ
\_e ~Me GKfa ^cK RY gae akK @g
gl Kea _A Me\Yu _LK ~A[f Me\Y Zu
Kjf, Z ~jZ RY gae, ZZ c a\ gl \A_ea
^j _e ~Zak i ^R C\ce a\ gl Kf
Ga, _ZL^ Ke[f c] \Yu Zue _eY c^f
iZak i Me\lYe_ aX @wk KU ^f
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

45

@^K ah_ e GKag gZe GKfa GK

beZd ahdK ii^e MahYeZ QZ _`ie \Y
~Zak RYf ~, GA _fU ij \_e ~Me GKfa,
i l jACVf MYZ Pf[f, GY Zu ii^e aje
Keae @]K e Kje ^[ f GY, aee GKfae
MahYe ^hK, ^aK eRK KeaK fMf ghe
\^, MahY K~e aee a`k jC[a \gA Zu
fa QW Pf~aK ^g \f 11
GVe @c \Lf ~, ic^ K[aK @]e Ke K_e \A
b^ fK M ^R^R \KYe ^Z^ C_L^ ^cY KeQ
ag ie Gj _iw ~j KQ MUG C_e agi Kea, Ga ij
ag ie _e_Kg jCQ fK]ee GK cj_ C_\^ ^Za\
Ga fKZa\c^ _eeK _e_K
gK @^gk^ Kfak agie
@^K @dc iKe @fP^ KeQ GVe _^ae CfL~M
~ RY aj i\i MUG Me agiK @agi a bf K
c Kj_ea^j MUG _VK bf K c bae cfd^ Kea
GK MeZe a_e ^j, ae MUG _VK M K_e _e_Kg
KeQ, ij ^ _e_Kge Zje @gMjY K_e, Zj ijZ _V
iKe iq Me _ZKd
a cZcZ KY Zj jCQ cL ahd
KeY, akak @ce agiK @c m^ Kja ijZ @^e ag iK
agi a @agi bae @bjZ Ke[C @ZGa, iA[_A @^K
icde @^ Me ag i I aPeK iVK bae _~fP^ KeaK
Kak KKe ^j, @ia c] jA[G @c ba^[C ~ @ce
agi GK ]cK, iZK Ga icRK _e_Kg cZ G_eK GK
_aMje @c @^ Me agi Ga aPeK j fK]e bae
MjY Ke[C, ~Zak K @ce ag i a GK GK fK]e Gj
_Kee ]eY fKK @cV GK @fM M bae \Lae @aie
_\^ KeQ fKe _ebh Z[ icM fKe @a]eYU a\^ a
Za\c^u Gj ag i _Z ic^u _Le [a ]eY a ag ie
`kgZ cZ fKe im ^e_Ye @ce ag ia] _Z [a ]eY
46

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

K_e Ga KcZ _baZ KeQ iA[_A @cK icRK ^cY Z

(social construction theory) iKe @aMZ jaK ja 12 Gj i
@^ie @ce -M \e Z@e jA[a ]eYK ^A j @c @ce
aPe a @bcL _Kg Ke[C ij_e, ag\
c] RY a\^ a
MUG Me GK ]eY Ga @^bZMZ aL cZ fK, eZ^Z,
agi, _ee Gia GK GK icRK ^c Y Gj c^eLa K[
~ GK icRK ^cY _KZ
Z[ @_l @ce ba^ a @ce aPeK
@]K _Kg Ke[G
fK]ee fK Me @a]eY MeZ_ KeY, Gj
ijZ fK]ee _KZ @[ RWZ @c ic ab^ KeYe ab^
bae
_eiZK c a Pd^MZ ba KYi ^ KYi GK fK Me
i\i Ra^Kk bZe @Z ijRe @c MUG Me aj icde
GK]K Me i\iZ MjY Kea ijZ _ZL^ c] Ke[C
ij_e, _ZK fK]ee _V M ijZ RWZ _ZK i\iu
c]e iR^ jA _eeK bae RYK _Le @^ RYK _LK
iieZ jA[G @^e_ bae, Me _ZK i\i @^ i\iu
_V a _eahY c]ce ij fK]e ijZ _ePZ Kea ijZ
Me GK @g bae _ePZ KeaK _P Ke[

1. Ii^- QZ a QCY, WM- WA

2. _c IWge fKc^ c, gg, ggeu ^c ijZ \@e, ^Y,
_Ze, S@ec^u ^c c] CyeY Ke ^j Za, IWge @^^ @*ke
ajc^ Kak gg, gge, \Xge _bZu ^c CyeY ^Kea \L~G
3.ieKeKaeKkeKK e K @KfcKf Nc\ec\K c \ @eKi
eKaeK @[Z, iakK @c NeK @ia
4. Gj _iwe aCc^ue Differential Identity and the Social Base of
Folklore _a \a
5. R^i^ Zu The Esoteric-Exsoteric Factors in Folklore _ae
fK]ee Gj @-aj e_ iKe @fP^ Ke R^i^ Gj _ae
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

47

Z^ _Kee @-aj e_ iKe @fP^ KeQ, ~j G _iwe

CfL^d
1. fK]e ~CV iq Me e_ j _e_Kg jA[G
2. fK]e ~CV MUG M c]e @^ Me e_ _KgZ
jA[G
3. fK]e ~CV iq Me e_ _Kg _G Ga Zj ij M
c]e j icZ ej
R^i^ Kj, ~C fK]e MUG Me @^ MUG Me
e_K _Kg Ke[G, Ga i]eYZ Zj iq fK M \e KZ
^j, G_eK akak i iKe ij M mZ a ^[, Zj jCQ
ajK fK]e
S-X factor _ebhU _`ie Newbell Niles Puckettu \e EsotericExsoteric Factorse il e_ _A _aZ jA[f Ga, R^i^ c] GjK
Ke Ke[f
6. iZK iiM (culture contact) @^e_ \A fK M _ee
ige @if fK]eZK iiM \L \A[G, @[Z _ee _eee
fK]eK _baZ Ke[
7. C\jeYe_, @c ~aK Ga ~aZc^u \A MK ^A_ea GA \A
M c]e @^K _eeK @\^_\^ jA[G Za, ~aZc^u ^A
~aKc^u _Le Ga ~aKc^u ^A ~aZc^u _Le [a KQ c^e^]c
PUKf (playful joke) I ^h PUKf (off-colour joke) i]eYZ ic^u
iq Me j iieZ jA[G jGZ, _cK
-_cK a \A N^ iw
_ee c]e Gje @\^_\^ Kea_e Gj C_\^ @C MUG MK
iieZ jA_e, @^Z Gje iieY ia^j
8. c\fK^ KW iKZ iagh Z[ _A id Kce aMu _c IWge
_eeK KW: GK fKZK @]d^ (2012) M^ \a Gj M^e
@^^ icRK eZ^Z I _a_aY c] K_e fKKWK _baZ KeQ i
iKe @fP^ Ke~AQ
9. bf `if ja _A KhlZe @ck _ae, ikaghe @ck _e
\@~C[a ak _[
10. C_L^UK cj Kce cg, c^i e^ cj_Z ^cK R^K AR^de
QZuV iMj Ke[a K[ Zu fK iZ: i I _dM (2012) M^e
CfL Ke
48

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

11. Gj C_L^U GK\ @A@AU cAe adUKfR abMe

MahYeZ ce a _aY Kce ]wWcSuVe iMjZ
12. icRK ^cYZ iKZ
agh @]d^ _A Peter L. Berger Ga Thomas
Luckmann u The Social Construction of Reality: A Treaties on the
Sociology of Knowledge ( 1966) M^ Z[ Henderikus J. Stamu Introduction:
Social Constructionism and Its Critics Ga Gavin Sullivanu Wittgenstein,
Reflexivity and the Social Construction of Reality _a \a

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

49

50

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

_ee

fK]e _ee C_e _ZZ _ee Kjf, i]eYZ

_eZ^Kke Pk @i[a, _X_e _X \A MW@i[a GK _Kd Za,
fKZa\c^u _A _ee ^ GK icRe a Me GK iZK
_Kd, GK _V _ee MUG M c]e i jA[G Ga Gje
c]ce RY i\i @^ RY i\i a M Z[ icRe ab^ _Kd
iKe
@aMZ jA[@ Gj_e _ee c] \A fK]e _Kgfb Ke
GVe _eee iMZ @dc iKe Gj K_e iMVZ jA[G?
_ee Kjf ^ M c]e K @[ eL? Gia \M C_e ~[ ia
@fP^ Ke~ae _di Ke~AQ

@c fK]ee ~KYi a C_\^ iKe @fP^ Ke^

KjK _ee jCQ cL @]e KeY, _ee MUG Me
MZgkZK aRd eL[G, Ga _eee @bae KYi C_\^ fK
C_\^ bae _eMYZ jA_e^j @ZGa, fK]e @]d^e
_eee bcK MeZ_ \N \Xgj ahe fK]e @]d^e
fK]ee im ~jZ a_K I ae fb KeQ ZY, _ee
Kjf @Me ~bk _P^ZK aSC[f, ij @dce c] _ea^
\LaK ckQ fKZa\c^ _eeK ^Z^ _bce \Lae
_di `ke fK]e _e _eee c] aja] @dc @fP^e
_eieK @iaK fMf i]eYZ, _ee Kjf, MUG Me
]e (lore) a @\^_\^ _Kd (Sims and Stephens 2005, 65)
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

51

Gj aZZ _eeUG ^RK _ee bae _Z Kea _A ~Cia

_Kd
e @agKZ [G, _ee Kjf ij ic _Kde icMK
e_K aS~G C\jeYe_, eR _aK GK _ee KjaK jf,
Gje _eahY, ii eY, _k^e ]eajKZ a _eeK Z
(continuity) @\ eja @agK ^PZ GjK @c @ce _ee
Kj_ea ^j @^ @[e, ]eajKZ a GK icdL c]e
C_\^e aee @^^ Z[ _k^ a _eahYe @agKZ [G,
^jf Zj _ee bae _eMYZ jA_ea^j C\jeY
e_ af~Z a aAZ ~ZK @^K _ae, LaeKMRe
@fLc^ue @ce C}kd _ee bae _eMYZ Ke~G K,
iZKKke IWge @C KYi i]a _@ ^j K aAZ ^A
Rb, icZ \_K aYR KeaK ~C^j @ZGa, i]a _@e
aAZ ^A aYR KeaK ~a GK HZjiK NUYcZ, Gj @ce
_ee ^j
@c GVe c^eLa K[ ~, @ZZe NUY _ee ^j
ae, @ZZe iZKKk ~G Pk @i[a
]e j _ee _Y, _ee
iaak @ZZe @i^j MUG @^^ Zje @agKZ ~M GK
^
icRe aee @^Z jf a _eahZ jA@i[f Zj
_ee bae _eMYZ jA[G Gj _eahY, ~j aee @^Z

ja @agK, Zje icdL jA_e MUG ah, jA_e MUG

cj
(Tolken 1979, 34) GVe Gj CfL^d ~, C_\^Ue
@agKZ Z[ ~qKZ ^[f Zj aee @^Z
ja ia^j,
Gj ijZ Zj GK _ee bae c] _eMYZ jA_ea ^j GjK
KeaK ~A KV _^@ iKe CfL Ke~A_e KQ \g
Zk IWge @\ai fK Mc^ue KV Ga aCge _^@
a PeY
e _Pk^ @^K \^ ~G [f, K _K _^@e ajk _Pk^
`ke Gj KV aCge PeY Zje _dR^dZ jeA aif Ga
Gje af_^ NUf ij_e, Mc*ke Phc^ PhK~ icde
ahe el _Aa ^c GK _eeK C_KeY QZe (aCg Ga
g@k _Ze Z@e MfKe @KZe C_KeY, ~je _Kee e_
52

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

C_Kk IWge _L@ bae _ePZ

) aaje Ke[ f, iZ Zj
_dR^dZ jeA aiQ, \ _ jA_WQ @ZGa, @c ac^e
fK Mu \e aajZ jC^[a KV aCge PeY
Ga _L@K
@ce fK C_KeY af CfLKea KYi @[ eL^j; ~_e,
icde iZe i]a_@u aYRK _ee
C_\^e _^ea Kjf, iaak Zje @^e_Z a
GK_Ke @^^K aSG^j KeY, _eee _^eae iaak
GKe_Z _Kg _G^j C\jeYe_, @c GVe MZKW@ Ga
K[^Keu ^A_ea Gc^u _eahYe ~Zak _^ea
\L~G, @c \LaK _A[C ~ ic^ KjY, ic^ abae
MZ _Z _eahYe b^ icde b^ _eahY lZe _eahZ jf
Zje @L^ Z[ _Ve ^Z^Z \L\A[G, _Z _eahY b^b
^
bae _Kg ja ijZ ^Z^ PZc^ _\^ Ke[G Ga, @^KZ
Gj _e_KgMWKe Z}kK i~R^ c] \LaK ck[G
c^Ke, RY MahK fKMZ iMj ^c lZK ~AQ,
G_eik _eahYKec^ Zue ^ abae MZ _eahZ
Kea ijZ MahKu ~W c] MZ _eahY Kea \LaK
ck[G Gj Z}kK i~R^ Kak fK MZ^j ic aPK
_e_Kge GK _cL @dc 1
_eee @\^_\^ MUG M c]e RYKVe @C
RYK c]e ja ijZ MUG Me @C MUG M c]e c]
jA[G GjK KeaK GVe K[^ C_\^K j ^@~C K[^e
K[a Ga _e ahY g k RY K[^K eV @C RY gl
Ke[@ K[^Ke RY ad aq, i _fc^u _A Zu K[^
_eahY Kf ij _eahYe RY _f K[^ _eahY gLf
Ga Ze iwc^u _Le a Zje ^KU iKZ Me ZjK
_eahY Kf @c GVe adc^u GK M bae MjY Ke
_fc^u @C GK M bae MjY Kf, _fU \e Zje Me
K[^e _eahYK @-M _eahY (esoteric performance)
bae MjY Ke_ea @ZGa, _eee iieY Kak i]ikL
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

53

@ZZe @i^j, @^e_ bae icKke c] aq-aq c]e,

MUG Me @C MUG Me c] Gje iieY NU[G
KQ fK M Zue iZK
_ee @ZZe Pd^ Kea
ijZ Zue ac^K @ZZ iKe GK ]eY \aK _P Ke[
KeY, _eeK Pd^ Kea a _eeK LRa @C Zje
_^eafK^ Kea, MUe cfa] Ga MMZ agi Z[
GKZK _^_Z _\^ Ke[G ~_e i]a _@u aYR K iZK
^A aAZ aY _k^ Kea @ZGa, Gj Pd^Z _ee
(selective tradition [Raymod Milliams, quoted in Ben-Amos 1984,
115])e C\jeY @cK K_e @ce _ePZ i Keae Ga ZjK

_Z \ae ijdK jA[G i iKe @aMZ KeG

KYi @^ ^e bM^a Ga @\^_ \ ^ Ke a
i\ic^u bZe ic^ iq Me GK @g agh G_e GK
ba^ @Y[G @c @ce iw Me ab^ PUKf, @L^,
C_L^e @\^_\^ Ke[C Gj @L^, C_L^ Z[ PUKfe
@\^_\^ @cK iPA \G ~ @c iq Me RY RY i\i
@ag, @c @^K icde @ce M iKe @aMZ ^[C
fK M _ez\e Gj @fP^ Ke~AQ ~, @c _[c
cLZ _eae ^cK Me R^MjY Kea ijZ Z bae
Gje i\iZ MjY Ke^A[C Gj _e_e @ce a-_ePZ,
a\kd, cja\kd, G_eK Kc _eie _e MMWKe i\i
ja ijZ Z[ ^KU-ijaiZ ij Mc, @*k, eR Z[ \g ijZ
_RZ _e aeU fK Me @gagh c] jA[C Gia
fK Me i\i ja ijZ @c ab^ fK]e gl Ke[C,
Z[_ Gj ahde @c Ka iPZ^ ^[C; Za, @c KZK
lZe iPZ^ bae ab^ fK M ijZ RWZ jA[C
Ga @ce M _ePZ i Ke[C iPZ^ bae GK fK
Me i\i ja _Qe _eee GK _ba (appeal) [G
C\jeYe_ ba^geiZ _c IWg QZ iNe RY _c
IWge QZ ib ja, a @\ai QZ iNe RY @\ai QZ
54

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

i\i ja RY _c IWge QZ Z[ @\ai QZUG ba^gee

Gj_e GK M ijZ RWZ ja ^R _ee _Z @^eq Z[ GK
Z _ePZ i _A Zu _die `k cZ GVe CfL^d ahd
jf @c @ce Cg_eY _A ^R Aze GK ^ MK
Pd^ Ke[C Ga ij M ijZ ^Re _ePZ i Kea iwiw
iq Me _eee @gMjY KePf
_ae Kj~AQ ~, _eeU MUG M _A @[_ ja
CPZ @^ @[e Kjf, _eeK Me ic Ke Ke[a
\eKe,
^jf Zj _ee bae _eMYZ jA_ea^j MUG M
bZe MUG C_\^ iZak _eeK jA_ea, ~Zak
Gj Me ic i\iu c]e MjYd ja ijZ _ee i\iu
bZe ^\e @\^_\^ jA_e[a cdebe ce @\ai
M c]e RY _eaeK @Z[ @if @aajZ S@c^ Zue
_\_l k^ Kea \L~G Za, ieMWe ce @\ai,
~Cc^ K L ]caf, ic^ K NeK @Z[ @if jZ ]Aa
_A GK ZU@(K ~KYi _Z) @C _Y ^A @i @C @Z[K
ij ZU@e jZ ]AaK Kj _Y Xk \A[ Gj _[ a ]eK
ce fK M KZ \AQ ~C[_A Gj _ee bae
_eMYZ jAQ Ga ic^ c] GjK Zu _ee bae _ePZ
Ke ~\ KYi KeYagZ, bahZe ij ce M Gj _ee
_k^ KeaK Pja^j Z[ Zu bZe KYi KeYe \ \L\G,
Za Gj _ee @Pe af_ jA~a, G[e ij ^j 2 @ZGa,
_ee iZak ~G _ee bae _eMYZ jA[G, ~Zak
~G iq fK M ZjK C_l ^Ke @ce _ee af
KZ \A[@ Gj ^Z ~, _eee @\^_\^ _eeK bae
j jA[G Za, fKZa\
c^ Gj @-@\^_\^ a glY
_KdK GK _Kee _ia
Y _Kd a kind of osmosis (Glassie 1995,
408) bae @bjZ Ke, ~CV @c RYaK Pj[a _eeUK
@ce _a_X Z[ icicdK _ee ajK @cK gLA[ a
_eeK bae @c Zj gl Ke[C
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

55

_eee aKg @^K bae jA[G, Ga @c _LK @ia

_ae _eeU MUG Me aKg fb Ke[G @c bZe GK
]eY @Q ~, _ee ]eajK ba Ga eLK _Kde MUG
_Xe @C MUG _XK iieZ jA[G K, K`W MR (Clifford
Geertz) iZK GK Ia a @Rf bae @bjZ Ke (1975,
5) @ZGa, _eeK GK @Rfd a_e bae MjY Kf @c
_eeU K_e aKgZ ja ijZ iq Me i\iu bZ e
@\^_\^ jA[G, i iKe GK ]eY _A_ea
iZK @Rf bae @Kk^ Kf _ee Gj @Rf
bZe iKd bae iieZ jA[G Ga, @c @ZZK GK
_aj, RUk _Kde @g bae \LaK _A[C _eee Gj
]eYe Gj jG ~ _ee @ZZe bahZ i (Glassie
1995, 395) Ga, @ZZ j GKcZ @]e, ~je b bce @ce
@\^_\^ I _ee _ZZ jA[G Gj ^Z ~ @c @ZZe
fKMe gl Ke[C, K @c ac^e fK Me
c] gl Ke[C; @c @ce ac^e @^bZ Ga C_~MZK
@L @Me eL _ee i Kea ijZ ZjK @_YA ^A[C
GjK Kea _A GK C\jeY \@~A_e _c IWge
S@UG C}k aga\kde _Xa icde Ze iwc^u ijZ
cg Wfc LAa ijZ Gje _Z c] RYf i QU icde
NeK `ea _e Ne c] Wfc ef Zu Nee ic i\iu
Gj i\ fMf Gj _e_e ic^ ^dcZ aa]^e Wfc
_Z Ke LAf KQ\^ _e iA S@Ue ^KU iKZ _eae
Ga _Wgu Ne c] Gj _Z ja \LMf, ~\I _c IWge
L\ _eee Wfc _Z ^j @ZGa, _ee MUG _Xe
@C MUG _XK Kak iieZ jA^[G, Gj icKke MUG
Me @^ MK c] iieZ ja \L~G, cLZ b^b^
bMkK _eage @ai^ Ke[a \A M _eee ige
@if G_Kee iieY \L~A[G _eee @^ GK @dc
jf \A Me i\iu bZe ~Zak GKZZ jae
56

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

@aie @i, iZak ic^ _eee _eeK _baZ Kea

\L a K c k C\jeYe _ IW g e _ee K aC g
KeMec^ iZ ab^ fK cjac^ue Ce-_a *ke
aCg KeMec^u ige @i iZ aCge il KeK~_
Kcc^ Kea _e\ jCQ Gj C\jeY \AUe @c @C MUG
K[ jA[C ~ akak RY aq c] icM _eeK
_baZ Ke_e, Ga MUG M @C MUG Me _eeK
c] _baZ Ke_e
_eee iieY K[ Kjfak c^e GK _g @i
~ _eeK _KZe KG iieZ Ke? a _eee iieYe
KCc^ cL bcK MjY Ke[@ Gj _iwe fKZa\c^
_ee ajK3u iKe Kj, @c G_e aq aghu i@^
Kj_ea, ~G GK ^ _eeK agh bae @d Ke[
fK a\Ke, MZKW@, K[^Ke, _eeK KeMec^u Gj
_ee ajK a i@^ bae @c MjY Ke_ea RY i@^
a\K j @^c^u a\~ gl \A_ea ij_e, ic a\~
^cY Ke_ea ^j, RYRY i@^u \e j Gj ia @^K
icde i@^c^u @bae aj _ee af_ jA~a c]
\MPe jA[G C\jeYe_ KQ \gK Zk Mc^ue
KYi aqe Rc K aWaMPe K@ Lk jfak KC
i^e ag _Y cka Zj RY i@^ AeR @le Y @KZe
GK KV ij~e Kj \A_e[f 4 iZ ij i@^c^u
@bae Gj _ee _c IWge i ^ j jA~AQ af
Kj~A_e Kak jZMYZ KQ fK j Gj _eee Ga
@]Ke Za, GVe CfL^d ~, ic fK]e Kak
_ee ajKu \e iieZ jA^[G C\jeYe_ c@
aW S@K SU @ua gLAf, aW S@ Ze i^ bCY Ga _Wg
Nee \A S@K a gLAf ij_e, @^ GK _Wg S@ Z
LWVe SU _KAa gLf GVe Gj SU_K _eee ic
Kc ag \lZ eL ^d @ZGa, SU_K _eeU KYi
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

57

^ GK aqe \lZ C_e ^be Kf^j @ZGa, ia _ee

i@ ^ a a gh \lZ [a aqu \e j _eahZ ja Gj
Kj~A^_e
_ee ajKu bcK
K ^A fKZa\c ^u c]e cZb\
\L~G ~, _ee ajK Kak _eee _eajK cZ, @^iRK
^j
(Noyes 2003, 11) _ee ajKu fKZa\
c ^ GK _Kee
iPZ^ _eahK a c^K _eahK (standard performer) bae
MY^ Ke[, Ga iq fK Me Gc^u bcKK QZc^u
Me RY _`ieu bcK ijZ Zk^ Ke~A[G @ZGa,
_ee ajKu MeZ\a @[, fK]ee RY aq _eee
@\^_\^e iKd bcK MjY Kea Ga @^c^ _eee ^d
i\i bae _eMYZ ja Gj fK]e @]d^ _Z GK Cyw
\b
w cZ KeY, Gj \e RY agh aqu @^c^uVe _eee
gqgk ajK bae MY^ Ke~G Za, Gj iZ ~, KZK
ahdK _ee (technological tradition)e Gj _ee ajK a
i@^u bcK @Z MeZ
_
Gc^u a^ Gj ^
_eee iieY
Kaa ia jA^_e C\jeYe_, _c IWge MY aRe
_ee \LaK ck a\ ad^ GK agh Kk ic a\Ke
~\I Gj ad^ Kk _eeK bae gl Ke[ Z[_ ic^u bZe
agh _eahYKe (master performer or master crafts people)
[@ 5 Gc^u _eahY @^c^u _eahY @_l Cy _giZ
ja ijZ @^c^u Gc^ ij _eeK m^ gl \a c]
\L~A[G Gj_e fKMZe, _eeK ad^ Kke, jg
_bZ
e _eeK aghmu bcK
K C_l Ke~A^_e Gj GVe
CfL^d ~ Gj _eeK aghm Kak _eee gl\^ Z[
_eeK C{aZ eLae cLbcK ^a j Ke_e K, icM _eee
_eahY Me ic _eahYKeu C_e j ^be Ke[G
@^KZ, fK]ee _e_Kg KYi ^ aq aghu
C_e ^be Ke^[G _a @fPZ ahdK _eee GKGK
aghm [A_e K, _eeU ij aghmu ^A a*^j a
58

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

iieZ jG^j Gj aZZ, fK _eee KYi GK aq

_eee ic @dc C_e a gh \lZ jif Kea a ia
jA^[G C\jeYe_, MY aR _eee RY aq ^i^, Zi,
ZeaW, UcK, Xf, cje _bZ ic a\~ ad^ Keae \lZ
eLa ia^j Ga \l jf c] RY aq G ic a\~
GKKk^ ad^ Ke_ea^j @ZGa, GK fK Me [a
_eee ij Me ic ib DY@]K \l Ga _eeK iieZ
Keae MeZ_ bcK ^ajKea \L~G fK]e fK
MK @]e Ke[G, KYi aq aghK ^j @c _eee
@\^_\^ ab^
bae Ke[C, ab^ _iwe Ke[C _ee
Kjf, @ce ac^e aaje ~j \e MUG Me RYK ijZ
@^ RYK RWZ, _ePZ jA[G; Gj iK @^ M ijZ c]
jA_e, ~j @cK GK Z _RZ bae, GK Z M bae
_ePZ _\^ Ke[G
_eaeK jC K _RZK, ]cK
@a i^d GK M ~j a
jC _ee M ba^ C_e ^be
Ke[G _ee @cK GK _ePZ

\A[G, GK ^
M ijZ _ePZ
jaK @cK _ee i~M _\^
Ke[G @ce _a _X ijZ, @ce _eae, _RZ, @ce M agh
~j @c @c _A cjZ_ c^Ke[C Z ijZ RWZ jae ijdK
jA[G Za, @^K icde @^K _eee af_^ ja c]
\L~G Ga icd, _eiZ
I _eage _bae _eee _ea^
@i[G Gj _ea^e _eZ^ _eee af_^ ja ijZ ^Z^
_eee iR^ ja @^KZ baK jA_W MU icde _c
IWge MY a Wc fK Me _f@ MZe _ee [f ~j
iZ i bae f_ _A~AQ @^e_
bae, C_Kk IWge @C
_@Y Ne _ee ^j ij_e, IWge @^K @\ai Ga @Y@\ai
Mc^ue S@e aajKke K^_Z ae_le Sf Uu MjY
Kea a] [f ~j, iZ KZK lZe ^cK cZ UuUG MjY
Ke~CQ Gj Z^U C\jeYe @c \LaK _Af ~, _[cZ
\AU _eee i af_^ jA~AQ KeY, ij _eeK iq M
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

59

@C _eahY ~M c^Kf ^j ZZd _eeU c] ijbk

icRK eZ el _A _eaZ bae _k^ Ke~CQ @ZGa,
_eee c] _ea^ @i, ~Zak iq MU ba ~
icKke Gj _ee G_e bae j eja CPZ a G_e bae Gj
_eeK _k^ Kf Gj @c _A @[_ ja _eee Gj _Kee
_ea^ @agKZ I iZK _dR^dZK @]e Ke[G 6
_eee af_^, _ea^ lZe KQ fKZa\ Ga
iZa\ ba ~, ~jZ _ee @ce _a_ehuVe @iQ Gj
^ ^ja K[ a G[e KYi _Kee _ea^ jaK[ ^j
K, _eee _ebh @^KZ RUk @c _ee Ga AZji
c]e [a il _b\UK RYa @agK KYi GK _[ AZji
jA_e K , _ee Kj f Me @agKZ Z[
_dR^dZ @^ie _ea^gk, MjYgk Ga @\^_\^ ~M
GK _PkZ ]e IWge aYKc^ aYR Kea _A \_e ~Z
jCQ GK HZjiK NUY K, iA iZK @]e Ke KK _c
\^ aAZ biY Ca _k^ Kea GK _ee @ZGa, KYi
_ee iZak af_ jA[G, ~Zak iq M _A
Zj cfj^ jA_W GVe Gj a CfL^d ~ ~\, MUG
Me MUG _eee af_^ \L~G, Zje @[ ^j ~,
@^ Me c] ij _eee af_^ NUa aq bk M c]
Z Ga @^^ C\jeYe_, Le\^e c@RC LAa _c
Ga \lY IWge @\ai Z[ @Y@\ai Me GK L\ _ee
iZ @^K @Y@\ai M @C c@ RC LC^j Za, Gj
@\ai L\ _eee i af_ jA^j; iZ c] @^K
@\ai Mu L\ _eee c@ RCe _]^ @Q GVe
_eeKZe @C GK @dc iKe CfL Ke~A_e @c
\L ~, @^K @\ai M a^ PCke Kak c@K RC Ke
K @ KAfK c] RC Ke ahe @^K icde LAa \L~G
@ZGa, @c Le\^e c@ RC LAaK Z L\ _ee bae
MjY KeQ, Za ahe ci]K Kk G_e a^ PCke c@, @
60

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

KAf RC LAaK c] KY L\ _ee bae MjY Ke_ea

K? ~\ @az\a\ \e \L~G Za, GjK Kaa _eeK
L\ Kj~A_ea ^j KeY, iq fK M MWKe ^dcZ
L@ ~C[f c] Gj _Qe ~C @[K @dc RWZ ZjK @Ke
Ke~A^_e @ZGa, KYi GK fK Me icRK ahc
Z[ @aai R^Z iZK _iZK
iVK bae aPe ^Ke ZjK
ic^ue _ee Kja @\ icP^ ^j
MUG M GK _Kd a _[K ~Zak @agK Ga
_dR^d af c^Ke Ga Gje _k^ Z[ _eahY Ke
iZak Zj _ee bae _eMYZ jA[G @ZGa, ~Z\^
~G iq M GK _eeK @_dR^d c^Ke^j, iZ\^
_~ Zje af_^ @ia Za icd, _eag, _eiZ Ga
_ dR^dZ @^i e _eee @^K _ea^ , Z[ ^Z ^
i~R^ c] \LaK ck[G fKZa\c^ _eee \AU
@dc iKe CfL Ke, Zj jf _ea^gkZ Ga
elYgkZ (Tolken 1979, 34-35) _ee iZak elYgk
jA[G, ~Zak Zj M a aqe Az @^ze Ce [G
C\jeYe_ aj^Q^ ~Z _c IWge ic Ph Gj
aj^Q^
~Ze ~M \A[@ Kj GjK C_l Ke _ea^j
ij_e, R^-Kc-aaj-cZ iKZ KcKcY, ~j _k^ Kea GK
_Kee a]ZckK ~\, KYi i\i Gj _eee _k^ ^Ke,
Za iq M c]e Zju Kj ijRe MjY Kea^j @^e_
bae, C_Kk IWge aaj _eeK ^@ ~A_e K^e
@^Kk jAie[f K^e _eaee KYi i\iu cZjf c]
Zje aajK~ a Ke~A_ea ^j, cc(S@e) ZjK S@e_e
MjYKe aaj \aK jA[G G ]eYe _eeMWKe KYi
aq K MUG M ^R Az cZaK KYi _Kee _ea^
Ke_ea^j Za, K^_Ze aajKk^ SfUu MjY, ~j
aaj _eee GK @^^ cZ K, Gj aaj Kc (ritual) iKZ
^j, GY Zj _ea^K @_YA ^AQ KeY, iq M Gj
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

61

_ea^K _ dR^d c^KeQ ij_ e, i]eYZ aPK

_e_KgMWK j @^ _e_Kg @_l _ea^gkZK ijRe
@_YA ^A[G Za, KQKQ icRK eZ^Ze c] af_^
\LaK ckQ _c IWg e aj_PkZ S@ c^ue GK _KaajK Kc KYae7 @C _k^ Ke~C^j
MUG _ee C_e KYi aqe a Me _ba Zj
iPZ^ bae jC K @RYZe jC, GK _ea^e c]c
aghKe aPK fK]ee Gj _Kee _ea^K @c bae
fl Ke_ea K[^, MZ, PUK
fe _eahY C_e gZu C_iZ

@^K _ba _KA[G C\jeYe_, GK K[^ _eahY icde
K[K KYi GK _c-gweckK C_L^ a^ KeQ, iAV ~\
Zue LZ a je@8 iKZ gZ K @^ Pk^d gZ j [a,
Zjf Zje a^ ~_e ja, iAV bCY K cCi a LW bk
@^ c^-iKd KYi gZ [f Zue _eahY a @L^ bM
Z[ a^gke _ea^ Kea ^Z
ij_e, fKKWe @^K
b^ e_ Z[ _Kee e_ _e\ jA[G, ~j _eag Ga
_eiZ @]eZ _ea^e GKGK _K C\jeY 9 fK C_\^e
_eaZ _eahY Zje ~C b^ e_ Z[ _Kee e_ i
Ke[G Zj j fK]ee _ea^gkZe e_
_eee _ea^gkZ ^Z^ _eeK R^ \ae ijdK
jA[G jaiac (Eric Hobsbawm) Ga ee (Terence Ranger)
_eee aKg K[ CfL Ke Zu The Invention of Tradition
(1983) _Ke 10 _eag, _eiZ
Ga icde @a\^ Z[ icKk^
_dR^dZ \e fK]ee _ea^ \L~A[G _eee Gj
_ea^gkZ Ga MjYgkZ ^Z^ _eeK aKgZ Ke[G
akak ^Z^ M _eee aKg Ke[, ~j bahZe _X
_e _X iieZ jA[G KZK lZe MUG M @^ GK
Me _eeK @_YA ^a ijZ ZjK ^R Me aRd eLa
c] \L~G C\jeYe_ c^Ke, cSMWe RY aqu
LfMWe KYi GK aq ijZ bae @\^_\^ jf a ^Z^ iK
62

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

MX CVf, ic^ cZ aif LfMWe aq RYK Zu Ne

M_Mi^ \au _R Ke cSMWe aq RYK LfMWe Zue
Gj cZu Ne KQ ie ^AK @if iA iee M_Mi^ \a
@if 11 `ke_, _eaee M_Mi^u _R KeaK jf
~\I, Gj @Me iq _eaee M_Mi^ \au _R Keae
_ee ^[f, G_eK icM Mce Kj a Gj \au _R Ke[a
e
C\jeY ^[f ij_e, a_ cZ ai[f _ea icde _@ c]
Zu cZ a_ af i]^ KeaK jA[G @^e_
bae, \ARY
cZue _@S@c^ cZ bA, cZ bCY bae iK elKeaK _W[G
Ga _eee _eae _eeK i^ @\e Kea \L~G
@^ Me _eeK K_e @C MUG M @_YA ^A[G
Zje GK C\jeY jf KQ ah _a @\ai Ga KQ @Y@\ai
fK Me aaj _eeK ]wWcS12 jZe i^ jC[f,
cZ iZ ic^ a\K _eeK @_YA ^A ajY _ejZu \e
aaj K~ i^ Kea \L~CQ Gj ^Z^ _eee i~R^ a
aKg c^^j ~ iq fK Me ic i\i ZjK c^
^a Ga @aKk bae Zj _k^ _eahY KePf[a, iA
_eee _ea^ a @i_e GVe Gj CfL^d ~, iZ c]
C_eq fK Me @]Kg i\i _eeK bae ]wWcS
jZe j aaj K~ i^ KeQ ij_e, a_ue a RR a_ue
cZ, cj_i\ Ne iwe _ea _Xe iK lY a jA_W[G, ~j
\A _eaee ^Z^ _Xe i\ic^u C_e ^be
Ke[G
_eee aKg Ga ^Z^ i~R^ icRK Ga eR^ZK
_ePZ ^cY _A GK @agKZ bae c] akak \L~G
...Ethnic groups, regional groups, organizational and occupational
groups, families: all such groups may find themselves creatively
utilizing past practicesboth inherently aged ones and deliberately
aged onesas manipulable markers of a common identity. (Tuleja
1997, 3) fK]ee a fK C_\^e icRK Z[ eR^ZK

aaje c] ^Z^ @dc ^j 13 Za ab^

@^^, Z[ fK
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

63

M ic^ue a @^ Me fK C_\^K icRK eR^ZK

Cgi]^ ^c aaje Kea c] \L~G Me icRK
_Z a _eP Z _A Z[ eR^ ZK Cg i]^ _A G_e
Ke~A[G akak _eZ^ _eee _^_Z ijZ _PkZ
_eeK PZeZe ijZ c] _dM Ke~A[G C\jeYe_,
fMW @*ke ajed K^K ae] Ke ^dceR _Re
@dR^ 14 ij_ e, Kg_e Z[ afwe @*ke K^K
ae]Ke @^K fKMZ gYaK ck, ~j fKMZe e_
\e iZK i~R^ 15 fKMZe icRK aiwZ Ga @aai
_Z e Ck^ ^@ ^ j, Za iZ K _e i Z e MUG
eR^ZK @agKZK ^A ^Re @]Ke _A, Z _ePZ _A
K_e fK M iR^gk bae ic^ue ba I @aMK
_Kg KeQ, Zj GVe MeZ_ _eee Gj ^Z^ aKg a
^Z^ i~R^ KYi ^KeZKZ ^j K fK]ee KYi
_z^ _Kd ^j, ae GK _eaZ _eiZ ij Zk\A Pf[a
iR^gk @dc
_eee aKg a _ea^ K[ Kjfak Gje ~[[Z
(authenticity) C_e _g Ke~A[G Kj~G ~\ MUG _eee
AZji ^j, Za Zj K_e ~[[e GK _ee bae _eMYZ
jA_ea? K, GK ^
Me akak K_e _eee aKg
jA[G, Zj @c @fP^ KeieQ _KZe, fKZa\c^
~Cc^ fK]e ijZ _eZ^Z, Mc, Z[ R^RZdZK ~W,
ic^ j _eee HZjiKZK MeZ \@ fK]ee _eie GA
Mc, _eZ^, Z[ R^RZd _eiee aje @i a_K @]d^e lZ
_Z KeQ iZ fK]ee MahKc^ _ee Kjf fK
M, @\^_\^e e_ Ga _ePZ
K \L Ga, ~[[Z ^j,
_KZe fK M K_e ic^u _eeK im _\^ KeQ
a Zje aL KeQ Zj MeZ_ @ZGa, ~\ MUG M
c]e @\^_\^e _Kd C_e _ee ^be Ke[G, Ga MU
~\ i`k bae GK _ee c]e Zue @\^_\^ Ke_eQ,
64

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

Za ij _ee ic^u _A ~[[ ^d ~[[Z GK @_lK

g _eee ~[[Z KG ^eZ KeQ? M ^ @C KG? Ga,
KC Cge G ~[[Ze _g? ~\ iq M _A _eeU
@[_, Za Zje HZjiKZ [C K ^[C Zj ~[[ ^d, G[e
KYi ij _Kg Ke~A^_e K Gje ~[[ZK ^A KYi
fKZa\
_g Kea icP^ ^j
fK C_\^e aaidKeY Z[ fK]e _Ve
eR^ZK Ga icRK C_~M icde ~[[Ze _g GK MeZ_

bc K ^a j Ke[ G @c fK cjac^ue _eeK
C_KeYMWKe aKd
ja \LaK _CQ G_e lZe KZK
a \ ^ lb _ K g Ke [ @ ~, fK C_\^M W K e GA
aaidKeY iq C_\^e iR^gkZK Ga iZK _e_Kg _Z
GK _Ke ghY Gj GK aje fKMe iR^gkZe Kak
GK aMZ _eahY cZ, `kZ fK Kk Zje _eeK iR^gk
_eage _e_KgZ ^jA Kak a bae _KgZ jae icZ
jA ej~ CQ Gj aaidKeY ~[[ fK C_\^e GK
KkZKj^ ^c-_Ze_ i Keae ia^K @]K _gd
\A[G
K, Gj ]eY c] GK Cyw @a]eY KeY, fK]ee
iR^gkZe _ea^ GK baK _Kd Ga, aaid K[ ~j
Kj~CQ, Zj fK]ee KkZK _e_Kge ~ KYi ^KeZK
_ba _KAa, G_e baa bf c eNeR_ee _eeK _PZ gu
ijZ @^_PeK ba @fP^ Kfak @aMZ jA[f ~
aRee Pj\ \e @cK @_lKZ Kc cfe _PZ _A Kc
KeMe KeaK _W K~U ~Z KkZK ja, Zje cf iZ
ag ja, ~j i^d MjK KYae ia^ La Kc @ZGa,
@_lKZ Kc cfe ck[ a _PZK @c ^^-KkZK C_\^
Kj_ea^j ae, aaidKeY ~M _eeK g @[K \e KQ
fb^Z jCQ, (KZ, aKZ, Ga _eeK C_\Ku ^Y\Y
c]e KQ \ff [a ) Gj @Ke Ke~A^_e ePW Wei^
Zue fK]e MahYe _[cK _~de ~C _z^ fK]e
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

65

(fakelore)

K[ Kj[f Zje _bce [f R^_d Z[ c^e^

_A _Z
a CgckK ba fK]eK @]e Ke _Z
Ke~A[a
C_\^ 1970 cije i _^ae ZK \KYe fK C_\^e
eR^ZK aaje Ga Gje iMj Ga @^gk^ (interpretaion)
_bZ
K @]e Ke G iKe _^ae _~fP^ Kea ijZ Gje
_^aL Kf i cLZ fKC_\^e eR^ZK aajeK ag
MeZ \A[f @^K icde eR^ZK ae] a eR^ZK
iPZ^Z _A a_k i]eY R^-Mu _baZ Kea _A fK
C_\^e aaje Ke~A[G Gj ic^ue eR^ZK @]Ke
Z[ GKZ Ga -_ePZ
i Kea _A GK CgckK aaje ^d
Za, \L~AQ ~ CgckK bae fK]eK @]e Ke _Z
C_\^U c] _eeK ~[[Z el Kea ijZ iq M c]e
_eeK bae iieZ jA[G ZY, fK]ee @]d^ _A
_eeU ~[[ K ^j, GK MeZ_ _g ^j; ae iq M K_e
GjK MjY KeQ, iq _eeK ic^ ~[[ c^KeQ K ^j,
Zj j MeZ_ @ZGa, _eeU CgckK jC a _eaZ e_
jC @a jA_e GK ^Z^ i~R^, ~\ iq fK Mu
_A Zj ~[[, Za Zj ~[[ fK]ee KYi MahK ZjK
@~[[ bae aaP^ Kea CPZ ^j

1. fK KjYe K_e Z}kK i~R^ jA[G i iKe iRd Kce

aMu K[^: GK fKZK @a]eY _a \a
2. ...nothing can prevent them from dropping certain traditional practices,
songs and dances from the traditional reportaire when they please even
if it is outrages the intellectual bystander who feels they should never lose
their heritage (Tolken 1979, 38) italic is mine.

3. fK]ee Z[ fK C_\^e i_ieYKe Z[ _eahYKeu

Carl W. von Sydow _[c tradition bearer a _ee ajK bae
@bjZ Ke _eee _e_KgK @L @Me eL _ee ajKu iKd
66

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

ajK (active bearer) Ga ^d ajK (passive bearer) bae \A bMe

i abq Ke
4. Gj _eee PZ @c _ecge cu GK ^UK cNe \g _G^e
\LaK _A_ea _ecge c fK]ee c] RY MahK, i Gj
_eeU Kkj Rfe cj^Me aKe \Wif Me KU@ K fK
Me RY i@^u \e _eahZ ja GK aqMZ ilZKee Kj
_ecge c d c] Gj _ee _eahY Keae \lZ jif Ke[a
\a Ke Gj _ee Kak _c IWge ^j age @^Z c] C_f
(\a Tolken 1979, 114)
5. _c IWge MY aR _eee ^i^ a\Kc^ ^i^ aRAa ijZ
a\e ZkZk bAe _Z ~A[a Q*K @L _Ze CVAa, MfiK
\e UKa, cuWPZ cea bk agh \lZ c] eL[f iZ c]
KQ _eahYKe Gbk agh \lZ _\g^ Kea \LaK ck
6. ...change occurs each time new variations are introduced and again these
innovations are subject to acceptance or rejection. As this process continues,
each new invention is adapted gradually to the needs of the society and to
the pre-existing culture patterns, which may themselves be modified somewhat
to custom to the new invention (William R. Bascom, as quoted by Tolken
1979, 34).

7. \gae ah e akK eRk ja _ a e ZK GK ge ijZ a aj

Ke\@~C[f agi [f ~ KYae jA[a S@ icRK eZ @^ie
aaj ^Ke a_c@u @KZ ^R Aze C\f@ K _eicW Mf
c] Zj _Qe KYi icRK ^dc R^Z @MjZ ej^j
8. LZ a je@ Kjf ~ju ijZ [cR Ke~A_e G_eK KQ
^ h C_L^ I P U K f (off-clour anecdotes and jokes) M W K e
@\^_\^ c] Ke~A_e
9. fKKWMWKe b^ e_ Z[ _Kee e_ _A id Kce aMu
_c IWge _eeK KW: GK fKZK @]d^ (2012) M^ \a
10. Invention of tradition is taken to mean a set of practices, normally
governed by overtly or tacitly accepted rules and of a ritual or symbolic
nature, which seek to inculcate certain values and norms of behavior by
repetition, which automatically implies continuity with the past (Habsbawm
and Ranger 1983, 1).
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

67

Gj _e _ l e fI i Ga jce (James R. Lewis and Olav

Hammer)u i\Z The Invention of Sacred Tradition (2007) M^ c]
\a, ~CV GK Me K_e icRK KcKcY Z[ ab^ _[ @]eZ
_eee aKg jA_e Zj iKe fKZa\c^ ag\ @fP^
KeQ
11. M_Mi^ GK fK \a Gj \a icM _c Ga \lY IWge
fK _eee _Zl \a bae _ePZ M_Mi^ [a _eaee
ie, ]^, fj, aCge Wf... _bZ L\gi Ga Mj C_KeY cj @e,
cQ @e Ga c]j icde @Yf Z ijZ Gj \a iq _eaeK Pf
@i[@ Gj \au _R Kf MjKu Ne ]^]^ _e_ jG, Gbk GK
agi G~G c] akae @Q
12. ^ Mc^ue icRK eZ^ZMWKe @dR^ Z[ _ePk^
Ke[a aq, ~ju community event manager bae MjY Ke~A_e
13. G _iwe K_e fK _eee cjR^, VK\e, ieKe KcPeu
ghY _Z ae]e e , Zje PZ KQ fKMZe K_e `U CVQ
Zj \ a
RA`fe,
WK^f VK\e
Ne\e QW a\g Ne
@j RA`f _U KR jeae...
RA`fe,
^@a RMf M\
@if _U@e j RA`fe
jZe c\jf a... (cg 1996, 399-403)
aGfe... G...
LU LU aecie jeZ \f a_
bZ ^A \f PKe_I iC j,
Ze _ej _I ce j...
G aGfe... G...
\j MBe Mei ^ej \jA
NA LA Mei @P MiA KG MiA
jf@ ~ Ni KUA j...
G aGfe... G...
68

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

Ph ce K_ ae j c aK _f
M cGU[ MjW \a ce aCf
@Kf PWK @Gf j... (\_ 2012)
ie LGf aCgK
Ze _e cR^ ^ jGf ^ j
LUL ~GZ eG_eK...
]^K ic^ LGf
MU@ Ne bZ KeKe
ge gKZ ieMf... (aM Ga aM 2009, 122-123)
14. 2012 cij `ade 24, 25 Ga 26 ZeLe \N Z^\^ ]e
^dc Wwee i^d Wwe@ K fK M\e ^dceRe _R
@^Z jA[f
15. KZU fK MZe C\jeY GVe \a
Rc QWa ^j
Me CVa ^j
Wwe QWa ^j...
cUe cYh / cUe _K
cU QWa ^j... (ij 2008, 191)
G aGfe... G...
K^ NUe _G^ KG LAa
ge PK^ aU KG Pfa
_eQ ~Z Mce K[
@cK RY [fe... j...
G aGfe... G...
@ce af KQ ^A cU c Z @ce
^A QW M-Ne-Se KG
RSa GK ie j...
G aGfe... G...
bYe NeK iC ajf f\e ]^
Kcf KUf ~Z^ jfZ j^c^ ~
cA i^ ZA R~c^... j... (\_ 2012)

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

69

70

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

_e ahY

fK M Ga _ee _e _eahY c] fK]ee

GK cL @dc _eahYK ^UK K ^Z _eahY bk icZ @[e
fK]eee MjY Ke~G ^j ae, fK]ee _ZK C_\^e
_e_KgK GK GK _eahY bae fKZa\c^ MjY Ke[ ^UK,
^Z, MZ, KjY, _a\-_aP^, QU-\dK, PUKf, C_L^, Mk _bZ
ic _Kee aPK C_\^ GK _eahY c]e j _KgZ jA[G
ij_e, ic _Kee _[, _eee @^^K c] _eahY bae MjY
Ke~A[G G_eK fK]ee bZK fK]ee ^cY Ga _dM
Z[ aajeK a GK GK _eahY _Kd bae MjY Ke~G @ZGa,
GVe _\g^gk fK]e ijZ aPK I bZK fK]ee _e_KgK
c] _eahY bae MjYKe Gje ab^ @dc iKe il_e @fP^
Ke~ae _di Ke~AQ

_eahY a C_\^e _e_Kg _A GK ^ lZ ijZ

_eahYKe, Ga \gK a gZe @agKZ [G fK]e
_eahYe CfL^d \MU jf G[e Kak _eahYKe
j C_\^e GKcZ _eahK ^j, ae gZ a \gK c] GK
GK _eahYKe Ga icM _eahYe @gMjY Keae @]Ke
eL ~\, KYi _eahYe Me @^ gZc^ @gMjY
Keae a _eahY _Kde bM^ae @ijR c^Ke a
ic^u b c K K C_l Ke~CQ, Za ij _e ahYK
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

71

fKZ e GK i`k _e ahY a _eeK _e ahY (folk

performance) Kj~A_ea ^j ^UK, ^Z, iwZK _eahY
Kjf @^K @ijR c^Kea^j Za, ] Ga _a\-_aP^
bk @^^ aPK C_\^K c] Z\e _eahY bae MjY
Ke~A[G GMWK ^UK, ^Z bk _eahZ jA^[G, ae
NeA _eage \^^ Ga i]eY K[a bZ e GjK
_eahY Ke~A[G (C\jeYe_, _ez\e ghe ]
_eahYe GK _V i^Z Ke~AQ) ij_e, _[ _eeK c]
fKZa\c^ _eahY bae MjY Ke[ GVe CfL^d
~ C_\^U ~Zak _eahZ jC^j, iZak ~G ZjK
fK C_\^ bae MjY Ke~A_ea ^j @ZGa fK]e
jCQ ~j KQ @c Ke, @c _Le ~j @Q Zj fK]e ^j
(Sims and Stephens 2005,132) Gj _iwe UfK^u aqaK
c] ieY Ke~A_e A traditional item (whether oral or
material or gestural or musical) is folklore when it is actually used
in its indigenous set of live context (Tolken 1979, 38)
ePW aCc^u i\^e Verbal Art as Performance M^

_KgZ jG 1970 cije aCc^ bhZ, ^Z, ijZK

@]d^ Ga fKZ \e aPK C_\^e KkZK @]d^ iKe
MeZ _\^ Kf KeY, aPK @\^_\^ GK KkZK @dcK
aj^ Ke, ~j ^ _eag (setting) Ga @\^_\^e @gMjY
Ke[a iZ C_e ^be Ke aCc^u \e _eahY
jCQ a unifying thread tying together the marked, segregated
aesthetic genres and other spheres of verbal behavior into a general
unified conception of verbal art as a way of speaking (Bauman
1984, 5) aPK Kk bZe c[, K[^, MZ, _a\-_aP^, Ga @^

ic aPK _e_Kg, ~j _eahY _eiee @i[G, Gia iZ^, I _RZK _bce _ZK iZ Ga Me GjK Z
bae \L~A_e _eahY _Kde _ZK _eahYK b^
GK _eahY bae MY^ Ke~G, KeYfKMe _ZK
72

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

_eahY @fM @fM jA[G, _eahYKeu _eahY Kk Ga

cLKZ Z[ @L^ gk _ZK _eahYe KdZ @Y[G
fK M GK ^ _eage Ga _iwe GK ^
KeYe GK ^ gke @\^_\^ Ke[@, Ga Gj @\^_\^
jCQ _eahY _eahYe \^^ i]eY _e_KgVe GK
ZZ [G, Gj bhK jA_e K @wbw jA_e; ~jK
@]eKe @c ^ _ K d U K _e ahY Kj _ e a
fKZa \ c ^ Gj _e ahY _K d e ab ^ @dc ~[
KZak, KCVe, Kj ijZ, K_e Ga KjK Gj_e ab^
\M C_e MeZ _\^ Ke[@ _eahYe cL _Kd ahda
a _V (text) aZZ, ijZK, bhK, geeK _e_Kg Ga __V
(texture) ijZ ^ M Ga _eag a _ei e Z[ _iw
(context) iKe c] @]d^ Ke[ 1 GVe _V, __V Ga
_iw iKe icK @a]eY _A Z bae @fP^ Keae
_di Ke~CQ

_V
_V Kj f, iZ fKZe Kak aPK C_\^e
ahdaK aSG ^j, ae icM _e ahYe _e ahY _KdK
aSA[G K[^, MZ, ^UK, PUK
f @\e _V @LdZ ahda
ij_e, ^aPK fK C_\^ ~[ _[-_ee Ga bZK
fK]ee c] _V \LaK _A_ea Gj C_\^ ijZ
_eahYKe, \gK, gZ, iR^Keu iK Ga _eahY _Kd
icMK bae _V i Ke[G ij_e, _ZK _eahY _Kd
e
^Z^ _V c] i jA[G _V jCQ C_\^Ue MZ @ada
K_W a K^ ~cZ ab^
iZe ^cZ
a MZ jA[G, ij_e
icM C_\^Ue e_ _eMjYe _e_K
g jCQ _V ~jZ, fK
C_\^ Cbd aPK Ga ^a PK jA[G, GY fK C_\^e _V
bae Zje g, a, @KZ, MV^, @\e_
a X*, aaje Ga
2
C_~M _bZ
K
MjY Ke~A_e aPK C_\^e _V PjU
Kea
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

73

ijR KeY, aPK C_\^U j GK _V K, ^aPK C_\^e

_V ^cY iKe @cK iPZ^ ja @agK @fP^UK
Kea _A GVe GK C\jeY \@~A_e gaY cie @cai
a jef C@i _e_e ~\ @c _c IWge Kj NeK ~a,
Za Nee \@e cje QZe i^e MQe Wk M jA[a Ga
\@e ic cUe fjM (Kcegke Zek _W[a
fje aRZ @g)
3
_Z jA[a \LaK _A_ea Gj i^e Wk, Ga fjM GKGK
]eY a agi (idea)e iPKu^ (marker) cZ, ~j Me MCW Ga
Kceu \e @^Z jA[G Gje __e [a _VU jCQ
eM, a_\, i_, iei_ I bZ_Ze el @^e_ bae, @ld
ZZd \^ @c \LaK _Aa ~ lZe MUG KYe KQ ]^
aj^, bM _bZ
_WQ GjK \La cZ iq Me RY aq
aS~
a ~ Gj @lcV , Ga ~C bM _WQ Zj _Re \a\au
@_Y Ke~A[a ^a\ Gj C_\^MWK \La_e @ce Gj
]eY GK _V, ~j @c Cq C_\^MWK \L _V Keae ilc
jf KeY, Gj @c Me @c Gj _eee @^^ icde C_iZ

^[f c] @ce aSae KYi @ia] jf^j; @c Gj _ee

iKe @aMZ ij_e, ee Mfak RY \Lf ~ LA I
KCW (_Ai) _WQ, Gj \La cZ RY RY_ea ~ KQ icd
@Me GA ee ga~Z jAQ
i P Ku^e @a]eY _ i we @C K Q C\jeY
\@~A_e GK ^ \^e ^B I _Lee ZVMWKe KMR
Ga K\k _@e _Z WwMWK biQ _ee ijZ iq RY
i\iK aSAaK _Wa^j ~ @R KK _c Ga GMWK aAZ
biYe @agh ij_e, RY ~\ Z jZe cS @wk e fje
Z@e c\ _Q Za, @c ZjK \Lf j RY_ea c\U
NW^ke Z@e Ga GjK _f Mj\he cq cka af GK
agiK @]e Ke ]eY Ke~AQ @^e_ bae, Gj _Ke ic_z\e \@~A[a PZK \Lf _ee ijZ iq RY aq
Kj\A_ea ~ Gj awawf ajNe _eee @fKPZ,
74

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

~je @^^e ah jC^[f ah jae ia^ [G af agi

Ke~G 4 GVe @c KQ a a _[e iPKu^K \L ZjK
_V Ke_ef @[Z @c _eahYe _Kd ijZ @aMZ Ga
Gj M aje Ga bZe GK ^ a a _ee iieZ
Keae ilc jAQ

_ _ V
__V jCQ MUG fK C_\^e ijZK (literary),
bhK (linguistic), Ga abK (^aPK C_\^ _A) @bflY
(physical characteristics) C\jeYe_ _a\ _aP^e bhK
@bflY (linguistic features) jCQ ]^ck (rhyme), @^_i
(alliteration), akNZ (stress), eNZ (pitch), iik (juncture),
Z^ (tone) Ga @^e Y^ (onomatopoeia) AZ\ Gj ijZ
_eahYKeu @wbw (physical expression), ^
MeZ (particular
emphasis), cL_Kg bk @^K _e-bhK @bflY (para-linguistic
features) c] __Ve @MZ ij_e, ^aPK C_\^e abK
C_\^ ~[ ew, ciYZ, PKYZ, PcK Z[ C}Z _bZK @c
_ _ V bae M jY Ke a_e a 5 @^e _ bae, _ [ ^e _
fK]eM W K e b ^ e_ , Ga b ^ b ^ _e ahKu b ^ b ^
_eahYgkK Z[ b^ @^^K __V bae fKZa\c^
MjY Ke
fK C_\^e Gj __V @bflYMWK @Z MeZ_,
Gj @^ GK bhK @^a\ Kea @ia jA[G Gj KeYe
_a\-_aP^, \ZL^ (tongue twister) ~j a _\a (fixed
phrase) @[Z ~je g Ga @[ ic^_ZK ba @_ea^d,
aZ Zje @^a\ @ia, ~\ bh \AUe a_MZ icZ^j
C\jeYe_ Kg@ K_k bU, af _Pf K@e K fb?,
Z ~Z cea cV, c iA \e_W KV, a @R ^A Kf ^A,
Mj _^AK cA cA _bZ _a\ _aP^e @^a\ @^ bhe Z
\e ia jA_e K, G[e [a __Ve @^a\ @ia
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

75

@ZGa, MUG fK C_\^e _V iq C_\^e GK _KgZ e_

Ga __V jCQ Ze bZe [a MZ @ada __Ve @^a\
ia^j, ~Zak K _Ve @^a\ ia Za, Gj __V
Kak aPK C_\^ c]e icZ ^j; ^UK, ^Z, PZKk, KW,
_eeK jg C_KeY bk @^^ ^aPK C_\^ _A c] ic
bae _~R

GVe KjeLa CPZ ~ ~\ fK C_\^ i^d
bhe iM j Z jA^[ a , Zjf Zje _ _ V iM jZ
jA_ea^j Gj aPK C_\^ _A ~ZK MeZ_, ^aPK
C_\^ _A c] ic^ bae MjYd GY, aPK C_\^MWK
ia\ i^d bhe iMjZ ja @agK ij_e, ^aPK
C_\^e ^cY gk, C_~M (function), aaje (use) I Zje
iZK _bce @fL c] i^d bhe ja CPZ _Y[e
Kj~A_e ~ fK C_\^Ue iVK @]d^ iZak
ia, ~Zak C_\^U _eahY icde i]ikL bae
lZe iMjZ jA[a KeY, C_\^ ijZ Gje _eahY
_iw @^gk^ _A MeZ_ bcK aj^ Ke[G Gj KeYe fK
C_\^e _e ahY @]d^ (performance studies) C_e
fKZa\c^ iZ MeZ _\^Ke ^PZ, RY fK]ee
MahK Kak \@e cje i^e Wk Ga cUZk fjM
\L_ea, KY _A Gj Ke~AQ Zj a jGZ _Pe @aMZ
jA_ea K, Zj KcZ @^ Z jf, Zj @^Z ja
icde K _K e _eeK Z MjY Ke~A[f , @^ ^Keu
@^ ^ _ a Ga _e b c K (pr e-per for mance and postperformance activities) KY [f, Zj RYa ia ja^j
ij_e, RY MahK ~\ MUG Me fKKjY, a fKMZ
iMj KeaK ~A RY K[K a MZKW@u GK ^ek i^e a
KQ fKu _Le aiA Zu C_\^ iMj Ke, Za Zje
__V iMj ia ^j 6 KeY, K[^, fKMZ a ~KYi
fK C_\^ _eahY _A GK _eie a lZ ^cY Ke~A[G,
76

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

Z ijZ \gK-gZ Gjia _eahYe _cL bcK c] MjY

Ke[ @ZGa, Kak MahY K~ _A @dR Z jA
_eahZ jA[a C_\^ GK ~[[ C_\^ ^j, G[_A _KZ
_e agK lZ a lZ _e ahYe C_\^ iMj Ke~a
@agK
_V Ga __V iKe GK CfL^d ahd jCQ
KZK fK C_\^ lZ e GM W K e ^ d Kke
fKZa\c^u @^K ici ic KeaK _W[G, ~cZ
^^ad MZ (nursery rhyme)e giaK @c _V ^ __V
bae MjY Kea? ij_e, RY KjY K[K Zue @L^e
KQ @gK _^ea Kea __ V ^ _iwe _b a? MUG
_eeK PZ e aajZ jA[a ^f ewe @eYU _Ve
_ePdK ^ __Ve e_? @ZGa, akak __VK _V
Ga _ i wVe @fMKe \L a ijR jA^[G GY ,
fKZa\c^ C_\^e ab^ @bflYK Z bae a^
^Ke _V, __V Ga _iwK GKZ Ke C_\^e _eahYK
icMK \KYe @fP^ Ke[

_i w
i^d _eag, icRK @ai, ~CV fK M ic^ue
C_\^e @\^_\^ Ke, Z ijZ gZ a \gK Ga _eahYe
ic^u @gMjYe _KdK _eahZ C_\^e _iw bae
^@ ~A_e cL Z, _i w jCQ Zj, ~j _e ahYe
PZ_ge _eahYKke \L~A[G @c GK fK
Me C_\^e Kak _VK iMj Ke iq Me a C_\^Ue
MeZK iVK bae @fP^ Ke_ea ^j KeY, Gj MUG
ajZ iZK _eiee GK @g ~jZ, C_\^U GK fK
Me @g, GY iq fK MU j ij C_\^ iKe
iVK cZ_\^ Ke_ea @ZGa, _eahZ GK C_\^ iMjZ
ja icde fK]ee MahK C_\^U iKe @aeZ bae
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

77

_ecg\Z (consultant)u ijZ ij ^ _V Ga __V iKe

@fP^ Kea CPZ
fKZa\c^ _iwK aj bae _ebhZ KeQ Wf
jAci _iwK GK ^ _eage Ga icRK Z[ c^K
_l_e jC[a @\^_\^ _K d (communicative event
[Hymes 1964, 13])bae @bjZ Ke ij_e, W^ a^-@ci
_eahYe \A_Kee _iw C_e @fP^ Ke, Zj jf
iZK _iw Ga _e_gK _iw (Ben-Amos 1993, 216)
_e_gK _iwK jAci, @_g K _Zl _iw bae MjY Ke
KeY, Gj _eiee j _eahY @dRZ jA[G a^-@ci
iZK _iwK _g _iw bae MY^Ke _eahY _eiee
iaKQ @[Z _eahY, bh, aqa, @\^_\^, m^, @Pe
aaje, ag i, HZjiK, ^ZK
Ga icRK @dcK _g _iw bae
MjY Ke @ciu _iw iKZ
Gj _g Ga @_g _b\ _eahY
_eiee _ee ijZ ckLAae ia^ \L\A_e @[Z
_eahY _eie, _eahY, _eahYKe I iq fK M
c]e [a _eeK iK Z[ _eahY @ai I _eahZ _V
_bZe KjK _g _iw Ga KjK @_g _iw bae ^@~a,
Zj \ i Ke_e _KZe _e_gK @ai aje icM
_eahY iq fK M ijZ RWZ iZK Ga icRK
@dc bk GK ajZ _eie _eahYKke Ga G_eK _eahYe
_ea icde c] _eahYK _baZ Ke[G
fK C_\^UK iMj Ke Z[ GK ^ _eahYe GK
_VK @Y _eahYKke _eahYKe _V @C @gMjYKeu
bc K K Kak @fP^ Kea _iw ^j, ae _iw Kj f
@gMjYKe Ga MahK ckZ bae _eahY _eiee KY
C_f Kf, _eahYKke C_\^Ue ie Y Ga K^ a
i~R^ K_e [f Zje icMK _e_Kg @^ @[e, _eahY
bae @cK _eahY-_am^ ijZ _eahYKke @c KY
_Zl Kf, iiaK c] aPeK ^aK ja @ce @a]eYK
78

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

ijR Kea_A GVe fK C_\^e _iwK _KZK _iw Ga

icRK _iw (Sims and Stephens 2005, 138) G_e \A bMe
abq Ke_ea

_KZK _iw
_e ahYe _KZ K _i w cL bcK ^aj Ke[ G
fKZa\
c^ ~Zak _iw ahde CfL Ke, iZak
ia_[c _eahYe bMkK _eag icK @i[G MUG
_eahY _A Zj KCV @^Z jCQ (Cbd bMkK _eie Ga
^ @dR^e _ei e) @Z Me Z _ Gj _KZ K _i w
_eahYKe, \gK a gZ Ga MahKu C_iZK aSA[G Gj
ijZ _eahYKke _eahYK _baZ Kf bk ~jia a C_f,
iMWK _Z c] fK]ee MahK iPZ^ ja @agK
C\jeYe_ GK K[^ _eahYK ^@ ~C c^Ke~C,
_eahYe lZ ]^ Lk Pe_L _eage KY ia @Q? ]^,
_kM\, lZ ~CV KQ RMe ]^ KkA CVA @Y~AQ, KQ KkA
Rce icZ M\ jAQ, _Le CjA RkQ, gZ _WQ, cX I a\c
L@ PfQ AZ\... @ZGa, Gj ic _eagK C_\^ K[^
_eahYK _baZ Keae ia^ eL_e _eahYKeu geeK
_e_Kg a @MbMK c] _i w bae MjY Ke~A_e
_eahYKeu Ve, ee @ej @aej, Zk, fd, Z[ @^^
@MK _e_Kg bk __Vd @dcMWK c] MeZ
_
, ~j _eahYK,
_VK _baZ Ke[G GY, MahK KYi fK C_\^e
_eahYK @^gk^ Ke[f, GiaK iZKZe ijZ ~ZK ia
iZK iVK bae f_a KeaK _di Kea CPZ 7
_eahYKk^ ]eajKZe a^ @cK _eahYUe KY
@^Z jAQ, Kak ij iKe @aMZ KeG ^j, ae K_e Zj
@^Z jAQ, i iKe c] GK ]eY _\^ Ke[G; _eahYUK
@^gk^ Keae ijR jA[G Z[ _eahYKe Ga \gK, gZu
Kd
_ZKd Z[ ic^u @\^_\^ iKe @aMZ KeA[G Gj
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

79

Kd _ZK d bZe _e ahYKe, \gK Z[ gZu c]e

_e ahYKk^ _e\ g P Z V e @^K K Q _K g Ke [ G
C\jeYe_ jia GK geeK _Kd GK C_\^e _eahY
Kke RY @gMjYKe jia @c fl Kf GA jia jGZ Li
jA_e, ^jf a\_, ^jf @ijR c^Kea ijZ GK C\aM
R^Z @^bae _e_K
gK jA_e ij_e, @^^ geeK _e_Kg
c] _eahYK _baZ Ke[G, ~j _eahK Ga @gMjYKeu
c]e \LaK ck[G
_eeK _eahYe \gK Z[ gZu bcK
@Z MeZ
_
fKZa\c^ fK]ee \gK a gZ Mu bcK Ga ab^
@dcK \e eL -M \gK (insider audience) Ga aj \gK
(outsider audience) bae abMKeY KeQ (Tolken 1979, 108)
_eahYKke KYi _Ke ZU \MPe jf a bcZK
_eahY \LMf gZ a \gKUG Gje iVK _eahY K_e
ja a Ke~A_ea, ik aghe Zje iP^ \a \L~G
C\jeYe_ K[^ _eahYK ^@~C K[^ _eahYe
_eahYKe ~\ Zu _eahYe ZU _Kg Ke, Za ZZlYZ
gZUG ZjK i]e ^@ Gj i]eYZ @^dcZ K[K K K[^
_eahYe _eeK @^ieY Ke[a ^Z^ K[Ku lZe _eflZ
jA[G C\jeYe_, RY @ adie _fUG Z @R a @BuV
gY[ a KYi GK K[^ Z icad gZu _Le _eahY KeQ,
iAV RY ad gYd aq @Q, i \Lf K[^Ue
bf C_i_^
jCQ, i lZe i ZjK ^R VK bae _eahY Kea _A
@MA @i[ ij_e, RY aq KYi GK _eeK C_KeY
c^Ke, Kf _Z KeQ, \LMf ~ i _Z@ VK bae
a_e^j, RY Kj Gj @ia]UK \Lf Ga i @i Zj i]e
\AMf @^e_ bae, @c \L ~ @^K _[ _eee _eahY
icde KQ ZU \MPe jf @ce ad i\ic^ jVZ ZjK
i]e \A VK bae _ePk^ KeaK @MA @i Gj gYd
\gKu -M \gK bae MjY Ke~A_e ^
fK
80

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

Me GK _eaeK a i^d _eiee jC[a _eahYe

i]eYZ Gj \gK Mu @c \LaK _A_ea Gj \gK M
_ee iK e @ aj Z mZ [@, KZK lZ e \l
_eahYKe jA^_e K \l jf c], ~jZ RY i\i
a KQ i\iu \e j _eahYUK _eahZ Ke~A[G, GY ic^
\gK bae @gMjY Ke[@
GVe CfL^d ~, ic fK]e _eaeK, ^KUZc
M, Z[ i^d _eiee j _eahZ jA[G @ZGa, iq
fK M Z[ ijaiZ M j Gj _eahYe \gK a
@gMjYKe bae \L~A[ Za, KQ _eee _eahYe
@c aj \gKu ic Ke[C a aj \gKe C_iZK C_l
Ke~A^_e C\jeYe_, MUG i^e \iKV@ _eahZ
jCQ ice C_iZ ic \gK i^d fK M Za,
Gj _eahYe RY a\g MahK, RY aj iZ a @^
fK Me i\i C_iZ @Q Gj a\g MahK, @^
Me i\iu C_iZ \iKV@ _eahYK ~ _baZ Kea^j,
GK[ Kj~A^_e ij_e, ^PMZe _eahY, @^ aPK
C_\^e _eahYK c] @^ Me \gKu C_iZ _b aZ
Keae ia^ [G
KZK _eahYe aj \gKu c] ic^ @\^_\^
_e_e _eahYe _el K _Zl bae @gMjY Keae
i~M \@~A[G, ic^ ~Z \ea fKM (distance
folk) a a\g fKMe i\i jA[@^ KjK
K, @^K
icRK eZ^Ze _eahY @^ Me \gKu C_iZ e ia j
jA^_e C\jeYe_, Mc Z[ _eaeK \a\au _R
@^^ icde KYi aj i\iu C_iZ @Mj @^e_ bae
_RZK bUu agak M[e _eahY NM@, _eN^@,
ae[@ _bZ
_RZK bUc^ ic^ue M[ iq _RZK M
c]e j _eahY Ke[@ @[Z RY ae[@ MY i\de fKu
_Le j Ze M[ _eahY Kea, We a\^ Kea KYi
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

81

_eiZ
e c] @^ Me i\iu _Le i Gj M[ gYAaK Pja
^j, K @^ KYi fK Me i\iu _Le, G_eK ^KUZc
fK M (immediate folk) ice c] We a\^ Kea^j
_Y, KQ icRK eZ^Ze _k^ I _eahY icde iq Me
KZK ^ i\iu aZZ @^ i\iu C_iZK c] C_l
Ke~A[G C\jeYe_, lZe Pe \@~aak Nee _eh
i\i j C_iZ
ej ij_e, S@_fu eR_ Kc Nee cjkc^u
\e j _eahZ jA[G @ZGa, Gj_e KQ agh _eahYe
C_iZ ej_e[a i\i, \gK a @gMjYKeu @c @M
\gK (esoteric audience) Kj_ea, KeY Gc^ iq _eahYe
eja a]d Ga Gc^u aZZ @^ KjK, i\i RYK iq
fK Me a jA[@ ^ KjK Gj _eahYe @gMjY
Keae @]Ke ^[G @c GVe \Lf ~, fK]ee \gK
Kjf cK \gK ^j, @^KZ Gc^ _eahYe iKd bae
@gMjY c] Ke[ \gKu Gj iKd bcKK @L @Me eL
fK]ee \gK _ebh @_l cL _eahYKe (central
performer)u aZZ @^ C_iZ i\iu @gMjYKe (participant)
bae MjY Kea @]K ~q~q c^jG @ZGa, _eahYe @c
cL _e ahYKeu aZZ @^ C_iZ i\ic^u -M
@gMjYKe, ajM @gMjYKe, @M @gMjYKe
bae MjY Ke_ea Ga _eahYe Gc^u bcKe ab^
@dcK
@^gk^ Ke_ea

icRK _iw
_eahYe _iwe fK M Z[ icR Ga iZ
iKZ @dcMWK c] cL bcK ^aj Ke[G Me _RZK
_bc, iZK iK, a aaid, @*kKZ, bhK b^e_Z @\
~j _eahK, gZ Z[ \gK ijZ RWZ ic _Ke @dc
_eahYK _baZ Ke[G icRK iK K_e _eahYK _baZ
Ke[ G i iKe @ce @a]eYK Kea _A GK C\jeY
82

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

\@~A_e ^K U @ZZe beZd bh ii^e ce aK

Z[ (speech data) iMj icde ce RY ijKcu ijZ cZ
ieMW ~aK _W[f iZak, RY _ecg\Z aKZ[
\fak GK g aw @We @[ RYaK Pj[f Ga, i
Kjf bZ Ne _KZe aw @We @[ \aZ Ne a ~CV
\a\a ej K, Z[ _\^Ke G_e Kjae KeY jf,
i L ]caf i^d _e Z[ @^ ]c_PeKc^ ic^u
PePeZgke iq fK Me _eeK \a\a ~
bZ, G_e GK ]eY R^Aae ilc jAQ
_eahYe _eahK, gZ Z[ \gKe _ba @^KZ
RUk C\jeYe_, RY Kge KQ ^h PUKf (off-color joke)
RY, Zj i Zu iwc^u MjYe ~_e _eahY Ke_ea,
Zue MeR^ K @^ ^eau _Le ZjK ij_e _eahY
Ke_ea^j @^K lZe GMWKe _eahY @\ ia c]
jA^_e @^e_ bae, MUG C_\^e _eahYe ic
gZ ic^ _Kee _ZKd _Kg Ke^_e GVe _c IWge
gYaK ck[a GK PUKfe C\jeY \@~A_e
_c IWge S@UG ijZ NUYKc RY C_Kk
IWge _@e ajNe ieKZ jae[f _@Ne @[Z
_@e c@, a_ Ga @^c^ S@NeK K[a ^c
@if K[a Pf[fak iVe aajjaK [a
S@U c] C_iZ [f KQ icd Cbd _le K[a
gYa_e S@U jVZ aeq _Kg Kea ijZ Kjf, G
a@! Ac^ Z cL^K KLe afQ^, _U_^@K _R_Z
afQ^, @e _ZfNUK afZ aGM^ afQ^... cA aj
^A jG... @ce KfPe aMW~a!!8
Gj PUK fU ajK fK]ee GK C\jeY Gj ~Zak
C}k aga
\kde Cbd _a Ga _c IWge QZQZu Me Kj
RY _c IWge QZ _eahY Kf, Za GjK _c IWge QZc^
~_e bae MjY Kea, C_Kk IWge QZ GjK ij_e bae
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

83

MjY Kea af @g Ke~A^_e KG ji \A_e, Kj aeq

_Kg Ke_e, Kj ^ea ej_e, Kj _ZKd e_ @^ GK
ic^ @[-a]K PUKf _eahY Ke_e Gj_e, ^^_Kee
_ZKd _Kg _A_e
GVe _^ae MUG K[ CfL Ke~A_e ~
fK]ee MahK fK C_\^U K_e GK ^ icRK Ga
iZK _eiee @\^_\^ jCQ, Zj @fP^ Ke_ea,
K, KYi C_\^, Zj aPK K ^aPK ~j a jC, VK K
b f Kj Zje cf d^ Ke_e a ^j KeY, fK]ee
C_\^MWK icRK iZK _bcK @]e Ke[G Ga, iq
icRK Me Cbd @ Ga aj \bwK _Kg Ke[G

_eeK a^cdZ
fK]ee _eahYe _eeK a^cdZ (reflexivity)
C_e iZ @^K fKZa\ MeZ _\^ Ke fK]ee
MahK RYeLa CPZ ~, Zue -C_iZ c] fK]ee
_eahYK @^K bae _baZ Ke[G _eeK a^c dZ
Kj f _e ahY Ga _i wK c _e ahYe ~j _e\
jA[G; Z[, _eahY iKe @gMjYKe Ga MahKu c]e
~C @\^_\^, @fP^ jA[G Gj ic \KY _Z MahK
MeZ
\a ijZ Gj _Z iZgk Ga Mbe @\ eLa @agK
C\jeYe_, MUG Me GK _eeK \aue _R @^Z jCQ
~\, MahK aj iZ a @^ iZ (other culture)9e @i[,
Za _R eZ^Z iKZ ic _Kee ]eYe i bM^A
_ea^j K _Pef c] i iKe Zu KQ Z[ ^ckae
ia^ \L\A_e Gj _e _l e @C GK C\jeY
\@~A_e, KYi GK i^e GK K[^ _eahY jCQ, ij
K[^e QU _fVe aX ~G ic bM ^A_ea K, ij
_eahYe ~\ RY MahK @Q, ~GK iq fK Me
i\i ^j, G_e lZe ij _eahY _a-_eahY bk ja,
84

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

Gj Kj~A^_e KeY, _eahYKe KQ K[ @^ iZK

_eiee
@i[a fKUG _Le KjaK \]a] Ke_e @ZGa, MahK
Zue C_iZ K_e _eahYK _baZ KeQ a Zu C_iZ ~M
_eahYe KC KC _eiee _ea^ jA_e a KC ^
Z[e _e_Kg jA_e^j, Zj @^gk^ Kea GK MeZ
_
@dc
GVe @ce @a]eYK Kea _A C\jeY bae GK Wc
fK Me K[^ CfL Ke~A_e
MU M^ Wc aW MU Ze aW iM NeKeef
iZak _Z Wc c^, jG j @ce Wcc^ MG cCi
L Zef aW KG Kef K, _^See \^ bKii
jf Kc @G\ a@ afKe KAe MG cCi LY cffK
AZK iM@Ke eKef a^ jZ aff @e Q^^
iK@ \f afaWK @e jf c^ aU^\ afKe
@Q^ Zf @^Ke ]GWK ]GW Sf@Ke eKf MG
cCiK \KKe aWe c^ UKfc jZef, Z iG
baf K^ZKe LW LGZ aGf jZ `^ AaU
ff [_ _WQ... cZe aW je\ afKe aW L^A
_eZef aW KGKef, cCiK @Q^Zf Sf@\f
@e af^ c^\ _Z afKe Ne^ ^Kf
Mf aWe c^
Z UKfc jP... KZK KUfZ aPe... aW Z
c^\_@ Mf @P, AU^ a@ a^af afKe KGKf
K, Kee MU @^Ke ia fA^ LY LY cCi KU Ke
LGf Q^K MfK aW _@Ke ffU j@Ke @if,
cZe fA iaK \KKe baf a@ K^Z Ke AU iKe
Mf, Z ^ge ie aW MGf, M^Z @Pe fcZ
^A aW UWw aW aff a@ if aW R^fe
K^ZKe @e MZ Ref, gKfK iKe
Mfe aW
UMWw ... gKfK iKe
Mfe aW UMWw aW,
aWe KZ g^Ke aff, jZ, gKfK iKe Mf
jZ, @e Zc _e\f 10 [MU Me RY Wc aX
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

85

Ze aX iwe NeKe ej[f iZak Wcc^ MB

ci LC[f, j a @ce WcfKc^ MB ci LC[f
aX KY Kf K ah _Y a SWaZi icde bK
C_iak Kce @ia af KCV MB ci UKG ckae
ZK f f Ke KUa ijZ iMj Ke eLa _A QZ C_e
gLA \f iakK eZjf afA ^A~a ba Ne
bZeK @Y Iee ]W Ke SfA eLf MB ciK \LK
aXe c^ @CU_CU jaK fMf i KcZ jf UKG
LAaK ba[f aX iAV ciK Iee SfA\A c\
_AaK PfMf aX Z G_U ci LAa af @CU_CU
jC[f, KZ @C ik? GY, aX aje ~a _e_e
j KUeUG @Y ia ci Le UKG UKG KU LAf aX
KQ icd_e _U c\ _A ^ge Pe jA `ef
Ga, ci LiaK \LK baf , GMWK KcZ QU
_WMf? iAV i MAf, MYZ @Q K, fZ VK ^j!
aX UWw!! aX iAV MAf, gLfe QU _WMfe
aX UWw !! @C aXe Raa gY aX baf jA[a
@ZGa, P_ ejf ]
GA Wc K[^e _eahYKke ~\ RY @^ Me MahK
C_iZ [a Za, Gje _eahY a jA~ae ia^ ejQ
KeY, iZ _c IWge @^K @*ke Wc fK M MciK
@C L\ bae MjY Ke^j @ZGa, ajMe RY MahK
_Le _eahYKe Gj Z[ ]eY Ke[a K[^K Kaa _eahY
KeaK Pja^j ij_e, _c IWge GK fK Me
cif _Wa _eee _Pk^ @Q, ~CV aaj _ea bR \^
aeNee fK ae Ga K^e ~^ck ^ jf_e j bR
L@~A[G 11~\I, @^KZ Gj _ee iZ @gK _ea^e ijZ
_k^ Ke~CQ c^Ke~C, G lZe c] RY aj iZe a
@^ Me MahK iq fK Me aaj _eee C_e
MahY KeaK @i, Za i Ka a _eee CfLZ
Gj \M
86

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

ahde @aMZ jA_ea^j, ~\ Zue _ecg\Z Zu ijZ Gj

ahde \]j^ bae ba a^cd KeaK Pja^j
@ZGa, _eeK a^cdZ iq fK Me i\iu
cZcZ Ga MahKe @^bZK @]eKe @^gk^ Keae MeZ_\^
Ke _eahYe @gMjYKe Ga MahKu c]e _eeK
a^c dZK @fP^ C_\^e aLK @^K bae _baZ Ke[G
C\jeYe_, gaY @caie Nee \@e cje i^e Wke @[
KY? a KjK G @^^? Zj aL Kea _A _eahYKeu ij
@fP^e @agKZ @Q ~\ MahK RYK iq Me, Zjf
G iKe mZ jae ia^ [A_e, ^PZ a^ @fP^e G
]eY iKe @aMZ ja ia^j Gj _Kee @fP^ @cK
C_\^ ijZ Me iZgk @^gk^ Keae ijdK jA_ea
@^ @[e _eeK @fP^ _eahYKe, \gK Ga MahK
bZe [a \eZK ji Kea ijZ _eahYe ab^ @dcK
Ke[G MahYe Gj _eeK a^cd @dcU fK]e @]d^e
^Z ^ \MK i~RZ KeQ, ~j _eeK a^c d _RZa\
(Reflexive or Reciprocal Ethnography) bae _ePZ

aKg
fK]ee aKg _ebhUe c] @^K MeZ_ @dc
@Q ^ Z ^ fK C_\^e a K gK, fK C_\^e ^Z ^
i~R^K Z[ _ZK _eahY K_e bae b^b^ @L^ i
ja ijZ _Z _eahYe K_e GK ^Z^ _Ve aKg jG iiaK
GKZ bae fK C_\^e a K g bae \L~A[G
fK]ee fK M ~Zak _eag _eiZe _ba
Ga @agKZ a _dR^dZ \e ^Z^ ]ee aKg @aga
jA_W, iZak ^Z^ _eee aKg \LaK ck[G
_KZ
e, fKZa\c^, ~Cc^ fK]e ijZ _eZ^Z, Mc
Z[ R^RZdZK ~W, ic^ j _eee HZjiKZK MeZ
\@ fKM ~Zak ic^ue _eee @\^_\^ b^
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

87

bae Ke a @\^_\^e c]c a\k~G, iZak c]

_eee _ea^ @ia ijZ ^Z^ _ee aKg \L~A[G
C\jeYe_ gvk a\ ZK-_Z _[c @c _LK c@ ih,
c@ cwk, c@ ZeY _bZ \a\au cjc _L_^ Ke[a PV
a gvk _Z @i[f Ga ic^ ig [a KQ iLK _Z fLf
bM^Z ja af i[e CfL ej[f iZ caAf `^
Ga A<e^Ue ~Me PV fLa @_ZZ Kc jA~AQ, Za
il a a GiGcGi Ga a\ZK-_Ze Gj _eee aKg
\L~AQ
akak a, _[, icRK eZ^Z _bZ ^a PK _eee
^Z^ aPK _eee aKg Z[ MUG _eee @C MUG _eee
aKg jae ia^ c] \L~A[G ab^ _eeK aK ^A
@^K ] a ^-\@ Z[ @^ aPK _ee \LaK _A[C ij_e,
@^K _[ _ee Ga icRK eZ^Ze _eeK KWMWKe aKg
jA[a \LaK ck ij_e, @^K icde MUG Me ^Z^
NUY KQ NU f c] ^Z ^ fK]ee aKg ia jA[G
C\jeYe_ AaZ Wc ^cY ja_e fKMZe Gje PZ
\LaK @c _AQ 12 Gj ~\I, fK]ee ^Z^ abae aKg
Ke^j, Za iq abae ^Z^ ahdK Z[ C_\^e _eieK
a_K KeQ, _baZ KeQ @^e_ bae, c\ _^d @ia _e
IWge Mc*kc^ue _Z Lk bk ~C _eeK KW [f, i[e
aajZ C_KeYe _ea^ \L\AQ 13
@c \Lf @\^_\^e, M i\iZ _ea^e, M
c]e KQ ^Z^ NUY NUf Ga icdKc MUG fK]ee @^ GK
^Z^ fK]ee aKg c] jA[G Za, CfL^d ~, fK]e
iaak _eahYK @]e Ke[G Ga, _ZK _eahY GK ^Z^
_eahY bae _e_K
gZ jA[G KeY, ...every performance
differs from every other, depending on the context and the group in which
the performance occurs (Bauman 1984, 37) aCc^ Kj, Gj _eee

aKg @\^_\^ jC[a C_\^ Ga _eahYKeu aqMZ \lZ

88

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

(individual competence)

Ga GK ^ _eeK @aiZ C_e ^be

Ke @^ @[e _ZK _Kee aKg _Kd

_eahY C_e Z[
_eahYe PZ_g e [a _eahYK _baZ Kfbk C_\^c^u
@]e Ke[G ij_e, _Ve c] _ea^ NU_e, C\jeYe_
_eahYKe gZc^u LiK
ea _A @L^e ^Z^ KQ i~R^
Ke_e _eahYKe \Lf ~, gZc^ aeq jA @iQ @a
gZc^u _Le @C _eahYe @gMjY KeaK icd^j @ZGa,
i G lZe @L^K il Ke\A_e, _ea _eahY _A c]
iMZ
eL\A_e _eahYe _iw @^KZ _eahYKeu Az
(choice) C_e c] ^be
Ke ~j _eahYe _VK _baZ Ke[G
@ZGa, _ZK _eahYe ^Z^ _V aKgZ jA[G 14

_e ahYe @^^ @dc

_eeK a^cdZ I aKg aZZ _eahY icde gZ
Ga _eaghYKeu @dce \L~C[a _ea^ Z[ _b\
(shift) c] @^KZ GK MeZ _ @dc _eahYKke G_e
KQ _eahZ jA_e, ~j _eahY aje iq Me
@Mj c^jA[G C\jeYe_ NU~Z a PZe@
icde M VKeY aGf 15 af aje Gj icde QU _f
Z[ ad aqc^ c] ee f jA cj cW gAej
VKeY Ga ge ic^u WA WA @MK ~A[, Gj ic^u
eMgKe el Kea ijZ gbue jA[G af ag i Ke~G
jf, @^ icde ij VKeY a ge jA[a aq GcZ
Ke_ea^j
fK]e @^K icde icRK aiwZK _g Keae
c] ijdK jA[G @c @^K fKMZ, K[^ _bZe ab^
icRK aiwZK _g Kea \LaK _A[C Gje PZ ab^ fK
^UK Z[ @^^ _\g^gk fKKke c] \LaK _A_ea
@^ _le fK C_\^e akak KQ @ijR @L^ c]
_KgZ jA[G MUG M, @^ (other) M Z[ RZ, a,
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

89

fw, icRK gY C_e EYZK @L^ _eahY Kea _e\

jA[G C\jeYe_, _c IWg Ga C_Kk IWge [a
eR^ZK I iZK cZb\ K_e fK]ee EYZK C_\^ i
KeQ Zj G _iwe CfL Ke~A_e
cjbeZe KelZe ~bce Kea Ga _a
GKZ jAQ @{^ \Lf ice [a KeaKk ic
Zue ij\e, bA, aaM @ZGa, i ~ KeaK @^z
_Kg Ke gKu Kjf, ^Aa iL, cA ^A ~] Ke !
iaZ K^ ce bA, K^ ce cc, K^ ce KK, \\;
Ke iw fXc? cK ~S a^ ^A aGf ^A af, cK
eGR ^A cff ^A cf; cZeK Ac^K ce Ke cA __
^A cWG, cA i Kc ^A Ke_e! gK @{^u aSAaK
~A Kjf, \L @eR^ j ^A af ~]^ KK, cc,
\\, bA Aia ^A \L^ KG Zc G jf K ja?
Z[_ @{^
aSa
@aie ^[f, ~ KeaK _Z
jC^[f
ghe gK CRZ jA_Wf Ga Kjf, Kje KK,
\\, cc, bA a? ce! ib KUK@G ce!!16
@^e_ bae, Xu^ke fKc^u ^A C_Kk IWge
fKu bZe ic^ K_e bK@, a Z C_e @^K @L^,
C_L^c^ gYa
K ck Za, Gia ajK fK]ee GK GK
C\jeYcZ Gia GVe CfL Keae KeY jf, fK]ee
@^K icde @^ fK MK ^A EYZK @L^ _eahY
jA[G, GjK iq fK Me iZK \ bae MjY
Ke~A^_e, ae GMWK GK GK @c\Z _e_Kg (playful
expression) Gje @[^j ~, fK]ee G_e C_\^MWK
CgckK Ga cba^e _KgK, GY Giae @]d^ ~ ja
K[^j Gj a Kj~A^_e KeY, ic _Kee fK C_\^K
fKZ a fK]e @]d^e _eiebq Ke~A_ea Gj
EYZK @L^, C_L^MWK _eag _iw Ga Me b^ @dcK
_Kg Ke[G
90

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

] _eahY
] a ^-\@ GK ^ Me @^^ aPK C_\^MWK
_e MeZ_ C_\^ GMWK
i]eYZ il Ga _eeK aqa,
~j cLZ _eag, _eiZ, ab^
a, aaje a PfPk^, _KZ,
RaR Ga cYh PeZK
aL Ke[G GVe _c IWge Kkj
Rfe GK McY _eage Pe _*RY Kgeu \e _eahZ
jA[a ]e GK _V i^Z KeMf _eahYe _VK f_a
Kea _A fKZa\c^ @\^_\^e _e-bhK e_ Z[
MZKc agMWK
(kinesic features) C_e MeZ
_\^ Ke 17
GVe i^d _eage _eahZ GK ]e _eahYK ~[ ia
@\^_\^e _e-bhK e_ Z[ MZKc ag \e f_a KeaK
_P Ke~AQ
_bc, icd Ga _eag
MZ ah LeQU icde c Me [aak Gj _eahYUe
@^^ \LaK _A[f ]e Gj _eahY KYi MahY K~e
C_\^ iMj _A agh bae @dRZ Ke~A^[f @c NeV
@ \ee \AU aeUKd Zk MQ @Q, ~CV ajZ Zk jA[G
@c _fak @^K icde ij Zk MQ QAZk ab^
_eeK
KWe @dR^ Ke[f iZ c] QU QU _fc^, Kgec^
Le\^e @^K KW _eahY Ke[ @ZGa, bhY Mec ~M
Zk MQe QA Zk aiae Az ^A c ~A[f ag KQ icd aU
Lka _e \g ae ahe PeRY Kge ec, ]e^, _<, _f^
iVe ag cKe LiM
_ Ke[ f c iV ~A MUG i_ _KA aif
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

91

MQZk _W[a GK KVM C_e ic^ ai[ f ic^ _ee

c]e KY KY ia K[a jC[f, KQ icd _e ]e^ CV_W
]UG Kja @e Kf, @ZGa, c ic^u @WK ]^\f
]e Ce \aK
_Z jA ejaK
@^c^u ia]^
Kea _A Re \A

(]e^)G gY, cA
MU(]) KjQ
jf? eW...?

@<e GK jZ \A
@^ GK jZe Aie

[@^ \A RY Z cjK

@^Af
icu c^e \, _g
~ KY _Pea @c
Ce \A_ea K
^j?]
ee _a_l @j^
@]K, cje ceK ji,
@Le a \L~C
Kj_eQ K ^je
@j^e ba

Kjc... Kjc...?

@^ \A i[u _Z @WK (_<) Ke K... KY

\_Z _aK
Kja Kja jCQ...!
G KG ] Kja
K...!
ee @^c^u @j^
RYAf bk @Kg
~, Zcc^ Gje
Ce Kj_ea Z?
@ jia ijZ
@^c^u cjK GK
agh bwe @^A
92

@Q! KjQ
Ze c a@ @Q^
_U / Ze @R @B
@Q^ @U / ZA @Q
aU aU...
...Kj A[e
AZe c^
KGU?

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

\A jZ @<e eL c
jfA

\A jZ QZe eL
@j^K Ke Kea
@[e c jfA
GK jZ @<e Ga
@^ GK jZ
jfA

@^c^u cj icK
@i \A jZ
jfA

C_eK @^A
c^_KAa bk
Re\A

(_<) c... cc... cQ...!

(ec)G, cQ
^Aie... e, cA
ie KeQ!

@^c^ bae KQ
c^_KAa bk

(ec) C... C...

cje ji (aRde
ia^) ~ ]Ue
Ce @^c^
Kj_e^j

(]e^)... ^A
Kj_e R^Q...

_Y Ree ji

... jef af!!

ee je ^c^a
Ga Ce Kjae
\ KZ
c^_KAa gke

(_f^) ^A ^A...
jec KG KR...?

_eahY bZeK
]iA _ga bk e

(a^ @ ) j! KY
Ke Qe Zcc^ ...
aU LkQ KG?

_<, _f^ Ga ece

cje ]e Ce
Kj_e[a e aRde
ji

]^... jf?

c @WK jZ ^A
jZ Q*W _j @MK
cW @i C_eK @^A
c^_KAa bwe
ce jZ
Mfe jZ
_<, _f^ Ga ecu
ice jZ jfA

CV_W ]e^e icK

cW @i jZ jfA

ej! cA ie
KeQ...
[KQ icde ^eaZ
_<, ec, _f^ ]e
Ce LRae a
Gj icde @C RY
i\i a^@ @if ]
KVM C_e ai~a
ijZ aU MUG
CVA ^C^C
_f^ Ga ec ^R
cje @wk eL
a^@K P_ ejaK
Aie

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

93

\A jZ @<e

_eahYe ahdU
RYie @gMjY Kea
AQe ji ji

cA MU Kjc?

_a_l ee @]K
Cj Ga Re

(_<) ^A, cA MU
Kjc, @M Ze
Ce \@ Z...

]e^ I a^@e
icK @i ]e^K
AwZ Ke a jZ
@<e eL, WjY
jZe @^c^u
Ce \aK _Z
Kea ij

PaKe jZ \A
C_eK @^A KQ
baa bMe _Y
@^c^u cjK ji ji
@^A(cje Ce
\A_ea K ^j?
ba )

(_<)
fjfjK, _Ze au
Ze `fU cV Uu

icu cjK [e[e Ke

@^A

ZZlYZ _ae RY[a (a^@) AU a Z

]^!
bk ji ji

ic ]e^e cjK
@^A

[GK ee icu

ji ~cZ K ]U
@Z ijR ]
_Y @]K Cje ij
[ee ^ZZ ~
Gc^ Kj _ea^]
_Y, c @WK @^A,
\\ Zc Kja^j
jf? cje ceK
ji [\La KcZ
Kj_ea G[e?]
94

(_<) ej, @e MU
KjQ
aK aiQ^ ]WK ]W
ia\^ ^@
A aL^ ~^ Kj
^A_ea
cK afa a@

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

\AjZ @<e [G[e

KcZ Kj\A_ea
\La bwe]

ec, ]e^, _f^,

a^@ baaK
fMf Ce
]e^ cje ^Z
aRde ji [c @WK
@^A _Y[e, \\
^A Kja jf, cA
R^Q Ac^ ^A
Kj_e^!]

(ec, _<, _f^,

a^@ ) C... C... C...

@<e jZ \A
icu cjK @^A

KQ icd baa _e
cje ^ege ba

^A...
^A Kj_e ... jef!

Kj^_eae
@ic[Ze icu
c ZkK

cje aRde ji

jef Z?... AU
jf... AU...
jf... \Z!

@ jia ij

(_f^) cA c^c^
ba[f \Z GK ja
af
Z, Kjf ^A KG
KR?

Ec @C a^ @ GK
ee QMfA

I!... Kj ce jZ
\f _< I ec Z
iwe ji CVf
ic
K_k C_eK Ke
ce jZ ce

[ic _Y ji

CVf GK ee ]
_eahY _Ve ac_ge [a a^MWK _e-bhK e_ Ga,
WjY _ge [a a^MWK _eahYe MZKcK ag ij_e, eLuZ
a^ jCQ ck _V ~CV _eahYKe Re \aK PjQ eLuZ
Ga Z~K @le (italic) a^e ~CV _eahYKeu e Cy jAQ Zje
_ZK @^e_ bae, g c]e (...) Pj _eahYKeu ee c^eZK
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

95

\gAa _A \@~AQ (?, ,!) PjMWK aqa ghe _ZK Z[ Gj_e

_eahYKeu aqa @C @MK aXae ia^ ^j Ga, [ ] c]e
\@~A[a a^ jCQ, _eahY _Kde aPK _e_Kge c]a
aeZKk^ _e_gK iP^ (C_iZ \gKu ijZ @\^_\^) GVe
CfL^d ~, GK _eahY _VK _eahY @]d^K @]e Ke ~_e
iVK bae f_a Ke~a K[, IW@e c\YMZ iVKZe @bae i_e
Ke~A_ef ^j Za, Gj _eahYK _~alY Kea iKe Z[
_eahY _Kde _VK f_a Keae GK icK @a]eY \A_ea
Gj ^Z bae Kj~A_e

GVe CfL^d ~ ] a ^-\@MWKe _V ^ Z[

Gj _Ve La Kc _ea^ jA[G a GjK b^ e_e KPZ
_eahY Ke~A_e Gj ijZ, i]eYZ GMWKe Ce c]
_d icu RY[G jGZ, aj\^ ]e _eahY Ke~A^[f a
iq ]U @gMjYKeu _A i ^@ jA[f Ga, ]K
aS_e^[f Z[, Zje ahd I aZ aK ~W KYi GK ^de
_j*_ e^[f, Zje Ce Kea @gMjYKeu _A @ijR
c^jA[G ^PZ, _d ic ic ]e Ce RY[ _Y,
@c \Lf akak, Ce Kj^_eae ia^ eL[a
@gMjYKeu _Z @l_ Ke _eahYKe ] ijZ @l_ckK
_\UG a ~Wa \L~A[G; ~cZ, _< Zue \Zd ]e
_eahYe ~WQ @^e_ bae, Ce \A^_eae @gu[a
@gMjYKeu @l_Ke cK afa bU(bYA), cK afa
~G(RA), cK afa \@e(Ce _\^Ke S@_f jA[f)
AZ\ c] Kj~A[G, ~j _eahYKe @C @gMjYKeu C_e
i ^be Ke Ga iq fKMe c] baK bae MjY
Ke~A[G
] _eahYe Ce Kj_ea ^_ea aZZ Gje
_eahY _eahYKeu c]e ic^u icRK, iZK Z[ a
Ga aajeMZ @dcMWK ij _ePZ Kea iw iw icdK
c^e^ @Y \A[G, Z[ icd @ZajZ Keae ijdK
jA[G _ZK iZe ], ^-\@ @Q, ~j _eeK i]eY
96

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

m^, @^bZ I _a_iwK @]eZ Ke _eahZ jA[G GMWK

_a\-_aP^ bk iZ ^ Ga iq M j ij ]K aS_e
a Zje @[ Ke_eae ic[ jA[@

1. _V, __V I _iw iKZ agh @]d^ ^c Wiu Texture, Text,

and Context, fi MaZ(Lisa Gabbert)u The Text/Context Controversy
and the Emergence of Behavioral Approaches in Folklore, Ga Paritta
Chalermpokwo Anantakoolu Relevance of the Textual and Contextual
Analyses in Understanding Folk Performance in Modem Society: A Case of
Southern Thai Shadow Puppet Theatre _bZ _a \a
2. ...text can refre to words, objects, ideas, and behaviours (Sims and
Stephens 2005, 19).

3. Kak i^e Wk ^j bf@(KR a\c), LGi, a^jk\, \aW^

Wk c] \@e cje Mce MCW a ^e@ Li[G
4. GVe CfL^d ~, Gj awawf aaj _ee Kak IWge
^j, beZe @^^ eRe c] \LaK ck beZ aje a ^_k
af\g _bZ KZU ee Gj _ee iZ c] _PkZ @Q
5. For material objects, texture could be literal texture- the way of something
feels rough, smooth, hard, lumpy. We might also think about the textural
feature of a material objects that are related to its creation and the artist who
created it (Sims and Stephens 2005, 136).
6. ...intentional performances for outsiders (often for intellectual curiosity
or amusement) are not in anyway fake; but they are different, no matter how
faithful to the original the intentional performer tries to the fact, in the very
attempt to reproduce someone elses tradition-exactly as I see one most
insures that it has been a living fossil (Tolken 1978, 38).

7. IW@ fK]ee @fP^ _iwe _V, __V _iw K_e _eahYK

_baZ Ke[G i iKZ C\jeY _A id Kce aMu KP-KCW:
^aPK fK C_\^e _V Ga _iw _a \a
8. Gj PUKfU _ee R^K a _aZ cj^ \guVe _[c gY[f
_e_e if_e aga\kde c] KQ QZ Mu \e _eahZ ja
icde gYQ
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

97

9. Other is member of dominant group, whose identity considered

lacking and who may be subject to discrimination by the in-group (Staszak
n.d., 1).

10. Cf L Z @L^U GK K[^ _e ahYe Kak @L^ bM cZ ,

~j c c a_uVe aj ae g Y [ f i Z Wc fK Me
K[^ K[^ _eee Gj ^ K[^ e _P k^ @C @Q K ^j Gj
Kj ~A^_e Za, GjK GK C\jeY bae M jY Ke ae KYi
@i a ] ^j
11. Gj ^ Z[K iq fK Me i\i iZ i\^gk bae
M j Y Ke [ a e GVe ij M iK e i P ^ \ @ ~A ^j K
_ecg\Zu ^c _Kg KeaK CPZ c^Ke^j
12 . ife aUf Kf
Zc N^\f \@fiee
cU Wc aWMf... (ij 2008, 189)
RA`fe...
KUf _[e, KUf MQ
Rff aZe a^f Wc
Wwe Mfe Mf Ne \@e
_eNe Ga KeQ Kc...
RA`fe...
KKW _Rf, _Rf _W
@if iKe Kjf QW
c^Ke ]^ LGf cW
bw~G jWMW...
RA`fe...
af ae iKe @\
M Lf Mf _^e ajf
Ga Kf^ Ne @c a...
RA`fe...
aRf aZK \L ^\ ^fM
gKf @e\ bUKG [f
@ce G j^c^@ bM... (^GK 2012)
98

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

13. _eaZ _eiZe K_e _eeK KWe _ea^ \L \A[G i

iKe id Kce aMu _c IWge _eeK KW: GK fKZK @]d^
(2012) \a
14. ...in essence, because the experiences of the audience and performers
constantly change and evolve, both from performance to performance,
everything that sourrounds it, affects the nature goes on during a
performance and during a single performance, a new text emerges with every
performance (Sims and Stephens 2005, 149).

15. ~Z a _a icde \a\au M a _f McMWK bcY

16. Gj C_L^U c afwee R^K a eRa Kce gMW@uVe _[c
gY[f _ea icde _a*k bhKe _gl[c^u ^A bh-_eag
_ebcY ~A[a icde if_e aga\kde Ga afe ai ^KUi
GK Pj \K^e _eahZ ja c] gYaK _A[f
1 7 . GK _eahYK _~ahY Ke Zje K_e _V aKg Ke~A_e Z[
ZjK gvkZ Ga iVK bae K_e f_a Ke~A_e i iKe
Elizabeth C. Fineu The Folklore Text: From Performance to Print (1984)
M^ \a GfRa[u Gj M^e GVe _eahZ ]e _VK f_a
Kea _A @^K C_\^ @jeY Ke~AQ

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

99

100

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

fK]e @]d^e AZji

\N \Xgj ahe @]KKk fK]ee @]d^ age @^K \ge

cja\kd I aga\kde bh, ijZ, ^Z, icRam^ _bZ ab^
abMe Z[ Z bae Ga GKK bae c] @]d^ jA@iQ @ZGa,
_eK _~de iZKKk ~G fK]ee ab^ _el ^el ja ijZ
GjK ijZ, ^Z, icRam^, c^ I bham^ _bZ ab^ abMe
a\^c^ ^R ^R \KYe @]d^ Kea ij @^K Z Ga i
_dMKe fK]eK @^gk^ KeaK _di Ke PfQ GVe fK]ee
Gj @]d^ Z[ ZK aghY C_e il bae @fP^ Ke~ae
_di Ke~CQ

@\g Ga D^ag gZKe Rc^ a\^c^u c^e GK ]eY

[f ~, Mc*k Ga ^cgYe fKu _Le Rc^ RZe _eZ^
m^eg ielZ jA ejQ, ibZ I gle \Z aKg `ke Gj La
gN af_ jA~a @ZGa, ic^ Gje iMj Ga iel \Me
_P KeaK fMf Gj_e Kea _Qe ic^u bZe @C GK
]eY [f ~, Gj\e Rc^ RZe iZK
AZji a @_idc^
iZ(dying culture) iaK el Ke~A_ea Gc^ Zue bcKK,
Kak icRe MeZ_ NUYMWK j f_a Ke[a HZjiKc^u
bcK
Ve b^ bae \L[ f KeY, Gj a\^c^ i]eYfKu
MZ, M, agi, eZ^Z I _eeK MeZ
\C[f Za, fK]e
@]d^e Gj _eK _~de G a\^c^ ij fKc^u ijZ
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

101

Ga _[, _eeK @]d^ Ke[f, ~Cc^u ic^ ZuV b^

af c^Ke[ f, @fM bae \L[f Z[ gl Ga ibZe
aKgKce ~Cc^ _Qe ej~AQ af ba[f Rc^e
a\^c^u @^ieYKe aU^ Ga Afe bh, ijZ Ga AZjie
a\^c^ c] icKke iVKe Mc*ke fKijZ Ga _[
_eeK popular antiquitiesor popular literature bae MjY Ke
iia iMj Keae fM_W[ f Rc^, aU^ Ga Afe
a\^c^u\e iMjZ Gj aPK C_\^MWK @]e Ke [ci
Folklore _ebhU _aZ Ke[f
ab^ \ge fKK[MWK iMjZ ja `ke KQ a\^
GMWK
e ck C LRae MeZ _\^ Kf _[cZ, Rc^e @*kK
bhMWKe Zk^ZK @]d^ Ke Mc bZ\d GMWKe Cna MUG
ck Ce jAQ af _Z_\Z Kf @^e_ bae, Zk^ZK @]d^
be Rc^e ab^ @*ke _PkZ _eY KjYMWKe MUG ck
C \gAf Mc bZ\d
u cZe Gj ck C jCQ A-ACe_d
bh (Bascom 1977, 3) Mc bZ\du _e `WeK cK cfe
(Friedrich Max Muller) ck Rc^ I beZd _eY KjYMWK
e cke_
C\NU^ Keae _di jf cfe ACe_d aL^MWKe
@iwZ NUY (shocking incident)MWK ckbhe bcZK aL af
\gAa ij bhK aKZ
(desease of language)e c[e i jAQ
af cZaq Kf cfeu cZe, a_MZ iZ (Etymological
Technique) ij ck @~ bhe _^a^i KeMf Giae _KZ @[
RYa ia @~ ]c]e I i~ C_i^K, ^dKe R^cZK \^eZ
ij Zk^ Kea ijZ @^^ c[ ie ck C bae cfe MjY
Ke[f cfeu
Gj cZa\ ife c[fR i (Theory of
Solar Mythology) bae _ePZ
Gj i age
@^ iZe C_f
ic^ _VK @[Z @Y-de_d fKijZK c] aL Keae
ijdK ja af c^KeMf K, Gj i c[ aZZ @^]eK
Z[ fK C_\^ K_e _ea^ jCQ, K_e fK GjK @_YA
^CQ Zj aL Keae ijdK jA_ef^j
102

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

cfeu cZa\ _eaKke RR CAfdc KR (George

William Cox) I @\faU K^ (Adalbert Kunn) _bZu \e _KZ e_K iad cZa\ (Nature Allegorical School) bae _ePZ
jf Gc^u cZe c[ I fKMMWK ab^ _KZK e_Ke
iRZ fK C_\^e @iwZ NUYMWKe ck _KZe @iwZ K
bhK aKZ ^j, Kak _KZ-e_K cZ Gj cZa\K aUg
^Za\ GWIW Ufe (Edward Burnett Taylor), Rci `Re
(James George Frazer) Ga @ fw (Andrew Lang) _b Z
^Za\c^ L^ Kf Gc^u cZe, _ZK RZ @\c, aae
I ib Gj Z^U e \A MZ Ke[ ZY, ab^ @*ke ck[a
ab^ RZe @Peaaje, Ra^]eY, ]cd agi Z[ @^^
fK]ee icZ _eflZ ja ibaK Gj cZa\ iZK
aa^a\ cZa\ (Theory of Cultural Evolution) bae _ePZ
_eaKke ~\I Gj cZa\ @Mj jf, Z[_ lZ @]d^e
^ZK a^ (Ethnological Field Research)e ]eK aKgZ Keae
ijdK jf (Bascom 1977, 3)
Rc^e _PZa\ [IWe a^` (Theodor Benefy) cK
cfeu ife c[fR i \e @b_eZ jA[f i
iZ I de_d fKMMWKe @^gk^ Ke G[e aj icRi
fl Ke[f cYhe aibce _ea^, ~, eR Rd I bcY
c]e jC[a iZK @\^_\^K i Gj icRie KeY
bae MjY Ke[f a^`u cZe, beZe fKMMWK ZaZ
,
i^ Ga Mi \A de_e ab^ @*ke _ea jAQ Gj
cZa\ aieYa\ i (Diffusionist Theory) bae _ePZ
` a@R (Franz Boas) Gj aieYa\ ie @^Zc _aq
i ab^ iZK @^]^ Kea ijZ iMWK c]e [a aa]Z
Ga ic^ZK @^gk^ Kea ijZ \Lf ~, iZK _ba ~j
a jC^ KjK, _ZK iZK M ic^u _eiee d i,
~jK i iZK @_lKa\ (Cultural Relativisim) bae a^
Kf (Bascom 1977, 4) `^Ru Gj iZK @_lKZ _ea
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

103

icde iZ, fK Me Gje e_ Ga Gj _Z iq

Me i\iu \bw @\ MMZ agi Ga cfa]K MeZ
\ae ijdK jf
a^`u aieYa\ iK bKe Gf@i f^U (Elias
Lonnrot) Ga Kf K^ (Finn Kaarle Krohn)1 fK C_\^e ck
e_ (Ur form) Ga Zje iPeY _[ ie Kea \Me @]d^eZ
jf Gc^u cZe, fKM a M[ MUG i^e @^ i^K iPeZ
jaak ahda I @Kee _ea^ jA[G, K ckK
C_\^ a ck e_ @l [G f^U `^fe RZd Ka Kfaf
(Kalavela)e ckK e_ ab^ @*ke iMjKe Gje ck e_ ^eY
Ke[f Zk^ZK _ZK @]eKe GK iZK lZ c]e f
Ka @a KjYe @af^e Gje AZji Z[ bMkK ~Z_[
^d Ke~C[ae Gj HZjiK-bMkK _Z (HistoricGeographic Method) bae _eP Z (Bascom 1977, 4) Gj i
@^ie MahKc^ cLZ ck e_, b^ e_ (variant), baK
e_ (normal form) Ga ic-b^ e_ (redaction) _bZK MeZe
ijZ @]d^ Ke[f MWG b^ e_e ic^ _Zd jC[a KQ
b^ e_K Gc^ ic-b^ e_ bae MjYKe C_\^e baK
e_ ie
Ke[f Ga GjK @^gk^ Ke ck e_e i _Z Ke[ f
(Virtanen 1997, 445) _ea icde Swede Carl Wilhem Von
Sydow iMZ bae ck e_ @ia Z[ Gje e_ ie Kea
ijR ^j af cZaq Kea ijZ ociotype a @*kK e_K
MeZ \A[f (Anttonen 1997, 645)
Zk^ZK @]d^]ee ag gZKe \Zde [ [i^
(Stith Thompson) Ga @< @^ (Antti Amatus Aarne)u UA_ (Type)
I cU` (Motif)e @^gk^ GK CfL^d \M @^u The Types
of the Folktale _[c _Kg _G 1928 cije, Ga Gje _eaZ

2
ieY _KgZ jG 1961 cije [i^u ijdZe ~C M
_eeKc ^Re iZ i^ aRd eL[G, Zj jCQ UA_ M
icdKc Gj _Ke Me K[ae ic^ _ea^ jf c] Zje
104

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

aj e_ ~[ ia @_eaZ ej[G [i^ _ZKU MK Kcu

(Index) MUG iZ iL \e PjZ Kf Gj Kcu ij~e
MU KC UA_e
@MZ Ga @^ KC \ge Gj gYe M ck,
Zj ^eY Keae Gj @^Kge ijdK jA[G Za, UA_
@_l cU` @]K MeZ_ fK C_\^e l\Zc GKK (Unit)
jCQ cU` MUG UA_ Me GK]K cU` ej_e [i^
_[ae ab^
MMWK
e \L~C[a cU`e GK iP (Motif Index)
_Z
Ke UA_ _e _ZK cU`K MUG MUG iZ iL \e
PjZ Kf `ke_, _ea icde @< @^ Ga [i^u ckZ
C\ce The Motif-Index of Folk Literature M^ Q@U Le
1932e 1936 cij c]e _Kg _A[f Gje _eaZ Ga
^Z^ ieY _^ae _KgZ jf 1955-58 cije Gj Kcu
ij~e iMjZ Me cU` ^d
Ke~A[G Kcue @bq
jA^[a KYi ^Z^ cU` ckf c] ZjK ^gZ Ke~G
fK]e agh Ke aPK ]ee @]d^e Gj cU` Ga UA_
ij~e ab^ \ge fKM Z[ @^ aPK C_\^ c]e [a
ic ahcK ijRe ie Ke~A_e The Motif-Index of Folk
Literature M^ _e_e [i^u The Folktale (1946) M^ _KgZ
jf, ~CV i Kak iZK i ^j, @^^ \KYe c]
fKK[MWK @^gk^ Kf Gj cU` ZK @]eKe @^K
fKZa\ aPK C_\^MWK
e @]d^ KeQ, Z[ Ke PfQ
G_eK, j^i C\e (Hans-Jorg Uther) Gj cU` AK C_e
a_K @]d^ Ke Gje GK _eaZ ieY The Types of
International Folktales: A Classification and Bibliography c]
^KU @ZZe, @[Z 2004 cije _Kg KeQ
fK]e @]d^e Gj _eK _~de, @[Z ag gZKe
_[ce a\^c^ ba[f ~ fK]e Kak cLK bae j
iieZ jA[G, KeY Gc^ fK C_\^ Kjf cLZ aPK
C_\^K j MjY Ke[f cfc^ _e (Milman Perry) Ga Zue
ij~M @faU fW (Albert B. Lord) ab^
fKK[, fKMZ Ga
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

105

@^ aPK ]eMWK @^gk^ Ke GMWKe @L^MZ e_ iKe

GK ^Z^ i _\^Kf, ~j aPK iZ-i (Oral Formulic
Theory) ba _ePZ _eu cZe aKgZ (pattern phraseology
or formulas), agh @L^ gk (typical narrative scene or themes ),
Ga a_K iMV^ (large scale organization or story-patten)
@L^Keu ijRe I ze @L^ iR^ Keae ijdK jA[G
(Foley 1997, 614) Gj _e-fW i (Perry-Lord Theory) bae
c] KZ _ea icde @^K fKZa\ Gj iK ^A ab^
aPK C_\^e ieP^ Ga gvkK @]d^ KeaK _di jf,
Gc^u c]e R^ `f (John Miles Foley), cK GWIWi (Mark
W. Edwards) Ga `^ii cM^ (Jr. Francis P. Magoun) _bZ
a\^u
3
bc K CfL^d Gj fKZa\c^ aPK-iZ ie
@\^_\^e bhK, _e-bhK Ga ^aPK _KdK @]e Ke fK
C_\^e @^gk^K MeZ \aK _P Ke[f _^, Gj _eK
_~de, @[Z 1935 cije @ceK ieKe Federal Writers
Project i_^ Kf, G[e iji]K Kcii^ ^[a fLKc^u
@ceKe i]eY R^Zu _Le [a aPK fK C_\^MWK iMj
KeaK KjMf, ~C[ e K 1938e 39 cij _~ ac^ aUK^

(Benjamin A. Botkin) cL i\K bae ~M\A[f _e_e
Gj `Wef _RKe GK d^U Library of Congresse cL i\K
_\e 1939e41 cij ~G @ai_Z jf, Ga Archive of
American Folksongse cL bae 1942e45 cij _~ Kc
Ke[f 4 aUK^ Ga Zue ijKcc^ aPK C_\^MWK _eag,
_e_gK
@ai Ga iZK \bw @\e agh CfL ij iMj
Ke[f, ~j _ea icde _iwbK @]d^ _A bb
c _Z
Keae ijdK jf Gj icde Zue A Treasury of American
Folklore (1944), A Treasury of New England Folklore (1947), A
Treasury of Mississippi River Folklore (1955) Ga A Civil War
Treasury of Tales, Legends and Folklore (1960) _bZ M^ _KgZ
jA[f GVe CfL^d ~, ePW Wei^ aUK^
u Gj M^M
WK
e
106

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

fK]e _ea @_KZK fK]eK i_\^ Ke~AQ af

@e_ Ke[f aUK^
K Wei^u Gj @e_K C_l Ke[f
Zue ~q[f, fK]e GK iR^gk Ga KkZK _e_Kg Gj
c]ce icRK _ee, agi Ga cfa]e @\^_\^ ja
a]d, Kak cZ a\^c^u @]Kee i ^j i ~jjC
aUK^u Gj a_K MahY _ea icde fK]e @]d^
_eee GK ^Z^ @a]eY @Yae ijdK jf, ~jK i
Applied Folklore a _dMK fK]e bae _ebhZ Kf 5 Gj
_dMK fK]eK @]e Ke KQ fKZa\ 1979-80
cijakK Public Sector Folkore K[ Kjf 6 Gj _aK iKe
`KfeK @je a_K bae \LaK ~A @P M^ (Archie
Green) Public Folklore a iaR^^ fK]e bk GK ^Z^ @a]eY
\f _dMK, _aK
iKe I iaR^^ \M C_e K~eZ Gj
fKZa\c^ fK C_\^K iMj Ke Zje ielY, _ie Ga
@^^ aaje ijZ aaidK C_~M Kea C_e c] MeZ
\f
(Baron 2008, 75-76), ~jK ^A Wei^ _ak lb _Kg Ke[f
Za, iZ age aj fKZa\ Gj _dMK Z[ iaR^^
fK]e C_e MahYeZ 7
D^ag gZKe ghbMe Ga ag gZKe _ee iMc
`dW (Sigmund Freud) Ga Kf dw (Carl Gustav Jung)u c^K
cZa\ fK]ee @]d^K aj _ecYe _e_ I _baZ Kf
Gj cZa\ @^ie fKM I c[ jCQ aqMZ a icRK
Ra^e iM_Z i_ G[e cYh icRe jZg, i _a, @b_ d,
@bm^, @KcY, lZ_eY, Azi]^ I Kc^e _e_Kg NU[G
@ZGa, `dWu @W_i KK (Oedipus Complex), i_ aghY;
dMu AfKU KK (Electra Complex), aghYZK c^am^,
icjK @aPZ^, aqMZ @aPZ^ @\e @]ee fK C_\^e
iZ @]d^ Keae _~ Z KeMf Gj c^a gh Y _Z
(Psychoanalytic Method) bae _ePZ `dWu @^Mc bae
@^ R^i (Ernest Jones) Ga GeK `c (Erich Fromm) cLZ
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

107

fK C_\^e c^K aghY Keae MeZ _\^ Ke[f Gj

fKZa\
Ga ^Za\c^ aPK, KkZK I ]cK
_e_Kg K_e
icRK ieP^, icRK @\^_\^ ijZ Me c^K \MK _Kg
Keae ijdK jA_e i iKe MahY Kf (El-Shamy 1997,
699) fK]ee c^K
@]d^ _iwe _eaKke ji^ Gfic (Hasan El-Shamy)u @a\^ GK CfL~M aKg ic
fK]e _e_Kge @PeYMZ _~alY Ga @^gk^ (behavioural
observation and analysis) iaK @]e Ke fKZK aaje
(folkloric behaviour) e K[ Kj f fK]ee @^ K d
(responses) ~_e ^Pa, MAa, _a\_aP^e _dM, Z[ agi
Kea Ga Zje icRK , iZK @dcMWK ij C_\^e
_e_Kge cL bcK
MjY Ke[G _ea icde i @a]eYMZ
aajeK @]d^ (cognitive behaviouristic study) Ke C_^ Ga
@^Kd i (Stimulus and Response Theory or S-R Theory)
iKe Kjf i fK]ee @^Kd
K \AbMe abq Ke[f
1. _eK @^Kd ~_e ^Pa, MAa, a^ Kea, _eahY bk
_[cK _Kd (initial action) Ga 2. Gj @^Kde gk, e_ I __V,
~j icMK bae fK C_\^UK _KgZ Keae ijdK
jA[G, ~jK i _ec_^ (measurement)bae _ePZ Kf
C\jeYe_, fKKjY _iwe ~j @L^K _eZ
Ke[G, Zj
C_^ Ga @L^e gk jCQ @^Kd ij_e, @L^ bMU
C_^e _ec_^ Ga ~C _eiee @L^e _eahY Ke~A[G,
Zje @^iKZ, Z[ _ba @\K @^gk^ Ke~A_e _Y, Gj
aajeK Ga @a]eYMZ c^K i @^ie @L^Ke Ga
@gMjYKeu fw, adi _bZ @dc @L^e ieP^, ahda,
@[a] I @\^_\^K _baZ Ke[G @^ @[e, _eeK
@L^K i C_^e @^Kd Z[ ic^Z aajeK _Kd
bae
\L[f, ~CV @b_eY (C_^, Az, Z[ fl) Ga c]ad
C_^ (@^iKZ a @L^ _Kde _iw) ~j @L^Keu @L^
_KdK _eahY icde _baZ Ke[G (El-Shamy 1997, 674)
108

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

Gj c^K aghY lZe f \ (Linda Degh)u iajK

(conduit)e @a]eY c] CfL~M 8 fu Gj i @^ie
fK]ee _V i]ikL Z[ gvk bae RYKVe @^ RYK
_LK iieZ jG ^j, ae ^R GK iZ ^cY Ke Gj iieZ
jA[G @ZGa, iajK Kjf, ic]c _eK Ga MjKu GK
c^iK e_ ~CV C_\^e @\^_\^ jA[G (Degh 1997,
141) 1970 cij _eVe c^K @]d^e icRK aajeKZ
~_e @\^_\^, a a^cd, _eahY Ga iR^gkZ @\K
MeZ \@Mf, ~Zak eaU RRi K[ aP^e @\^_\^e
bcK Ga icRK _ePZ iKe @fP^ Kf 9 fK]ee
c^K @]d^ _ea icde Kf @ajc (Karl Abraham),
MR ejc (Geza Roheim), Gf@U Ie (Elliot Oring), @f^ Wi
(Alan Dundes) _bZ c^a\ I fKZa\u \e GK iZ
i_^e _j* _ef 10
a^if cf^i (Bronislaw Malinowski) _K~a\ i
(Functionalism)e _aK i c[ I ]cPee aghY Ke _ZK
NUYe iZ _K~ (Function) ejQ af \gA[f11 cf^i c[e
icRK _K~ a iZK _K~ RYa _A iq icRe iMV^,
^Z^d
c, iZK @a]eY, ic^u @^agK @]Ke, C_\^e lZ
Z[ fKK iZe @]d^K MeZ \f _ea icde Ifdc
aiKc (William R. Bascom)u _K~a\ i_KZ @fP^ Four
Functions of Folklore Gj @]d^e ]eK a_K Z[ cj_
Keae iZ bc K aj^ Kf aiKc, fK C_\^U 1.
KZak KCV _KgZ jf? 2. KG Gj _eahY Ke[f,
_eahYe \gKu e_ KY [f? 3. _eahYKeu geeK
@wbw, cL_Kg, ^aqKZ (impersonation), @^KeY @\ K_e?
4. \gK Z[ gZu, _eahYe ic^u @gMjY, icfP^,
Cj _\^, Z[ @^^ @dcMWK KY? 5. _eahYK fK K_e
bae _ebhZ Ke? 6. _eahY _Z fKue @bcL KY?
Ga C_\^e _KZ _eahY _eie iKe MeZ \f Gj
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

109

_iwMWK ahde cf^ c] Zu Myth in Primitive Psychology

M^ e MeZ @e_ Ke[ f (Malinowski 1926, 90) cf^ @`K
^
c[ Ga fKK[MWK @]eKe fK C_\^e PeU _K~
iKe Kjf 1. fK C_\^ icRe cfa], fl, Z[
\bw bk iZK
@-e_MWK (esoteric features of culture)
_Kg Ke[G 2. Gj iZK
a]Z i Keae ijdK jA[G
@[Z iq Me i\iu bZe icRK eZ^Z Z[ ab^ @^^e
~[[ZK _Z_\^ Keae ijdK jA_e 3. icRe GK_Ke
glY _Kd bae K~ Ke[G Ga, 4. icRK a]a]^e
@^c\^Ke c] jA_e Za, aiKc ab^ fK C_\^e
b^b^ _K~ a ^ icRK iZK _l_e ab^ _K~
C_e MeZ @e_ Kf _ea Kke eaU RRi (Robert A.
Georges) [ci CAfdci (Thomas R. Williams), Pfi RG^e
(Charles W. Joyner), eP W aCc^ (Richard Bauman) Z[ aeae
(Barbara Kirsenblatt-Gimblett) _bZ fKZa\u \e Gj ]ee
@]d^ @je a_K jf12
K W fb i (Cloude Levi-Strauss) u Structural
Anthropology `* bhe @^ \ Z jA AeRe _K g _G
1963 cije, ~CV c[e ieP^ZK @]d^ iKe GK _a
i^Z jA[f Gj icde Gf Ga _e ce (Elli KngsMaranda and Pierre Maranda) K Structural Models in Folklore
ghKe GK _a Midwest Folklore _ZKe _Kg Ke ie[f
_ea icde @Wc fP (Edmund R. Leech)u i\^e _Kg
_Af The Structual Study of Myth and Totemism (1967) Gj
ieP^ZK a gh YM W K _ K g _Aa _e fK C_\^e
ieP^ZK @]d^ a_K jf ieP^ZK aghYe ajZ
@iMZ I _eie ae] c^ jC[a c[Ue MV^ eZK @ae
Ke~A[G c[e _ZK aKe aKgK @^gk^ Ke Gje
@[ aghY Ke~G ic_~d c[K MUG e C_e ZkK
iRA \f _e _ZK e c[c Mze GK i]eY aqa _Kg
110

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

_G _ZU e c[c ia GK _eieK ie @a jC[ae

G i_KK _eWMc UK Kj~G ~\ PeU e [a c[ c
_~dKc _eie ae] (binary opposition) aqa C_i_^
Ke, Za gh e aqaK c[e aqa ba MjY Ke~G
fbiu Gj _Z _eWMcUK aghY (Paradigmatic Analysis)
bae _ePZ13
ieP^ZK ]ee a \ c e _ _ (Vladimir Propp) u
Morphological Analysis of the Folktale a fKK[e e_ZK
aghY GK CfL~M @a\^ __u
Gj M^U _[c _Kg _A[f
1928 cije Ga Gje AeR @^a\ jf1968e __u
cZe _K~ (Function) j KjYK ck C_\^ ~MA[G, PeZ
^j KeY, PeZM
W
K
_ea^gk I b^b^ bae _\gZ
jA[,
K _K~U ie Gj ie
_K~MWK KjYK MZgk Ke[, KjYK
GK ^ e_eL \@, Ga PeZMW
K _K~e @]^ __ Ehe
gjU _eK[e e_ZK
aghY Ke i ic KjYe cZ gjU
_K~ aje Kf Gj _K~MWK
e _Ke b\ ej[a
e __ _ZK
_K~K MUG MUG _ZK \e PjZ Kf @]d^ _eiee [a
Me _K~MWK
aQ iMWKe _ZK iaK MUG MUG QU QU
aMKe lZ c]e iRA \@~G aK MV^ _Kde K , Kd
,
Kc ^dc _e Gj _K~MWK c] ^dc^a Gj @]d^K i<McUK
aghY (Syntagmatic Analysis) c] Kj~G @f^ Wi _ea
Kke __u Gj _K~ (Function)K cU`c (Motifeme) bae
MjY KeQ14 Za, Kak c[ K fKK[ ^j _a\, _aP^,
K\, ^UK, iMZ, ^Z, KW @\ ab^ abae ieP^ZK @]d^
Ke~A_e _ea icde Wiu aZZ ce \Z, eaU
RRi , bKe U^e (Victor Turner) _bZ fKZa\ fK]e
@]d^e ieP^ZK aghYe i`k _dM Kf 15 GVe
CfL^d ~, Gj ieP^ZK @^gk^e ]e aghZ fK
C_\^e icRK _bcK
a\ \A Zje KkKcK
(diachronic)
@^gk^K MeZ
_\^ Kf
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

111

1970 cij akK KQ fKZa\ fK]ee aghKe

^ec^u \e _e_KgZ Z[ ^ec^u ^A @\^_\^ jC[a
fK]ee ^ec^u bcK iKe @fK_Z Kf ij_e,
1975 cije Journal of American Folklore fK]ee
^ec^u bcKe ab^
\MK _]^\aK ~A GK Z iL Ke
`e (Claire R. Farrer)u i\^e _Kg Kf Gj agh iLe
fK C_\^e _eahY, _eahY _iwe ^ec^u Z bcK,
ic^u _ePZ
e
e_ Ga _eahYK _baZ Ke[a @^ @dcMWK

C_e MeZ _ \^ Ke~A[f _ea icde fK]ee

^ec^u bcKK ^A cZ IMf (Marta Weigle) Zu Spider and
Spinters: Women and Mythology (1982) M^e de_d icRe
_eh
u \e @LdZ c[ Ga eZ^Zc^ue ^ee iagh PZ
iKe @fP^ Kea ijZ Gia KcZ GK b^ iZK @]d^e
@_l eL, i ahde @fP^ Kf Gj @]d^ ]ee ReW^
Ga KfKK (Rosan A. Jordan and Susan Kalcik)u Womens Folklore,
Womens Culture (1985) GK CfL^d M^ Gj M^e ab^
_eage ^ec^u _eeK _e_Kge @dc Ga _eaeK
_eag ijZ iaR^^ lZe c] _e_Kge e_ iKe
@fP^ Kf Gj icde, @[Z 1985 cije UKi
aga
\kde fK]e Ga ^ea\ C_e GK i^e @dR^
Ke~A[f ahK _e 1986 cije American Folklore Society
c] afUce e A Feminist Retrospective on Folklore and
Folkloristics ghKe GK i^ @dR^ Kf Gj i^ \AUe
fKZa\c^ fK]e @]d^e ^ec^u\e _e_KgZ
fK]ee @^gk^ K_e Ga KjK MeZ_, i iKe @fP^
Kf Gjia @fP^ Ga _~fP^ `ke fK]ee ^ea\
@]d^K @]e Ke @^K MahY M^ Ga _ac^ _Kg _Af
Journal of American Folklore _Y[e ai RKi^ (Bruce Jackson)u
i\^e Folklore and Feminism ghKe GK agh iL 1987
cije _Kg Kf ij_e, Journal of Folklore Research c]
112

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

abf (Beverly J. Stoeltje)u i\^e Feminist Revisions in

Folklore Studies ghK e _K g Kf GK a gh iL 988
cije @^e_ bae i^, f Ga R^ (Susan Hollis, Linda
Pershing and M. Jane Young) _bZu i\^e Feminist Theory
and the Study of Folklore (1993) Ga R@^ e\^e (Joan N.
Radner)u i\^e Feminist Messages: Coding in Womens Folk
Culture (1993) bk CfL^d MahY M^ c] _Kg _Af 1990
cije ~Zak Kcf Kf^i (Camilla A. Collins)u i\^e
Southern Folklore _ZK
Fieldwork: Sex, Sexuality and Gender
C_e GK agh iL _Kg _Af, iZak fK]ee
^ea\ @]d^ @je a_K jf `ke, fK]ee ^ea\
@]d^e lZK~ C_e c] Me Z \@Mf MahK Ga
_ecg\Zu @aqK iK (interpersonal relation), fK]ee
e_ Ga _K~e Zje _ba, @gMjYKe Ga @^ i\iu _ba
@\K Z bae @]d^ KeMf
ag gZKe \Zde gh \gK @WK fK]ee @^K
@fP^ Ga MeZ_ e_ icK @if KeY, Gj icde
fK]ee a\^c^ fK C_\^ iMj icde C_\^K Kak
a^ Kea a im _\^ Kea aZZ iq _V ijZ fK K_e
@\^_\^ KeQ, i iKe @]K e @]K MeZ _\^Kf
icKke bhZa\
c ^ c] fK K_e _ee bZe @\^_\^
KeQ i C_e ^Re ic^ _Kg Kf Geb M`c^ (Erving
Goffman) _e_Kge e_K i]eYZ bh, @wbw Z[ iPKu^
(marker)e GK icMK e_ aK _Kd
(speech event) bae Zu
The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959) M^e @bjZ
Kf _ea icde @[Z1960e 1970 cije fKZa\
c^ bhZe @\^_\^ iK @]e Ke fK]e K_e GK
^ _eie Ga @aie @\^_\^ jCQ Zj C_e @fK_Z
Kf bhZa\ jAci (Dell H. Hymes)u The Ethnography of
Speaking _a _Kg Z jf 1962 ci je jAci fK
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

113

C_\^e ahda @_l Zje _iw C_e @]K MeZ \f

fK C_\^ icR I iZe @az\ @w icRK _bc, iZK
\bw, _Kggk I aqMZ @beP
fK C_\^e @KZ, K[ae
MV^ _e_Ue _ea^ @Y[G gZ a @gMjYKe Ga ic^u
icR, fK C_\^ I Ze _eahY _Kde _ba _KG @ZGa,
_eahY icde _eiZ a _iw iMjZ C_\^e MeZ_ _iw
bae MjZ ja CPZ _eahYKee _Zb, Z}k^ c^iK @ai
I gZu _ZKd Zje KjY a MZ C_e _ba _KC[ae fK
C_\^e ab^ _iwe @]d^ Ke~a @agK _ea icde
jAci, ^Za\
R^ McR (John J. Gumperz)u ij cg American
Anthropologist R^fe GK agh iL i\^ Kf, ~CV i Zue
Introduction : Toward Ethnographies of Communication _ae
ba-a^cd _Kd
(Communicative Event) C_e MeZ
_\^ Kea
ij i iKe iagh @fP^ Kf ba-a^cde cL @g (aq
I gZ), c]c (Kja, fLa, aRAa, `ua
, iie cea, MZ
MAa, @ada iPk^ Kea), bh, I iMZ @\e ^dc I _iw
(~jK bKe bae _Kg NU), ae ie_ (aK, MZ, ^Z,
C_\g a am_^), ba _Kge C_fl (ie_
I ag) @\K i
Gj _Kde ab^ C_\^ bae MjY Kf (Hymes 1964, 13)
_ea icde Wi Gj C_\^K __V bae _ePZ Ke fK
C_\^e @^gk^ _A _V, __V I _iwe @-gvkZ @]d^
^Z _dR^ af cZ_\^ Kf (Dundes 1978, 251-65)16 Gj
_iwbK
@]d^ (Contextual Study) lZe Wi aZZ @ajc
(Roger D. Abraham) , a^- @ci (Dan Ben-Amos) , aCc^
(Richard M. Bauman) Ga e[ `^M^ (Ruth Finnegan) _bZ u
@a\^ CfL^d17
_iwbK @]d^ `ke fK C_\^e _VK GK C_\
(product) bae ^\L _iw @]eZ _eahY (performance of
text in context) bae \LMf a\^c^ _VK _eahYKe,
@gMjYKe, \gK, _eag Ga _eahY _Kde GK KkZK
114

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

_e_Kg bae \LaK fMf aCc^u American Anthroplogist

R^fe 1975 cije _KgZ Verbal Art as Performance
_aK G lZe @\ _P bae MjY Ke~A_e aCc^
_Y \A ah_e ^R i\^e _Kg Kf Verbal Art as Performance
(1977) M^ _ea icde @^ ^aPK C_\^MWK
e c] _eahY
_Kd iKe @fP^ KeMf Ga, a]a bae _eahY i
(Performance Theory)K fK C_\^e @]d^ _A MeZ _\^
KeMf fKZa\c^u _A _eahYe @[ jf Gje
_e_Kg K_e, K_e _ee c]e Gje @\^_\^ jCQ Ga
_e_Kg ijZ iq M K_e iKZ ag gZKe ic \gK _eV
@R _~ fK]e @]d^e _eahY @]d^ _cL bcK MjY
KeQ Za, Gj _eahY @]d^e GK ^ _e_Kg Ga
_eahY _iw C_e K Kea aZZ C_\^e iZK, icRK,
HZjiK I c^K \M C_e ~ZK a_K bae MeZ
\a K[
\@Mf^j af KQ a\ ^ @e_ Kf (Limon and Young 1986;
Sawin 2002) G_eK, 1970 cijakK _eahY @]d^e bZK
fK]ee @]d^K C_l Ke~a C_e c] KQ a\ ^ MeZ e_
Ke (Limon and Young 1986) ~\I, Gj _ae Henry Glassieu
aqMZ MahYe `ke_ Pattern Pattern in the Material Folk
Culture of the Eastern United States (1968) Ga Thomas J.
Schlerethu i\^e Material Culture Studies in America (1982),
bk i\g MahY M^c ^ _Kg _Aie[f Za, i ~jjC
Gj a\^c^ _eahY @]d^e ieP^a\ Ga _ZKZ
(semiotics) ijZ c^K
\M, eR^ZK
@dc, bZK iZ Ga
ije*k _iw _bZ
K
c] MeZ
\@~a a]d af cZ_Kg Kf
Gj ijZ, _eahY @]eZ @]d^e C_KeYU ijZ C_\^Ke
Z[ iq Me i\i K_e iKZ Zj C_e c] @]d^ KeaK
CjZ Kf 18 Za, iZ c] _eahY @]d^ fK]e
@]d^e _cL @^gk^ K, Gj icRK _iwK @je MeZ_ ba
MjY KeQ @az\a\ (Intersectionality) Gj _iwK aL
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

115

Keae @^KZ aj ij~ KeQ icRe @ce ab^ bcK K_e

@ce Ra^K _baZ Kea iwiw @ce iR^gk _eeK
_e_KgK c] _baZ KeQ i iKe @^gk^ Keae Gj
ijdK jAQ fK]e @^gk^e ab^ a\, i @cK i^d
MMZ _eiee fK]ee _V, _eahY, Ga fK M
ijZ a_K icRK I eR^ZK @dcK ^Z^ bae \Lae
@aie i KeQ
_eahY @]d^e ~C icRK, iZK, eR^ZK
\MMWK C_l Ke~a C_e MeZ \@~C[f GY, _eahY ij
iq fK M ijZ KQ MahK Z[ icfPK ic^u _Zl
Ga _el iKK c] MeZ \aK fMf KjMf ~, Me
i\i ^jf iq Me fK]e iKe iagh m^ ja ia
jA^_e @ZGa, @^gk^ Kea Ga GK C_\^e agh @[ a
iVK @[ _ ^c RY aj-M icfPKu @-Me RY
i\iu _ecg ^aK ja, GY fKZa\c^ iq fK
Me i\iu cZcZK Z[ @^gk^e Zue ij~MK MeZ_
_iw bae MjY Kf, ~j @-ij~M @^gk^ (collaborative
interpretation) bae _eP Z jf iq fK Me i\iu
@^gk^ Ga C_\^ @^gk^e ^Re cZcZ a^cd eLaK MeZ
\a ijZ C_\^ @^gk^e _eeK a^cd _RZa\ bk
GK ^@ i _Z jf Gj ^Z^ i fK a @\^_\^Ke
MK a\ \A fK]e @]d^e fKZa\ c ^u \e
jC[a MKK (ethnocentric) @^gk^ Z[ Cyw @^gk^K
C_l Kf

1. Kf K^ 1907 cije \^ IfeK (Dane Axel Olrik)u ijZ cg

Folklore Fellows ^ce GK @^^ _Z Ke[f ~j iZ c] fK]e
@]d^ lZ e MahYeZ, Ga ^ d c Z bae Folklore Fellows
Communication _ZK _Kg Ke@iQ
116

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

2. @^u Gj M^ _[c 1910 cije ck Rc^ bhe Verzeichnis der

Marchentypen ghKe _Kg _A[f
3. Gj _e_le R^ `fu Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An
Introduction and Annotated Bibliography (1985), The Theory of Oral
Composition: History and Methododlogy (1988), Immanent Art: From
Structure to Meaning in Traditional Oral Epic (1992), Ga The Singers of
Tales in Performance (1995) M^; `^ii cM^u Oral-Formulaic Character
of Anglo-Saxon Narrative Poetry, cK GWIWiu Homer and the Oral
Tradition _a \a

4. ac^ aUK^u ijZ Gj _Ke ~M \A[a @^ fKZa\c^u

c]e Alan Lomax, John Lomax, Zora Neale Hurston, George Korsons,
Walyland Hand, Ga D. K. Wilgus CfL^d
5.1953 cije Southern Folklore Quarterly _ZKe aUK^u _a
Applied Folklore: Creating Understanding through Folklore _KgZ ja
_e _ea icde G lZe @^K fKZa\ MahY KeQ Gj
_iwe Dick Sweterlitschu i\Z Papers on Applied Folklore (1971)
Ga Owen Michael Jonesu Putting Folklore to Use: Essays on Applied
Folkloristics (1993) M^ Cf~M
6. 1979 cije _[c Western Kentuky University e fKZa\c^
Folklore and Public Sector C_e GK K^`e^ @dR^ Ke[f, Gj
K^ `e^e @fPZ PC\U _aK ^A 1980 cije Kentuky
Folklore Record _KgZ jA[f
7. @Pu iaR^^ fK]ee _cL _aq bae MjY Ke~A[G @P
aUK^u Applied Folklore _ebhUK MjY Ke_e^[f, I admired his
sensitivity, and welcomed deserved tribute to him. Neverthless, I did not
like his naming venture (Green 2007, 54). @ZGa, iaR^^ fK]e
i_le i ^ R e ~ q eL [ f G _e _ l e Burt Feintuch u The
Conservation of Culture: Folklorists and The Public Sector (1988) Ga
Robert Baron I Nick R. Spitzer u i\Z Public Folklore (1992) M^

CfL~M
8. Gj _e_le fue The Legend Conduit Ga The Hypothesis of
Multi-Conduit Transmission in Folklore _a Z[ Narratives in Society:
A Performance-Centred Study of Narration (1995) M^ \a
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

117

9. Robert A.Georgesu Communicative Role and Social Identity _a

\a

10. Kaarl Abrahamu Selected Papers on Psycho-Analysis (1977), Geza

Rohemu Psychoanalysis and Anthropology (1958), Elliot Oringu The
Jokes of Sigmund Freud: A Study in Humor and Jewish Identity (1984)

Ga Alan Dundesu Bloody Mary in the Mirror: Essays in Psychoanalytic

Folkloristics (2002) _bZ M^ G _e_le CfL~M

11. Gj _iwe cf^u Myth in Primitive Psychology (1926) Ga A

Scientific Theory of Culture (1944) M^ \a, ~C M^ \AUe i aajeK
iK @]e Ke _[c iZe _K~ iKe @fP^ KeaK ia_[c
_di Ke[f cf^u ijZ Reginald Radcliffe-Brownu c] _K~a\e
_aK bae MjY Ke~G Za, aC^u _K~a\ [f ieP^ @]eZ
~Zak K cf^u _K~a\ _Yam^ Ga c^ @]eZ fK]e
@]d^e _K~a\ i]eYZ cf^u _K~a\K @]e KeQ
12. G _e_le [ciu The Form and Function of Tambunan Dusun
Riddles, RRiu
Toward an Understanding of Storytelling Events, RG^eu
A Model for the Analysis of Folklore Performance in Historical Context,
Z[ aeaeu A Parable in Context: A Social Interactional Analysis of a
Storytelling Performance _a Ga ePW aCc^u Story, Performance, and
Event Contextual Studies of Oral Narratives (1986) M^ \a
13. i<McUK Ga _eWMcUK aghY iKZ agh @]d^ _A Daniel
Chandleru Semiotics:The Basics (2007) M^ \a
14. Wi , bhZa\ Kenneth Pikeu Phonetic Ga Phonemic bk
@a]eYK @]eKe fK C_\^e Motifeme I Allomotif iKe @fP^
Ke[f G iKe Alan Dundesu From Etic to Emic Units in the Structural
Study of Folktales _a \a
15. ab^ fK C_\^e ieP^ZK @^gk^ _A Pierre Maranda Ga
Elli-Kaija Kngs-Marandau Structural Analysis of Oral Tradition (1971)

GK CfL~M M^ Gj M^e ce \Zu ijZ Wi, U^e, jAci,

@f^ fcK Ga @^ fKZa\c^ c[, fKK[, fKMZ ijZ
fK^UK, eZ^Z, ^-\@ _bZe c] ieP^ZK @^gk^ KeQ ij_e,
fKKWe ieP^ZK @fP^ _A @f^ Wiu
On Game Morphology
118

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

: A Study of the Structure of Non-Verbal Folklore _a \a @^e_ bae,

^-\@e ieP^ZK @]d^ lZe Wi Ga RRiu Toward A Structural
Defination of the Riddle _aU c] GK MeZ_ @fP^

IW@ fK]ee cLZ, fKK[ I ^-\@ @\e ieP^ZK

@]d^ _A gcie cj_Zu fKijZ Z (2011) M^ \a cj
Kce cg Zue fKiZ: i I _dM (2012) M^e c] IW@
fKK[e ieP^ZK @^gk^ KeQ
16. Gj _iwbK @]d^ lZe Wi, ac^, iRe, a^-@ci, aeae
_bZ fKZa\c^ ^ aK _Kd (Speech Event) iKe agh
MeZ \AQ `ke_, fK]ee _ee, _eahY _eie, iieY
bk @dcMWK c] MeZ \@Mf fK]e _eahYK icRK _ePZ
bae MjY Ke~A GjK GK iZK a]aZ (Cultural Enactement)
bae @]d^e _eiee i_q KeMf
17. G _iwe @ajcu Toward an Anactment-Centred Approach to
Folklore a^-@ciu Toward a Defination of Folklore Context I The
Context of Folklore: Implications and Prospects _a, Z[ aCc^u Story,
Performance, and Event: Contextual Studies of Oral Narratives (1986),
Ga `^M^u Oral Poetry: Its Nature, Significance and Social Context
(1992) _bZ M^ \a
18. fK]ee bZK iZ @]d^ iKZ Arjun Appaduraiu MahY
M^ The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective c]
1986 cije j _KgZ jG _ea icde, Simon J. Bronneru American
Material Cultutre and Folklife: A Prologue and Dialogue (1992) Ga John
Michael Vlach I Simon J. Bronneru i\Z Folk Art and Art World (1992)

_bZ CfL^d M^ _Kg _A[f

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

119

120

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

fK C_\^ iMj: _Z, _Z, I _Kd

fK]ee @]d^e lZK~ (fieldwork) GK RUk _Kd

, KeY
Gj ijZ aajeKZ Ga ^ZK
Z RWZ _aa @]dMWKe fK a
fK M, _ee, _eahY, Ga fK]e @]d^e AZji iKe
@fP^ Ke~AQ fK]ee @]d^e _eahY lZe iMjZ C_\^K
j cLZ MeZ \@~A[G @ZGa, fK]ee MahY _A lZe C_\^
iMj Kea @ZagK Gj C_\^ iMje fKZK _Kd
Ga _Z @Q
C_\^ Pd^Ve C_\^ iKZ
_a- _KgZ MahY, lZ iP^, C_\^
iMje _Z
, _Z Z[ C_\^ iMj _ea K~ _A ab^
iZKZ @af^
KeaK _W[G @ZGa, lZK~e Gia ia \M ahde GVe ~[
ia il bae @fP^ Keae _di Ke~CQ

fK]e @]d^e lZK~ MeZ

_
KeY, MUG Me
fK]ee @]d^ _A iq Me j fK C_\^ iMj KeaK
jA[G Ga, fK C_\^e iMj _A lZK~ Ree lZ
Kjf ~CVe fK]e a fK C_\^ _eahZ jA[G, Ga
_eahY _eiee C_\^K am^K gke Z[ fKZK
\KYe iMj Kea jCQ lZK~ @ZGa, lZK~ _A _[c
@c KC ahde a KC C_\^ C_e MahY KeaK ~CQ,
Zj ie KeaK ja Gj KC fK Me iMjZ ja, iA
fK M, ic^u bMkK @aiZ, ic^u bh, @Pe
aaje iKe @aMZ ja @agK i]eY bae lZe @c
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

121

fK C_\^e \AU @dcK \L[C _[cZ, C_\^U KY, Gj

Kje a KC fK Me, Gje @aiZ KCV, Gj KZak,
K_e _eahZ jA[G a Gje @\^_\^ K_e jA[G?
\ZdZ, MahK Ga _ecg\Z1u iK ~[ KCVe @C
KZak C_\^ iK e MahK I _ecg\ Zu c]e
@\^_\^ jCQ, Ga Gj @\^_\^K K_e iVK Z[ _bagk
bae C_i_^ Ke~A_ea, Gjia ahd c] MeZ
_
_[cK bae C_\^ iMj Kea _A @^K c]c @Q
Za, cLZ _eahY icde j C_\^UK iMj Kea a]d
@^ icde @c Gj C_\^ iKe @ce _ecg\Zu ijZ K
iq fK Me KYi i\iu ijZ jGZ @fP^ Ke_e
KZK lZe fK C_\^e agh _eahY c] @dR^
Ke~A_e, Za c] Gj _KZ baK @dR^ ijZ ic^
jA^_e; Gj iq fK Me i\iu ^A j Ke~A[C
^ KjK C\jeYe_ @c lZe \Lf ~ K[^ _eahZ
jC^j @c @ce MahY _A _ecg\Zu @^e] Ke GK
K[^ _eahY @dR^ KeaK Kj_ea GVe @ce @^e]Kc
K[^ _e ahY @dR^ Ke~A_e, K[^ _e ahYe
@gMjYKe c] ck~a, K _KZ _eahY bk Gj _eahY
jA^_e, _e ahYKe Ga @gMj YKeu b Z e ~C
@\^_\^ ja K[ Zj c] ja ia ^j GVe ce lZK~
icde GK @^bZ CfL Ke~A_e ieMW Rfe KZ aKe
GK LW@ fK Me c GK ij @ai^ Kea icde K[^
gYaK Pj[f
c ~C au Ne ej lZK~ Ke[f
, Zue c@u
@^e] Kf i Kjf, ^, c K[^ `[^ RY^j, bfM
fY _e
_Y Kjf, @ce ai aXK Kjf i bf K[^ Kj _ea Z_e
ce a Ga c ai aXK WKa _A Mf ai aXe Ne a ag
\e ^j, cZ gj cUe \ee [f ai aX @ia _e Kjf,
aa, Ga @C K[^ KG gYQ ~? c iwe c@, c Ga c iw
Kjf, @c Z gYa
, Kj! ai aX Z[_ a eR jf^j, Kjf
122

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

Zcc^ KY K[^ gYa? _Y \Z^ RYe K[^ Kjf K cR?

c iwe c@, @e ~@ Z WK @Ya _^, \d, Re, cjK Kjf
i^S@K Z_e aj Ke ai aX eRjf, K[^ @e jf,
Kjf, aW`W UKG
@Y Zjf! @V \g c^U Kja_e ai
aX Kjf, ...GA[_A c K[^ Kj^[f! GcZ K[^ Kjae K
fb? c _Pef, KY jf? iAV ai aX Kjf, j cea
_A Kj^j, GcZ @Ke cjP_ ejf KG Kja K[^? _KZe
@c ia P_P_ K[^ gY[f K[^ _eahYe j cea, _g
Kea, bf~C[a a QW~C[a _iwK c^_KAa AZ\ @dc
MeZ_ 2 ^jf K[K baa ~ K[^UK Kj gY^j GA
K[^ _eahYU GK _~RZ _eahY (arranged performance)
[f gZc^u bZe K[^ gYae ~C Cj eja K[, Zj
^[f KeY, ic^ ^dcZ K[^ gY^j, KjaK Mf ic^
Ka GcZ K[^ gY^
[f Gj GVe CfL Keae KeY jf
_~RZ _eahYe _KZ _eahYe _iwKZ _Aa @^K
icde ia jA^_e @^e_ bae, @c MUG fK]ee
_eahYK C_iZ ej _Zl Ke^j, @c @ce _ecg\Zu
_Pe i iKe @aMZ jA_ea Za, _KZ
_eahY K_e
[f Zj RY_ea ^j C\jeYe_, @c i_e @cai a _e
C@i \^ \Lf ~ Mc ce [a CAjue KQ bweR MW
_WQ @^KZ RY aj Me i\i GiaK \Lf a] @aajZ
jA[ae GMWK GcZ bw `w \@~AQ baa baK ~\I,
Rmi c^ba ^A, GAU KY, GV KjK Gbk bw _KA
\@~AQ? af iq fK Me i\iu K _ecg\Zu
_Pef RY_ea, ~ Gj WKe L\3 @^^e @gagh, K
Gje _eahYe K _Kee @^^K _Kd _k^ Ke~A[f,
Zj RY_ea ^j, ~\a _ecg\Z G iKe iP^ \@, Z[_
_eahYe _KZ e_ (form) Ga _Kd (act)K @c @^ba
Keae ic[ ja^j @ZGa, fK C_\^ _KZ _eahY
_iwe j iMj Ke~a CPZ
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

123

C_eq \AU C\jeYe @c jf ~ lZK~ ^c

_KZ _eahY _eie j GK Ree @ZGa, @cK _[c @ce
MahY iKZ C_\^UK ie KeaK ja C_\^U ^ bae
KCV cka, KC icde @c lZe Gje _eahYe _Zl
bae @gMjY Ke (ic _eahYe jGZ ajMe i\i RYK
@gMjYe @^cZ ck^_e) iMj Ke_ea, Zj a ie KeaK
_Wa _eahZ C_\^e ab^ @dc iKe KC _ecg\Zu
ij~ ^@~A_e, Gia c] _ae ^eZ Kea CPZ Za,
ia ^jf lZK Mf_e c] _ecg\Z Pd^ Ke~A_e
Za, _eahY lZK ~a _ae lZe bMkK @aiZ, KC
icde Mf KYi @ia] ja^j a KC icde Mf C_\^U
ijR Ga ia]R^K bae iMjZ jA_ea, Gia VK Kea
CPZ Gj ijZ @c ~C lZK ~CQ ij lZ a ZZiKZ
fK Mu iZK cfa] iKe @aMZ ja @agK
KeY, @c ~C fK M iKe MahY KeaK ~CQ,
ic^u _Z @c bZe GK i^a] eja \eKe Ga ic^u
L\_d, PfPk^, agi, cfa] _Z KYi @_c^R^K ca
Z[ aaje Kea CPZ ^j Gj i lZK~ C_e ^KeZK
_ba _KAae ia^ i Ke_e @^K icde KYi a
K _eZ^ _ePZ KYi aqu ij~Me lZK~ ijR
jA_e, K iaak Gj _Kee ij~ cka ia^j, GY
@cK iq fK Me i\iu ijZ iiK _Z Kea ijZ
ic^u bZe MahK ^R_Z GK agia] i Kea @agK
_^, lZK ~a_ae C_\^U iKe KQ _K-iP^ iMj
Ke~A_e C_\^e KC KC \ M a KC a h d_ Z
_ecg\Zu ijZ @c @fP^ Ke_ea, i iKe c] GK
_a-_Z Ke eLa a]d G[_A _a_KgZ KQ _K K _ae
ij~ ^@~A_e Gjia _K-_Z @ce MahYK @^K
lZe ijdK jA[G @agKik KQ Z[ A<e^Ue c]
iMj Ke~A_e
124

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

C_\^ iMj ^c KQ C_KeYe @agKZ [G C_\^ I

lZe @agKZK @L @Me eL @c ^cq C_KeYMWK C_\^
iMj _A lZK ^A_ea
1. U_ eKWe a @WI eKWe Ga Kce, ia jf
bWI Kce, Gj ijZ @agKd _Ie KW, @W_e
2. @Zeq aUe, aUe PRe
3. _^if
, _^, ^UaK
4. Z[ iMj_Z (data sheet) a @fP^e ia \M Z[
@c RYaK Pj[a fK C_\^e ab^
@dc iKZ iP
5. @^cZ _Z (release forms) ijZ C_\^ iMj ^c
@agKd @^^ _Z
6. f_U_
GVe CfL^d ~ lZ C_~M ahdK C_KeYMWK
e
aaje bfbae RYa ijZ _Z[e lZK ~a _ae Gia K~lc
K ^j ^d _el Ke^a CPZ, Ga ~[ ia C^Zc^e C_KeY
aaje Kea @agK 4 Gj aZZ ^R C_~M Ga ia] ^c
eja LAa aai, \^^ aaj~ a, gZ @*k a gZEZ
jA[f gZa, ~M~M _A caAf, Uy, KQ i]eY Ree
Jh], @\e aai c] Kea \eKe Gj ijZ jfK L\ c] KQ
^@~A_e, KeY GK ^_U Mc*ke lZK~ Ke[f @^K
icde LAaK ck^_e a LAa _A KYi aai jA^_e;
@ZGa, KQ gLf
L\, _Y aZf ^A_ea GVe CfL^d
~, lZ @]d^ icde ~\ _ecg\Z @Z[Ze e_ KQ LAaK
\@ Za, ZjK agh KYi KeY ^[f C_l Kea @^PZ,
Gj C_l _A jGZ @cK ajZ cf\aK _W_e
lZK ~a _ae ^KUi _gi^K @]Ke K Rf cL
_gi^K @]Keu ~M~M Ke~A_e, Gj MahKu @^Z
@ia] icde ij~e @i_e lZe _ecg\Zu bUa
_e ^R _ePd \a ijZ ^Re K~ ahde @aMZ KeAaK
P Kea CPZ ~\ _ae _ecg\Zu ijZ ~M~M ^[G,
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

125

lZK _[c M [G, Za iq fK Me cL K KYi

GK i\iu bU Zu ijZ MahYe Cg RYAa CPZ i\i
RYK MahY _A d _ecg\Z jA_e K @^ _ecg\Zu
ijZ ~M~M KeA \A_e _[cZ, _ecg\Z a iq
fK M RYa CPZ ~, @c KY _A Zu _LK @iQ?
i @c Kce K _Kee ij~ Ke_ea? Zu ijZ @ce Gj
@fP^K ^A @c K _Kee C_~M Kea? GY, MahK iq
fK M ijZ _ePZ jaK _di Kea ij @ce Kc Ga
Gj Kce ic^u bcK
KY, i iKe _[c Kea a]d
i]ikL MUG fK MK ~A c aga\kde @iQ
@_Yc^u fKMZ C_e MahY KeQ cZ KQ fKMZ
\eKe! Kj U_ eKWe @^ Kea CPZ ^j G_e lZe _ee
ajK RYK i]i] c^ Ke\A_e, c KQ MZ`Z RY^j a
Gia Kea _A c _Le icd^j! Kj aeq _Kg Ke_e
KeY, @ce MahY, @ce aga\kd ijZ Zue KQ ~G@i ^j,
KYi \e Gia Zu _A MeZ
_ ^j @ZGa, @cK iq fK
M ijZ _[c GK iiK Z@e KeaK _Wa G[_A \A Z^\^
icd ^ jf c] @c ]~ e ijZ @_h Kea CPZ _Y, @cK
lZe ej @^gk^ KeaK _Wa ~, _ee ajK KG, KeY
KZK lZe iVK Z[ _A _ee ajKu @agKZK C_l
Ke~A^_e KG _KZe K[^Ke, MZKW@? a _eeK
C_KeYe ^cYe KG @bm? ij_e, ~C ia _eahYe a
@fP^e eKW Ke~a, i iKe c] @^cZ ^a a]d
G[_A @^cZ _Ze Zue le ^@~A_e 5
@^K icde lZ @]d^ Kke MahKu iZK
ab\Ze gKe ja \L~A[G @ZGa, ~\ MahK aj iZK

_eee @i[, Za i iq _ee iKe bfba @aMZ

ja a]d lZe iq fK Me i\iu ijZ K_e
aaje Kea, Zj RYa @agK ^jf, i @_ePZ Gj ^Z^
fK M \e @Mj jae ia^K GWA \@~A^_e
126

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

Z ijZ MahK ^RK j^c^Ze gKe c] jaK _W_e G_e

jf ^^ _Kee @^ iciMWK c] ic KeaK _Wa ijZ
lZK~e ~ a] ^@ia GK[ Kj~A^_e
MahK RYK @]d^ Ke[a
C_\^ Z[ iq fK
M _A KG? Gj _gU fK]e Z[ iZK, _RZK MahY
_A GK MeZ _ _g Gj @ce lZK~, @ce MahYK
@^KcZe _baZ Ke[G @c MahY _A K_e bae _K_Z
KeQ? C_\^ Ga iq fK M iKe @c bZe K
_Kee _a Mj @Q? Gj MahY ahdK Z[ iq icRK K_e _e_

Ke_ea? MahK RY @M i\i ^ ajM i\i?

lZK~ _A Gia GKGK MeZ_ @dc Gj a jA_e ~
MahK @M i\i, K iq _ee iKe iagh ]eY
^j MahK RYK @M i\i jA[f _ecg\Z Z[
_eahYKe Ga @^ @gMjYKeu ijZ @\^_\^e KYi
@ia] ja^j K, C_\^e @^gk^ KKe jA_e KeY,
C_\^e @^K @dc MahKu ^jZ i]eY c^jae ia^
\L\A[G ij_e, MahK RYK ajM i\i jA[f
@^K iciK ic KeaK _W_e, KeY iq fK Me
i\i icZ ic^ue bh, @Peaaje, _eahY, _eie iaKQK
^Z^ bae ic KeaK jA[G @^e_ bae, MahKu fwMZ
ahc c] KQ fK C_\^ iMje a] i Keae ia^ eL
C\jeYe_ KQ fK C_\^ a _[ _ee, ~CV ^ec^u
bcK
MeZ_, ij lZe akak RY cjk _ecg\Z a
i\iu ijZ @fP^ Kfak MahK RYK ~\ _eh jA[,
Za Gj KZK lZe ijR jA^_e, iq fK Me
i\i cjk i\i RYK ijZ aje @i[a RY _ehu ijZ
ak_ KeaK @^cZ \A^_e K cjk RYK C_\^ a
_eee KZK ^ \M, ~j icRK ^h] (taboo) ijZ RWZ,
i iKe \]j^ bae @fP^ KeaK f{_Kg Ke_e
@ZGa, lZK~ icde Gia \M_Z c] \ \a \eKe
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

127

@^K icde \L~G, KQ fK C_\^ a _ee ijZ

iq fK M ^RK ajMe i\iu _Le _ePZ KeaK
Az _Kg Ke^j, ~j C_\^ iMje a] i Ke[G
C\jeYe_, IWge MUG fK Me aaj icde
aeK^e ~^-ck ^ ja_e ae_le fK ae_Z u\e
\@~A[a bR LA[, GK[ _eahY _ez\e c] CfL
Ke~AQ G iKe ~Zak iq fK Me RY
i\iu c Rmi Kf, i KVe ba c^Ke Kjf, @ce icRe
G_e Kaa jG^j K jC^[f @ag Gj iZ ~ @*kb\e
KZK i^e iZ @C Gj _ee _k^ Ke~C^j ij_e,
_ecg\Z @^K icde fK C_\^ iKZ KZK \MK
i]eY Z[ jfK bae MjYKe MahKu ijZ @fP^
^Keae ia^ c] \L\A_e @ZGa, Gjia @dcK MeZe
ijZ MjYKe K_e lZK~ i`k bae Ke~A_ea, C_\^
a _eahY iKZ ic \M C_e @aMZ jA_ea, i[ ^c
MahK P Kea CPZ GVe CfL^d ~, ~\ KYi
C_\^ a Z[ ~jK iq fK Me icRK c~\,
eZ^ZMZ M_^dZ, Z[ _ePZMZ @^ @dc ijZ iq , Za
iiaK ^ZKZ \e Zu a^ @^cZe iai]eYu ^c CfL
Kea @^PZ
MahKu @ Ga aj _iZ _eiZ C_e ^be Ke,
KeY RY MahK ~ iaak @M i\i ja Gj
Kj~A^_e @ZGa, lZK~ icde @cK aQ^aK ja ~
@c Kak _~alY Kea ^ @gMjY ijZ _~ahY Kea
_~alY Kjf Kak \ bae fK C_\^ a _eahYK
_~alY Kea, `UPZ bWI Z[ @^^ Z[ iMj Kea
@gMjY ijZ _~ahY Kea @[ MahK iq fK M
ijZ ~Z ia iZ _cZe ej _eahYe @gMjY_aK
_eahYK @^]^ Kea ia_[c MahK _eahYe bM
^aK iq fK Me i\i Z[ cLuVe @^cZ ^a a]d
128

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

~\ @gMjYe bM ^ae i~M ^[G, Za aj \gK bae

c] ^Re C_iZ _A @^cZ ^a \eKe, ^jf lZK~e
ici \L\ae ia^K GWA \@~A^_e c^Ke~C,
KYi GK Mce aj^Q^ ~Z jCQ, @c iVK ~A P_P_
`U CVA aif a bWI PZ Ck^ Ke aif, ij_e KeaK
iq fK Me KYi i\i i~M \a^j @C, GK
C\jeY @c lZK ~CQ, ~aak MUG i^e \Lf,
e KWe Z^ PeU _f aNQk LkQ, @c i] MWe IjA
_W `U ^a @e Kea, Za ij _fc^ ~ l ^ja
GK[ c] Kj~A ^_e GY, lZe _ZK K~ Kea _ae
iq i\iu @^cZ ^a @agK
_ecg \ Z/_e ahYKeu MahYe ic Cg
RYAa_e Zju C_\^ iKe _Pe~A_e GK ^ Z[
iMj Kea _ae i iKe KQ _K-iP^ [f _ecg\Z/
_eahKu ijZ ilZKe a @fP^ icde ij C_\^
C_e iagh Z[ iMj Kea ijR jA[G [eKe MUG _g
_Pe a KYi GK ahde Rmi Ke ]~ Ga @Mje ijZ i
KY KjQ gYa CPZ MahKu ]~ I @Mj _ecg\Zu @^K
_ecYe _baZ Ke[G, Gj Zu @je @]K ij~M KeaK
_eZ Keae ijdK jae ia^ @Q ij_e, _ecg\Zu
aqa cSe KYi _Kee _Z_g _Pea @^PZ K GcZ KYi
_g Zu _Pea K[^j ~j Zu K Zue MK @NZ Kfbk
c^ja GK ^ C_\^ C_e Z[ iMj Ke[f _ae ij
C_\^ iKZ ia _gak _Z Ke~A_e 6 Gj ijZ
_ecg\Z Z[ _eahYKeu iKe KQ aqMZ Z[ c] iMj
Kea CPZ, ~j fK C_\^e @^gk^ Ga _ea MahY
_A ijdK jA[G
GVe _^ae CfL Ke~CQ ~, _KZK
a _e_gK
_iw (natural context) c]e j C_\^MWK iMj ja CPZ
^a PK C_\^ jA[f Gje _Z
, _K-_Z
, C_~M, aaje,
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

129

agh aaje a icRK eZ^Z _k^ icde \^^ i]eY

C_KeYU K_ e aajZ jCQ, iiae Ga aPK C_\^
jA[f @L^Keu `UM` ijZ @L^ a _eahYe @WI
eKW Ke~a @agK Za, iZK icde aPK, ^aPK
ic C_\^K bWI eKW c]ce j iMj Ke~A_e KeY,
Gj _eahY @]d^ _A @cK aj _ecYe ijdK jA_ea
Gia aZZ, _eahKYKe / _ecg\Z Z[ _ee ajKuV
ij C_\^e ab^ @dc iKe @c RYaK P Kea CPZ
@ZGa, _ecg\Z / _eahKu ijZ C_\^e ab^ @dc C_e
@fP^K c] iV K Z el _A @W I K b W I eKW
Ke~A_e Gj ijZ, MahK _eahYe eKW icde eKW
Ke~A_e^[a @^ _e_ gK @dc Z[ _e ahY _ea
\MMWK ahde c] f_a Kea CPZ `ke_, _ea icde
Zje eKW Ke~A_ea CjjeYe_ @c GK _eeK
C_KeY KhYe _ Z Kcegke \Lf Z[ Gje bWI
PZ^f K, Gj K_e ^wfe fMa ij cU Phae aajZ
jG , Zje _e ahY iwiw _Aa @c _A ia\ ia
jA^_e GY, Gbk lZe Gje _ea _eahY ~G @cK
@_l KeaK _Wa
_ecg\ Z / _e ahYKe Z[ _ee ajKu ijZ
ilZKe C_\^ iKe @fP^ Kfak C_\^ iKZ KQ
_cL _g iKe GVe @fP^ Ke~A_e; iMWK jf
1. ^ ]eU KCVe, KZak, K_e glKf?
2. _ee / _eahYe @dR^ _A _a _ZMWK KY?
3. _ee / _eahY iKZ ^h]ak Z[ @^ aghZ
@Q K ^j?
4. _ee a C_\^U K _ e _e ahZ jA[G a
_eahYe e_ KY?
5. _ee / _eahYe K K C_~M iq M c]e
@Q? KjK G _ee @dR^ Ke~G?
130

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

6. ^ _ee / _eahY G_e KjK @dRZ jA[G?

7. iq icRe ^ _ee / _eahYe @^ aajeK
\MMWK KY?
8. _ee / _eahYe KQ _ea^ @iQ K ^j a icdKc
K K ^Z^Z @iQ? ~\ ^Z^Z @iQ Zjf Zje KeY KY?
Gj ^Z^ZK iq fK M K_e bae MjY Ke?
9. iq _eahYe _eahYKe, @gMjYKe, Me
@^ i\iu bcK KY? @gMjY _A ic^u agh _Z KQ @Q
K ^j?
10. \^^ Ra^ RAa
e ^ _ee / _eahY K_e
ijdK jA[G? Gj _Z iq fK Me ^Z^ _X i\iu
\b
w K_e?
11. _ee Z[ _e ahYe _e ahY-_ea ab ^
@dc KY?
GVe CfL^d ~, _eahYKe Z[ @gMjYKe K
_ecg\Zu GMWK i]ikL _g bae ^_Pe K[a _iwe
@[Z @^_PeK gke _Pe~A_e ij_e, C_\^ iKZ
_g Z[ ab^ @dc iKe RYa _A aee ab^ gke
_Pe~A_e fK]ee KYi a C_\^ iMj Kea icde
Gje _Kee e_ a b^ e_ iKe c] Rmi Kea CPZ
@^e_ bae, C_\^ iKZ
@fP^ _A Kak RY _ecg\Z
a _ee ajKu ijZ @fP^ ^Ke GK]K _ecg\Zu ijZ
@fP^ Ke~a a]d KeY, RYK _Le iaak ~[ Z[
cka ia jA^[G @fP^ _eghe _ecg\Zu ]^a\
RYAa ijZ iq fK Me ic i\iu ^Re KZmZ
RYAa ^ZKZ \e
lZK~e GK @[_ @dc
_eahYe _Z l _~ahYKke _eahY iKZ
iagh aaeY lZ UY (field note) bae MahK Z}k f_a
Ke^a CPZ _eahYe _V, __V I _iw iKe CfL^d
\MMWK ~Ze ijZ @^]^Ke ZK f_a Kea a]d ~\I,
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

131

_eahYe bWI eKW Ke~C[G, Z[_ _eahY iKZ KQ

agh aqa a Z[ f_ a Ke~a CPZ Gj ijZ \gK ,
~Cc^u _eeK _eahYe @^Zc @gMjYKe bae MjY
Ke~G ic^u _ZKd, _eahYKeu ijZ @\^_\^ _bZK
c] f_a Ke~A_e MahK c] iq _eahYe RY
@gMjYKe, @ZGa Zue @-aj _baK MeZ\a ijZ Gj
_e ahY _K dK K_ e _baZ KeQ, i iK e ^Re Ga
_eahZ fK Me i\iu @^bZ c] f_a Ke~a
CPZ Gj ijZ lZK~ icde ~C \MMWK KYi KeYagZ
iMj Ke~A_ef ^j, i iKe a CfL eja @agK
C_\^MWK iMj jf _e GjK ielZ Ke eLa _A
f_U_e WC^fW Ke~A_e Ga Gje GK K_ c] KK
Wi (CD) , @agKik WRUf biUf W (DVD) K GK
GKU^f jWWe eLa Ree `ke, KYi ~K ZU ~M
C_\^U MUG i ^e ^ jAMf @c ZjK ijRe
_A_ea, _Y[e ij C_\^e iMj _A K Ke KeaK
_Wa ^j _Y, C_\^Ue aaje icde iaak GK _Z
^Kf a W_KU K_ Ke^a CPZ KeY, KYi KeYe Gj
^ jAMf _Y[e Gje ck K_K aaje Ke~A_ea
_ZK K_K i bae _el Ke ^a Ree, @[Z `U
CVA[f @ce @agKZ cZaK ic `U ^@~AQ K ^j,
ij_e ilZKe a _ecg\Z Z[ fK Me i\iu
ijZ ~C @fP^ jAQ, Zj d i K ^j, Gj eKWe
VK bae WC^fW jAQ K ^j, bWI eKW jA[f c]
_el Ke^a CPZ ~, @C KYi \Me eKWU @i K ^j;
~\ i_e KQ jA[G, Za lZ QWa _ae Zj i
Ke~A_ea _ecg\Z ~\ Zue i^d bhe @c ijZ
@fP^ Ke[ Ga i lZe @ce m^ icZ, Za lZ
QWa _ae iMWK f_a Ke^a CPZ Ga Zu aqaK @_Y
VK bae f_a Ke_eQ K ^j , Zj _ecg\Zu \LA
132

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

i]e^a \eKe lZe `ef _e C_\^/_eahYe _VK

~ZgN ia f_a Ke^a CPZ `U Ga bWIMWK Zje
WRUf K_e c] ZZiKZ iP^ f_a Ke~A_e `kZ,
MahK K @^ Kj ij~M c] _ea icde KUee
[a `UK a bWIUK Lfa_e ZZiKZ iP^ ijRe C_f
Ke_ea 7

1. GVe Z[ _\^Ke (informant) _ebhUK C_l Ke~CQ KeY,

fKZa\c^ _ee ajK a ~juV fK]e iKZ m^ @c @ce
@]d^ _A iMj Ke i Kak RY Z[ _\^Ke cZ ^j, ae RY
ijKc fK]e GK MZgk _eeK @dc, Ga fK]e _A iMjK,
a\^, MahK MeZ_ ^j, ~\ Kj MeZ_ Zjf i jCQ
_ee ajK Ga, _eeeUe _KZ @[ Z[ _K~ iKe i ~KYi
a\^ MahKuVe agh \lZ c] eL @ZGa, fK]e MahYe
_ee ajKu Gj M e Z _ b c K K C_f Ke a `ke i Z
fKZ a \ c ^ _ee ajKu Z[_ \ ^Ke bae M j Y^Ke
_ecg\Ze c^Z \@
2. K[^gk @^ie MUG K[^e cf- @e, ajf^- @MK aXAa,
[K^- agc, _QNP^- _QK `ea a _Qe QW~A[a K[e a^
Kea, _Pe^- _Pea, jU^- gZu _ge ij cP^ Kea, PN^C_eK PXAa a @MK aXa, QW^- QAa a _eic Kea bk ab^
@dc [G (aM 2010, 144)
3. _c IWge ab^ @*ke MW a NWf ^ce Gj cq-_wYe
KW @hX gK_l \Zd \^Ve i_e @cai a b\a K_l @cai
~G @dRZ jA[G Gj KWe aajZ GK Z KW C_KeY jCQ
MW Gj KW GK icRK @^^ ijZ iKZ i_e @cai \^ ic
Lkk ^R^R MWK bweR Mc _e [a DAjue _Z \A[,
~j WKe L\ bae _ePZ WKe jCQ eMaAeMe \a Gj
\a Me ajeK PfMf Zu iwe ic eMaAeM Pf~G af
iq fK Me GK agi @Q Lkkc^ ^R^R MWMWK
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

133

_Zfak ~e WKe ~/ f@ P^ LA ~/ aU aU ~/ eM
~M ]e ~/ `f _^ ~/ ~e WKe ~... _bZ MZ MA[
MW KW iKZ agh Z[ _A id Kce aMu _c IWge
_eeK KW: GK fKZK @]d^ (2012) M^ \a
4. `UM` a @fKPZ Ck^ Z[ @WI Ga bWI eKW KcK MahK
ijR bae ^aK[ ^j G[ ^c iagh m^ ^jf c] ic^
]eY eja K[, ^PZ Ck^ Ke~A[a `UM`MWK _ea icde
@^_~M c^jA_e @ZGa, G iKZ i]eY m^ Kgk ^c Ben
Longu Complete Digital Photography (2002), Gregory Georgesu Digital
Photography Top 100 Simplified Tips and Tricks (2005), Gregory Georges,
Larry Berman I Chris Maheru 50 Fast Digital Camera Techniques (2003),
Andy Kolovosu Audio Field Recording Equipment Guide (2007) Ga Barry
Bravermanu Video Shooter Story Telling with HD Camera (2010) bk KQ

_K @]d^ Ke~A_e
5. _e ge @^c Z_Ze GK ^Kf \@~AQ @ce i^d fK]e
MahYe KjK, iabeZd ee c] G~G aK Z (intellectual
copyright) C_e ~ZK MeZ \aK[ iZK \@~A^j Za, ag
aK Z @^^ (World Intellectual Property Organization) a WIPO
Ga UNESCO 1982 cije aK Z C_e MeZ _\^ Ke@iQ
2001 cije cwfe aga\kde C_e GK i^ @^Z jA[f,
~CV fK]ee aK Z C_e c] @fP^ Ke~A[f Gj
@fP^e jK (Lauri Honko) Kj[f fK C_\^ ~jZ GK
^ _eahYK @]e Ke[G, GY a_K icRKZ \e \Lf Gje
aqMZ @]Ke (individual right) \ZK _eiZ i Ke[G ...Za,
C_\^e aK Z C_e Kj[f, since variation is the life substance
of folklore, there is no master copy of a product of folklore from which all its
variants could be derived. Second, I pointed out the tradition community as
the prime holder of rights and ownership, not the individual performer who
never claims to have invented the folkloric piece he performs. It may be
impossible to assess what is art and what is not art in cases where the actual
owner of folklore, the traditional community, does not apply such a concept
but rather sees the matter in terms of sacred values, world views and group
identity. the use of folklore, be it performance or publication, must be
authorised and, if the use will bring economic gain, part of it should go to
the source. Secondly, if the use is unauthorised or ethically damaging to the
134

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

source, the act is criminal and must be punished(Hanko 2001, 9-10) @ZGa,

aga\kd K cja\kd Z[ ab^ aieKe @^^e _K _A

~Zak fK C_\^ iMj Ke~CQ iZak C_\^e glK Ga
MahYZK aaje _A iq _ecg\Zue I fK Me i\iue
@^cZ ^a a]d
6. _ege C_\^ iMje ia \MMWK ^A GK Z[ iMj _Ze ^c^
fKKWK @]eKe \@~AQ Gj GK icdK _Z MahK ^R @]d^
Ga C_\^K @L @Me eL G_e Z[ iMj _Z ^R _Z Ke_ea
@agK c^Kf Gj Z[ iMj _Ze c] _ea^ Ke~A_e Z[
iMj _Z ijZ _ecg\Z iP^ _Z, @^cZ _Z, @WI-bWI iP^ _Z,
`UM` iP^ _Z c] \@~AQ ~j lZK~ Z[ C_\^ iMj icde
aaje Ke~A_e GVe CfL^d ~, Gj iP^ _Z Z[ @^cZ
_ZMWK
American Folklife Center Z[ New York Folklore Society \e _Z
@^cZ _Z Ga iP^ _ZK @]e Ke _Z Ke~AQ
7. `U a bWI `AfK eAU KK Ke PropertiesK ~A Summarye Title,
Subject, Author, Category, Keywords, Comments _bZe `U Ga bWI
iKZ iP^ f_a Ke~A_ea

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

135

136

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

fK]ee @^gk^:
_K~a\, _eeK-a^cd _RZa\, Ga
@a z\a\

fK]e @]d^e AZ j i _e z\e @c \L f ~

fKZa \c^ fK]eK aSa _A a @^gk^ _A @^K i
Ga Ze _dM Ke @^c^u fK]ee MeZ_ \MMWK \LAae
Z[ ijZ , ^Z, bhZ , icRam^, c^, @\^_ \^Z @\e
ic^de fKZK @]d^K ic Kea ijZ C_\^e ajcL @^gk^
Ke Zje ^Z^ @dcc^ iKe @aMZ jae @aie i KePfQ
Gj _ez\e _K~a\ (Functionalism), _eeK-a^cd _RZa\
(Reciprocal Ethnogrphy) Ga @az\a\ (Intersectionality) bk KQ
iZK I MeZ_ i Z[ C_Mc iKe icK @fP^ KeaK ~[
ia _di Ke~AQ

_K~ a\
@c RYQ ~, ~j _eeK bae @\^_\^ jA[G
Zj fK]e Za, Gj K_e @\^_\^ jA[G? KjK
GZ\^ ]e @\^_\^ jAPfQ? Gj @\^_\ ^e iq
fKMu KY ck? Gj_e ab^ _g MeZ_
c^ jA[G Gj
_gMWKe @a]eY C_e _K~a\ _Z Z fK]ee _K~a\
@^gk^ iKe fK]e @]d^e AZji _ez\e ic^ iP^
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

137

\@~AQ GVe ZjK @C UKG aZ bae @fP^ Keae

_di Ke~CQ @c RY Q ~ cf^, eWK` _bZ
^Za\u MahYK @]eKe fKZa\ aiKc 1954 cije
fK C_\^e _K~ C_e MeZ _\^ Kf aiKc Zue
PeU _K~ c]e MUGe CfL Ke ~, Gj @ile
icRe glK bcK aj^ Ke[G aiKc cLZ @ile icRe
@leK glK GlZe iPA[a c^jG Za, aiKcue Gj
@ile icRe ]eY _eY jAMfY fK]e ile, @ile
^aghe _ZK icRK Me @Y@^^K bae glK bcK
^aj Ke[G C\jeYe_, glZ fK Me c] \L~G
~ ^@ajU ~Z glZ jf c] Nee MeR^ _Le ce
IXY \aK jA[G IXY \a @ce _ee Ga, Gj _ee
@cK @ce fK]e gLA[G (~\I, IWge ic fK
Me Gj _ee ^j) ij_e, aiKc fK C_\^ K_e
iZK a]Z i Keae ijdK jA[G @[Z iq Me
i\iu bZe icRK eZ^Z Z[ ab ^ @^^e ~[[Z K
_Z_\^ Keae ijdK jA_e, i iKe CfL Ke
C\jeYe_, aaj _e_e aeK^ue RM^[ \g^ Z[ ^
@*ke ~KYi VKe VKeYu \g^K MeZ \@~G aeK^
~ VKe \g^ _A ^Mf @gb ja, Gj Kj~A^_e Za,
Gj @ce _ee, @c GjK ~qKe L^ Ke_ea ^j
_eaee Z[ icRe adR Z[ MeR
^c^u i^ \aK
~A ic^u _\QA _Yc Kea c] GK _ee GV Kj ~q Ke
^j ~, KY i^ \aK ~A ^A_W RYKe _\ QAaK ja?
KjK Kj ~q Ke ^j? KeY, @ce fK]e a @ce _ee
GjK ~[[ af Kj @^e_ bae, fK]e akak @cK
GK ^ icRK _Kde, Z[ \^^ ZUaP Ze el Ke[G
c^Ke, _fc^ KPKCW K aNQk KW _eahY KeaK
~A Neaee Kk a @wee Ne KUf, KWlZ Z@e KeaK
Pjf, G lZe ~\ RY ad aq iVe [a, Za i G_e
138

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

KeaK c^Kea, KeY G_e Kea @gb ij_e, ]e~C KYi

GK fK Me i\iK ^@LA _ae ^@ PCke bZ LAaK
\a, Za i Zj LAa ^j, KeY Zue ^@LA ie^j
c \N\^
Zk ai eMe _WZ jA[f, NUYKc ce
GKKk^ Z^Pe[e eqa jA[f GVe c KjeL ~ Gj
1996 cije K[, Z[_ ce KYi Wqe PK
Ke~A^[f
G_eK, iZ c] @^KZ Wqe PK
Ke~G ^j i ~jjC,
ce eqa ja \L M VKeYu WKMf i Kjf, ~ _eaee
Kj Wf RZd gi bRK ehA KeQ ~j K Kea K[^j
Z_e, \au _Le c^iK KeMf @ZGa, Gj @ce GK agi,
@ce _ee fK]e @cK @ce ZUaP
Z iKe iPA[G
c c@ G iKe @aMZ ^[f, _ea icde Zu @ce
ij_Wge @^K Mk Ke[f aiKc, PZ[ _K~ bae,
fK]e K_e icRK a]a]^e @^c\^Ke c] jA_e
i iKe CfL Ke @c ic ^Z ~, @ce ic icRK
a]a]^K @ce fK]e j @^c\^ Ke[G Kj icRK a]a
]^
iKe _g Ke^j, K Zj ^KeaK ~q C_i_^ Ke^j Gj
Kak @ile icRe ^j icM icRe \L~A[G KeY,
fK]e Kak Me a @ile fK Me ^j, ~KYi
GK Me _eeK @\^_\^ jCQfK]e Za, Gj GK
^ icRe b^b^ Me @fM @fM c] jA_e
C_eq @fP^e @c \Lf ~, aiKc fK]e a
fK C_\^Ue e_ KY i iKe MeZ ^\A, Gj K_e Ga
KjK GK iq Me _PkZ jCQ a @\^_\^ jCQ, i
iKe MeZ \f Za, aiKc GK ^
fK C_\^e K_e
_ea^ \L~G, K_e \b
we _ea^ @i; fK]e K_e
GK _KdK icfP^ Ke, ZjK ae] Ke Ga icRK Z[
iq fK MK ikZ Ke eL i iKe KYi @fP^
Kf^j (Patric B. Mullen, [e-mail correspondence] as quoted by
Sims and Stephens 2005, 176) Za, @c _a _ee _ez\e
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

139

\Lf, K_e ieKe Ga ijKee ghYK fKMZ ae] KeQ,

iZK icde c] ajed K^e @KcYK _Ze] Keae
_P Z `U CVQ ij_e, ab^ fK Me e_K Ga
icRe Gc^ue bcKK c] fK]e icfP^ Ke[ G
C\jeYe_, MG ac^, lZ ic^, RwfK ^A afa _\,
_AKK ^A afa \\ (cg 1996,279), Wc fKe a @e
RW MQe Pe (ic^) _Y, @^KZ aPK C_\^e ab^ aPK
C_\^e _eahY _KdK c] icfP^ Ke~A[G, Z[ i
iK Z cZcZ \ @ ~C[ a g Y a K c k [ G, ~jK W i
cU`Kfe (Meta-Folklore) a fK]e iKZ fK]e1
bae _ePZ Ke
KYi GK fK C_\^e _K~ iKZ @fP^e
i]eYZ C_\^Ue _ea^K MeZ \@~G^j, ~Zak ~G
M @_eaZ, iZak ~G ij Me fK C_\^e _K~
c] @_eaZ af Kj~A[G K, @^K @agi ~j
_KZe agi, icd Ga _eiZ _iwe iq fKMe
GK cM\gK bae Kc Ke[f, Zje iZK bcK i b^
@ZGa, GK C_\^e i^dZK @]e ^Ke ZjK GK iaR^^
C_\^ bae MjY Ke @fP^ Kea, _Ve @[K iKPZ
Ke \A[G icR Ga _eag Z[ i^dZ fK C_\^K
@^Kbae _baZ Ke[G, GY ^ bae Kj~A^_e ~,
C_\^Ue Gj _K~ iq fKMe iaZ ic^ G _iwe
GVe GK C\jeY \@~A_e c^Ke, _c IWge GK
fK Me QUQU _fc^ aU LkQ _fc^u\e
jC[a Gj aU Lke @dR^ \L @c Kj_ea^j ~, Kak
c^e^ a icd @ZajZ _A j Ga Kak _fc^u\e j Gj
Lk _eahY Ke~A[G KeY, bcaj2 icde c] bc
jA[a gec^ @[Z aebA bc aU Lka \L~G @ZGa,
aU Lke Gj eZ^Z @]eZ _K~ GK ^ _iw Z[ GK ^
i^d _eahYe j \LaK _A_ea ij_e, fK C_KeY
140

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

Kfe c] icRK, iZK _K~ aZZ @^K eZ^Z @]eZ

_K~ c] @c \LaK _A[C
_K~a\ @^gk^e @C GK ici akak \L~G,
Zjjf, MahKu Cyw \bw @^KZ, fKZe MahK
ba ~, ic^ ~jZ glZ Ga a\^, GY ic^ j fK
C_\^e iVK @[ Ke_ea fK]ee _K~a\e i]eYZ
fK C_\^U iq fK Me K @[eL, Zj ^e_Y
Ke~A[G Ga, Gj @[ cLZ MahK @C a\^c^ ^eY
Ke[ Gj @[ ^e_Yak @^K icde @^gk^Keu iZK
_bc, iq fKM _Z Zue \bw @\ MeZ_ bcK
eL @ZGa, fK C_\^e Gj @[ ijZ Gje _K~ ^e_Y
Keae @^gk^Ke GKK (one way) bcK MjY Ke[
i]eYZ, fKZa\c^ @^ GK fKMe @[ Keae
KYi \] _Kg Ke^[, KeY ic^ ba ~, iq MU
@ile, ic^ C_\^e KYi @[ Keae @ic[, Ga @c
ic^u @_l C_\^Ue @^gk^ bf bae Ke_ea Gj_e
GK ]eYe @c @cK GK ^
MVe @fM af c^Ke[C
K, _KZe \LaK Mf ~KYi a\^ a MahKuVe ^
fK Me i\i RYK Zje \ ^^ Ra^e aajZ
jC[a, ^R _e ahY Ke[a C_\^e, _[ _eee Ga
eZ^Ze iVK @[ Ke_ea
fKZa\c^ i]eYZ ~Zak C_\^e @[ a
_K~ iKe @fP^ Ke, iZak ic^, C_\^U
K_e bae ij fKMe aajee @i[G? a ij
C_\^K ^A iq fKM KY Ke? Z[ K_e ij
C_\^ ic^u Kce @i[G? Gbk KQ ^ _iw C_e
@^gk^ Kea \L~G K, akak GK ^ C_\^ @^
fKMe Z[ ij fKMe @^ bMkK
_eiee aiai Ke[a i\iu bZe c] aajZ a _eahZ
jC[A_e Ga Zj @^ bae Zu _A @[_ c^ jA_e
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

141

C\jeYe_ Kkj, ^@_W Ga afwe Rfe MW Lk

@hX gK_l \Zd \^Ve b\a K_l @cai Z[ i_e
@cai \^ _~ _eahZ jA[G K, ^aew_e Rf e ^@LA
\^ @[Z @g^ ci _~ Pf[G G[ ijZ, MW _Za i^e
Ne \aZK _R Ke~A[G (i^^ 2009, 390) MWbw
i^K ~a ee aUe ~j _Wf @[Z KKW, KLeV @e Ke
QA, ie _~ ic _Kee L\ _\[ MUA ^@~G Za,
@^K Gj _fc^u PCk Z[ @^ e^ icM ^R Lie c]
\A[ @^e_ _ee @c _eRu aU~
Z (_]^ 2007, 74),
Kc^ue Pefk (ag 1988, 7) _bZ _eahYe c]
\LaK _A[C Gia GVe CfL Keae KeY jf, GK ^
_eeK \L ij _eee icMK
_K~ iKe @c @aMZ ja
@^K icde C_\^e iVK _V Ga _K~ ie Kea ijR
jA^_e
Gj ^Z ~ cf^, eWK` Ga aghZ aiKcu
_K~a\ @cK fK]e K_e, KjK @\^_\^ jA[G, iq
fK M _Z K @[ eL iia C_e MeZ
_
\
^ KeaK _eZ

Kf Gj aZZ, ^
fK M ij C_\^ ijZ GK ^

_eage KY Ke? K_e _ee bZe Gje @\^_\^ jA[G?

Gia @dc iKe @]d^ KeaK c] CjZ Kf Gj ijZ
_K~a\ fK C_\^K fKVe @fM ^Ke K_e ZK icMK

bae @]d^ Ke~A_e i iKe MeZ

_\^Kf

_eeK-a^cd _RZa\
fK C_\^U ijZ fK M K_e @\^_\^
KeQ, Zj ic^u K _Ke Kce @iQ a GK ^
C_\^K
^A ic^ K K aaje I C_~M KeQ, i iKe Kak a\ ^
a MahK \bw ^eL fK C_\^e @[ Ga Zje C_~M,
aaje iKe iq fKMe i\i Z[ _ecg\Zu bcKK
142

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

c] _eeK-a^c d _RZa\ MeZ _\^ Ke3 KeY, i]eYZ

fKZa\ Z[ MahK _Ve ~C @fP^ a @^gk^ Ke[,
Zj ic^ue iZK _bcK @^KZ @]e Ke[G fK
C_\^e _ bc MZ @^g k^e @^K icde MahK Z[
fKZa\u
bZe [a @c / ic^ bk \Z @a]eYe _ba
\LaK ck; Z[_, MahKc^ i]eYZ ba[ ~ C_\^Ue
agh aL @c\e j jA_ea @^gk^ lZe Gj_e ba^
~M fKZa\c^ C_\^U iMjKea _e _ecg\Zu
C_\^ iKZ KQ _g _Pe\A lZe _Za^ Kea \L~G,
~ ac^ Gje @^gk^ Kc @ce K, _KZe fKZa\ a
^ Z a \ u @^ g k^Ve fK]ee c k _e i e Z[ g l ,
@\^_\^e _Kd, agi, Ga MMZ cfa] @^KZ @fM
jA[a \L~AQ GY, @^K fKZa\
fK]ee _iwbK
@]d^ C_e MeZ _\^ Kea ijZ fK C_\^e @^gk^e
iq fK Me i\iu cZcZK c] agh MeZ \aK
fMf GA @a]eYe iZ @^K Z[_\^Ke _ebh a\ke
_ecg\Z, KkKe, _eahYKe, @gMjYKe _bZ
ge aajeK
C_~q c^KeQ Ga C_\^e @[ Keae Z[ @^gk^e Gc^u
GK ij~M bae MjY KeQ fKZa\c ^ C_\^e @^gk^
Kea _e i iKe iq Me _ecg\Zu Z[ _eahYKe
Ga @^ i\iu ijZ @fP^ KeQ, ic^u @a]eYU KZ\e
iVK i iKe Rmi KeQ, Z ijZ ij ^
C_\^ iKe
ic^u @bcL KY, Zj C_i_^ KeaK MeZ
\CQ Za,
Gje @[ ^j ~, MahK a fKZa\
fK C_\^e KYi @[
Kea ^j; Gj MahK, _ecg\Z, _eahYKe, Ga iq
fK Me i\iu ij @-ij~M @^gk^e GK ckZ
@dc,
~j _eeK-a^c d _RZa\ bae _ePZ

fK]ee _eeK-a^cd _RZa\K @^gk^e i
Ga _eahY _~alYe _Kd bae MjY Ke~G @ZGa,
fKZa\
c^ C_\^e @^gk^e _ecg\Zu cZcZK MeZ
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

143

\a ijZ ic^u @^gk^K c] _ecg\Z K_e MjY KeQ,

@^gk^K ^A Zue cZcZ Z[ icfP^K c] MeZ
\f
Ga, fK C_\^e a GK _Ve @^gk^ Kak MahKu GKK
@^gk^ ^jA iq fK Me i\iu @fP^K c] @]e
Kf, ~CV MahK Ga _ecg\Z Z[ fK Me i\iu
c]e @[e \LMf iVe Cbdu @^gk^K MeZ \a ijZ
Zje a_K @^gk^e @_l KeMf
fK]ee _eeK-a^cd _RZa\ iKZ @fP^
lZe @f^ ffi (Elaine J. Lawless)u bcK CfL^d @f^
_ R Z K MahYe a ^ c da\ Ga @-ij~M C_Mc
(Collaborative Approach)K MeZ \A K_e ~[ ia _Ve iVK
@[ ^e_Y Ke~A_ea i C_e Zue _ac^ue @fP^
Kf KeY, A reflexive stance should illuminate the biases and
preconceptions that inform our interpretations (where we are) and
move us forward, then, in the direction of collectivity in interpretation
and a new authentication of a multivocal kind of ethnography, which
includes, as well, where others are, but which does not privilege one
interpretation over another (Lawless 1992, 302) Kak ffi ^j,
Ke^ ^ed^ (Kirin Narayan) c] beZd fKMZ @fP^

_iwe @M i\iu @^gk^K MeZ _\^ Ke i fK

C_\^e @^gk^e iq Me cZcZ Ga ijbMZ K_e
iVKZ el Ke[G i iKe @fP^ Kf GVe @ce icK
@a]eY _A flY ~Z K[ CfL Ke~A_e
ec, flY I iZ a^ai Kke MUG aM Me
aiai KeQ flY ie ba Ke aR Zu Ke
a\ gY Me AKc^ flYu _LK @i _c ^a\^ Ke
flY ZK _ZL^ Ke AKc^ flYu C_e _Z g]
^a_A flYu g~e bw PW I K^`f QW@i ~j
iZu \e Ne i` Kfak @aZ
jG ecP flYu
PeZ C_e ij Ke Me ia^eu bw PW I K^`f\e
144

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

_el Ke~G jf, ghe iZu jZ I K^K iia L_

LA~G `ke flYu @M _el jG flY \A[e @M _el
\A i`k j@ I ghe @bc^e _Zk Mc^ Ke (cg
2012, 59)
ecdYe KjYK @]e Ke MX CV[a Gj aM @L^e
_KZ @[ RYaK jf, @cK RY aM fK Me i\iu
cZcZ ^aK ja, jGZ _iwKc @^K i\iu cZcZ c]
^aK _W_e GVe flYu jZe ]^ge ^j ae Ke
@Q Zue a\ gY KYi eli ^j, Me RY @e @iQ, _c
^a\^ KeQ ecdYe flY bk G flY Zju KYi Le_
aaje \LAa _ea Kak C_l KeQ, Ga _iwKc i
ecPu _Le ije gKe jCQ _Y, \A \A[e @M _ele
iL^ jCQ @L^Ue flY KjK Ke aRCQ? KjK
GK @e @iQ Zu _c ^a\^ KeaK? @^ KYi Me ^eU
@if^j KjK? flY Z _Z KYi \aaje \LC^j
KjK? ecP iZu ij ^Ke Kak flYu PeZK KjK ij
Kf? flY \A\A[e @M _el KjK \f? Gia iKe @c
K_e GK ^ C_ijee _j*_ea? @ce _aMj Z[ @ce
_Z ake K_e @[ Ke_ea? @ce @[K @c K_e Kj_ea
~ Gj @LdZ _e_Kge iVK @LdZ @[? @ZGa, Giae
@^gk^ _A @cK aM fK Me RY i\iu ijZ
@fP^ KeaK _Wa j _Wa
@^gk^e iq fK Me i\iu bcK
Ga Zje
ab^
@dcK ^A Journal of Folklore Research 2000 cije
Issues in Collaboration and Representation ghKe GK agh iL
_Kg Kf, ~CV fK]ee @^K a\ ^ iMZ Ga _dMZK
\Me C_\^ @^gk^e iq Me i\iu @\^_\^ Ga a^cd
Z[ Zue cZcZ K_e MeZ_
i iKe @fP^ Kf They
are negotiated articulations of meaning that performers, creators, group
members and scholars form together, as part of an ongoing dialogue or
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

145

discussion. Certainly, the folklorists voice is important, and holds as

much weight asbut not necessarily more thananyone elses voice
in this conversation. It is the folklorists primary job to shape and provide
a framework for the presentation of this shared interpretation. (Sims
and Stephenes 2005, 198) @^K fKZa\ ~Cc^ Gj @-

ij~M @^gk^K MeZ \@, ic^ ic _ecg\Z,

_eahYKeu icZ @^ @-M icfPKe cZcZK c] cq
bae Ke Kea ijZ C_\^e iVK @^gk^ Ga ^aa\
@[_KgK @M]Ke \aK _di KeQ
fK]ee Gj _eeK a^cd _RZa\ Z[ @-ij~M
@^gk^ ]e @M \ KYe C_\^e iVK @^gk^ ijZ
iq fK Me i\i Z[ ic^u \bw, cfa], agi
@\K c] ic^ bae MeZ_\^ Kf `ke, fKZa\ Z[
a\ ^c^u fK MK Kak gl K a MahY~M
C_\^e C bae ^\L C_\^ iKZ iagh @[ (in-depth
meaning) _Kge @L^Ke bae c] MjY KeaK _eZ Kf

@a z\a\
iZ fK]ee @^gk^e C_\^e @\^_\^e e_
C_e @^KZ MeZ _\^ Ke~CQ fKZa\c^ fK
M K_e, KZak, KjK, Ga KC _e_le @\^_\^
KeQ Z[ @\^_\^e bZK, icRK, eR^ZK, I iZK
@dc bk @\^_\^e ab^ \MiaK MeZ \CQ Gj Kak
aPK C_\^ iKZ ^j ^aPK C_\^ lZe c] MeZ
\@ ~CQ ^aPK C_\^e _ Z , C_~M, aaje ijZ
C_\^e @^^ icRK iZK @\^_\^ Z[ ZZiKZ aPK
@\^_\^, @L^ _bZK c] MeZ \@~A[G @ZGa, fK
M Ga ic^u @\^_\^K MeZ \a `ke fK]e
@]d^e i Z[ @^gk^e ZK \MMWK iZK @]d^,
146

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

^ea\ @]d^, ^Z Z[ icRZe ab^ i Ga C_McK

^A GK @-ahd (inter-disciplinary) @]d^e ]e MX CVQ,
~j Intersectionality a @a z\a\ bae _e P Z 4
fKZa\ c ^ @a z\a\K @]e Ke fK C_\^e
icRK, eR^ZK, iZK @dc ij aqK, _KZK, c^K
agMWK MeZ
\a ijZ C_\^e @\^_\^e Gje ajcL
bcK iKe @]d^ KeaK _P KeQ
@a z\a\ fK C_\^e g Y, RZ, eR^Z ,
_RZKZ, fwMZ ahcZ, iZK, ]cK @\ @dc ~j _el
Z[ _Zl bae C_\^e @\^_\^ Ga \KYK _baZ
Ke[G iiae ab^ \MK @fP^ KeaK _eie i Ke[G
Analyses of intersectionality attempt to describe and examine the
ways multiple experiences operate within people and society in a
kind of synergistic relationship. Whereas a different sort of analysis
might consider one thing at a time, intersectionality considers the
interplay of simultaneous experiences that make us who we are
(Sims and Stephenes 2005, 199) @ZGa, fK C_\^e @^gk^

Ga _~alYe aqe icRK Ga iZK aj-@dcZ MeZ_

bcK MjY Ke Gj @dcMWKe _baK @c _Ve @fM
Ke_ea ^j, Kea a CPZ ^j
@az\a\ fKZa\c ^ cLZ ghZ, a*Z,
C_lZ Z[ cLiZ\e _l_Ze gKe jA[a aq Z[ Me
_Z^]ZK C_\^e, C_\^e _eahYe Zje _Z`
k^ @\K
MeZ \A[@ @az\a\ _eahYKe, \gK, @gMjYKe,
MahK Ga ic^ue icRK iZK @dc c]e [a RUk
@iKK @^gk^ KeaK @aie i Ke[G Gj _iwe GVe
_iwKZ \e GK K[^ CfL Ke~A_e
fU PXA @ \a _A MZUG i Kf ij MZe
@ \f_e ah _Y Rcf MUG MB iA MZe LR
_KAae MZU aW jAMf iA aW MZe Nhe cj fMA
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

147

@je aW Ke\f ]e]e MZU aW jAMf cAhUG

iA aW RMe _Y Rc[ae \L iAV MWf Zj QU
_Le _e \gf
RY Ph iA RMK _LeUG Ke\f
ajY WK _LeU ^R ^ce _Z Kfak fU PXA,
Nhe
, MB I cAh @i _j*f, Kjf G _Le Kje?
Ph Kjf, c LkAQ, ce GA _g_lc^ Kjf,
Za, @ce bM Mf K@W?(cg 2012,149)
KjYUe fU PXA, Nhe, MB I cjh cYh _Le
K_e C_lZ jAQ Ga ^R ^~ @]KeK ^A _g KeQ,
Zj GK CfL^d _iw @ZGa, fK C_\^e _e_Kge
K_e iq icRe KQ M Z[ GK ^ fK Me KQ
i\i @ajkZ ja ijZ C_l gKe jCQ Ga Zje e_U
KY, i iKe cLZ MeZ \A[G @az\a\
MUG fK Me RY i\iK _eag Ga _eiZ
Z[ aMZ bae GK]K fK Me i\i ja ijZ
icRe ajcL bcKe @aZ jaK _W @ZGa, Gia Zje
@\^_\^K _baZ Ke[G, ~jK _V ^cYKke C_l
Ke~A^_e Gj ijZ GK _eahY GK ^ _e age
_eahZ jaak Ga GK a_K icRK _l_e _eahZ
jf Zj c]e ~C _ba \L~G, i iKe c] MeZ
\A[G fKZa\c^, ~Cc^ C_\^K @az\a\
\KYe \L, ic^ _eeK C_\^ Z[ _e_Kg K_e
_eeK icR _eie aje cL icRK _eiee @\^_\^
ja ijZ M _ePZK aRd eL a C_\^e _e_Kge K
_Kee _ea^ @i, i iKe c] MeZ _\^ Ke Gj
ijZ C_\^e @M Ga ajM @dc, _e_Kge _ba
Ga _ZKd C_e Z[ Cbd Me agi, cfa], ag\
K_e _baZ Ga _Z`kZ jA[G i iKe c] ]^ @KhY
Ke[ C_\^e Gj aj-@dc RUkZK @^gk^ KeaK ~A
Leslie McCall bk @a z\a\c^ @Y-g Y MZ RUk Z
148

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

(Anticat egor ical Complexity) , @-g Y MZ RU k Z

(Intracategorical Complexity) Ga @g Y MZ RU k Z
(Intercategorical Complexity) K[ Kj (McCall 2005, 1773)

RZ, gY, fw Ga MMZ @dcMWK jCQ @Y-gYMZ

RU k Z, ~j a h cZe c k KeY @ZGa, GK _eeK
@az\ \KYe \LaK jf GiaK MeZ \aK ja
ij_e, @gYMZ a gYMZ RUkZ jCQ icRe a
GK fK Me i\iu c]e [a _eeK iK Ga
Zje _ea^gkZ @^e_ bae, ~C fK M gY,
RZ, MMZ Z[ fwMZ iceLe ajeK ~A ^RK @fM
bae _ePZ Ke Ga ic^u bZ e ij Z _eiee
jC[a @\^_\^e @dc Z[ ahcK @gYMZ RUkZ
bae MjY Ke~A[G @ZGa, @a z\a\ @^g k^e
Gjia @dcK fK C_\^ Z[ fK]ee @fP^ _iwe
MeZ \@~A_e
_eeK-a^cd _RZa\e, _V ^cY _iwe MahK
Z[ @^g k^Keu bc K bk @a z\a\e c] Gc^u
gYMZ, RZMZ, iZK, MMZ, Z[ fwMZ @dc @^gk^K
aj _ecYe _baZ Ke[G GVe @ce @a]eYK KeaK
~A GK C\jeY \@~A_e, _c IWge ^@LA GK MY_a
Gj _a e ^@ i]eYZ K e_Z e L@ ~A[G Za,
Ke_Ze j KjK ^@ L@~G, @^_Ze KjK L@~G^j
Z[ ^@ LA _a iK e IW g e \A RY iZ @fPKu
@a]eYK GVe CfL Ke~A_e KeA _Ze c^ae
ic ]ce _ZK ...Rje^ Mc GKZ I ijZe _ZK ^a^
blY GK]ee @~-@\ai iZ e ck ^ iZ _eeK
_[ia @\aiu KhbK @^_Re _ee ijZ @~ a\K
eZe @^ _Re icad I ijZ Gj ^a^ c]e ^jZ (cg
1996, 90) Ga, Ke_ZK ^@LAe icf Keae @^K
KeY ejQ ...Gj icde... @^MQe _Z aXA ~A[ @[P
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

149

Ke_Ze Gbk MY @Q ~ i_e ci KjK Z _ea icd

_~ c] Ze cfGc MY KGc eL[G ... KeMQe @Ke
a\ bk... G_eK QU _f c] G a\ \je _Z iMj Ke[G
^@LA GK ic^de _ee Z[ KhbK _a (i^^ 2009,
372) GVe @c \Lf ~ GK ic^ _ee Ga ic^
@*kK fKMe @i[a \ARY iZ @fPK K_e Z
@L^ \AQ Gj @L^ \AUe _bc e [a @fPKu
RZMZ, iZK Z[ MMZ @dcK C_l Ke~A^_e
@ZGa, @a z\a\ @^ g k^e fK C_\^e icRK ,
eR^ ZK, iZ K @dc Ga @a qK, _KZK , c^K
agMWK MeZ \a ijZ MahK Z[ @^gk^Keu ab^
@dc I Zje _baK c] MeZ \a @agK Gj @Ke
Ke~A^_e
fK]ee iZ K @^g k^ Z[ C_McMWK cLZ
fK Z[ fK MK K KeQ Ga K_e fK _ee
bZe GK ^ _iwe Z[ GK ^ icRK iZK _l_e
ic^u @\^_\^ Ke iia C_e MeZ _\^ KeQ Gj
@^ g k^M W K e K e ej Q fKM, _V, _ i w,
@ij~M @^gk^, @\^_\^e RUk @dc Ga _eahY
Z[ _e ahYKeu @a z\, MahK, \gK / gZe a
@gMjYKeu bcK, Ga iq Me icR-iZ fK]eK
Gj _ e a b ^ \ KYe @]d^ Keae _d i `ke fK
C_\^K a_K icRK iZK _e_le \La ijZ iMWK
K_e C_\^e _eahY, @\^_\^K Z[ Zje _eeK, Ga
KkZK iR^gkZK _baZ Ke, K_e ZjK _eaZ, akae
Ke i iKe GK @a]eY i Keae ijdK jf iaVe
CfL^d \MU jf, @^gk^e Gj ^Z^ @dcMWK fK]e
a fK C_\^ GK fK Me iRZ jA _eeKc
Zj ab^ RUkZ bZe iq Me @\^_\^ ja ijZ
MUG _Xe @C MUG _XK, MUG Me @C MUG MK
150

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

K_e ii eZ jG , Ga Gj K_e iq Me i\iu ab^

@agKZ _eY Ke[G, @^ @[e Gj K_e iq Me @[_
jAej, i iKe @cK RYaK @aie i KeQ

1. Gj _e_le Wiue Meta-Folklore and Oral Literary Criticism

_a \a IWg fK]e @fP^ _iwe Gj fK]e-@]eZfK]e iKZ iP^ _A gcie cj_Zu fKijZ Z (2011)
M^ \a
2. bcaj af~Z bae c] _ePZ Gj @*kb\e ahe ab^
icde _k^ Ke~A[G Kc^ aajKke ~C eZ, a] a]^
@^ieY Ke Gj af~Z a bcaje c] iia @dRZ jA[G
ah _A, bf `if _A Z[ Mce gb _A Gj _ee i]eYZ @dRZ
Ke~G af~ Z a bca j iK Z @] K Z[ _A _ecge c u
fK_a: af~Z (bcaj) _a \a
3. _ee K-a^ cd _ RZa \e @a]eY _[ c @f^ ffi Zue
Womens Life Stories and Reciprocal Ethnography as Feminist and
Emergent _ae 1991 cije Ke Gj _ae i _[c C_\^e

iVK @^gk^ _A iq fK Me i\iu cZcZK MeZ _\^

Kea ijZ K_e C_\^ @^gk^e ab^ @dcK _baZ KeQ Zj C_e
@fP^ Kf Gj _e_le Zue Reciprocal Ethnography: No
One Said it was Easy _a c] \a
4. _[c 1989 cije @Y-gZw^c^u ^A Zue @]d^e @^bZe
Kimberl Williams Crenshaw Gj _ebhU \A[f ~j _ea icde
Patricia Hill Collinsu \e @Y-gZw ^ea\ (black feminism) e
@]d^e _^_dM Ke~A[f, i Zue @YgZw ^ea\ P]e
(black feminist thought) _Za\ke Gj _ebhK aaje Ke[f Gj
_iwe Collinsu Black Feminist Through Knowledge Consiousness and
the Politics of Empowerment (2000) M^ \a

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

151

152

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

_eg

Z[ iMj ^c^ _Z : fKKW

1. KWe ^c:____________________________________
2. KWe ^c iKZ @[ / KjK G_e ^cKeY? ______________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. KW _eahYe icd / EZ: ________________________
____________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
4. KW _eahYe lZ:____________________________
__________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
5. KW _eahYe @gMjYKeu iL / adi / fw / M: ____
______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7. KW C_KeY : _________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

153

8. KW _eahY-_a _Kd
(cA ^d / \k abR^ / C_\^ iMj
AZ\): _______________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
9. KWe iagh _eahY _Kd
:_______________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
10. KW `k`k / \ a]^ / KW _eahY-_ea _Kd
:_____
____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
11. KW iKZ
eZ^Z / ^h]ak:_____________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
154

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

12. KWe \gK (iL / fw / adi / _eahY _Kde bcK

): _
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
13. ^
KWe ic^ e_e b^^
c:_____________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
14. ic^ KWe b^ _eahY / b^ e_ / _Kee e_: ________
__________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
15. KW iKZ aPK C_\^: _______________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

155

_ecg\Z iKZ iP^ _Z

i^ :_________________ ZeL :___________________

_Ke ^c: ____________________________________
_ecg\Zu ^c: ________________________________
R^ ZeL / ah:___________________________________
i^ : ________________ fw: _____________________
aajZ / @aajZ: ________________________________
aajZ jA[f c / ij]cYu ^c: ___________________
c / ij]cYu a / gl / M-iK: __________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
gl: _________________________________________
K[Z / mZ bh:__________________________________
a (@aie MjY Keie[f @aie-_a a) :_______________
_RZK M _ePZ: _______________________________
VKY : ________________________________________
^KUZc ije : ___________________________________
eR : ________________________________________
_^ KW / A-cf : _________________________________
@^ KYi agh \lZ / m^:_________________________
__________________________________________________
bMkK iP^:__________________________________
___________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_RZK (Genealogical) iP^: ________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Gj _ecg\Zu ijZ @^ MahKu @\^_\^ @Q K? ~\ [G
i iKe iP^:__________________________________
156

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

@^ agh iP^ / cZcZ:____________________________

____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(MahK /MahY @]Keu le)
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

157

_ecg\Zu KZ _Z
c, __________________________________, RY
_ecg\Z bae __________________________ _Ke
MahYe ij~M KeQ (@MK Kak _K), ce agi ~ Gj
_K fK]ee Z[ _eeK @\^_\^e @WI-bWI iMj Ga,
c ijZ Z[ c Me @^ i\iu ij jA[a @fP^e f_a

e_K, `UPZK _Ke id bae eL~a Gj iMj Ga
ilZKe, @fP^K MahKu aZZ _K ijZ RWZ @^
MahKc^ c] glK aaje _A a^~M Ke_ea Gj ijZ
_K Ga aqMZ ba c] ic^u MahY @]eZ _Kg^c^ue,
Ia Z[ @^^ a\ZK c]ce GjK i^Z Ke_ea
GVe c, ce \A[a ilZKe, @fP^, `UM`
_bZ _K _A C_~M KeaK @^cZ \CQ Gj KZ \e c
ce fK Me _ee, _eahY Z[ _eeK C_KeYe
KYi _Ke aK , KYi aq agh K KYi @^^K
je Ke^j ij_e, ce _\ Z[ c ij~Me CkZ
Ke[a `UM`, c ijZ jA[a @fP^, ilZKe @\
_Ke @]d^ Z[ @^ glK K~e iaKk^ aaje _A KZ
_\^ KeQ Gjia C_\^e C_~Me _K @]Ke c ^c
aaje Kea ijZ ce _eahY, @fP^, icfP^, cZcZ,
Z[ agh aqaK i bae K @gK bae MahY K~e,
@^gk^e CfL Ke_ea
le: ______________
ZeL: ______________

(MahK / MahY @]Keu le)

158

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

@WI Ga bWI eKW iP^

Kc iL:_________________ _Ke ^c: ______________
MahKu ^c:___________________________________
_ecg\Zu ^c:_________________________________
eKW ZeL Ga i^:______________________________
eKW C_KeY:__________________________________
eKW C_\^:___________________________________
eKW icd ic:__________________________________
_eahYe ahda :_______________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

159

`U iP^ _Z
Kc iL:_______________Ke ^c: _________________
MahKu ^c:____________________________________
_ecg\Zu ^c:_________________________________
`Ue ahda : _________________________________
CkZ `Ue i^ Ga ZeL:________________________
aajZ Kce iKZ iP^ : _________________________
`UM` iKZ agh aaeY:________________________
______________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
160

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

C_KeY @]MjY _Z
c, ________________________________, GVe
Ke KeQ ~, ce ^cq C_KeYMWK
MahKu @^e]Kc
^R ie _\^ KeQ MahK Zue ____________________
_K _A Gj C_KeYMWK ^CQ, Ga i Gje Kak glK
aaje j Kea, Gj aZZ @^ KYi C_~M Z[ _Zl K
_el aaje Ke_ea ^j
(@]Ku le)
c, _________________________, _ecg\Zu \e
_\ C_KeY ~j ^c iPe iPZ iMWK
_K ^c
MjY Ke[a
e
Ke KeQ Gj C_KeYMWK @l @aie _ea icde _K,
_ecg\Zu ______________ ZeL _ae
`eA\a Gj c]
GVe NhY KeQ

(MahK / _K @]Keu le)

i^: _______________
ZeL: ______________

C_KeY iP
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

161

162

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

ijdK M^
Ga _ea @]d^ ^c _K iP
\_, \f_ Kce ak_ 11 R^de, 2012 \ebh
^GK, bMa^ ak_ 28 R^de, 2012 \ebh
_YMj, Kc\e^ fK]e, fK iZ I fK ijZ if_e:
iL\L _aKg^, 2012 _<
_]^, KP fK ijZ: Ze_ I Kke_ KUK: a\_e, 2004
_<

_]^, e^ _eR Ra^ Ga iZ K_W: _m _ecZ, 2007
_<
aM, M_^[, Ga id Kce aM Wc fKMZ ^i^ G_f-R^
2009: 122-123 _<
aM, id Kce K[^: GK fKZK @a]eY _K _aak
i_\^ iNcZ cg Ga geZP e[ ba^ge: Z _K,
IW@ abM, C}k aga\kd, 2010 142-160 _<
_c IWge _eeK KW: GK fKZK
@]d^ 2009
ba^ge: Z, 2012 _<
KP-KCW: ^aPK fK C_\^e _V Ga _iw
Seminar on Folklore: Text and Context IWg fKiZ
MahY _eh\ Ga ec\a cjk cja\kd ba^ge 2627 @M 2012 _VZ _a
ag, \kMa Kc^ue K^@ _a Kkj: fK
@^^ i_\^ Rd Kce aje, \kMa ag,
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

163

Ga _ecge c ba^_UY: cjae iZK @^^,

1988 1-7 _<
cj_Z, gcie fKijZ Z 1995 KUK: IWg aK
e, 2011 _<
cg, @Rd Kce IW@ fK iZ gKh ba^ge: IWg
ijZ GKWc, 2008 _<
cg, cj Kce fKiZ: i I _dM ba^ge: IWg
eR _V_K _Yd^ I _Kg^ ii,2012 _<
Kkje fKiZ KUK: `i _agi,1996
_<
c, _ecge i_\K Kkje \a\a ba^_UY: cjae
iZK @^^, 2006 _<
fK_a af~Z (bcaj) Kkj: fK @^^
i_\^ Rd Kce aje, \kMa ag , Ga
_ecge c ba^_UY: cjae iZ K @^^,
1988 38-43 _<
ij, i]e Kce _c IWge iZK aKg]e KUK: @M\Z,
2008 _<

i^^, ai\a \kZ iZe AZji ^@_W: Bg^-@uZ _Kg^,
2009 _<

Aarne, Antti Amatus. The Types of the Folktale: A Classification and
Bibliography. Trans. and Rev. ed. Stith Thompson. 1961. Helsinki:
Academia Scientiarum Fennica, 1987. Print.
Abraham, Kaarl. Selected Papers on Psycho-Analysis.1927. New York:
Karnac Books Limited, 1988. Print.
Abrahams, Roger D. Interpreting Folklore Ethnographically and
Sociologically. Handbook of American Folklore. ed. Richard M.
Dorson. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983. 345-350. Print.
. The Public, the Folklorist, and the Public Folklorist. Public
Folklore. 1992. eds. Robert Baron, and Nick Spitzer. Jackson:
University of Mississippi Press, 2007. 17-27. Print.
164

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

. Toward an Enactment-Centered Approach to Folklore.

Frontiers of Folklore. ed. William R. Bascom. Boulder, Colorado:
Westview Press, 1977. 79-107. Print.
Akman, Varol. Rethinking Context as a Social Construct. Journal of
Pragmatics 32 (2000): 743-759. Print.
American Folklore Society. Recommendations to the WIPO
Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and
Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge, and Folklore in
Pursuing its Mandate. Journal of American Folklore 117.465
(2004): 296-299. Print.
Amit, Vered. ed. Constructing the Field: Ethnographic Fieldwork in
the Contemporary World. New York: Routledge, 2000. Print.
Anantakool, Paritta Chalermpowko. Relevance of Textual and
Contextual Analyses in Understanding Folk Performance in
Modern Society: A Case of Southern Thai Shadow Puppet
Theatre. Web. 10 September 2012. <http://www.nirc nanzanu.ac.jp/publications/afs/pdf/a716.pdf>.
Anthias, Floya. Rethinking Social Divisions: Some Notes Towards
a Theoretical Framework. Sociological Review 46.3 (1998):
55780. Print.
. The Material and the Symbolic in Theorizing Social
Stratification. British Journal of Sociology 52.3 (2001): 367
90. Print.
Anttonen, Pertti. Philological Approach. Folklore: An Encyclopedia
of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art. ed. Thomas A. Green.
California: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1997. 641- 647. Print.
Aplenc, Veronica E. Ethnological Knowledges and their Political
Contexts. Journal of Folklore Research 47.1/2 (2010): 153160. Print.
Appadurai, Arjun. ed. The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural
Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1986. Print.
Aunger, Robert. Reflexive Ethnographic Science. New York: Altamira Press,
2004. Print.
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

165

Babcock, Barbara A. The Story in the Story: Meta-narration in Folk

Narrative. Verbal Art as Performance. ed. Richard Bauman. Long
Grove, IL: Waveland Press Inc., 1984. 61-79. Print
Banks, Marcus. Ethnicity: Anthropological Constructions. London:
Routledge, 1996. Print.
Baron, Robert. American Public FolkloreHistory, Issues,
Challenges. Indian Folklore Research Journal 5.8 (2008): 6586. Print.
, and Nick Spitzer. eds. Public Folkloree . 1992. Jackson:
University Press of Mississippi, 2007. Print.
Bartis, Peter. Folklife and Fieldwork: An Introduction to Field
Techniques. Publications of the American Folklife Center, 3.
Washington: Library of Congress, 2002. Web. 4 August
2010.<http://www.loc.gov/folklife/fieldwork/reading.html>.
Bascom, William R. The Seven Strands of Tradition: Varieties in Its
Meaning in American Folklore Studies. Journal of Folklore
Research 2.1.2/3 (1984): 97131. Print.
. Four Functions of Folklore. Journal of American Folkloree
67. 226 (1954): 333-349. Print.
. Toward a Definition of Folklore in Context. Journal of
American Folklore 84.331 (1971): 3-15. Print.
. Towards a Behavioral Theory of Folklore: A Reply to Roger
Welsch. Journal of American Folklore 82. 324 (1969): 167-70.
Print.
. ed. Frontiers of Folkloree. Boulder, Colorado: Westview
Press, 1977. Print.
Bauman, Richard. Story, Performance, and Event: Contextual Studies
of Oral Narrative. 1986. Cambridge: Cambridge University of
Press, 1999. Print.
. Differential Identity and the Social Base of Folklore.
Toward New Perspectives in Folklore. ed. Richard Bauman.
Special issue of Journal of American Folklore 84.331 (1971):
3141. Print.
166

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

. Verbal Art as Performance. American Anthropologist 77.2

(1975): 290-311. Rpt. Verbal Art as Performance. ed. Richard
Bauman. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press Inc., 1984. 3-58. Print.
, and Joel Sherzer. eds. Explorations in the Ethnography of
Speaking. 1974. London: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Print.
Ben-Amos, Dan. Context in Context. Western Folklore 52.2/4 (1993):
209-226. Print.
. Performance. Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Beliefs,
Customs, Tales, Music, and Art. ed. Thomas A. Green. California:
ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1997. 629-635. Print.
. The Context of Folklore: Implications and Prospects.
Frontiers of Folklore. ed. William R. Bascom, Boulder,
Colorado: Westview Press.1977.36-53. Print.
. Toward a Definition of Folklore Context. Folklore in
Context: Essays. New Delhi: South Asian Publishers, 1982. 219. Print.
Bendix, Regina. Folklorismus / Folklorism. Folklore: An Encyclopedia
of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art. ed. Thomas A. Green.
California: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1997. 336-339. Print.
. From Fakelore to the Politics of Culture: The Changing
Contours of American Folkloristics. Search of Authenticity the
Formation of Folklore Studies. Wisconsin: The University of
Wisconsin Press, 1977. 188-218. Print.
Berger, Peter L., and Thomas Luckmann. The Social Construction of
Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. London:
Penguin Books, 1966. Print.
Bhattacharyya, Gargi. Ethnicities and Values in a Changing World.
England: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2009. Print.
Blank, Trevor J. ed. Folklore and the Internet: Vernacular Expression
in a Digital World. Utah: Utah State University Press, 2009. Print.
Botkin, Benjamin A. ed. A Civil War Treasury of Tales, Legends and
Folklore. Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1960. Print.
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

167

. ed. A Treasury of American Folklore: Stories, Ballads,

and Traditions of the People. 1944. New York: Bantam Books,
1980. Print.
. ed. A Treasury of Mississippi River Folklore: Stories, Ballads
& Traditions of the Mid-American River Country. 1955. New
York: Random House Value Publishing, 1988. Print.
, and Alvin Fay Harlow. eds. A Treasury of Railroad
Folklore: The Stories, Tall Tales, Traditions, Ballads, and Songs
of the American Railroad Man. New York: Crown Publishers,
1953. Print.
Bourdieu, Pierre. In Other Words: Essays toward a Reflexive Sociology.
Trans. Matthew Adamson. Stanford: Stanford University Press,
1990. Print.
, and Loic J. D. Wacquant. An Invitation to Reflexive
Sociology. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1992. Print.
Brandon-Sweeney, B. Kinesics and its Interpretation. Folklore Annual
of the University Folklore Association 4.5 (1972/73):351. Print.
Braverman, Barry. Video Shooter Storytelling with HD Cameras. Oxford:
Focal Press. 2010. Print.
Bronner, Simon J. ed. American Material Culture and Folklife: A
Prologue and Dialogue. Logan: Utah State University, 1992. Print.
Brown, Marni A. Coming Out Narratives: Realities of Intersectionality.
2011. Sociology Dissertations Paper 63. Web. 12 February 2012.
<http://digitalarchive.gsu.edu/sociology_diss/63>.
Brunvand, Jan Harold. The Study of American Folklore: An Introduction.
New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc, 1978. Print.
Burne, Charlotte Sophia. The Handbook of Folklore. 1914. Whitefish
MT: Kessinger Publishing Company, 2003. Print.
Chandler, Daniel. Semiotics: The Basics. 2002. New York: Routledge,
2007. Print.
Chaudenson, Robert. Creolization of Language and Culture. Trans.
Sheri Pargman, Salikoko S. Mufwene, Sabrina Billings, and
Michelle AuCoin, London: Routledge, 2001. Print.
168

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

Clifford, James. On Ethnographic Authority. Representations 2 (1983):

118-146. Print.
, and George Marcus. Writing Culture: The Poetics and
Politics of Ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press,
1986. Print.
Collins, Camilla A. ed. Folklore Fieldwork: Sex, Sexuality, and Gender.
Special Issue of Southern Folklore 47.1. 1991. Print.
Collins, Patricia Hill. Gender, Black Feminism, and Black Political
Economy. Annals of the American Academy of Political and
Social Science 568 (2000): 4153. Print.
. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness and
the Politics of Empowerment. 1990. New York: Routledge, 2000.
Print.
Conquergood, Dwight. Rethinking Ethnography: Towards a Critical
Cultural Politics. Communication Monographs 58 (1991):179194. Print.
Crenshaw, Kimberl Williams. Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality,
Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color. Stanford
Law Review 43.6 (1991): 12411299. Print.
Das, Veena. Shakti versus Sati A Reading of the Santoshi Maa Cult.
Manushi 49 (1988): 2630. Print.
. The Mythological Film and Its Framework of Meaning:
An Analysis of Jai Santoshi Maa. India International Centre
Quarterly 8.1 (1980): 43-56. Print.
Davies, Charlotte Aull. Reflexive Ethnography: A Guide to
Researching Selves and Others. 1999. London: Routledge,
2002. Print.
Davis. Tracy C. ed. The Cambridge Companion to Performance Studies.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Print.
De Marinis, Marco. The Semiotics of Performance. Bloomington:
University of Indiana Press, 1993. Print.
Deely, John. The Social Construction of Reality. Purely Objective
Reality. New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2009.110-120. Print.
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

169

Degh, Linda. Conduit Theory/Multi-Conduit Theory. Folklore: An

Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art. ed.
Thomas A. Green. California: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1997. 142- 144.
Print.
. The Legend Conduit. Creativity and Tradition in
Folklore: New Directions. ed. Simon J. Bronner. Logan: Utah
State University Press, 1992. 105-126. Print.
. Narratives in Society: A Performer-Centered Study of
Narration. Helsinki: Suomalain Tiedeakatemia, 1995. Print.
, and Andrew Vzsonyi. The Hypothesis of Multi-Conduit
Transmission in Folklore. Folklore, Performance and
Communication. eds. Dan Ben-Amos and Kenneth Goldstein. The
Hague: Mouton, 1975. 20752. Print.
Devatine, Flora. Written Tradition, Oral Tradition, Oral Literature
Fiuriture. Shima: The International Journal of Research into
Island Cultures 3.2 (2009):11-14. Print.
Dill, Bonnie Thornton, and Ruth Enid Zambrana. eds. Emerging
Intersections: Race, Class, and Gender in Theory, Policy, and
Practice. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2009. Print.
Dorson, Richard M. Folklore and Fakelore. American Mercury 70
(1980): 335-43. Print.
. Standard for Collecting and Publishing American
Folktales. Journal of American Folklore 23.1/9 (1957): 4258. Print.
. ed. Handbook of American Folkloree. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 1983. Print.
Duncan, Starkey Jr. Interaction, Face-to-Face. Folklore, Cultural
Performances and Popular Entertainments: A CommunicationCentered Handbook. ed. Richard Bauman. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1992. 21-28. Print.
Duncan, Robert J. Chain Letters: A Twentieth Century Folk Practice.
Whats Going On? (In Modern Texas Folklore). ed. Francis E.
Abernethy. Austin, TX: Encino Press, 1976. 4758. Print.
170

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

Dundes, Alan. On the Psychology of Collecting Folklore. The

Meaning of Folklore: The Analytical Essays of Alan Dundes.
ed. Simon J. Bronner. Utah: Utah State University Press, 2007.
414-21. Print.
. From Etic to Emic Units in the Structural Study of
Folktales. Journal of American Folklore 75.296 (1962): 95105. Print.
. Here I Sit: A Study of Latrinalia. The Meaning of Folklore:
The Analytical Essays of Alan Dundes. ed. Simon J. Bronner,
Utah: Utah State University Press, 2007. 360-74. Print.
. Meta-Folklore and Oral Literary Criticism. Essays in
Folkloristics. Meerut: Folklore Institute, 1978. 38-49. Print.
. On Game Morphology: A Study of the Structure of NonVerbal Folklore. New York Folklore Quarterly 20.4 (1964): 276288. Print.
. Texture, Text, and Context. Southern Folklore Quarterly
28 (1964): 251-65. Rpt. Essays in Folkloristics. ed. Alan Dundes.
Meerut: Folklore Institute, 1978. 22-37. Print.
. What is Folklore? The Study of Folkloree. ed. Alan Dundes.
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1965. 1-3. Print.
. Who are the Folk? Essays in Folkloristics. ed. Alan Dundes.
Meerut: Folklore Institute, 1978. 1-11. Print.
. Bloody Mary in the Mirror: Essays in Psychoanalytic
Folkloristics. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2002.
Print.
. The Kushmaker. Folklore on Two Continents: Essays in
Honor of Linda Dgh. ed. Nikolai Burlakoff, and Card Lindahl,
Bloomington, IN: Trickster Press. 1980. 21016. Print.
. The Folklore of Wishing Wells. American Imago 19.1
(1926): 2734. Print.
Duranti, Alessandro, and Charles Goodwin. eds. Rethinking Context
Language as an Interactive Phenomenon. 1992. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1997. Print.
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

171

, and Donald Brennies. The Audience as Co-Author. Text

6.3 (1986): 239-247. Print.
Edwards, Mark W. Homer and the Oral Tradition. Oral Tradition
18.1 (2003) 65-67. Print.
El-Shamy, Hasan M. Psychological Approach. Folklore: An
Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art. ed.
Thomas A. Green. California: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1997. 699-678.
Print.
. Folkloric Behavior: A Theory for the Study of the Dynamics
of Traditional Culture. Department of Folklore, Indiana
University, 1967. Web. 12 March 2011. <https://scholarworks.iu.
edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/8959/elshamy_Folkloric_
Behavior_1967_2010_HeS.PDF ?sequence= 3>. Diss.
Etherington, Kim. Becoming a Reflexive Researcher: Using Our Selves
in Research. Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2004. Print.
Fabian, Johnnes. Presence and Representation: The Other and
Anthropological Writing. Critical Inquiry 16.4 (1990):753-772.
Print.
Feintuch, Burt. ed. The Conservation of Culture: Folklorists and the
Public Sector. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1987.
Print.
Fenske, Michaela, and Antonia Davidovic-Walther. Exploring
Ethnological Knowledges. Journal of Folklore Research 47.1/2
(2010):1-5. Print.
Ferguson. Roderick A. Reading Intersectionality. Trans-Scripts 2
(2012): 91-99. Web. 23. September 2012.<http://www.
huma nities.uci.edu/collective/hctr/tra ns-scripts/2012/
2012_02_08.pdf>.
Fife, Wayne. Doing Fieldwork Ethnographic Methods for Research in
Developing Countries and Beyond. New York: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2005. Print.
Fine, Elizabeth C. The Folklore Text: from Performance to Print.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984. Print.
172

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

Fine, Gary Alan. The Sweep of Knowledge: The Politics of Grand and
Local Theory in Folkloristics. Journal of Folklore Research 45.1
(2008): 11-18. Print.
Finnegan, Ruth. Collecting, Recording and Creating Texts:
Preliminaries and Mechanics. Oral Traditions and the Verbal
Arts: A Guide to Research Practices. New York: Routledge,
1992. 68-85. Print.
. Observing and Analysing Performance. Oral Traditions
and the Verbal Arts: A Guide to Research Practices. New York:
Routledge, 1992. 86-105. Print.
. Oral-Formulaic Theory. Folklore: An Encyclopedia of
Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art. ed. Thomas A. Green.
California: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1997. 614-618. Print.
. Signs, Texts, and Oral Tradition. Journal of Folkloree
Research 33.1 (1996): 21-29. Print.
. Tradition, But What Tradition and for Whom? The Milman
Parry Lecture on Oral Tradition for 1989-90. Oral Tradition 6/1
(1991): 104-124. Print.
. Oral Poetry: Its Nature, Significance and Social Context.
1977. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. Print.
Foley, John Miles. From Oral Performance to Paper-Text to CyberEdition. Oral Tradition 20.2 (2005): 233-263. Print.
. Immanent Art: From Structure to Meaning in Traditional
Oral epic. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 1991. Print.
. Oral-formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and
Annotated Bibliography. London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1985.
Print.
Foster, George M. What is Folk Culture? American Anthropologist
55.2/1 (1953): 159-173. Print.
Frantisek, Lichtenberk. Reciprocals without Reflexives. Reciprocals:
Forms and Functions. eds. Zygmunt Frajzyngier, and Traci S.
Curl. Philadelphia: Jonh Benjamins Publishing Company. 2000.
31-62. Print.
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

173

Gabbert, Lisa. The Text/Context Controversy and the Emergence of

Behavioral Approaches in Folklore. Web. 20 September 2012.
<https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/.../30(1-2)+119128.pdf>.
Garver, Newton. What Theory is? Journal of Folklore Research
45.1 (2008): 63-70. Print.
Geertz, Clifford. Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretative
Anthropology. New York: Basic Book Inc., 1983. Print.
. The Interpretation of Culturee. New York: Basic Books,
Inc., 1973. Print.
Georges, Gregory. Digital Photography: Top 100 Simplified Tips and
Tricks. Indiana: Wiley Publishing Inc., 2005. Print.
, Larry Berman, and Chris Maher. 50 Fast Digital Camera
Techniques. New York: Wiley Publishing Inc., 2003. Print.
Georges, Robert A. Towards an Understanding of Storytelling
Events. Journal of American Folklore 82.326 (1969): 313328. Print.
. Toward a Resolution of the Text/Context Controversy.
Western Folklore 39.1 (1980): 34-40. Print.
. Communicative Role and Social Identity in Storytelling.
Fabula 31.1/2 (1990): 49-57. Print.
, and Alan Dundes. Toward a Structural Definition of the
Riddle. Journal of American Folklore 76.300 (1963): 111-118.
Print.
, and Michael O. Jones. People Studying People: The Human
Element in Fieldwork. Berkeley: University of California Press,
1980. Print.
Giollain, Diarmuid O. The National and Local Practices of De-andRe-Traditionalization. FF Network for the Folklore Fellows 28
(2005): 10-13, 16, 18. Web. 21 January 2012. <www.folklore
fellows.fi/wordpress/wp-content/networks/FFN28.pdf>
Giora, Raehel. On the Cognitive Aspects of the Joke. Journal of
Pragmatics 16 (1991): 465-485. Print.
174

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

Glassie, Henery. Pattern in the Material Folk Culture of the Eastern

United States. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press,
1968. Print.
. Tradition. Eight Words for the Study of Expressive Culturee.
ed. Brut Feintuch. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2003.176197. Print.
Glazer, Mark. Functionalism. Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Beliefs,
Customs, Tales, Music, and Art. ed. Thomas A. Green. California:
ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1997. 386-389. Print.
Goffman, Erving. Interaction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior.
New York: Anchor Books, 1973. Print.
. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York:
Doubleday, 1959. Print.
Gonos, George, Virginia Mulkern, and Nicholas Poushingky.
Anonymous Expression: A Structural View of Graffiti. Journal
of American Folklore 89.352 (1976): 40-48. Print.
Graber, Christoph Beat, and Mira Burri-Nenova. eds. Intellectual Property
and Traditional Cultural Expressions in a Digital Environment.
Massachusetts: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2008. Print.
Green, Archie. Public Folklore: A Partisans Notes. Public Folklore.
1992. eds. Robert Baron, and Nick Spitzer. Jackson: University
Press of Mississippi, 2007. 49-63. Print.
Gupta, Akhil, and James Ferguson. Beyond Culture: Space, Identity,
and the Politics of Difference. Cultural Anthropology 7.1 (1992):
6-23. Print.
Gusfield, Joseph R. Tradition and Modernity: Misplaced Polarities in
the Study of Social Changes. American Journal of Sociology
72.4 (1967): 351-362. Print.
Hafstein, Valdimar Tr. The Politics of Origins: Collective Creation
Revisited. Journal of American Folklore 117.465 (2004): 300
315. Print.
Hale, Thomas. Oral Tradition in the Context of Verbal Art. Oral
Tradition 18.1 (2003): 91-92. Print.
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

175

Hall, Stephanie A. Ethnographic Collections in the Archive of Folk

Culture: A Contributors Guide. American Folklife Center, Library
of Congress Washington 1995. Publications of the American
Folklife Center, No. 20, Web. 24 February 2011. <http://
www.loc.gov/folklife/cg.html>.
Halpert, Herbert. Chain Letters. Western Folklore 55 (1956): 287289. Print.
Hammersley, Martyn, and Paul Atkinson. Ethnography: Principles in
Practice. 1983. London: Routledge, 1995. Print.
Handler, Richard, and Jocelyn Linnekin. Tradition: Genuine or
Spurious? Journal of American Folklore 97.385 (1984): 273
290. Print.
Hansen, Gregory. Theorizing Public Folklore: Folklore Work as
Systemic Cultural Intervention. Folklore Forum 30.1/2 (1999):
35-44. Print.
Harding, Sandra. Whose Science? Whose Knowledge? New York: Cornell
University Press, 1991. Print.
Henige, David. Oral, But Oral What? The Nomenclatures of Orality
and Their Implications. Oral Tradition 3.1/2 (1988):22938.
Print.
Herbechtrer, Stefan, and Michael Higgins. eds. Returning to
Communities: Theory, Culture and Practice of the Communal.
New York: Rodopi, 2006. Print.
Hobsbawm, Eric, and Terence Ranger. The Invention of Tradition.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Print.
Hollis, Susan, Linda Pershing, and M. Jane Young. eds. Feminist Theory
and the Study of Folklore. 1975. Chicago: University of Illinois
Press, 1993. Print.
Honko, Lauri. Copyright and Folklore. FF Network for the Folklore
Fellows 21 (2001): 8-10.Web. 21 January 2012. <www.
folklorefellows.fi/?page_id=943>.
. Four Forms of Adaptation of Tradition. Studia Fennica
26 (1981): 1933. Print.
176

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

. ed. Tradition and Cultural Identity. Turku: Nordic Institute

of Folklore. 1988. Print.
Howes, Graham. The Art of the Sacred: An Introduction to the
Aesthetics of Art and Belief. New York: I. B. Tauris & Co. Ltd,
2007. Print.
Hufford, Marry. Context. Eight Words for the Study of Expressive
Culture. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2003. 146-175.
Print.
Hymes, Dell. H. Breakthrough into Performance. Folklore:
Performance and Communication. eds. Dan Ben-Amos and
Kenneth S. Goldstein. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. 11-74.
Print.
. Introduction: Toward Ethnography of Communication.
The Ethnography of Communication. eds. John J. Gumperz, and
Dell H. Hymes. Special Issue of American Anthropologist 66.6/
2 (1964): 1-34. Print.
Jackson, Bruce. Fieldwork. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.1987.
Print.
James, Joycee. The Folk Process through New Media. Indian
Folklore Research Journal 10 (2010): 65-82. Print.
Jansen, William Hugh. The Esoteric-Exoteric Factor in Folklore.
Fabula 2.2 (1959): 205-11. Print.
Jones, Michael Owen. Tradition. in Identity Discourses and an
Individuals Symbolic Construction of Self. Western Folklore
59.2 (2000): 115-141. Print.
. ed. Putting Folklore to Use. Lexington: University Press of
Kentucky, 1994. Print.
Jordan, Rosan A, and Susan Kalcik. eds. Womens Folklore, Womens
Culture. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985.
Print.
Joseph, D. Sobol, Innervision and Innertext: Oral and Interpretive
Modes of Storytelling Performance. Oral Tradition 7.1 (1992):
66-86. Print.
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

177

Joyce, Rosemary O. The Hand Made Object and Its Maker. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1975. Print.
Joyner, Charles W. A Model for the Analysis of Folklore Performance in
Historical Context. Journal of American Folklore 88.349 (1975):
254-265. Print.
Junghare, Indira Y. Dr. Ambedkar: The Hero of the Mahars, ExUntouchables of India. Asian Folklore Studies 47.1 (1988): 93121. Print
Kahn, Seth. Putting Ethnographic Writing in Context. Writing Spaces:
Readings on Writing. Vol. 2. eds. Charles Lowe and Pavel
Zemliansky. South Carolina: Parlor Press, 2011. 175-192. Print.
Kapchan, Deborah A. Performance. Eight Words for the Study of
Expressive Culture. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2003.
121-145. Print.
Katz, Adam. Post-modernism and the Politics of Culture. Boulder,
Colorado: Westview Press, 2000. Print.
Kemal, Salim, and Ivan Gadkell. eds. Performance and Authenticity in
the Arts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Print.
Ketner, Kenneth Laine. The Role of Hypothesis in Folkloristics. Journal
of American Folklore 86.340 (1973): 114-130. Print.
Kirsenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara. A Parable in Context: A Social Interactional
Analysis of a Storytelling Performance. Folklore: Performance
and Communication. eds. Dan Ben-Amos, and Kenneth S.
Goldstein. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. 105-30. Print.
Kodish, Debora. Imagining Public Folklore. A Companion to Folklore.
eds. Regina Bendix and Galit Hasn-Rovems. New York: WileyBlackWell, 2012. 579-597. Print.
Kolovos, Andy. Digital Audio Field Recording Equipment Guide. The
Vermont Folklife Center. 2011. Web. 23 January 2012. <htpp: //
www.vermontfolklife center.org/res_audioequip.htm>.
Knig, Ekkehard, and Volker Gast. Reciprocals and Reflexives:
Theoretical and Typological Explorations. New York: Mouton
de Gruyter, 2008. Print.
178

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

Korb, Anu. On Factors Affecting Folkloristic Fieldwork: On the

Example of Estonians in Siberia. Folklore: Electronic Journal
of Folklore Web. 5 March 2005. 121-132. <http://www. folklore.
ee/folklore/vol27/korb.pdf>.
Kothari, C. R. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques.
1984. New Delhi: New Age International Private Limited, 2004.
Print.
Kousaleos, Nicole. Feminist Theory and Folklore. Folklore Forum
30: 112 (1999): 19-34. Print.
Koven, Mikel J. Film, Folklore, and Urban Legends. Toranto: The
Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2008. Print.
Kutin, Barbara Ivancic. The Roles of Participants in a Storytelling
Event. Folklore: Electronic Journal of Folklore 37 (2007): 3542. Web. 4 April 2011. <http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol37/
kutin.pdf>.
Kutsche, Paul. Field Ethnography: A Manual for Doing Anthropology.
New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998. Print.
Kuutma, Kristin. Changing Codified Symbols of Identity. FF Network
for the Folklore Fellows 31 (2006): 711. Web. 21 January 2012.
<http://www.folklorefellows.fi/wordpress/wp-content/networks/
FFN31.pdf>.
. Festival as Communicative Performance and Celebration
of Ethnicity. Folklore: Electronic Journal of Folklore 7
(1998): 79-86. Web. 26 February 2011. <http://www.ceeol.com/
aspx/issuedetails. aspx?issueid= 10c38683>.
Kvanvig, Jonathan L. The Value of Knowledge and the Pursuit of
Understanding. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Print.
Laba, Martin. Parsing the Popular: A Communicative Action Approach
to Folklore. Ethnologies 30.2 (2008): 249-270. Print.
Laban, Jauna de. Movement Notation: Its Significance to the
Folklorist. Journal of American Folklore 67 (1954): 291-95.
Print.
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

179

Labov, William, and Joshua Waletzkey. Narrative Analysis: Oral Version

of Personal Experience. Essays on Visual and Verbal Arts. ed.
June Helm. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1967. 1244. Print.
Lang, Andrew. The Method of Folklore. Custom and Myth. London:
Longman Green and Co., 1884.10-28. Print.
Lassiter, Luke Eric. The Chicago Guide to Collaborative Ethnography.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005. Print.
Lawless, Elaine J. Reciprocal Ethnography: No One Said It was
Easy. Special Double Issue: Issues in Collaboration and
Representation. Journal of Folklore Research 37.2/3 (2000):
197-205. Print.
. I was afraid someone like you ... an outsider... would
misunderstand: Negotiating Interpretive Difference between
Ethnographers and Subjects. Journal of American Folklore
105.417 (1992): 301-14. Print.
. Womens Life Stories and Reciprocal Ethnography as
Feminist and Emergent. Journal of Folklore Research 28.1
(1991): 35-60. Print.
Leech, Edmund Ronald. ed. The Structural Study of Myth and Totemism.
1967. London: Routledge, 2004. Print.
Levinson, Jerrold. Aesthetics and Ethics: Essays at the Intersection.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Print.
Levi-struss, Claude. The Structural Study of Myth. Structural
Anthropology. Trans. Claire Jacobson and Brooke Grundfest
Schoepf. New York: Basic Book Inc., 1963. 206-231. Print.
Levy, Robert, and Douglas Hollan. Person-Centered Interviewing and
Observation. Handbook of Methods in Cultural Anthropology.
ed. H. Russell Bernard. London: Altamira Press, 1998. 333364.
Print.
Lewis, James R, and Olav Hammer. eds. The Invention of Sacred
Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Print.
180

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

Liamputtong, Pranee. ed. Doing Cross-Cultural Research: Ethical and

Methodological Perspectives. Australia: Springer Science+
Business Media, 2008. Print.
Locke, Liz, Theresa A. Vaughan, and Pauline Greenhill. eds.
Encyclopedia of Women Folklore and Folklife. Vol. 1&2.
London: Greenwood Press, 2009. Print.
Long, Ben. Complete Digital Photography. Boston: Charles River Media,
2007. Print.
Loxley, James. Performativity. New York: Routledge, 2007. Print.
Lutgendorf, Philip. A Made to Satisfaction Goddess: Jai Santoshi
Maa Revisited. Manushi 131 (2002): 2437. Print.
. A Super-hit Goddess: Jai Santoshi Maa and Caste Hierarchy
in Indian Films. Manushi 131 (2002):1016. Print.
MacDonald, Donald A. Fieldwork: Collecting Oral Literature. Folklore
and Folklife: An Introduction. ed. Richard M. Dorson. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1972. 407- 430. Print.
Madison, D. Soyini, and Judith Hamera. Performance Studies at the
Intersections. The Sage Handbook of Performance Studies. eds.
D. Soyini Madison and Judith Hamera. London: The Sage
Publications Inc., 2006. XI-XXV. Print.
Magoun, Francis P. Jr. Oral-Formulaic Character of Anglo-Saxon
Narrative Poetry. Speculum 28. 3 (1953): 446-467.Print.
Malinowski, Bronislaw. A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays.
1944. New York: Routledge, 2008. Print.
. Myth in Primitive Psychology. 1926. New York: Routledge,
2002. Print.
Maranda, Pierre, and Elli Kongas Maranda. Structural Models in
Folklore. Midwest Folklore 12.3 (1962): 133-192. Print.
. Structural Analysis of Oral Tradition. Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971. Print.
McAllister, Matthew P. Is Commercial Culture Popular Culture: A
Question for Popular Communication Scholars. Popular
Communication 1.1 (2003): 4149. Print.
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

181

McAuley, Gay. Performance Analysis: Theory and Practice. About

Performance: Performance Analysis. Sydney: Centre for
Performance Studies, University of Sydney, 1998. 1-12. Print.
McCall, Leslie. The Complexity of Intersectionality. Signs: Journal
of Women in Culture and Society 30.3 (2005): 1771-1800. Print.
McCauley, Robert N., and E. Thomas Lawson. Bringing Ritual to Mind:
Psychological Foundations of Cultural Forms. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2002. Print.
McCool, Matthew. Writing around the World: A Guide to Writing across
Cultures. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group,
2009. Print.
Mills, Margaret A. What (s) Theory? Journal of Folklore Research
45.1 (2008): 19-28. Print.
. Complex Trajectories: Ethnological Knowledges in Practice.
Journal of Folklore Research 47.1/2 (2010): 211-218. Print.
Molm, Linda D., David R. Schaefer, and Jessica L. Collett. The Value
of Reciprocity. Social Psychology Quarterly 70.2 (2007): 199
217. Print.
Musburger, Robert B. Single-Camera Video Production. Boston: Focal
Press, 2005. Print.
Nash, Jennifer C. Re-thinking Intersectionality. Feminist Review 89
(2008): 1-15. Print.
Narayan, Kirin. Singing from Separation: Womens Voices in and about
Kangra Folksongs. Oral Tradition, 12/1 (1997): 23-53. Print.
. The Practice of Oral Literary Criticism: Womens Songs
in Kangra, India. Journal of American Folklore 108.429
(1995): 243264. Print.
Noyes, Dorothy. Folklore. The Social Science Encyclopedia. eds.
Adam Kuper and Jessica Kuper, New York: Routledge, 2004.
375-378. Print.
. Group. Eight Words for the Study of Expressive Culturee .
ed. Burt Feintuch. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003.
7- 41. Print.
182

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

. Tradition: Three Traditions. Journal of Folklore Research

46.3 (2009): 233-268. Print.
Oring, Elliot. The Jokes of Sigmund Freud: A Study in Humor and
Jewish Identity. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
1984. Print.
. On the Concept of Folklore. Folk Groups and Folkloree
Genres. ed. Elliot Oring, Logan: Utah State University Press, 1986.
1-22. Print.
Pawluch, Dorothy, William Shaffir, and Charlene Miall. Doing
Ethnography: Studying Everyday Life. Toronto: Canadian
Scholars Press, 2005 Print.
Pentikinen, Juha Y. Tradition Bearer. Folklore: An Encyclopedia of
Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art. ed. Thomas A. Green,
California: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1997. 801-803. Print.
Phelan, Peggy. Introduction: The Ends of Performance. The Ends of
Performance. eds. Peggy Phelan & Jill Lane. New York:
University of New York Press, 1998. 119. Print.
Philip, Auslander. Theory for Performance Studies: A Students Guide.
New York: Routledge, 2008. Print.
Poewe, Karla. Writing Culture and Writing Fieldwork: The Proliferation
of Experimental and Experiential Ethnographies. Ethnos 61.3/4
(1996): 177-206. Print.
Power, Dominic, and Allen J. Scott. Cultural Industries and the
Production of Culture. London: Routledge, 2004. Print.
Poyatos, Fenando. Nonverbal Communication across Disciplines
(Volume II): Paralanguage, Kinesics, Silence, Personal and
Environmental Interaction. Philadelphia: John Benjamins
Publishing Company, 2002. Print.
Radner, Joan N. ed. Feminist Messages: Coding in Womens Folk
Culture. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1993. Print.
Ratcliffe, Peter. Race, Ethnicity and Difference: Imagining the
Inclusive Society. New York: Open University Press, 2004.
Print.
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

183

Rikoon, J. Sanford. On the Politics of the Politics of Origins: Social

(In) Justice and the International Agenda on Intellectual Property,
Traditional Knowledge, and Folklore. Journal of American
Folklore 117.465 (2004): 325-336. Print.
Roberts, Warren E. Fieldwork: Recording Material Culture. Folklore
and Folklife: An Introduction. ed. Richard M. Dorson. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1972. 431- 444. Print.
Robinson, John A. Personal Narratives Reconsidered. Journal of
American Folklore 94.371 (1981): 58-85. Print.
Rheim, Gza. Psychoanalysis and Anthropology. New York:
International Universities Press, 1950. Print.
Rosenberg, Bruce A. The Complexity of Oral Tradition. Oral Tradition
2/1 (1987): 73-90. Print.
Ross, Marc Howard. Cultural Contestation in Ethnic Conflict.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2007. Print.
Saltzman, Rachelle H. Folklore Feminism and the Folk: Whose Lore
is it? Journal of American Folklore 100.398 (1987): 548-562.
Print.
Sawin, Patricia. Performance at the Nexus of Gender, Power, and
Desire: Reconsidering Baumans Verbal Art from the Perspective
of Gendered Subjectivity as Performance. Toward New
Perspectives on Verbal Art as Performance. Special Issue Journal
of American Folklore 115.455 (2002): 28-61. Print.
Schechner, Richard. Performance Studies: An Introduction. New York:
Routledge, 2002. Print.
Schereth, Thomas J. ed. Material Culture Studies in America. Oxford:
AltaMira Press, 1981. Print.
Schieffelin, Edward L.Moving Performance to Text: Can Performance
be Transcribed? Oral Tradition 20.1 (2005): 80-92. Print.
Shore, Bradd. Culture in Mind: Cognition, Culture, and the Problem
of Meaning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1996. Print.
Shore, Cris, and Stephen Nugent. Elite Cultures: Anthropological
Perspectives. New York: Routledge, 2002.Print.
184

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

Sims, Martha C., and Martine Stephens. Living Folklore: An

Introduction to the Study of People and their Traditions. Utah:
Utah State University Press, 2005. Print.
Smithsonian Institution Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage. The
Smithsonian Folklife and Oral History Interviewing Guide. Web.
17 October 2010. <http://www.folklife.si.edu>.
Stahl, Gerry. Meaning and Interpretation in Collaboration. 2003. Web. 7
May 2012. <http://www.gerrystahl.net/cscl/papers/ch20.pdf>.
Stahl, Sandra K. D. Personal Narrative as Folklore. Journal of the
Folklore Institute 14.1/2 (1977): 9-30. Print.
. Literary Folkoristics and the Personal Narrative.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989. Print.
Stam, Henderikus J. Introduction: Social Constructionism and
Its Critics. Theory & Psychology 11.3 (2001): 291296.
Print.
Staszak, Jean-Francois. Other/otherness. n. d. Web. 20 April 2012.
<http://www.unige.ch/ses/geo/colla bora teurs/.../Other
Otherness.pdf>.
Stoeltje, Beverly J. Festival. Folklore, Cultural Performances and
Popular Entertainments: A Communication-Centered Handbook.
ed. Richard Bauman. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
261-271. Print.
Sullivan, Gavin. Wittgenstein, Reflexivity and the Social Construction
of Reality. Web. 22 February 2012. <wab.uib.no/ojs/agoraalws/article/download/1596/1642>
Sweterlitsch, Dick. Papers on Applied Folklore. Bloomington: Folklore
Institute, Indiana University, 1971. Print.
Taylor, David A. Documenting Maritime Folklife: An Introductory
Guide. Washington, DC: Publications of the American Folklife
Center, No. 17, 1992. Web. 25 February 2011. <http://www.
loc.gov/folklife/maritime/index.html>.
Thompson, Stith . The Folktale.1946. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1977. Print.
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

185

. Variant. The Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology

and Legend. eds. Maria Leach and Jerome Fried. 2 Vols. New
York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1950. 1154-55. Print.
. The Motif-Index of Folk-Literature: A Classification of
Narrative Elements in Folktales, Ballads, Myths, Fables,
Mediaeval Romances, Exempla, Fabliaux, Jest-Books, and Local
Legends.1932-36. Rev. ed. 6 Vols. Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 195558. Print.
Thoms, William. Folklore. The Athenaeum 982 (1846): 862863. Rpt.
The Study of Folklore. ed. Alan Dundes. Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice-Hall Inc., 1965. 4-6. Print.
Titan, Jeff Todd. Text. Eight Words for the Study of Expressive
Culture. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2003. 69-98. Print.
Tolken, Barre. Folklore Research. The Dynamics of Folklore. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 1976: 291- 330. Print.
Trucker, Christine. Family Folklore. Web. 11 November 2010. <http:
//www.expeng.a nr.msu.edu/sites/4h/resources/4H1330
FamilyFolkloreActivitySheets.pdf>.
Tuleja, Tad. Usable Pasts: Traditions and Group Expressions in North
America. Logan: Utah State University Press, 1997. Print.
Uther, Hans-Jrg. ed. The Types of International Folktales: A
Classification and Bibliography. 2004. Parts IIII. Helsinki:
Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia. 2011. Print.
Vansina, Jan. Performance, Tradition and Text. Oral Tradition as
History. Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1985.
33-67. Print.
. Oral Tradition: A Study in Historical Methodology. London:
Routledge, 1965. Print.
Vera, Hernan, and Joe R. Feagin. eds. Handbook of the Sociology of
Racial and Ethnic Relations. New York: Springer Science
Business Media, 2007. Print.
Veszprm, Mariann Domokos. Folklore and Mobile Communication SMS
and Folklore Text Research. Fabula 48 (2007): 51-59. Print.
186

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

Virtanen, Leea. Historic-Geographic Method. Folklore: An

Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art. ed.
Thomas A. Green. California: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1997. 442448. Print.
Vlach, John Michael, and Simon J. Bronner. eds. Folk Art and Art
Worlds. Logan: Utah State University, 1992. Print.
Walby, Sylvia. Complexity Theory, Systems Theory, and Multiple
Intersecting Social Inequalities. Philosophy of the Social Sciences
37.4 (2007): 449-470. Print.
Wells, Patricia Atkinson. Public Folklore in the Twenty-first Century:
New Challenges for the Discipline. Working for and with the
Folk: Public Folklore in the Twenty-First Century. Special Issue
of Journal of American Folklore 119.471 (2006): 5-18. Print.
Widdowson, H. G. Text, Context, Pretext: Critical Issues in Discourse
Analysis. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2004. Print.
Williams, Raymond. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1976. Print.
Williams, Thomas Rhys. The Form and Function of Tambunan Dusun
Riddles. Journal of American Folklore 76.300 (1963): 95110. Print.
Winker, Gabriele, and Nina Degele. Intersectionality as Multi-Level
Analysis: Dealing with Social Inequality. European Journal of
Womens Studies 18.1 (2011): 5166. Print.
YouTube Video. Niyamgiri Pahad Puja-2012. Web. 01 March 2012.
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WoMW_ d2vdWE>.
Zan, Yigal. The Text/Context Controversy: An Explanatory
Perspective. Western Folklore 41:1 (1982): 1-27. Print.

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

187

188

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

@^KcYK
@^ (Other) 89, 98
@^ /b^ e_ (Variant) 16, 23
@_KZK fK]e (Fakelore) 31, 107
@\^_\^ (Communication) 37
@\^_\^ _Kd (Commutative Event) 78
@^^K iK (Ritualized Relation) 36
@^^K iZ (Official Culture) 14
@M _eahY (Esoteric Performance) 53
@az\a\ (Intersectionality) 115, 146-151
@-ij~M @^gk^ (Collaborative Approach) 116
@M \gK (Esoteric Audience) 82
@M _eahY (Esoteric Performance) 53
@c\Z _e_Kg (Playfull expression) 90
@fL fK]e (Written Folklore) 22
@wK _e_Kg (Gesture) 34
CgckK M (Selective Group) 42
C_^ Ga @^Kd i (Stimulus and Response Theory) 108
HZjiK-bMkK _Z (Historic-Geographic Method) 104
Ki fK]e (Campus Folklore) 12
KUe fK]e (Folklore of Computer) 12
N^Z (Proximity) 39
R^_d iZ (Popular Culture) 14
R^_d PeZ (Popular Character) 14, 18
\ea fK M (Distance Folk) 81
^ea\ @]d^ (Feminist Study) 112-113
f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

189

^KUZc fK M (Immediate Folk) 82

^aPK fK]e (Non-Verbal Folklore) 22
__V (Texture) 75-77
_iw (Context) 77-87
_iwbK @]d^ (Contextual Study) 113-114
_KZ-e_K id cZa\ (Nature-Allegorical Theory) 103
_K~a\ i (Functional Approach) 109, 137-142
_Ke e_ (Version) 16, 30
_~RZ _eahY (Arranged Performance) 123
_dMK fK]e (Applied Folklore) 107
_KZK _iw (Physical Context) 79-82
_ee (Tradition) 51-69
_ee ajK (Tradition Bearer) 57, 66
_ea^gkZ (Dynamic) 61
_eahY (Performance) 71-99
_ecg\Z (Consultant) 122, 133
_eeKZ (Continuity) 52
_eeK a^cZ (Reflexivity) 84-87
_eeK-a^cd _RZa\ (Reciprocal Ethnography) 116, 142-146
_eaeK fK]e (Family Folklore) 11, 35
_eWMcUK aghY (Paradigmatic Analysis) 111
_V (Text) 73-75
_e-fW i (Perry-Lord Theory) 106
aK _Kd (Speech Event) 113
aqMZ @L^ (Personal Narrative) 11, 35
agh \lZ (Competence) 57
agie iPKu^ (Marker of an Idea) 74
aieYa\ i (Theory of Diffusion) 103
aKg (Emergence) 87-89
a a^cd (Interaction) 39
aj \gK (Outsider Audience) 80
ajK @\^_\^ (Exoteric Communication) 37
ahdK _ee (Technological Tradition) 58
190

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

bbMd ag (Geographical Features) 40

bZK fK]e (Material Folklore) 22
c^K _Z (Psychoanalytic Method) 107
c^K _eahYKe (Standard Performer) 58
cL _eahYKe (Central Performer) 82
cU` Ga UA_ (Motif and Type) 104-105
~[[Z (Authenticity) 61
elYgkZ (Static) 69
-M \gK (Insider Audience) 80
iajK (Conduit) 109
ieP^ZK @]d^ (Structural Study) 110
iZK @_lKa\ (Cultural Relativism) 103
iaR^^ fK]e (Public Folklore) 107
icdK fK M (Part-Time Group) 41
icRK @]e (Social Matrix) 36
icRK ^cY Z (Social Construction Theory) 47
icRK _ePZ (Social Identity) 16
icRK _iw (Social Context) 82
iZK aa^a\ cZa\ (Theory of Cultural Evolution ) 103
i<McUK aghY (Syntagmatic Analysis) 111
ife c[fR i (Theory of Solar Mythology) 102
ekeW fK]e (Folklore of Railroad) 13
fK]e @]eZ fK]e (Metafolklore) 140
fK]eZK @MjY (Folkloric Assimilation) 37
fK]eZK aaje (Folkloric Behavior) 108
fK]eZK iiM (Folkloric Contact) 37
fK M (Folk the Group) 33-49
lZK~ (Fieldwork) 121-135

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

191

192

f K ] e
_ee K iR^ gk Ra^]ee @]d^

FreePDFcopy
Pr
i
nt
edc
opyoft
hi
sbooki
savai
l
abl
eat
At
henaBooks
,
Bhubanes
war
,
Odi
s
ha
+919437323152