Biodiversity and Evolution Notes Define the terms species, habitat and biodiversity.

. A species is a group of individual organisms very similar in appearance anatomy, physiology, biochemistry and genetics, whose members are able to interbreed freely to produce fertile offspring. A habitat is the place where an organism lives. Biodiversity is the variety of life-the range of living organisms to be found. Explain how biodiversity may be considered at different levels habitat, species and genetic. The range of habitats in which different species live means that each habitat will be occupied by a range of organisms. Differences between species are looked at and genetic variation between individuals in a species which ensures we all dont look alike. Discuss the current estimates of global biodiversity Over 4000 bacteria, 80000 protocista, 70000 fungi, 293000 plants, 1280000 invertebrates, 33700 vertebrates which makes a total of 1730000. These figures are estimates because we cannot be sure we have found all the species, new species are being found all the time, evolution and speciation are continuing and many species are becoming endangered or extinct. Explain the importance of sampling in measuring the biodiversity of a habitat. Sampling the area gives you a representative view of the habitat without counting every single organism living it which wouldnt be practical and would be impossible to count. Instead you can take a portion of the habitat and study it. Describe how random samples of plants can be taken when measuring biodiversity You can use a quadrant to sample. And place it at random in a habitat by imagining a grid and place the quadrant in a pair of randomly generated co-ordinated. Then you need to identify the plants and measure their abundance. Then you can measure abundance using the ACFOR scale or calculate the percentage cover using smaller squares in the quadrant. Or you could use a point frame where you lower the frame into the quadrant and record any plants toughing the needle. You have to also record bare ground. Another way of sampling can be to use a transect which is a line taken across a habitat. In a large habitat you might do this and you would also record the plants touching the line at set intervals. You could also use a quadrant at set intervals which is an interrupted belt transect or use a continuous belt transect where you place a quadrant beside the line. Describe how random samples of animals can be taken when measuring biodiversity# Sweep netting is a technique where you collect insects or small animals and then put them a white sheet to identify them. Some may try and escape so you can use a pooter to collect the animals in. This is suitable for low vegetation that is not too woody.

Collecting from trees by knocking braches and spreading a white sheet underneath. You have to identify them quickly before they fly/crawl away. A pitfall trap is in soil to catch small animals. It is a small container in the soil to trap the animal and has water or scrunched paper in the bottom to stop animals coming out again. In rainy water the trap should be sheltered. Tullgren funnel can collect small animals from leaf litter. Place leaf litter in the funnel and the light will dry the leaves making the animals fall to the bottom and into a jar. A light trap can be used to collect flying insects at night can the collecting vessel contains alcohol so that moths and other insects will be attracted and fall into the alcohol. Describe how to measure species richness and species evenness in a habitat. Estimating species richness means you can make observations of a habitat and measure all the different species you see. Estimating species evenness needs to carry out a quantitative survey. Use one of the sampling techniques to take samples. Count the number of plant of species per unit area or percentage cover. Measuring the density of animals is tricky. For large animals you need to observe and count individuals present. For smaller animals sample them and use the mark and recapture technique. Capture the animals and then mark them. This number is C1. Then do this again and the number marked is C2. The number that have already been marked in the first occasion is C3. Then you use (C1 X C2)/C3 to find the total population. Use Simpsons Index of Diversity (D) to calculate the biodiversity of a habitat, using the formula D=1-((n/N)). n is the number of individuals of a particular species (or percentage cover for plants) and N is the total number of all individuals of all species (or percentage cover for plants). Outline the significance of both high and low values of Simpsons Index of Diversity (D). A high value of (D) indicates a diverse habitat. This provides a place for many different species. A low value for diversity (D) indicates a habitat dominated by few species. Define the terms classification, phylogeny, and taxonomy. Biological classification is the process of sorting living things into groups. Natural classification does this by grouping things according to how closely related they are. Natural classification reflects evolutionary relationships. Taxonomy is the study of the principles of classification. Phylogeny is the study of evolutionary relationships between organisms. Explain the relationship between classification and phylogeny By grouping things into their evolutionary relationships in natural classification phylogeny which studies this relationship can see what organisms are closely related to each other and determine using genetics which organisms belong where and help classification identify organisms which should be classified in certain areas.

Outline the characteristic features of the five kingdoms Prokaryotes have no nucleus, loop of DNa, no membrane bound organelles, smaller robosomes, respiration not in mitochondria, cells smaller, can be free living of parasitic. Protoctists are eukaryotes, single celled, show a variety of forms, various plant/animal like features, mostly free living and have autotrophic or heterotrophic nutrition. Fungi are eukaryotes, have mycelium, walls made of chitin, cytoplasm in multinucleate, mostly free living and saprophytic. Plants are eukaryotes, multi-cellular, cellulose cell walls, produce multi-cellular embryos, and have autotrophic nutrition. Animals are eukaryotes, multicellular, heterotrophic nutrition, fertilised eggs (blastula) and are able to move around. Describe the classification of species into the taxonomic domain hierarchy. Dear-Domain, King Kingdom, Philip Phylum, Can Class, Order Order, Family Family, Group- Genus, Studies- Species. Outline the binomial system of nomenclature and the use of scientific (latin) names for species. The binomial system uses two names to identify each species: their genus and the species names. The common name system didnt work well because the same organism may have different names, different common names are used in different countries, translation of languages or dialects may give different name and the same common name may be used for different species in other part of the world. Discuss the fact that classification systems were originally based on observable features, but more recent approaches draw on a wider range of evidence to clarify relationships between organisms including molecular evidence. Earlier classification system used to rely on observable anatomy and appearance of organisms to classify them but this lead to many mistakes. Now there is the use of physiology which is the study of how living things work (their muscles contracting and how oxygen enters the blood). The study of biochemistry helps aswell. Cytochrome C is a protein used in respiration so is in every living organism except for prokaryotes, it is not identical in all species and the differences in the sequence of amino acids can help us identify which organisms is classified where. Comparison of DNA and RNA also show this. Compare and contrast the 5-kingdom and 3 domain classification system. The 5 kingdom system is based on all the animals but the 3 domain system is based on one of the five kingdoms the prokaryote. This is split into Bacteria, Archaea and Eukaryotae. They have some similarities and some differences. The differences include different cell membrane structure, different enzymes, no proteins bound to genetic material, different mechanisms for DNA replication and building RNA.

Describe the term variation Variation is the presence of variety of differences between individuals. Discuss the fact that variation occurs within, as well as between species. Variation occurs within species. For example look at the human race, we all have different characteristics. Variation between species is obvious because there are characteristics which separate one species from another. Describe the differences between continuous and discontinuous variation, using examples of a range of characteristics found in plants, animals and microorganisms. Continuous variation is variation in which there is a full range of intermediate phenotypes/values between two extremes. Examples include height in humans, length of leaves on an oak tree, and length of stalk. Discontinuous variation is when there are two or more distinct groups of phenotypes with no or very few individuals in between. Examples include sex, bacterial flagella present, human blood groups. Explain both genetic and the environmental causes of variation. In genetic variation the genes we inherit are the source of our characteristics. The combination of alleles gives us these characteristics and two people will never have the same combination unless youre an identical twin. Environmental variation is when you environment affects your characteristics like if you are overfed you become obese. Environmental and genetic variations are linked because in humans you grow taller if you have a better diet. Outline the behavioural, physiological and anatomical (structural) adaptations of organisms to their environments. Behavioural adaptations are an aspect of behaviour which helps it survive the condition it lives in. For example an earthworm if touched will contract into its burrow because it doesnt know whether you are a bird or not. Physiological/biochemical adaptations are ones that ensure the correct functioning of cells processes. For example yeast can respire sugars aerobically to obtain energy. Producing the correct enzymes to respire the sugars is their biochemical adaptation. Anatomical adaptation means structural adaptation which enhances the organisms survival. The flagellum is an example. Explain the consequences of the four observations listed by Darwin in proposing his theory of natural selection. The four observations are: offspring generally appear similar to their parents, no two individuals are identical, organisms have the ability to produce large numbers of offspring, and populations in nature rend to remain fairly stable in size.

The conclusions can be summarised as: there is a struggle to survive, better adapted individuals survive and pass on their characteristics, over time, a number of changes may give rise to a new species. Define the term speciation Speciation is the formation of a new species. Speciation occurs because of allopatric speciation which is that geographical separation prevents effective interbreeding or sympatric speciation which is because a reproductive barrier may arise within a population. Discuss the evidence supporting the theory of evolution with reference to fossil, DNA and molecular evidence. Fossil evidence provides us with evidence for evolution because we can see the genetic variation leading to the characteristics that we see today in horses for example. We can also use DNA evidence and compare the DNA sequencing of different animal DNA to other. This means if the sequences are similar that the more we are related to them, the more they are different is the more we have evolved. Molecular evidence like biological molecules also shows this and we can also use cytochrome C to compare with other animals. Outline how variation, adaptation and selection are major components of evolution. Variation must occur, the environment selects the variation which gives an advantage, individuals with this advantage survive and reproduce to pass on their characteristics, and the next generation will be well adapted to their environment. Discuss why evolution of pesticide resistance in insects and of drug resistance in MOs has implications for humans. Pesticide resistance in insects mean that insects can either break down the insecticide or target the receptor protein on the cell membrane may be modified. Resistance to pesticides mean that malaria mosquitoes cannot be killed and if there are too many pesticides in the food chain the predators of these insects will receive a dose and then all the way up to humans will receive a dose of the pesticides. Antibiotic resistance produces superbugs like MRSA. Outline the reasons for the conservation of animal and plant species, with reference to economic, ecological, ethical and aesthetic grounds. Economic and ecological: provided answers to many technological problems if animals go extinct we loose the solution to our problems. Without photosynthesis there would be no removal of carbon dioxide, without soil we cannot grow food, without recycling of nutrients and wastes soil would be infertile and without oxygen we wouldnt be able to breathe. Ethical and aesthetic reasons: all living organisms have a right to survive and to live in the way for which they have become adapted. Joy of wellbeing when observing the variations in nature and natural systems are important to our well being.

Discuss the consequences of global climate change on the biodiversity of plants and animals with reference to changes in patterns of agriculture and spread of disease. Higher CO2 levels alter photosynthesis, higher temperatures increase growing rates, longer growing seasons, evaporation of water and precipitation, change in distribution of precipitation, and loss of land due to rise in sea water. Disease: crops grown in new areas encounter new diseases, pest have more time to increase in numbers in hot seasons, more species may ne able to survive winter successfully and cause greater infestations, human diseases will also migrate like malaria. Explain the benefits for agriculture of maintaining the biodiversity of animals and plant species. Allowing biodiversity to decline means that genetic diversity declines which means we loose come of the natural solutions to our problems. Plants may have adapted to diseases and pests in a new area and genetic engineering could cause transgenic species. Describe the conservation of endangered plant and animal species in situ, with reference to the advantages and disadvantages of this approach. Conservation in situ means conserving a species in its normal environment. Advantages: legislation can be made; plants and animals are in their natural habitat, permanently protects biodiversity and representative examples of ecosystems, protects significant elements of natural and cultural heritage, allows management of these areas, provides opportunities for ecologically sustainable land uses, facilitates scientific research, may be possible to restore the ecological integrity. Disadvantages: protected animal might come out to raid crops, people hunting protected animals, illegal harvesting of timber and other plants, tourists feeding protected animals or leaving litter. Describe the conservation of endangered plant and animal species ex situ, with reference to the advantages and disadvantages of this approach. Conservation ex situ means conserving and endangered species by activities that take place outside its natural environment. Advantages: breed animals in captive surroundings, animals protected from predators and health can be maintained by vets. Disadvantages: often not in natural environment and hard to breed, space is limited, decrease in genetic diversity, survival of reintroduction, acceptance of wild members of species. Discuss the role of botanical gardens in the ex situ conservation of rare plant species or plant species extinct in the wild with reference to seed banks. Botanical gardens most plants are in the dormant stage (seed), seeds can be collected without much disturbance, stored in huge numbers, breed asexually, increase no of individuals quickly, captive bred individuals can be replaced in the wild.

Disadvantages: samples may not hold representative selection of genetic diversity, seeds from one area may be genetically different from another and may not succeed, and seeds stored for long amounts of time may not be viable, asexual reproduction will be genetically identical. Seed banks contain sample of seeds from all known species and are stored for hundreds of years. The seeds are store in very dry or freezing conditions. At kew they do germination tests to check the seeds are still viable. Discuss the importance of International cooperation in species conservation with reference to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and the Rio Convention on Biodiversity. Cooperation between countries in species conservation means that you can monitor the trade of endangered species, ensure that international trade doesnt affect these species, that trade in wild plants is prohibited and that certain species of plant and animals are allowed subject to permit. The convention allows countries to agree to conserve ex situ to complement in situ measures and to develop a strategy for biological conservation. Express the significance of environmental impact assessments (including biodiversity estimates) for local authority planning decisions. EIA are put in place to minimise effects on biological diversity of an area, promote the exchange of information, and promote arrangements for emergency responses. It is carried out in a local level and then there are 3 stages to the procedure, they have to comply an environmental statement which is publicised and the authority has to take that into account.