Year 11 Biology

Chapter 2: The Chemical Composition of Cells

The Chemicals in Cells

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS are complex carbon containing molecules. All living things are carbon based life forms. Chemists consider organic molecules to be those that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. All other compounds are inorganic, which explains why some molecules that contain carbon e.g. carbon dioxide are considered to be inorganic.

The Chemicals in Cells

Water is the most important inorganic molecule. The organic compounds most commonly found in cells are:

OH+ H+

Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic acids

Other compounds are classified as inorganic. Such as water and minerals.

monosacharides

subunits:

(these are in 1:2:1 ratio)

subunits: fatty acids

subunits: amino acids

subunits: nucleotides

p33

The Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane is the boundary between intercellular and extracellular environments. It is made up of a double layer of fatty phospholipids (called the phospholipid bilayer) interspersed with proteins, glycoproteins and cholesterol.

The current model is called the fluid mosaic model because of the presence of these different molecules. The lipid molecules and some proteins found in the membrane are able to move which enables some substances to move across the membrane.

The Plasma Membrane

Cholesterol

molecules lie between the phospholipids. The importance of cholesterol is that it makes the cell membrane:

More flexible because they lie between the phospholipids and prevent them from packing together which keeps the membrane fluid and helps prevent it from breaking More stable More fluid, particularly in low temperatures

The Fluid Mosaic Model

The

plasma membrane is made of 2 layers of phospholipids

hydrophilic head (water soluble)

hydrophobic tail (oil soluble)

phospholipid bilayer

The Plasma Membrane

The

proteins assist in active transport and larger proteins act as carriers for facilitated diffusion. Carbohydrates attach to the proteins, forming glycoproteins which are involved in cellular recognition.

Construction of the Cell Membrane

Useful Links
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qqsf

_UJcfBc

Lipids
Lipids

are made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen to oxygen ratio is higher in lipids than carbohydrates which is why they contain more energy.

FORMS

OF LIPIDS Lipids exist as fats, oils and waxes. Fats are of animal origin, while oils tend to be found in plants.
Biomolecules: The Lipids

Lipids

Saturated Fatty Acids All of the bonds in the hydrocarbon chain are single bonds. Unsaturated Fatty Acids There are 1 or more double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain. Monounsaturated fatty acids have 1 double bond. Polyunsaturated fatty acids have 2 or more double bonds. The double bonds cause a kink in the molecule, preventing molecules from packing tightly together resulting in a liquid lipid rather than a solid lipid.

Enzymes
Enzymes

are proteins that speed up reactions that would normally occur at a much slower rate.

In

a reaction the substances reacting are called substrates while the substances formed from the reaction are called products.

Properties of Enzymes
Work

very rapidly. Are not destroyed or altered by the reactions, so they can be used again. Can work in either direction. Are affected by temperature. Are sensitive to pH. Specific to a particular reaction.

Lock and Key Model

This theory states that all enzymes and substrates have specific structures called active sites or binding sites. The substrate fits into the enzyme's active site, and they react. The substrate is broken down, and then the enzyme can act on the next substrate.

Generally, there is only one active site on each enzyme molecule and only one type (or combination) of substrate molecules will fit into it just like a key fitting into a lock.

Lock and Key Model

Induced Fit Model

It has been discovered that competitors for an active site (similar in shape to the substrate) could fit even though they are larger than the substrate. This means that the substrate and active site are a little flexible. The induced fit model is similar to the lock and key model in that they both rely on the enzyme and substrate binding at the active site. However, the induced fit model states that the molecules of both substrate and enzyme have a little flexibility rather than the rigidity implied by the lock and key model.

Induced Fit Model

Bonds within the substrate are stressed, weakened and finally break so that atoms can be rearranged into products.

New products are formed.

The groups of amino acids lining the active site forms molecular interaction with the substrate. This weakens the bonds within the substrate. Notice how the enzyme adjusts to induce a better fit within the substrate.

Induced Fit Model

Enzyme Denaturation

Factors Affecting Enzymes

Helpful Videos on Enzymes

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tI69A

VRW0DU http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CZD5 xsOKres&list=PL5F0CA6080A5EA376 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hoBh OdQV7vw http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vTQy bDgweiE

Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamins

are organic compounds that are required by organisms in small amounts. These are either water soluble (B and C) which are constantly being flushed out of the body and have to be eaten every day. soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) which can be stored in fatty tissue until required.

Fat

Vitamins and Minerals

If vitamins are not obtained in sufficient quantities an organism experiences deficiency diseases such as rickets. An accumulation of fat soluble substances can also be harmful.

Minerals are inorganic materials which are also required by organisms in small quantities. Over 20 minerals are required by the human body.

( see tables on pages 37 & 39)

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate

molecules are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a 1:2:1 ratio (general formula (CH2O)n). come in a variety of forms including: Monosaccharides simple sugars consisting of 1 sugar monomer e.g. glucose Disaccharides sugars consisting of 2 sugar monomers e.g. lactose Polysaccharides sugars consisting of many sugar monomers e.g. starch Glycoproteins a molecule made up of carbohydrates and proteins.

They

Biomacromolecules
Biological Molecules Proteins Function in the Body

Proteins
Proteins

are made of subunits called amino acids and are used to build cells and do much of the work inside organisms. They also act as enzymes helping to control metabolic reactions in organisms.

Proteins

Proteins have a range of functions including the following: Catalytic Most enzymes are proteins e.g. proteases break down proteins.

Proteins
Proteins

have a range of functions including the following:

Catalytic Most

enzymes are proteins e.g. proteases break down proteins.

Structural Collagen

and elastin are found in connective tissue such as ligaments and tendons, keratin is found in skin, hair and nails.

Proteins

Proteins have a range of functions including the following: Catalytic Most enzymes are proteins e.g. proteases break down proteins. Structural Collagen and elastin are found in connective tissue such as ligaments and tendons, keratin is found in skin, hair and nails. Contractile Actin and myosin in muscles allow contraction and therefore locomotion (movement).

http://www.wiley.com/college/pratt/0471393878/student/animati ons/actin_myosin/actin_myosin.swf

Proteins
Homeostasis Many

hormones are amino acid based e.g. insulin, glucagon, growth hormone etc.

Material

transport into and out of cells Carrier proteins and channel proteins in the cell membrane regulate movement of substances by enabling facilitated transport and active transport.

Proteins
Transport

of substances around the body Haemoglobin facilitates the transport of oxygen around the body and albumin found in blood transports fatty acids.
Immune

System (Defence) Proteins are involved in specific and non specific immunity e.g. immunoglobulins (antibodies) bind to and inactivate foreign antigens, fibrinogen is vital for blood clotting and complement lyses bacteria.

Proteins
Complete:

Biozone Proteins PKU weebly activity

Protein Structure: Frying an Egg

Nucleic Acids
There

2 main types of nucleic acid; DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid) and RNA (ribose nucleic acid). acids are polymers made up of sub units called Nucleotides.

Nucleic

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xZaMi6OhsSU

Nucleic Acids
A

segment of DNA is called a gene. A gene is the chemical code for a protein.
DNA

is a large double-stranded molecule and is unable to move through the nuclear membrane.

How

do the instructions for protein production get to the ribosomes?

Nucleic Acids
The

answer lies in RNA.

RNA

is also comprised of the nucleotides adenine, cytosine and guanine, but contains uracil instead of thymine. RNA is a single chain, and much smaller than DNA. RNA can easily move through the nuclear membrane. RNA has the job of taking information encoded in the DNA to the ribosomes.

Water
Water

is the most important molecule for living things. average human body is made up of 55 to 65% water. average cell is made up of 70 to 90% water.

The

The

Water
Water

molecules are polar because the oxygen atom within the molecule exerts a stronger pull on the shared electrons than the hydrogen atoms causing the water molecule to have partially charged areas. allows adjacent water molecules to be attracted to each with one another and also gives water many important properties. OO-

Polarity

H+

H+

H+

H+

Universal solvent

Water forms hydration shells around ions to prevent Properties of Water

Ionic compounds and polar molecules readily dissolve in water. them from reforming neutral compounds.

Non polar molecules cannot dissolve in water but often form interfaces with it which are frequently the sites of biological reactions. Coolant Water has a high vapourisation temperature as the hydrogen bonds allow it to absorb a lot of heat before changing state. Adhesion Water molecules are attracted to each other allowing them to move into small spaces by capillary action.

Density

Ice floats on water and insulates it allowing aquatic organisms to survive under ice.

Revision
http://www.susanahalpine.com/anim/Life

/memb.htm http://www.kscience.co.uk/animations/a nim_2.htm http://student.ccbcmd.edu/~gkaiser/biot utorials/eustruct/endomembanim.html http://leavingbio.net/ENZYMES.htm