MTZ 1209

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Schaeffler Technologies GmbH & Co KG
MTZ worldwide 10/2012 http://www.mtz-worldwide.com
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October 2012 | Volume 73
SIX-CY LINDER Diesel Engine from

BMW with Three Turbochargers
T URBOCH A RGING with Low

Temperature Charge Air Cooling and EGR
BURN-R AT EMODEL for Diesel Engines

with Partly Homogenous Load
CLEAN AND FUEL-EFFICIENT COMMERCIAL VEHICLE POWERTRAINS
personal buildup for Schaeffler Technologies GmbH & Co KG
C ONTENTS
C OVER STORY
CLEAN AND FUEL-EFFICIENT COMMERCIAL VEHICLE POWERTRAINS

4,12| For some time, efficiency has been the key issue in the development of powertrains
for commercial vehicles. In recent years, nitrogen oxide and particulate emissions from these vehicles have also been reduced, following the introduction of stricter emissions standards. In future, customers and legislators will be focusing more closely on CO 2 emissions and fuel consumption. To coincide with the IAA Commercial Vehicles show in Hanover, MTZ is highlighting the measures currently being taken to make commercial vehicle powertrains even cleaner and more fuelefficient. FEV uses examples to demonstrate the potential for further developments in the basic engines of commercial vehicles. Daimler Trucks presents its newly developed generation of Mercedes-Benz diesel engines for medium-weight commercial vehicles. The new OM 93x engines will gradually replace the successful 900 Series after more than 15 years and, like their predecessors, come in four and six cylinder versions (OM 934 and OM 936).
CO V E R S T ORY
COMMERCIAL VEHICLE POWERTRAINS THERMAL MANAGEMENT
R E S E A RCH
67 Peer Review
COMBUSTION
4 Mercedes-Benz Medium-duty Commercial Engines Part 1: Engine Concept and Exhaust Aftertreatment
Hans-Otto Herrmann, Brge Nielsen, Christian Gropp, Jrgen Lehmann [Daimler]
32 Use of Exhaust Gas Energy in Heavy Trucks Using the Rankine Process
Rainer Lutz, Peter Geskes, Eberhard Pantow, Jochen Eitel [Behr]
68 Phenomenological Burn-rate Model for Diesel Engines with Partly Homogenous Load
Dominik Rether [FKFS], Michael Bargende [IVK], Christian Lmmle [combustion and flow solutions], Konstantinos Boulouchos [LAV]
TRIBOLOGY
12 Technology Trends in Commercial Vehicle Base Engine Development

Michael Neitz, Andreas Wiartalla, Sven Lauer, Franz Maaen [FEV]
38 Innovative Bearing Design for Optimising Crankshafts

Luis Antnio Fonseca Galli, Robson Ferreira da Cruz [ThyssenKrupp], Hubert Schulthei, Jens Pckert [IAV]
RUBRIC S | S E R V ICE
1 Editorial 66 Imprint, Scientific Advisory Board
SUPERCHARGING
DE V E L OP MEN T
DIESEL ENGINES
44 Turbocharging with Low Temperature Charge Air Cooling and EGR

Carsten Guhr, Hans Zellbeck [TU Dresden]
18 The New BMW Six-cylinder Diesel Engine with Three Turbochargers Part 1: Drive Unit and Turbocharger System
Thomas Eidenbck, Karl Mayr, Werner Neuhauser, Peter Staub [BMW]
54 New Generation of Scroll-type Supercharger More Power and Reduced Consumption

Jrgen Licht, Stephan Wanner [Handtmann Systemtechnik], Oliver Maiwald, Jens Keuler [Bertrandt]
ENERGY STORAGE
26 New Battery Concepts A User-centred Approach

Daniel Holder, Thomas Maier [University of Stuttgart]
MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY
60 A New Terahertz Analytical Tool for Exhaust Aftertreatment Systems

Jrgen Rott, Judy Feuerbach, Yoshi Mitani [Advantest]
COVERFIGURE Ristski Goce / shutterstock FIGUREABOVE Volvo Trucks
EDITORIAL
INTELLIGENT SOLUTIONS
Dear Reader, Commercial vehicles transport around three-quarters of all goods in Europe and the trend is growing. Without trucks on the roads, our modern buying behaviour would not be possible. In addition, because all other means of transport rely on logistical support from trucks, before we can simply move freight from the roads to other forms of transport, we need a clear, forward-looking concept that will allow us to network all the different transport systems. The most important issue for trucks, in just the same way as for cars, is reducing fuel consumption and emissions from two different perspectives: cutting operating costs and lowering the impact of emissions on the environment. For this reason, the commercial vehicle industry is working at high speed to develop intelligent solutions for the future. At this years IAA Commercial Vehicles, new, clean Euro VI engines will be on display, together with innovative hybrid drives and heat energy recovery systems. Improving aerodynamics and reducing rolling resistance are, of course, also crucial considerations. Once again it is clear that by taking a lot of small measures it is possible to have a big impact. As the old saying of locomotive designers goes: You cant reduce the weight by a tonne in any one place, but you can reduce it by a kilo in a thousand places. Although hybrid drives for commercial vehicles are still a thing of the future, this is an area with a great deal of promise, because the driving patterns of trucks offer significant potential for energy recovery and, therefore, for the efficient use of hybrid technology. The essential factor here is the cost of hybrid systems, because for haulage companies the purchase price and the operating costs are more important now than ever before. It will be up to the manufacturers to introduce suitable innovations and put them on the road. In this issue of MTZ, we give you a comprehensive overview of the latest innovative solutions. These include the potential for developing basic engines and the new generation of Mercedes-Benz diesel engines for medium-sized trucks. Commercial vehicle development is more exciting than it has ever been. With best regards,
DR. ALEXANDER HEINTZEL, Editor in Chief Wiesbaden, 14 August 2012
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C OVER STORY C ommercial V ehicl e P owertr ains
MERCEDES-BENZ MEDIUMDUTY COMMERCIAL ENGINES PART 1: ENGINE CONCEPT AND EXHAUST AFTERTREATMENT
Daimler Trucks will launch a generation of fully newly developed Mercedes-Benz diesel engines for medium-duty commercial vehicles with the coming into effect of the Euro VI emissions standard. The new engines, with the model series designation OM93x, will gradually replace the successful Series 900, which has been on the market for over 15 years. Similar to the previous model series, the new engines are available in four- and six-cylinder versions (OM934 and OM936). In the following the concept of the engine and the exhaust aftertreatment are described, the operational strategies and the development process will be dealt with in a second part in MTZ 11.
AUTHORS
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES
DR.-ING. HANS-OTTO HERRMANN is Director Product Engineering Medium Duty Engines and After treatment Systems at Daimler AG in Stuttgart (Germany).
DIPL.-ING. (BA) BRGE NIELSEN is Senior Manager Testing OM 93x and was the R&D Project Leader for the new engine generation at Daimler AG in Stuttgart (Germany).
DIPL.-ING. (BA) CHRISTIAN GROPP is Senior Manager Design OM 93x at Daimler AG in Stuttgart (Germany).
DIPL.-ING. JRGEN LEHMANN is Senior Manager Performance and Emissions OM 93x at Daimler AG in Stuttgart (Germany).
Unlike Series 900 [1, 2], the new engine was designed from the start as a truly global engine for use in all Daimler Trucks vehicle products. Not only was it intended that the OM93x would replace the Series 900 in existing applications, but it should also open up new application options in order to achieve a greater production volume. The concept, however, was not only driven by the clearly emerging emissions legislation of the triad markets at the start of development. Future viability was also an extremely important element of the design specifications in order to achieve a product life cycle of at least 15 years in these markets. The focus here was on the direct customer-relevant properties as well as on possible future CO2 legislation. The global emissions and customer requirements were to be fulfilled via a high shared part rate and, as far as possible, with the same basic engine. An additional objective was to position the OM93x above the model series 900 in terms of power and torque output in order to close part of the product gap in the previous engine range from the bottom up, (right encircling). The OM936 should thus further advance into the heavy-duty applications, while the OM934 should replace the current sixcylinder applications in the lower output range. The following main product objectives were derived based on this: :: increase service life by 20% :: increase engine braking performance by at least 50% :: achieve benchmark position in terms of fuel and AdBlue consumption. At its lower limit, the target application range was defined by the 7.5-metric t trucks and at its upper limit by long distance vehicles having a gross vehicle mass (GVM) of up to 40 metric t. The aim was to continue to cover this huge application range using a single engine series consisting of four- and six-cylinder engines.
COMBUSTION RECIPE AND FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
In order to accommodate the required output increase with possible exhaust gas recirculation rates of up to 30% in the full-load range, the displacement was
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Engine power [kW] 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300
OM 904 LA (R4, 4.3 l) Euro V OM 924 LA (R4, 4.8 l) OM 906 LA (R6, 6.4 l) OM 926 LA (R6, 7.2 l) OM 457 LA (R6, 12.0 l) OM 501 LA (V6, 12.0 l) OM 934 (R4, 5.1 l) Euro VI OM 936 (R6, 7.7 l) OM 470 (R6, 10.7 l)
// //
//
Engine portfolio Daimler Trucks (lower power range)
increased by 7% in comparison to the OM924 and OM926 LA. This corresponds to a specific output of 33.8kW/l and a mean effective pressure of 22.9bar. The bore is now 110mm and the stroke is 135mm (predecessor 106mm/136mm). The new engine thus has a shorter stroke and lies close to the ratio determined for optimum efficiency [3]. The main approach was to design a combustion system with the best possible fuel consumption and, taking exhaust gas recirculation into account, the lowest particulate emissions in order to facilitate a largely passive regeneration
of the diesel particulate filter [4, 5]. For the combustion chamber design, a piston with stepped bowl and an injection nozzle with ten spray orifices and spray cones adjusted to the bowl shape proved itself to be particularly robust with regard to the particulate emissions in the case of air deficiency. Based on numerous parameter studies on single-cylinder and transparent engines, a moderate swirl level showed itself to be particularly favorable for the design of the inlet ports. A cross-flow head with four valves in a parallel layout per cylinder had already been specified at the
start of the combustion system development process. An overview of the most important combustion system parameters is shown in . The injection system is a commercial vehicle common rail system with a maximum injection pressure of 2400bar. The solenoid valve injectors allow for up to five independent fuel injections per cycle and cylinder. Variable post-injection strategies are the basis for managing the exhaust gas temperature in order to regenerate the diesel particulate filter. An additional advantage of the flexible injection system is that the engine can be
Stroke x bore [mm] Inlet valve diameter [mm] Outlet valve diameter [mm] Piston Compression ratio Max. cylinder pressure [bar] Max. injection pressure [bar] Number of spray holes Spray cone angle []
135 x 110 37.5 33.7 Stepped bowl 17.6 : 1 210 2400 10 152
OM 936 OM 934
Single turbo Max. compressor pressure ratio: 3.5
Dual turbo Max. compressor pressure ratio: 4.0
Single turbo Max. compressor pressure ratio: 3.6
Dual turbo Max. compressor pressure ratio: 4.1
Cornerstones of the combustion recipe
Turbocharging variants of the OM 93x model series
started without preheating the intake air, even at very low ambient temperatures. The newly developed combustion system lays the foundation for a significant improvement in efficiency while at the same time reducing emissions. Decisive for this are the considerably improved volumetric efficiency, the peak pressure in the cylinder (which has been initially increased up to 210bar for Euro VI) and the quicker energy conversion due to increased injection rates.
AIR MANAGEMENT
The air management system, consisting of exhaust-gas turbocharging and exhaustgas recirculation, is key with regard to power output, achievable emissions and fuel consumption. An important factor leading to success system in this regard is the turbocharging, which is customised for the particular engine model and power class. For this reason, the new OM93x model series has four different turbocharger variants, . An asymmetric turbine is used in the single-stage turbocharger of the OM936. This design has already proven itself at Daimler Trucks in various sixcylinder commercial vehicle engines with exhaust gas recirculation [6, 7]. A two-stage turbocharging system was selected for the high output models of the four- and six-cylinder engines. High engine outputs can thus be reliably achieved in spite of the increased
exhaust back pressures, even at high altitudes with high ambient temperatures. The two-stage turbocharger groups do not require intercooling in the compressor section due to the high and low-pressure stages that have been carefully coordinated with each other. The engine response behaviour was especially taken into consideration while designing the turbine and compressor for all four turbocharger variants. All engines are equipped with an electrically actuated wastegate, which controls the high-pressure turbine bypass in the two-stage turbocharging systems. This allows for rapid and precise control interventions regardless of the engine load condition, both during engine operating and braking modes.
CYLINDER HEAD AND TIMING SYSTEM
A camshaft phaser will be used for the first time in a production diesel engine. Using the hydraulic adjuster at the ex haust side, which was developed in-house and whose function is similar to the actuators used in Mercedes-Benz passenger car gasoline engines [8], the timing of the exhaust valves is continuously adjustable to early by a crank angle of up to 65. In connection with an injection and air management application that has been specifically adapted to this, the exhaust temperature is thus increased in order to achieve the prerequisites for a particulate filter regeneration at any time. The composite, tube-type intake and exhaust camshafts with the cams shrunk onto the tube are produced according to a proprietary method at the Daimler AG Mannheim engine plant.
CRANKCASE AND ENGINE
A central design feature of the OM93x are the two camshafts located at the top with parallel valve arrangement. The lowest flow losses are thereby achieved, and a sustainable basis for variabilities in the valve train is created. The cylinder head design consistently follows the requirement for the largest possible intake and exhaust port cross-sections. Each cylinder is filled via two separate intake ports. A pure cylinder-charge port and a swirl port were designed for setting the determined swirl level for the developed EGR combustion system.
Quite a bit of time was devoted in the early phase of development on qualifying the engine for high combustion pressures. The concept should also be suitable for the next expansion stage with a peak pressure of up to 230 bar, i.e. beyond the pmax value of 210 bar that was specified for the Euro VI production startup. Important measures for this purpose are: :: rigid crankcase design with hollow beam-type supporting elements, (engine cross section)
OM 936 longitudinal and

cross section
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Cylinder head cover Rocker shaft Adjusting screw Rocker arm Slave piston Master piston Engine brake unit Outlet valve Engine brake cam Camshaft
Engine brake unit
:: six cylinder head bolts per cylinder, with threads located deep in the crankcase :: sufficient compression height for the piston (71mm equates to 65% of cylinder diameter) in order to still reach 210 bar with the aluminum piston (gallery cooled piston with piston pin bushings). The crankcase has a parent-bore design, i.e. without separate cylinder liners. Cylinder liners would have required a larger cylinder pitch and resulted in increased weight without this being necessary for achieving the target engine service life. In order to achieve good oil consumption, the cylinder barrels receive a fine plateau honing, which is carried out using a hon ing plate. The bolting concept of the cylinder head ensures that the cylinder barrels deform very little during operation. With the selected cylinder pitch of 128mm, it is still possible to cast in coolant crossings between the cylinders. At the same time, this value is also the most
reasonable minimum with regard to the crankshaft strength for the given combustion pressures. Standard grey cast iron (GJL) was selected as the material for the crankcase and cylinder head, as no noticeable weight advantages arose with compacted graphite iron (GJV) as part of the optimised design of these components. The thermal conductivity of GJV is also inferior. The crankshaft with four counterweights that are forged into position is equipped with a viscous torsional vibration damper in the OM936.
ENGINE BRAKING SYSTEM
The operating principle of the engine brake is based on a clocked decompression brake with two decompression events per cycle. In braking mode, the exhaust valve is opened in the compression cycle close to TDC in order to reduce the gas pressure acting on the piston. The exhaust valve is opened after the intake
cycle in order to use the short-term positive pressure gradient between the ex haust manifold and cylinder for an additional increase in the cylinder charge. The brake cam contour with its two lobes is transmitted to both exhaust valves through an engine brake unit with hydraulic force/displacement transmission on each cylinder. The master piston has a roller cam follower, while the slave piston actuates both ex haust valves via a forked rocker arm. These are opened against an in-cylinder pressure of up to 60bar. The layout of the elements in the valve train can be seen in . It was possible to create a design that does not impair the size and arrangement of the intake and exhaust valves (unlike the proven constant throttle decompression brake [9]) and which does not increase the overall engine height in contrast to other solutions. The braking function is activated via a solenoid valve located on the front of the
Coolant intake from engine Oil lter
Housing for double thermostat with coolant outlet to vehicle radiator
Silicate cartridge
Coolant pump
Coolant intake from vehicle radiator
Oil cooler
Oil/coolant module
cylinder head and fills the oil chamber between the master and slave pistons via, in each case, a non-return valve through a longitudinal bore in the cylinder head in the engine brake units and thus realises a rigid hydraulic actuation. The engine braking torque is regulated via the wastegate on the turbocharger and the EGR valve. The air mass signal is used as the input parameter.
PACK AGING
Aftertreatment control unit (ACM) Pressure sensor upstream DPF
Control unit NOx sensor (tailpipe-out emission)
Pressure sensor downstream DPF
Temperature sensors
Exhaust aftertreatment system
In spite of the increased displacement, the aim was to avoid an increase in size to the extent possible in order to launch the new OM93x engine series as a future global engine and as the direct successor to the Series 900 in existing vehicle ap plications. At the same time, high application flexibility was to be achieved. With its two-stage turbocharging, the OM934, which in line with the model series idea has a high degree of shared parts with the OM936, was decisive for the packaging design. In spite of the gear drive with two gear planes, it was possible to avoid an increase in the length in comparison with the predecessor. The coolant pump is now positioned on the side of the engine, and the oil pump is driven flywheel-side by the crankshaft gear. The cross-flow cylinder head allows for a clear separation of the engine into a hot side (on the right in direction of travel) and a cold side (left). All fuel-carrying parts as well as the engine control unit are located on the cold side. The oil
coolant module is located on the hot side due to the four-cylinder engine, which is decisive for the powertrain layout. The compactness typical for this model series and an approach for creating variants through a modular design are shown using the example of this module. The unchanged basic structure made from GD-Al includes the spiral housing for the coolant pump, all flange faces for media transfers and the oil filter mount. The directly flange-mounted oil cooler, coolant pump as well as oil filter can be varied economically according to requirements. For example, three coolant pump variants with differing delivery rates are used. Fuel savings of up to 1.5% thus arise for certain basic vehicle types. The layout of the module is shown in . A uniform solution for all important global applications could be realised with the belt drive arrangement due to the early coordination with all potential future vehicle model series. The standard versions are designed as a single-belt
drive and contain a coolant pump and alternator as well as an optional A/C compressor. The free front side of the engine allows for almost any fan position, an important prerequisite for future application flexibility. The exhaust gas cooler a shared part for the four- and six-cylinder engines is integrated in the coolant circuit without external lines. The electrically actuated EGR flap valve was positioned downstream of the cooler on the cold engine side, optimally with regard to the installation space and costs. The risk of lacquering or freezing associated with this layout was eliminated via specific component and operating strategy measures.
EXHAUST AF TERTREATMENT SYSTEM DESIGN FEATURES
A primary development objective for the exhaust aftertreatment system was that the operator and driver of the vehicles should barely notice its presence. The
Charge air cooler DEF tank DEF dosing pump DEF dosing
CO 2, CO, H C N O X , PM
System architecture exhaust aftertreatment
V C
Flow Exhaust
O2 , N 2 H2O, CO 2
HC dosing EGR cooler
p T NOx T p
Sensors
T NOx
Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
T
Diesel particulate lter (DPF)
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
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Control unit NOx sensor (engine-out emission)
following requirements arose from the additional superordinate objectives for the exhaust aftertreatment system design: :: low exhaust back pressure :: high NOx reduction in a wide exhaust gas mass flow range and exhaust temperature range :: ensure soot burn-off in the diesel particulate filter (DPF), to the extent possible, via passive regeneration; for this purpose, the DPF must have a high soot load capability, among other things :: as-required DPF regeneration, ensure automatic regeneration in all relevant driving cycles :: high ash storage capability of the DPF in order to reach the longest possible maintenance intervals :: low installation space requirement and low weight :: long service life (same as the engine, i.e. among other things B10=25,000h for average medium-duty distribution work). The optimum arising from the partially contradictory requirements for low exhaust back pressure, high ash storage capability and a more compact and light design was defined differently for the medium-duty engines than for the exhaust gas aftertreatment systems of the OM47x heavy-duty engines. For this reason, the exhaust gas aftertreatment for model series OM93x has a singleflow design. Shared part strategies were also deliberately followed during the design of the exhaust aftertreatment systems. Adapted variants for the exhaust gas inlet and outlet as well as housing details are required in order to cover the diverse Euro VI vehicle applications; there are, however, only a few basic variants from an emissions perspective. The basic variants, in turn, only differ in terms of the substrate dimensioning. The expenditure for the dataset application of the engine and exhaust gas aftertreatment is thus reduced to these basic variants. A sample view of an exhaust aftertreatment system with the add-on components required for control purposes is shown in . The layout of the exhaust aftertreatment system with the individual components is shown in . The diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) is a cordierite substrate that is coated with precious metal for the oxidation of NO and HC for
the passive and active regeneration of the diesel particulate filter as well as for supplying NO2 for the SCR catalytic converter function. The DPF (substrate: silicon carbide SiC) is also coated with precious metal for the provision of NO2 and the oxidation of HC slip during active DPF regeneration. Silicon carbide excels due to its high ash storage capacity at low back pressure. The NOx emissions contained in the exhaust gas are reduced in the SCR catalytic converter. Due to the high exhaust temperatures of up to 600C that arise during DPF regeneration, the vanadium catalyst that was successfully used for the Euro IV/ V is no longer used for the
Euro VI exhaust gas aftertreatment; rather, an iron-zeolite-based catalyst is used. A slip catalyst coating (ASC) has been applied on the outlet-side SCR substrate section in order to prevent ammonia slip in the case of unfavorable boundary conditions. The required diesel metering for the active DPF regeneration does not take place in-engine via the common rail injection system, rather via a separate HC metering valve that is located on the engine after the turbocharger. Disadvantages for the basic engine components, lube oil service life and the vehicle compressed air system are thus prevented.
OM 936 Six-cylinder in-line engines 7.7-l displacement kW at 2200 rpm 260 235 220 200 175 Nm at 1200 to 1600 rpm Engine output [kW] 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000
300
200
100
OM 934 Four-cylinder in-line engines 5.1-l displacement kW at 2200 rpm 170 155 130 115 Nm at 1200 to 1600 rpm 900 850 750 650 1500 0 600
800
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 Speed [rpm]
Engine torque [Nm]
1000
500
200 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 Speed [rpm] Braking performance premium engine brake OM 936 7.7-l six-cylinder OM 934 5.1-l four-cylinder 300 Braking performance [kW]
200
100
Power output and torque

curves including engine brake
0 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3200 Speed [rpm]
10
Fuel consumption [%] 102 101 100 99 98 97 96 OM 926 LA Euro V OM 936 Euro VI 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
102 101 100 99 98 97 96 OM 926 LA Euro V OM 936 Euro VI OM 926 LA Euro V OM 936 Euro VI
Comparison of operating costs OM 926 LA Euro V versus OM 936 Euro VI (WHTC)
The AdBlue solution is metered using a device that is located downstream of the DPF. In contrast to the Euro IV/V solution, this works without compressed air assistance. Four temperature sensors as well as two pressure and NOx sensors each are integrated in the system for the control and OBD monitoring of the ex haust gas aftertreatment.
PRODUCT FEATURES
Full-load performance maps for the torque and power output in engine operating and braking modes are shown in . The engine output is up to 8% higher, while the engine torque is up to 11% higher than in Series 900. The increase in the engine braking performance is even more impressive: The maximum value lies at 75% above that of the corresponding predecessor type for the four- and six-cylinder engines. The OM934 thus achieves the engine braking performance of the OM906 LA six-cylinder engine. The OM936 not only exceeds its own power output in fired mode but nearly reaches the braking power of the current OM501 LA 12 l engine. The excellent dynamics also contribute to the outstanding driving experience. The time for building up 90% of the maximum torque from zero load at a given speed (t90) could be re duced by approximately 20% in comparison to Series 900 with all engine models and turbocharger variants. The fuel consumption of the new Euro VI engine beats that of the predecessor in Euro V, which is in this regard still renowned as the current benchmark in its class. There is a significant reduction in the operating costs when the considerably reduced AdBlue consumption is also taken into account it is approximately
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1.5 to 3% of the fuel consumption, . The oil consumption has also been significantly reduced in comparison to the preceding series. It is now approximately 0.06% (mass share) of the fuel consumption. The oil consumption is under 0.1g/kWh at rated power. An active DPF regeneration is only seldom required due to the low engine particulate emissions and the optimal matching of the exhaust gas aftertreatment components. The operating time between two regenerations in driving cycles with normal engine utilisation is more than 100h in the case of a filter without ash load. The smallest interval between two regenerations of approximately 20h only occurs in driving cycles with an extremely low engine load. An active regeneration is always carried out automatically in normal driving mode, even in the case of the lowest engine load and very low ambient temperatures. So-called park-idle regenerations are thus almost excluded.
SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK
With the new OM93x model series, a Euro VI engine with a highly functionally integrated exhaust aftertreatment system is presented. This series sets new benchmarks due to its excellent drive and engine braking performance as well as its significantly lower operating costs in comparison to the Euro V predecessor. For the first time in a production diesel engine, a camshaft phaser is used. The new engine, which is envisaged for subsequent global vehicle applications, brings with it potential for future development steps due to its design, which may include mean effective pressure increases and additional fuel consumption reductions.
REFERENCES [1] Bergmann, H.; Mack, E.: Die Konstruktionsmerkmale des neuen Nutzfahrzeug-Dieselmotors OM904 LA von Mercedes-Benz (The Design Features of the New Mercedes-Benz OM904 LA Commercial Vehicle Diesel Engine). In: MTZ 57 (1996) No. 2, pp. 74-84 [2] Harr, T.; Mack, E.; Schulze, R.; Schmid, W.: Der neue Sechszylinder-Dieselmotor OM906 LA von Daimler-Benz (The New Daimler-Benz OM906 LA 6-Cylinder Diesel Engine). In: MTZ 59 (1998) No. 9, pp. 526-538 [3] Maderthaner, K.: Der Einflu des Hub-Bohrungsverhltnisses auf die Betriebswerte von Nfz-Dieselmotoren (The Influence of Bore/Stroke Ratio on Operating Values of Commercial Vehicle Diesel Engines). Vienna, University of Technology, dissertation, 1999 [4] Koch, T.; Grtner, U.: Reduktion der Partikel emission kommerzieller Dieselmotoren inner- und nachmotorische Potentiale mit dem Fokus auf der passiven Regeneration (Reduction of Particulate Emissions in Commercial Diesel Engines In-Engine and Downstream Potentials with Focus on Passive Regeneration). 7th Dresden Engine Colloquium, conference proceedings, Dresden, 2007, pp. 90108 [5] Koch, T.: Entwicklung der Abgasrckfhrung von Medium-Duty-Dieselmotoren zur Einhaltung zuknftiger Emissionsgrenzwerte: Anforderungen, Risiken und Chancen (Development of Exhaust Gas Recirculation for Medium-Duty Diesel Engines for Compliance with Future Emission Limits: Requirements, Risks and Opportunities). In: Heavy-Duty-, schwere Diesel- und Gromotoren im Spannungsfeld verschrfter Umweltbestimmungen und Kundennutzen (Heavy-Duty Engines, Heavy-Duty Diesel Engines and Large Engines and the Challenge of More Stringent Environmental Regulations and Customer Benefits), Haus der Technik Conference, conference proceedings H030-11-438-6, Munich, 2006 [6] Mller, M.; Streule, T.; Sumser, S., et al.: Die asymmetrische 2-flutige Turbine fr schwere D aimler Nfz-Motoren (The Asymmetric Twin-Pipe Turbine for Heavy-Duty Daimler Commercial Vehicle Engines). 13. Supercharging Conference, conference proceedings, Dresden, 2008 [7] Heil, B.; Schmid, W.; Teigeler, M.; Sladek, W., et al.: Die neue Dieselmotorenbaureihe fr Schwere Nutzfahrzeuge von Daimler (The New Diesel Engine Range for Daimler Heavy-Duty Commercial Vehicles). In: MTZ 70 (2009) No. 1, pp. 16-25 [8] Lckert, P.; Waltner, A.; Rau, E., et al.: Der neue V6-Ottomotor M 272 (The New M 272 V6 Gasoline Engine). In: MTZ 65 (2004) No. 6, pp. 440-442 [9] Krner, W.-D.; Bergmann, H.; Wei, E.: Die Motorbremse von Nutzfahrzeugen Grenzen und Mglichkeiten zur Weiterentwicklung (Commercial Vehicle Engine Brakes Limitations and Possibilities with Regard to Further Development). In: ATZ 90 (1988) No. 12, pp. 671-675
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DEF consumption [%] (related to fuel)
Operating costs of DEF and fuel [%]
C OVER STORY C ommercial V ehicl e P ow ertr ains
TECHNOLOGY TRENDS IN COMMERCIAL VEHICLE BASE ENGINE DEVELOPMENT

Commercial vehicles will have to meet increasing requirements in the future with regard to further reductions in emissions and fuel consumption. In the following report, FEV presents some examples that show which potentials can still be exploited in the further development of the basic engines of commercial vehicles.
12
A U THORS
HOLISTIC CONSIDERATION NECESSARY
DIPL.-ING. MICHAEL NEITZ is Manager Design for Commercial, Industrial and Large Engines at FEV GmbH in Aachen (Germany).
DR.-ING. ANDREAS WIARTALLA is Manager Thermodynamic and Aftertreatment for Commercial, Industrial and Large Engines at FEV GmbH in Aachen (Germany).
DR.-ING. SVEN LAUER is Manager Simulation for C ommercial, Industrial and Large Engines at FEV GmbH in Aachen (Germany).
The limit values for pollutant emissions of commercial vehicle diesel engines have drastically been reduced during the last two decades. Until today this has been an essential driving force for the development of engine technologies. Future CO2-limit values are sustaining the pressure for further development. The aftertreatment of exhaust gases, which to an increasing degree is required for the achievement of legally defined goals, makes a holistic view of the subjects thermodynamics/aftertreatment of exhaust gases and base engine design/ mechanics essentially necessary, in order to achieve an optimum with regard to product and operating costs. One of the objectives is, for example, to meet the most favourable point in the trade-off between the complexity of the base engine among others caused by high peak pressure capability, high injection pressures, elaborate exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and charge air cooling and the complexity of the aftertreatment of exhaust gases. The systems required today and in future for aftertreatment of exhaust gases may cause costs on a scale approximate to that of the base engine and thus increase the cost pressure on the engine. gives an impression of the range of measures and technologies, which with an individually different degree of maturity each are available for han-
dling future requirements. In this article exemplary issues are examined and possible trends for future base engine development are discussed, which can help to achieve the above described optimisation.
SWEPT VOLUME, DOWNSIZING AND NUMBER OF CYLINDERS
For the reduction of the NOx raw emissions high EGR rates are used today, often up to full load engine operation. Due to this the oxygen content in the charge air decreases, which can be compensated by a higher degree of supercharging. Maintaining currently usual top values of the specific power output of clearly more than 30kW/l requires dual-stage turbocharging with increased boost pressures under these circumstances, which leads to higher peak pressure requirements on the engine. For an existing engine this way might be the most favourable one. For a complete new development, however, the question arises, if the cost increase caused by ex pensive turbocharging technology and high peak pressure capability, should not be countered with a limitation of power density, i.e. a correspondingly larger swept volume. Moreover, downsizing in connection with an increased peak pressure does not necessarily promise significant friction reduction. shows the comparison of two design variants for a medium-duty truck engine. In this example the swept volume is re duced through a proportional reduction
DR.-ING. FRANZ MAASSEN is Vice President for Commercial, Industrial and Large Engines at FEV GmbH in Aachen (Germany).
Advanced materials Thermal spray coating
Demand controlled auxiliaries
Variable compression ratio Variable valve timing/lift
Combustion renement
Advanced injection system
Advanced boosting Exhaust gas recirculation
Sensors/ controls Waste-heat recovery Advanced catalysts Particulate lter
SCR technology
Potential technologies for the reduction of emissions and CO2

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Effect of downsizing on the engine friction
of stroke and bore by maintaining the stroke/bore ratio. This downsizing requires dual stage turbocharging leading to a peak pressure increase by ap proximately 30bar. Despite of a smaller bore diameter, the gas force remains more or less constant. Therefore a reduction of the bearing diameters and with that of the bearing friction and the oil flow through the bearings is not possible. Merely the lower piston speed caused by the slightly smaller stroke at unchanged engine speed has a friction-decreasing effect. This positive effect is partly compensated by the additional oil flow through the second turbocharger, which causes a higher oil pump driving power. The friction contributions of crank shaft, valve train, water pump and alternator remain the same. Therefore the friction estimate shows only a small difference in the frictional torque, merely the thermodynamic fuel consumption advantages via a shift in the operating point can be realised. Only a reduction of the number of cylinders would offer a significant potential for decreasing the engine friction. Due to dual-stage turbocharging and the measures necessary to cope with high peak pressure and increased thermal load, the engine costs will increase significantly. The cost comparison in clearly shows that downsizing is financially only attractive, if the number of cylinders is reduced as well. Even the use of mass balancing shafts for the elimination of
the free inertia forces of second order, in order to optimise the NVH behaviour of the four-cylinder, is more than covered by the cost advantage compared to a six-cylinder. Under the above mentioned points of view the introduction of large four-cylinder engines instead of the usual six-cylinder engines would be beneficial. A fourcylinder with a cylinder displacement of approximately 2l, common for HD engines, could successfully enter the performance class of 300kW, which represents the main quantity in drive systems for 40t
long-haul trucks and consequently provide a considerable saving potential. The significantly shorter length of the fourcylinder would provide free space in the engine compartment, which could be used for the increased space requirement regarding exhaust gas aftertreatment and cooling. In addition, a weight advantage of approximately 150kg is to be expected even under consideration of mass balancing shafts, which can be directly used to increase the payload of the vehicle. The higher torque fluctuation due to the smaller cylinder number would probably be in the focus of development, in order to meet customers NVH requirements. Basically there is the question of customer acceptance of such engines in a rather conservative market. In passenger cars the trend for a lower number of cylinders is in full swing. Here a large number of six-cylinder engines have been replaced by fourcylinder engines with higher power density. The substitution of four- by threecylinder engines in the middle class segment is imminent.
THERMAL SPRAY COATINGS FOR CYLINDER LINERS
The methods for application of thermal spray coatings to the cylinder running surface [1], which are meanwhile available for series application, offer potential for reducing the friction, . This technology originating from passenger car engines has already also been used for commercial vehicles. It furthermore
Effect of downsizing and reduction of the number of cylinders on engine costs
14
Potential of liner coating for friction reduction
Advantages of parent bore compared to wet cylinder liners
allows the free choice of the running surface material independent of the basic material of the cylinder liner. Thus an argument for the use of separate cylinder liners becomes invalid. If as it is common practice at medium duty en gines already today crankcases with integrated cylinder liners (so-called parent bore) were used instead of wet cylinder liners, significant potentials regarding production costs of the crankcase and cylinder spacing could be opened up, as shown in [2]. In case of an en gine overhaul the worn cylinders would have to be bored out and a new spray coating be applied, instead of exchanging the separate cylinder liners. Special overhaul pistons with slightly increased diameter would not be required for this. However, corresponding production facilities are needed for carrying out such overhaul work. But at least in technically highly developed markets with good infrastructure it should be possible to implement this technology.
HIGH-PRESSURE INJECTION
Over the years the injection pressure of commercial vehicle engines has continuously been increasing [4]. An increased injection pressure leads to a shorter in jection duration and offers the potential for smaller injection holes at the nozzle. Through this a better atomisation of the injection jet is achieved, which results in a quicker combustion. This in general leads to reduced fuel consumption and particle values at, however, increased NOx emissions, requiring a retarded
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begin of injection, which can partly compensate the fuel consumption and particle emission advantage. At the same time it has to be considered that an increase in the injection pressure by means of increased driving power of the highpressure pump as well as possible leakages in the injector may have a negative effect on fuel consumption. Despite of these previously mentioned trade-offs, increased injection pressures up to 3000bar can achieve both, improved emissions and improved fuel consumption. The basis for this are modern injection systems [4, 5], which are statically mostly leakage-free and also dynamically achieve significantly reduced leakages. The change from a conventional to a mostly leakage-free injection system already results in a reduction in emission-neutral fuel consumption in the range of 1% at part load as well as at rated power. An additional increase of the injection pressure to 3000bar then offers further potential for an improvement in the NOx/particle trade-off as well as in fuel consumption in a wide range of the engine map and in particular also at full load, . If the engine design bears potential for increasing the cylinder peak pressure, the resulting emission advantage can be turned into a further significant reduction of fuel consumption by an adaptation of the injection strategy. The above shows that, on the one hand, there are still considerable potentials for the improvement in emissions as well as fuel consumption to be realised in the future regarding combustion development
and engine calibration and, on the other hand, these improvements lead to new re quirements on the engine design (as e.g. regarding the peak pressure resistance).
CYLINDER HEAD DESIGN
Constantly increasing cylinder peak pressures combined with a high power density pose great challenges in particular to the cylinder head. The selection of materials and the design principle or component geometry are the key issues for the layout. Increasing the material strength is a suitable means to improve the HCF (highcycle fatigue) behaviour. Consequently some manufacturers have made the move from normal grey cast iron (GJL) to cast iron with vermicular graphite (GJV). With e.g. GJV450 a material is available, which very well tolerates the high-frequency load from the combustion pressure in the cylinder and allows peak pressures far beyond 200bar without the need for detailed optimisation of the geometry in the highly loaded areas as required for normal grey cast iron (GJL250). The heat conductivity, which compared to GJL is significantly reduced, causes an essential aggravation regarding thermo-mechanical fatigue (low-cycle fatigue, LCF) in the thermally highly loaded areas, in particular the valve bridges in the flame deck. Cracks in the valve bridges can be successfully avoided only by intensive cooling and drastic reduction of the wall thicknesses in these areas. Already in the early design stage of a cylinder head great attention must be paid to provide a
15
Potential of highly efficient

injection systems (EGR variation at rated speed and full load; base injection pressure: 1800 bar)
sufficient width for the valve bridges when determining the valve positions and sizes, in order to meet the requirements regarding cooling. This may well mean that compromises regarding the valve diameters and consequently the cross sections available for the gas
exchange have to be made, in order to achieve an adequately acceptable number of thermal load cycles corresponding to the targeted engine lifetime. The cylinder head height is an essential boundary condition for the achiev able global stiffness of the cylinder head
and with that an indicator for the admissible peak pressure. In a benchmark of the relative height of cylinder heads is shown of engines with a bore diameter between 90 and 140mm. The specific value of the relative height is defined as the ratio of the height of the valve spring support to the cylinder bore diameter. The relation between durably acceptable peak pressure and relative cylinder head height is shown on the right side of the diagram. Under favourable conditions a peak pressure of well over 200bar can also be realised with GJL. The plotted examples for GJV prove that this is much easier with a material of higher strength. A further design feature, which positively influences the stiffness of the cylinder head, is the cast injector dome. In comparison a separate, inserted injector sleeve offers more favourable conditions for cooling in the thermally highly loaded area around the injector and between the valves. Furthermore it is beneficial for casting the cylinder head, as the water jacket core is connected to the outside via the central nozzle area. Due to that an intermediate deck that can advantageously be used to guide the coolant to the crucial areas can much easier be realised with regard to casting. An injector sleeve, however, cannot take on a supporting function in the cylinder head structure. This can, for example, be compensated by a material of higher strength. The above described influences suggest the conclusion that for engines with rather moderate values of power density and consequently also cylinder peak pressure, but high lifetime requirements the material GJL possibly in a variant with higher strength compared to the standard material GJL250 in connection with the cast injector dome is the most efficient alternative, last but not least also from a cost point of view. For engines with higher power density and consequently higher thermal load on the cylinder head the requirement of creating optimal boundary conditions for the cooling is gaining in importance. This is a strong indication for using an injector sleeve. Extreme peak pressure requirements might require the use of GJV to achieve HCF durability, at the same time the LCF problem increases with increasing power density. illustrates these dependencies.
Relation between cylinder head height and peak pressure potential
16
availability of new technologies. Condensed down to one question, one could ask: Will in future 40t long-haul trucks be driven by four-cylinder engines with a swept volume of approximately 8 to 9l, dual-stage turbocharging, a common rail system with 3000 bar injection pressure and a crank case with parent bore?
REFERENCES [1] Blume, W.; Verpoort, C.; Bobzin, K.; Ernst, F.; Richardt, K.; Schlaefer, T.; Schwenk, A.; Cook, D.; Flores, G.: Thermal Spraying of Nano-Crystalline Coatings for Al-Cylinder Bores. SAE 08M-271, 2008 SAE International [2] Neitz, M.; Quadflieg, F. J.; Ruhkamp, L.; Wartmann, P.: Trend-setting Engine Architecture for HD Truck Engines driven by Future Development Targets, 14 th Aachen Colloquium Automobile and Engine Technology, 2005 [3] Gcmez, T.; Lauer, S.; Maassen, F.: Fatigue Design of Diesel Engine Cylinder Heads. In: ATZoffhighway 2011, No. 1 [4] Ruhkamp, L.; Kind, M.; Laumen, H.J.; Maassen, F.; Mashida, M.; Takeuchi, K.; Shinohara, Y.; Herr mann, O. E.; Kudo, T.; Nakagawa, M.; Rajamani, V.: Further Options for Diesel Engine Improvements by Increased Injection Pressure up to 3000 bar. 20 th Aachen Colloquium Automobile and Engine Technology, 2011 [5] Herrmann, O. E.; Joyce, M.; Nakagawa, M.; Suzuki, K.; Uchiyama, K.; Takeuchi, K.; Krfer, T.; Ruhkamp, L.; Laumen, H. J.; Rajamani, V.; Schnfed, S.: Ultra High Pressure Fuel Injection for Minimized Engine-Out Emissions of HD Diesel Engines. VI. Conference Diesel- und Benzindirekteinspritzung, Haus der Technik, Berlin, 2010
Relation of cylinder head material to requirements regarding peak pressure and power density
PROSPECTS
Besides many new technology fields, e.g. exhaust gas aftertreatment and hybrid drive systems, the base engine also still offers a manifold future development potential. Here injection and turbocharging technologies represent key areas. It remains exciting to watch which technologies will prevail. New technologies if
not compulsively required by legislation of emissions or fuel consumption must offer a cost advantage for the ulti mate customer, i.e. in the sum of purchase and operating costs. Detailed optimisations will take place in many areas. A more fundamental issue are possible adaptations of the base engine concept to modified boundary conditions, which are supported by the
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DE VELO PMENT Diesel Engines
THE NEW BMW SIX-CYLINDER DIESEL ENGINE WITH THREE TURBOCHARGERS PART 1: DRIVE UNIT AND TURBOCHARGER SYSTEM
With the newly developed 3.0-l six-cylinder so-called TwinPowerTurbo variant for the BMW M Performance Automobiles, BMW presents yet another milestone in diesel engine development. This engine is a consistent expansion of the proven BMW engine modular system and has specific power output and torque levels of 93kW/l and 247Nm/l, representing the peak of in passenger car diesel engines. It surpasses the driving dynamics of engines with greater working volumes or a higher number of cylinders without exhibiting their excessive fuel consumption. Part 1 of the article describes in the following the conception of the basic engine as well as the tur bocharging concept, thermo dynamics, and the fuel injection system. The intake, cooling, and exhaust system will beexplained in part 2 of the article in MTZ11.
18
AUTHORS
OBJECTIVE
ING. THOMAS EIDENBCK is Head of the Department for Engine Concepts in Diesel Engine D evel o pment at the BMW Group in Steyr (Austria).
ING. KARL MAYR is Head of the Department for Fuel Injection System and Turbocharging in Diesel Engine Development at the BMW Group in Steyr (Austria).
DIPL.-ING. WERNER NEUHAUSER is Head of the Department for C ombustion and Mixture Formation for the Six-cylinder Diesel Engines at the BMW Group in Steyr (Austria).
The production launch of two-stage turbocharging for the BMW six-cylinder diesel engine was a groundbreaking concept in 2004, triggering the trend towards upgrading in high-performance engines. In 2007, the turbocharging concept was applied to the four-cylinder engine and a new maximum specific power output of 75kW/l for passenger car diesel engines was achieved. The newly developed TwinPowerTurbo variant for top diesel engine systems will further expand BMWs leading position in the premium segment. The major objectives were to achieve a range of power output, torque, and comfort at least at the level of the eight-cylinder engines of competitors, while at the same time keeping fuel consumption low, which is characteristic of BMW six-cylinder diesel engines. The interplay with the highly efficient BMW drivetrains is intended to create comfortable, effortless, and highly dynamic sport-oriented drives. The new engine will be used for the first time in the sportoriented BMW M Performance Automobiles (MPAs) of the X5/X6 and 5 series and will also be deployed in the BMW 750d xDrive. This will ensure that the success story of the BMW EfficientDynamics strategy continues to impress.
CONCEPTION
DIPL.-ING. PETER STAUB is Head of the Department for Injection Concepts and Thermo d ynamics inDiesel Engine Predevelopment at the BMW Group in Steyr (Austria).
As fundamental considerations showed, achieving a significant enhancement of performance while retaining the work-
ing volume of 3.0l that is typical for the BMW six-cylinder diesel engines re quired a decisive increase in power density of the turbocharging technology. The enhancement of the air flow rate while adhering to the minimum air ratio currently applied in top BMW engine systems meant a significant rise in the charge-air pressure level. The optimised concept of sequentialserial two-stage charging, which is already in its 3rd generation in the sixcylinder engine, was no longer able to provide these charging pressures. The already familiar concept consists essentially of one small and one large turbocharger, working as a single-stage system during rated power operation. When high air mass is required, the small turbocharger is bypassed and the charge air is compressed exclusively by the large turbocharger. As can be seen in on top engine versions in production today, the required charging pressures could be achieved with single-stage compression without exceeding critical temperatures that lead to oil coking. The coking of oil carried in the blow-by gas on the compressor housing walls would lead to failure of the system and must therefore be avoided. The rise in charge pressure level to an absolute value of 4000 mbar that is required for the new high-performance engine would only be theoretically possible as single-stage with adherence to the coking limit temperature using isentropic compression. However, if real compression efficiency rates are taken into
T-s diagram
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account, multistage compression with intercooling becomes essential. Another advantage of two-stage compression with intercooling is that the required compression work in broad operating ranges is lower than in the case of single-stage compression.
SOLUTION APPROACH
PARAMETER BASIC ENGINE DIMENSIONS
UNIT
Displacement Bore Stroke Stroke-to-bore ratio Cylinder volume Conrod length Stroke-to-conrod ratio Block height Compression ratio Cylinder distance
MAIN BEARING
[cm 3] [mm] [mm] [-] [cm 3] [mm] [-] [mm] [-] [mm]
2993 84 90 1.07 499 137 0.328 289 16 91
The above effects meant that the decision was made in favor of a system with permanent two-stage turbocharging with intercooling. In its simplest known form, as already used in commercial vehicles, these systems consist of a low-pressure and a high-pressure stage. For reasons related to dynamics and fuel consumption, it was decided to create the highpressure section as two small high-pressure stages arranged in parallel, whereby one of the two high-pressure turbochargers can be enabled or disabled depending on requirements. A pressure-enhanced common rail injection system is used to achieve the power output and emission objectives. The high charging level leads to final compression pressures of up to 170bar; acombustion system optimised for efficiency was only possible by raising the peak pressure level to 200bar. In addition, the engine-proximate arrangement of the exhaust aftertreatment was implemented on the basis of the proven sixcylinder inline engine. In total, these measures led to the birth of the concept for an outstanding diesel engine.
ENGINE DESCRIPTION
Diameter Width
PISTON
[mm] [mm]
55 25
Compression height Head land height

VALVES
[mm] [mm]
48 9.12
Diameter, intake/exhaust Valve lift, intake/exhaust Valve shaft diameter
[mm] [mm] [mm]
29.2/26 8.5/8.5 5
Main dimensions of the engine
valed high power/weight ratio of the new en gine. In order to contain the high ignition forces, the main bearing and cylinder head are mounted with a steel tension anchor. The pretensioning forces of each of the bolts are exerted on a tension rod bolt, , thus avoiding the high tensions that would occur in the
case of di rect bolting. The material used is heat-treated, high-strength alloy GKAlSiMg7Cu0.5. The upstream heat treatment is a hot-isostatic pressure process HIP for short that increases the com ponent strength by an average of 12%. The mold filling and feed of the ingot mold have been newly conceived to
Derived from the existing diesel module [1], the identical stroke and bore were adopted. The main dimensions also match those of the current series six-cylinder engine. The data are summarised in . The high number of components identical to those in the series product ensures integration into the existing production and assembly framework. The principle of 200bar ignition pressure with low weight requires intelligent solutions for the components that are subjected to high stress. The major detailed solutions are described in the following chapters.
CYLINDER CRANKCASE
The monolithic aluminum cylinder crankcase is fundamental to the unri-
Cylinder crankcase with tension anchor concept
20
core partitions in the water jacket in crease the robustness. As with the cylinder crankcase, the cylinder head is also HIP treated. The diameters of the valves have been adapted to deal with the high power output. The diameter of the intake valve has been enlarged from 27.2 to 29.2mm and the diameter of the exhaust valve has been enlarged from 24.6 to 26mm. The head base chamfer designed as eccentric on the intake side permits retention of the valve pattern of the standard engine, .
CHAIN DRIVE
Cylinder head with head based chamfer
ensure the best possible material properties in the zones that are subjected to high stress. The cylinder bridge is cooled by means of a double bore. The reduction in temperature achieved with these measures in combination with the im proved material properties ensures the highest product quality. Widened main bearing blocks with tension-optimised apron transitions increase the strength in the area of the crankshaft bearing. Transverse reinforcements to the crank chamber apron brace the main bearing cap and reduce deflection of the bearing cap in the en gines longitudinal direction.
CRANKSHAFT DRIVE
tothe changed marginal conditions of the liners, whereby the tension of all rings has been lowered, thus reducing friction. The connecting rod as been shortened by 1 mm and has been revised at the transition from the stem to the large connecting rod eye in line with the loads involved.
CYLINDER HEAD
The layout of the two-piece timing assembly is also the same as that in the standard engine. The high injection pressure leads to significantly greater forces, so suitable measures must be taken to ensure the endurance of the chain drive: the changed orientation of the high-pressure pump reduces the dynamic excitation of the timing assembly. Reinforced inner links of the timing chain increase the dynamic strength of the chain and the PVD-coated (physical vapour deposition) rivets of the chain links increase wear resistance.
TURBOCHARGING SYSTEM
The basis for enhancement of the highperformance engine system [2] is the current production engine, the blank geometry of which is retained. Process optimisations such as fine-finishing the
The required excellent driving-off dy namics led to a concept with two highpressure (HP) stages, using variable
The manufacture of the drive unit components was also to be based on the principle of utilising existing manufacturing systems. This is why the crankshaft is geometrically identical to the current production component; the material used is a high-strength 44MnSiV6 alloy. The two-stage finish process of the main and conrod bearing journals sig nificantly improves the wear resistance and emergency running properties of these components. Enhanced main bearing shells with crescent grooves contribute to reducing the oil throughput in the drive unit. The compression height of the piston has been raised by 1mm and the pin bore designed with bushes. The bowl rim is remelted. These measures take account of the higher thermo-mechanical loads. The ring package is adapted
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Two-stage turbocharging system with three exhaust turbochargers
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Operating modes of the (two-stage) turbocharger systems
urbine geometrie (VTG), that work in t parallel, one of which is designed to be activated where required. The function diagram is shown in the section entitled Operating Modes. shows the design ofthe turbocharging group. The compact arrangement meets the design envelope requirements of the different vehicles.
MATERIAL AND DESIGN
still of the moving parts of high-pressure stage 2. A newly developed gas-lubricated sliding ring seal is used in that turbocharger for the first time. This eliminates the risk of oil leakage on this compressor without any disadvantages with regard to startup characteristics.
CONTROL
cooled. The charge-air intercooler is integrated in the compressor of the low-pressure stage by means of a plug-in cooling block. The main charge-air cooler is arranged transversely above the engine. Both charge-air coolers work indirectly and are supplied with coolant via a lowtemperature vehicle radiator. The entire coolant circuit will be described in the second part of the publication in MTZ 11.
OPERATING MODES OF TURBOCHARGING
The high exhaust gas temperature level requires new material and design technologies. It was necessary, for example, to make the one-piece exhaust manifold of cast stainless steel instead of spheroid ductile cast iron. A new sealing ring concept is used between the exhaust manifold and HP turbine housing. The seals between the exhaust manifold and cylinder head have been given a special coating to ensure leak-tightness on exposure to the high thermal expansions. In certain characteristic-map ranges, the register operation of the two highpressure turbochargers leads to a stand-
The positions of the guide vanes of the high-pressure turbines are controlled using electric actuators. All other valves of the turbocharge group are actuated by vacuum actuators. An electropneumatic pressure converter regulates the wastegate flap of the low-pressure turbine. The pre-compression by the low-pressure stage is regulated and monitored by an additional charge-air pressure sensor.
INTERCOOLING AND MAIN COOLING
In order to get the charge-air temperatures into the target range, the compressor housing of the low-pressure stage is
The functioning principle and different operating modes of the two-stage turbocharger system with its three exhaust turbochargers are shown in . As the compressor of the low-pressure stage can only choke and not precompress the intake air in the lowest speed and load range in this operating range, the intake air is routed via a bypass past the lowpressure compressor (operating range 1 in ). In all other characteristic-map ranges, the intake air is routed through
22
fuel injection system as arranged on the engine.

POWER OUTPUT AND TORQUE
compares the full-load characteristic
Layout of the common rail injection system
and precompressed by the low-pressure compressor. To reduce the charge-air temperature and volumetric flow, the intake air is routed through an intercooler integrated in the low-pressure compressor housing and subsequently, depending on the operating range, compressed further in one high-pressure compressor stage or both high-pressure compressor stages. After cooling in the main intercooler, the charge air is fed via the compact intake system to the combustion chamber. On the exhaust side, at low speeds and loads, the gas only flows through a highpressure turbine to ensure spontaneous charge-air-pressure buildup and dynamic response characteristics (operating range 2 in ). At higher exhaust-gas throughput rates, a parallel path via the exhaust gas control flap is opened to reduce the exhaust-gas back-pressure (operating range 4 in ). Subsequently, the exhaust gas is further relaxed in the low-pressure stage before it enters the exhaust re-treatment arranged close to the engine. To optimise charge-air-pressure control, the wastegate on the low-pressure turbine is activated in the switchover range from two to three turbochargers and in the rated power range (range 3 and 5 in ).
FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
heads of the high-pressure pump, as well as an increased piston stroke and adapted metering unit of the volumetric flow regulation for the necessary increase in volume :: piezo injector where the pressure has been increased, with an optimised shift valve and a newly configured nozzle :: forged rail where the pressure has been increased, with a newly configured pressure control valve and railpressure sensor :: high-pressure lines made of increasedstrength material with an additional treatment process for pressure increase. The intensive design optimisation en abled a reduction in the weight of the entire injection system despite the system pressure increase. shows the
values of the 3.0-l six-cylinder diesel engine with two [3] and three turbochargers. The maximum power output ofthe variant with three turbochargers is 280kW and this is available between 4000 and 4400rpm. With a specific power output of 93.5kW/l of cylinder capacity, the engine takes over the top spot among production diesel engines. The maximum torque of 740Nm is availiable between 2000 and 3000 rpm and corresponds to a mean pressure of 31bar. Alongside the rise in the maximum values of power output and torque, the focus of development was also on thebroadest possible usable speed range. For example, the engine output at a speed of 5000rpm is still 233kW, underlining the sports-oriented driving characteristics.
VEHICLE PERFORMANCE AND FUEL CONSUMPTION
Achieving a significant increase in vehicle performance with only moderately increasing fuel consumption this was the motivation for the development of the present engine concept and was successfully executed. shows the positioning of the six-cylinder variants of the X5. With consumption of 7.5l/100km in the New European Driving Cycle and an
The fuel injection system where the pressure has been increased to 2200bar is used for the first time in a passenger car application. The following technology features enable this innovative step in the evolution of diesel fuel injection: :: strength enhancement on the twostamp drive unit and on the cylinder
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Full load data for the two stage engine versions
23
Vehicle performance and consumption X5 M50d
retained despite a higher ignition pressure configuration. This achieves a clear advantage with regard to fuel consumption compared to competitors in the large diesel engines segment. In addition, the innovative turbocharger system ensures new peak values for diesel drivetrains with regard to power and spontaneity. In the M550dxDrive and 750dxDrive, the new high-performanceengine is offered exclusively with exhaust emissions conforming to Euro6. The high levels of sporting character combined with low fuel consumption mean that the new BMW six-cylinder TwinPowerTurbo diesel drivetrain is yet another example of the BMW EfficientDynamics strategy [4]. With this engine concept, BMW has once again set a milestone in diesel engine development.
REFERENCES [1] Hall, W.; Mattes, W.; Nefischer, P.; Steinmayr, T.: The new BMW inline 6-cylinder diesel engine. 17 th Aachen Colloquium on Vehicle and Engine Technology, 2008 [2] Dworschak, J.; Neuhauser, W.; Rechberger, E.; Stastny, J.: The new BMW 6-cylinder diesel engine. In: MTZ 70 (2009), No. 1 [3] Nefischer, P.; Hall, W.; Honeder, J.; Steinmayr, T.; Langen, P.: The first passenger car diesel engine with two-stage turbocharging and variable turbine geometry. 18 th Aachen Colloquium on Vehicle and Engine Technology, 2009 [4] Langen, P.; Nehse, W.: BMW Efficient Dynamics a look to the future. 30 th International Vienna Engine Symposium, 2009
acceleration time of only 5.5s for the sprint from 0 to 100km/h, the X5 M50d takes over an outstanding top position. Iteven achieves the accelerating performance of sport-oriented gasoline engine systems, but with significantly lower fuelconsumption.
SUMMARY
The new BMW TwinPowerTurbo diesel engine is the youngest member of the
BMW diesel engine family and at the same time the top model in that family. Technical highlights of the new engine are a permanently operating two-stage turbocharger system with three exhaust turbochargers, a common rail injection system with 2200bar system pressure, as well as a drive unit with bolted tension anchor connection suitable for cylinder pressures of up to 200bar. The friction power level of existing BMW sixcylinder diesel drivetrains can be
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DE VELO PMENT Energy Stor age
NEW BATTERY CONCEPTS A USER-CENTRED APPROACH

The arrangement of the battery in the vehicle offers possibilities of variation, which in addition to research on the battery cell may also provide contributions to the range problem. The Institute for Engineering Design and Industrial Design (IKTD), Research and Teaching Department Industrial Design, University of Stuttgart, developed new battery conceptions. 26
AUTHORS
DIPL.-ING. DANIEL HOLDER is Academic Assistant Research and Teaching Department Industrial Design Engineering at the Institute for Engineering Design and Industrial Design (IKTD) of the University of Stuttgart (Germany).
PROF. DR.-ING. THOMAS MAIER is Head of Research and Teaching Department Industrial Design E ngineering at the Institute for E ngineering Design and Industrial Design (IKTD) of the University of Stuttgart (Germany).
APPROACH
The success of battery electric vehicle concepts still strongly depends on the battery technology. To cope with this deficit, numerous efforts are being made to improve the battery cell. Next to these developments, there is a growing num ber of attempts to rethink the basic bat tery concept in the vehicle. The usual design of electric vehicles implements a stationary battery in the vehicle, whereas on the other hand there is the possibility to make the entire bat tery replaceable. The concepts presented in the following arose from the question whether combined solutions are also useful compared to prevailing battery solutions.
USER REQUIREMENTS AS BASIS OF THE BATTERY CONCEPTION
The focus of the investigation is on the users side. This target ultimately results from the question, what a user expects from their electric vehicle and the used battery, respectively. One major argument in the discussion of consumer behaviour is that users do not have to travel long distances. For instance, in a survey of
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Technomar GmbH 62% of the respond ents reported to cover no more than 50km a day [1]. On the other hand, the study of Aral from 2011 shows that after all 54% of the respondents demand a minimum range of 350km [2]. This clearly shows how divergent the user behaviour can be, necessitating adapt able solutions more than ever.
STATE OF THE ART IN THE CONTEXT OF CURRENT ELECTRIC VEHICLE CONCEPTS
tive to use vehicle concepts in the spirit of the so called Purpose Design [3]. The Purpose Design considers the drive concept very early in the develop mental process. In this case, the electric drive in combination with chemical bat tery storage has to be taken into account. The resulting battery concepts are pre sented and discussed below.
BATTERY PERMANENTLY INSTALLED IN THE VEHICLE
Inductive charging is one way of wireless energy transmission. This technology is a very user-friendly solution offering many advantages, such as easy user interaction or protection from vandalism. But still the disadvantages of a long charge time and battery discharge remain. Moreover, large infrastructure costs are expected.
BATTERY SWITCHING STATION
Todays electric vehicles are usually based on existing vehicle architectures or have a precursor with conventional technology basis. This procedure is called Conversion Design [3] and provides many advantages for vehicle concepts in small numbers and with a limited devel opment budget. Accordingly, the batter ies in these vehicles are positioned in a free spot in the vehicle. Therefore, it is difficult to obtain an optimal position for the battery and to implement a possible user adaptation. Apart from this vehicle layout there are also concepts which intend the bat tery pack for swapping. The conversion of an existing vehicle on the exchange process is complicated. Hence, it is effec
As a regular feature of the vehicle, the battery will be swapped only as a last resort, i.e., after an accident or during service work. The battery is charged by wire or inductive loading, . Charging by wire is still the one used mostly, due to the following benefits: :: manageable infrastructure :: charging pillars are accepted :: vehicle can be recharged at home :: proven charging technology. In contrast, however, there are also some serious drawbacks: :: long charging times (according to charging technology) :: vandalism risk :: demanding user interaction :: risk of battery discharge without a possibility to recharge.
When using battery exchange stations the battery is intended for swapping. This requires a fully automated ex change process, . The best known project of this concept is the battery exchange sta tion of the Israeli company Better Place [4], which was able to gain practical experience of the exchange process in cooperation with Nissan-Renault. The battery will be unlocked on the vehicle and transported via a conveyor system and then a freshly charged and washed battery is inserted. The entire process takes less than three minutes. The main advantages are a rapid exchange process and a full charge capacity. In contrast, there are the following disadvantages: :: restrictions on vehicle architecture :: expensive infrastructure :: still no user acceptance. As shown, both approaches, the fixed installation in the vehicle as well as the replacement of the entire battery are already realised. Nevertheless, the ques tion remains, whether it makes sense to pursue a solution in which only a part of the entire battery can be replaced.
NEW BATTERY CONCEPTS
To find out the practicable amount of exchangeable parts, solutions are derived based on the two extreme cases, i.e., the fixed battery or the complete battery swapping. In the first concept SafetyCan the vehicle battery is extended with addi tional battery modules. In the second concept, called MoBaSystem, many smaller packs are intended for automatic exchange instead of one large pack.
CONCEPT SAFET YCAN: MANUAL BATTERY MODULES
Charging concepts:
charging by wire (a), inductive charging (b), battery switching station (c)
The main advantage of the concept SafetyCan is the extension of the vehicle range with additional battery modules
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Schematic image of the concept SafetyCan
Folded docking station
Unfolded docking station with SafetyCan
the rear of the vehicle was designed, . The use of other cell geometries such as prismatic cells is also conceivable. The batteries are air cooled. An important factor in the housing gestalt was the manual operation of the module and the visualisation of the safety concept. In combination with a docking station at the rear of the vehicle the operating pro cedure shown in emerges. The battery can be gripped with both hands and thus be easily placed in the trunk. Sub sequently, the battery must be tilted and is inserted in the unfolded docking drawer. Thereafter, the handles are inserted, whereby the locking mechanism is acti vated and the battery can be used.
CONCEPT MOBASYSTEM: MODULAR BATTERY PROGRAMME
SafetyCan module with docking station
which can be inserted manually, . Another advantage is the possibility to autonomously make the vehicle roadwor thy when the vehicle battery is discharged. This is permitted by using the existing gas station infrastructure. The stations can be utilised as charging stations where the battery modules can be stored. The driver can therefore use the charged battery module as a spare canister and connect the battery with the vehicle. To verify the practical implementation of the project, a useful size has been selected initially. A first calculation of the weight of a battery module is based on the weight of a crate of table water weighing around 11kg. Based on an energy density of 140Wh/kg [5] and an average energy consumption of 15kWh/ 100km [6], this results in a range of about 10km. This value cannot be matched with a range extender such as an inter nal combustion engine. However, the simultaneous use of several modules is possible depending on the vehicle pack age. In this way, the SafetyCan module is
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not only a spare can, but also increases the radius action of the electric vehicle. Using twelve round cells of the com pany Saft Batteries, a first package investigation has been carried out [7]. On this basis, a housing development in combination with a docking station at
For the exchange of a larger part of the battery an automated switching process is necessary. In contrast to the switching process of Better Place, in which the entire battery is exchanged, the basic structure of a modular battery has to be transferred to the vehicle architecture, . As discussed earlier, this requires a fundamentally new vehicle architecture, which already contains the modular basic principle. Prerequisite for the application of the modular system are defined interfaces and uniform sizes. One major advantage is the cost efficiency of the modular ap proach. Considering the necessary infra structural effort, the modular approach is a significant advantage. Compared to the fuel tank of a conventionally pow ered vehicle, the battery in an electric
Storing the SafetyCan module on the rail system (a), inserting the SafetyCan module into the
hinged docking drawer (b)
29
vehicle is a significant factor in terms of vehicle performance. For example, the capacity of a battery changes with the charging and discharging cycles [8]. This shows that the batteries as well as the battery manufacturers increasingly gain importance. It is conceivable for this pro cess to also affect the vehicle gestalt. In combination with the modular bat tery concept, new ways of power enun ciation become possible hereby. Using a concept car, shows an example of how such an enunciation might look like. On the left-hand side the identifica tion of the charge state is visible and on the right-hand side there are warnings that can be integrated in the vehicle. Additional graphical elements for manu facturers designation can be applied. It should be noted that the area for identi fication does not inevitably represent the exact location of the battery, due to the fact that the placement on the side of the vehicle is not recommended for reasons of crash safety.
CONCLUSION
Schematic image of the

modular battery system MoBaSystem
With the concept SafetyCan it is possible to remove numerous disadvantages of the conventional charging technology, or to at least minimise them. The user is now independently able to enlarge the range of the vehicle, which could mean in this specific case, that no batteries are installed on short trips with bulky cargo. When coping with longer distances, with which, for example, no complex transport task is associated, additional battery mo dules can be installed. A further impor tant advantage from the users perspec tive is the possibility to use the SafetyCan module as an electric jerry can, if the car battery is discharged.
The main advantages of the modular battery system (MoBaSystem) are reduced infrastructure measures due to the mod ular approach and the resulting stand ardisation. It is furthermore able to obtain the users confidence with transparent handling of the battery technology, which is also visible in the exterior design of the vehicle. A combination of both approaches is likewise possible, because the idea of an electric reserve is justified for any elec tric vehicle. Finally, it is apparent that in addition to the technological challenges of the new battery cells new and modular approaches in the context of battery electric driving have a decisive influ ence on the range and therefore on the success of the electric vehicle. It became clear, that for the development of battery electric vehicles the user acceptance and the users fears have to be considered. Particularly noteworthy in this context is the application of the SafetyCan module as an electrical reserve, which eliminates the fear of the driver associated with a breakdown by discharge.
REFERENCES [1] Varesi, A.: Ergebnisse der Gemeinschaftsuntersuchung kurz- und mittelfristige Erschlieung des Marktes fr Elektroautomobile. Technomar GmbH, Marktforschung und Unternehmensberatung, Munich, October 2009 [2] Aral Studie: Trends beim Autokauf 2011. Aral AG, Bochum, 2011 [3] Wallentowitz, H.; Freialdenhoven, A.; Olschewski, I.: Strategien zur Elektrifizierung des Antriebsstranges. Technologien, Mrkte und Implikationen. Wiesbaden: Vieweg & Teubner, 2011 [4] Website Betterplace: betterplace.com. Date: 8 January 2012 [5] Gerschler, J. B.; Sauer, D. U.: Batterien fr E lektrofahrzeuge: Stand und Ausblick. Berliner Energietage 10-12 May 2010 [6] Lunz, B.; Sauer, D. U.: Technologie und Auslegung von Batteriesystemen fr die Elektromobilitt. In: Solar Mobility, Berlin, 2010 [7] Claus, F.: Konzeption und Designprototyp erstellung eines modularen Batterieprogramms fr den manuellen Einsatz in einem Elektrofahrzeug. Study, IKTD, University of Stuttgart, not published, 2011 [8] Jossen, A.; Weydanz, W.: Moderne Akkumulatoren richtig einsetzen. Leipheim and Munich: Reichardt Verlag, 2006
MoBaSystem with power enunciation (left) and warning status (right)
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Heavy-Duty, On- and Off-Highway Engines
DE VELO PMENT Thermal Management
USE OF EXHAUST GAS ENERGY IN HEAVY TRUCKS USING THE RANKINE PROCESS
Worldwide emissions legislation, rising fuel prices and future standards for CO2 emissions will also require further efforts to be made to reduce the fuel consumption of commercial vehicle engines, for example by optimising thermal management. In a joint project with its partners AVL and ZF, Behr has developed a system for the recuperation of exhaust heat that can reduce fuel consumption by approximately 5 %.
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AUTHORS
OPTIMISING FUEL ECONOMY
RAINER LUTZ is Project Manager Systems, Advanced Engineering Engine Cooling Truck at Behr GmbH & Co. KG in Stuttgart (Germany).
PETER GESKES is Head of Engine-Mounted C omponents, Advanced Engineering Engine Cooling Truck at Behr GmbH & Co. KG in Stuttgart (Germany).
The principal driver in the development of the powertrain and its peripheral equipment in trucks has been the reduction in emissions to comply with increasingly stringent emissions legislation worldwide. However, if we look at current diesel prices and their probable trends in the future, it is clear that the focus now needs to shift to fuel saving as well, in order to ensure that truck fleets can be operated economically. In addition, CO2 legislation is to be introduced for trucks as well over the next few years. For these reasons, logistics, vehicle design, and powertrain must be analysed to optimise fuel economy. Within the powertrain, thermal management and hybridisation will play central roles. The contribution that thermal management will make is estimated at 10% [1]. In particular, recovery of mechanical energy from exhaust gas heat plays a crucial role in these developments. A potential fuel reduction of 5% has now been demonstrated in engine bench tests [2].
POTENTIAL OF THE RANKINE CYCLE IN TRUCKS
EBERHARD PANTOW is Head of Advanced Engineering Engine Cooling Truck at Behr GmbH & Co. KG in Stuttgart (Germany).
JOCHEN EITEL is Head of Engineering Engine Cooling Truck at Behr GmbH & Co. KG in Stuttgart (Germany).
In heavy-duty trucks, the Rankine cycle is the main option under discussion as a means to use the lost heat. In long-haul transportation, the diesel process provides around 40% of the fuel energy used for traction energy. Roughly half of the re maining lost heat is found at a relatively high temperature level in the exhaust, including exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and could be used in a Rankine process. shows a Rankine cycle and its integration into the vehicle. Two heat exchangers use the heat from the EGR and the exhaust after exhaust aftertreatment to vaporise and superheat the working fluid. The steam generates the required mechanical work in an expansion machine. The working fluid is liquified again in a downstream condenser. The cycle is completed with a high-pressure pump. The vehicle cooling system handles the cooling down of the condenser. In an ideal Rankine process, roughly one eighth of the exhaust gas energy could be converted to mechanical energy, which would correspond to 10% of the engine power. However, under real-world technical conditions, lower values result because of the interlinkage of efficiency
rates. Allowance was made for this fact in simulations to estimate the potential. With the properties of real components and systems, mechanical energy corresponding to approximately 5% of the engine power can be recovered in long distance transport [3]. To verify this forecast, a complete Rankine cycle was constructed as a prototype on a test engine at AVL and operated in both stationary and transient modes [2]. It was possible to install the EGR evaporator in the package space available for the EGR cooler by using a design with an exceptionally high power density. For the evaporator after exhaust aftertreatment, the focus of the thermodynamic design was on achieving an exceptionally low exhaust back pressure. At the same time, it has a sufficiently high power density for it to be integrated into the vehicle. A key focus of development in both cases was on the durability, but also on the reliable separation of working fluid and exhaust. In most cases, water was used as the working fluid in the tests, although ethanol was also used in some instances. A piston expander was therefore used as the expansion machine to allow the high expansion ratios required for water. The engine test bench measurements confirmed the forecasts of a potential fuel saving of 5%. shows the stationary expander power generated in addition to the engine power in the engine map. The averaged value across the ESC points shows very good correspondance with the forecast value. The engine was run in the European Transient Cycle (ETC), , to evaluate the transient savings potential. Here too, it was possible to demonstrate a value of 5% expander power in relation to the engine power for long-distance transport operations.
SYSTEM OPTIMISATION
In terms of targets, there is a trade-off in the overall system through interactions. Local optimisation will not, therefore, automatically result in maximum fuel saving. An overall optimisation of the system in the vehicle is required to tap the maximum potential. System simulation is an important tool in this context. On the one hand, it allows physical modeling of the components, while also mapping the main interactions in the system [3, 4].
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Diagram of a Rankine cycle,

integrated into the vehicle cooling system with the prototypes used on the engine test bench
Exhaust gas aftertreatment Condenser Expander
Tail pipe evaporator
EGR evaporator Charge air cooler
Charge air Exhaust Coolant Working uid
In the heat exchangers, there is a trade-off of this kind between pressure loss and power density. However, the optimum point in terms of fuel consumption can be understood only at system level. Pressure losses in the evaporator and in the high-pressure lines must be overcome by the supply pump. There is a linear correlation to the power loss in the pump. Pressure losses in the condenser and in the lowpressure lines directly affect the pressure ratio of the expansion machine, and cannot be easily compensated for by the pump. The sensitivities in each case depend on the choice of expansion machine and working fluid.
However, in the vehicle, too, maximum expander output does not automatically lead to a maximum reduction in fuel consumption. Allowance must be made in this context for the cooling down of the condenser heat. A key role is played here by any additionally required fan engagement. With todays cooling systems, it is not necessary to cut in the fan in most operating conditions. At low ambient temperatures and with average engine load, there is actually a slight surplus of installed cooling capacity available for the use of exhast gas energy. As a result, at ambient temperatures of about 15C (the European annual mean temperature),
there is little need of additional fan ouput. At higher ambient temperatures, the additional fan output becomes noticable. A key task of system development is therefore to improve the cooling system. Unlike in the past, the focus here is not on optimising perfomances in thermally critical full load driving conditions, but rather on optimising the consumptionrelevant partial load range. Therefore, the cooling module and the flow of cooling air need to be optimised. By implementing corresponding measure to im prove the usage of the dynamic pressure, we have now managed to increase the cooling air mass flow with the fan switched off by up to 25%, so that a wide range of
Shaft output of the expansion machine in relation to engine power 110 100 Expander power/engine power [%] 90 Engine load [%] 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 800
2.0 3.0 2.5 4.0 3.5 4.5 6.0 5.0 5.5
Test and simulation results in the ESC 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Ratio of expander power to engine power

easured in the stationary engine map m (13-l Euro VI engine) and in comparison with the forecast
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 Engine speed [rpm]
Test
Simulation
EGR and tail pipe exhaust as heat source, water as working uid
34
Radiator
6 Expamder power/engine power [%] 5.2 5 4.2 4 3 2 1 0 Urban Urban Rural Rural Motorway Motorway 3.5 4.1
ETC overall Engine torque [Nm] 2800 2000 1200 800 400
2400 1800 1200 600 0
200
400
600
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 Time [s]
Ratio of expander power to engine power from

transient engine measurement (Euro VI, 13-l engine) in the European Transient Cycle (ETC)
EGR and tail pipe exhaust as heat source, water as working uid
relevant operating points is covered without additional fan output, .

WORKING FLUID
All the working fluids discussed offer advantages and disadvantages in terms of reliability or operating safety, and allowance must be made for these in the development of the components and systems. The engine tests presented were generally conducted with water as the working fluid, since this allowed prompt implementation on the test bench. However, some of the tests were also conducted with ethanol. Here, when changes in mass flow occurred, it was found that a system using ethanol was more forgiving than water. There were clear advantages even with the lower exhaust temperatures after exhaust aftertreatment. Water, in turn offers, advantages with the use of the EGR heat, since it is thermally stable and can use the high EGR temperatures. The simulation showed that, at the EGR rates studied (2025% at full load), the expander generated the same aggregate effective power with both water and ethanol. Since the EGR rates of an engine can also be lower, depending on the operating mode and the raw emissions concept, ethanol as a working fluid offers the advantage that the system definition is stable compared with changeable engine concepts.
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The refrigerant-like chlorofluorocarbon R245fa is discussed as a working fluid in the industry [5]. Because of its high greenhouse warming potential (GWP), R245fa will probably not be used. However, it can be expected that substitute hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) possessing similar thermodynamic properties will be developed to solve the problem of GWP. It is therefore important to understand the differences between ethanol and HFC working fluids. In terms of thermodynamics, ethanol and HFCs essentially differ in three ways: HFCs have a higher vapor pres-
sure, a lower heat of evaporation, and are what are termed dry fluids. As a result, the advantages from using the heat source are offset by the parasitic losses. In terms of the valuation of the systems net power, there are no significant differences between ethanol and HFCs. At low exhaust temperatures, HFCs exhibit slight advantages, while ethanol works better at high ambient temperatures. The decision on which working fluid to use will therefore probably not be made (solely) on the basis of the potential for consumption savings. The deci-
Cooling module, optimised Cooling module, basis Cooling air mass ow rate
Fan cut-in Fan cut-in 100

Engine load [%]
Frequency distribution of operating points in long-haul transport
75 50 25 0
A25
A50
A75
A100
Requirement at 15 C
Requirement at 25 C
Engine speed
Meeting the requirements for cooling air for the use of exhaust gas through optimising the flow of
cooling air through the vehicle cooling module in the relevant operating conditions, results for a vehicle speed of 80 km/h
35
Engine speed [rpm]
[/
Exhaust gas aftertreatment
Tail pipe evaporator
EGR evaporator Charge air cooler
Expander
Condensor
The key differences between the different working fluids discussed lie in the vehicle and cooling system integration rather than in their potential for reducing consumption. If the industry could agree on a working fluid, the development resources could be focused on the series implementation of the Rankine process in trucks, thus facilitating a speedy development of the potential for reducing fuel consumption.
REFERENCES [1] Flik, M.; Edwards, S.; Pantow, E.: Emissions senkung bei Nutzfahrzeugen durch Thermomanagement. International Vienna Engine Symposium 2009 [2] Schmiederer, K.; Eitel, J.; Edwards, S.; Pantow, E.; Geskes, P.; Lutz, R.; Mohr, M.; Sich, B.; Dreisbach, R.; Wolkerstorfer, J.; Theil, H.; Krapf; S.; Neunteufl, K.: Verbrauchspotenzial eines Nutzfahrzeugmotors mit Rankine System, ermittelt ber Leistungsmessungen bei Stationr- and Instationrzyklen bei konstanten Emissionen. International Vienna Engine Symposium 2012 [3] Pantow, E.; Gneiting, R.; Krauss, H.-J.; Lutz, R.: The simulation of waste heat recovery systems for commercial vehicles. Stuttgart Symposium 2011 [4] Edwards, S.; Eitel, J.; Pantow, E.; Geskes, P.; Lutz, R.; Tepas, J.: Waste heat Recovery: The Next Challenge for Commercial Vehicle Thermomanagement. SAE paper 2012-01-1205 [5] Nelson, C.: Exhaust Energy Recovery: SemiMega Merit Review, 2008
Charge air Exhaust Coolant Working uid
Diagram of a Rankine cycle, integrated into the vehicle cooling system, for low-boiling HFC as the
working fluid
sion must also need to address issues of system integration, : as mentioned be fore, a HFC-based system requires more components and additional package space in the front end. Ethanol-based systems cause no changes to the cooling module architecture.
SUMMARY AND FUTURE OUTLOOK
Heat exchangers have been developed to concept maturity to use the waste heat from exhaust after exhaust aftertreatment and from the EGR in a Rankine process. These heat exchangers are already suit able for vehicle integration, and can also be operated reliably even under these special loads. Engine tests have confirmed the potential previously determined in a
simulation of a stationary and transient reduction in consumption of 5% for longhaul transport operations. One requirement for the system design and optimisation is a comprehensive modeling of the overall system in which the principal interactions are mapped, so that the correct feedback is obtained for the design of components and the operating parameters. To implement the Rankine system in the vehicle, integration into the vehicle cooling system is of crucial importance. Optimisation of the cooling module and the flow of cooling air allows additional heat from the exhaust to be emitted into the surrounding environment under broad climatic boundary conditions, and at the main operating points without any relevant increase in fan output.
THANKS
The results of the engine test presented here were compiled in collaboration with AVL and ZF to whom we express our sincere thanks for the commitment to that project. We also wish to extend our special thanks to the Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology who sponsored part of this research work.
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Radiator
Recuperator
On the right track.
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DE VELO PMENT Tribolo gy
INNOVATIVE BEARING DESIGN FOR OPTIMISING CRANKSHAFTS

With dimensions remaining the same or even getting smaller, increasing peak cylinder pressures and engine outputs are placing ever greater demands on all engine components. Crankshaft bearings and component strength are being stretched to their limits to an increasing extent. ThyssenKrupp and IAV present an innovative bearing journal design capable of significantly improving crankshaft strength.
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A U T H OR S
FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OPENS UP POTENTIALS
LUIS ANTNIO FONSECAGALLI, M.SC. is Head of the Research and D evelopment Department at the T hyssenKrupp Forging Group in Campo Limpo Paulista (Brazil).
The principle and fundamental setup underlying the operation of crankshafts, as one of the key components in a combustion engine, have hardly changed since engines have been around. Nevertheless, advances over recent years have exploited considerable potential. Defining bearing journal diameters, designing the crankshaft web as well as arranging and configuring the countermasses play a central part in optimising crankshaft geometry. Bearing diameters are often determined not so much by the load-carrying capacity of the bearings but rather by the demands on crankshaft strength. In particular, optimisation measures are based on computing the forces involved along with component stresses, torsional, flexural and axial vibration. Increasingly accurate computation of bearing parameters in combination with stronger bearing materials is also permitting further improvements to crankshaft geometry.
NEW BEARING CONCEPT
ROBSON FERREIRA DA CRUZ, ENG. is Project Manager and Technical Testing Manager at ThyssenKrupp Forging Group in Campo Limpo Paulista (Brazil).
DR.-ING. HUBERT SCHULTHEISS is Test Engineer and Project Manager, Base Engines/Transmissions Division, at the IAV GmbH in Chemnitz (Germany).
DIPL.-ING. (FH) JENS PCKERT is Head of the Testing Facility for Mechanical Engine and Transmission Components at the IAV GmbH in Chemnitz (Germany).
ThyssenKrupp has developed a new concept for configuring the connecting-rod pin journals of crankshafts [1] while studying them in depth in cooperation with development partners. The approach they follow enlarges the radial transitions between journal and web and extends them into the bearings load-carrying zone with the aim of reducing the notching effect. The bearing contour in the new concept is characterised by the fact that its diameter is far smaller at the bearing centre (several mm) than it is at the bearing edge. The bearing journals exhibit a symmetrical U-shaped contour, and hence the reason for introducing the name U-shape bearing [2]. The U-shape bearing contour can be described with radii that merge in tangential fashion, . The U-shape concept does not permit the use of conventional bearing shells on account of the variable journal diameter. The large connecting-rod eye is therefore coated directly with a thermally sprayed lead-free copper-aluminum alloy. In contrast, the concept of fracture-split and bolted connecting rods was retained. The self-centring effect of the U-shape profile provides the connecting rod with secure axial guidance. The main advantage of the U-shape concept lies in the crankshafts far higher load-bearing capacity. It provides significantly higher flexural and torsional strength while giving the crankshaft considerably greater torsional stiffness. At a level of crankshaft loading at which the required level of safety can no longer be ensured, it is normally necessary to change from microalloyed steel to heat-treated steel. Yet this results in additional costs and, on account of the design modifications associated with the change in material, also in greater mass. Applying the U-shape concept, however, also permits the use of microalloyed steel for higher loads. A further aspect in favor of using the U-shape concept is crankshaft and connecting-rod clearance in the crankcase. On increasing engine output, it is often not possible to widen the diameter of the connecting-rod bearing without involving collisions between connecting rod and crankcase. In most cases, there is no way round making expensive modifications to the crankcase. When changing the connecting-rod bearing from conventional bearings to the U-shape concept, however, the cylinder block can in most cases be retained.
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Geometry of the U-shape bearing
These advantages provide the capability of increasing the crankshafts permissible load-bearing capacity on the one hand, and reducing the size of the bearing journals, and thus also crankshaft weight, on the other. Both goals can be combined too. The potential first-time use of the U-shape concept on the American market will be for the connecting-rod bearings of a six-cylinder diesel engine in which maximum cylinder pressure is increased from 138 to 220bar. The diameter of the crankshaft journal is changed from 69mm to the maximum possible diameter of 73.85mm. The U-shape concept, , makes it possible to increase the load-bearing capacity even further in the way demanded. The design of the main bearings remains unchanged, allowing the new crankshaft to be fitted into the existing crankcase.
CONFIGURATION OF BEARING JOURNAL CONTOUR
stresses and the same fatigue resistance as the conventional crankshaft. Similar targets were to be met for the torsion-load case while placing a particular focus on analysing the transition from the inductively hardened layer to the non-hardened material of the bearing journal inside the oil-feed bore in the crankshaft journal. In simulation, permissible torsional load could be improved by 56% on changing hardness penetration depth and optimising the U-shape journal contour.
BEARING CONFIGURATION
Once the journal contour had been configured in terms of strength criteria, the connecting-rod bearings inner contour and bearing-gap geometry were optimised in line with tribological aspects. For this purpose, optimisation was car-
ried out using the Moga-II algorithm on the basis of profile parameterisation. In particular, cases were examined with constant play across the entire profile width as well as instances in which bearing play narrows down from a reference play at the axial bearing centre to the profile edges (convergent play). The bearing was computed using the Rebeca programme, a tool [3] developed by ThyssenKrupp. This was necessary because in solving the Reynolds differential equation, most commercial bearing computation programmes fail to account for major deviations from the cylindrical bearing contour of the type occurring with the U-shape bearing. The programme is capable of computing all relevant bearing parameters, including deformations, while taking radial as well as axial force components into consideration. shows results of configuring the bearing at the engines rated output. As a result of higher peak cylinder pressure, a cylindrical bearing geometry would have demanded a far larger bearing diameter which not only comes with design drawbacks but also produces a major loss of hydrodynamic power. The U-shape design made it possible to reduce bearing diameter to a minimum of 73.85mm. The results of solutions 1 and 2 also show that varying the U-shape contour makes it possible to influence bearing parameters very efficiently. Convergent play here provides the best solution.
STRENGTH STUDIES
Fatigue tests were able to verify that crankshaft and connecting rod with
Comparison of conventional
bearing and U-shape bearing
The first step in configuring the U-shape bearing involved using Design of Experiments (DoE) to optimise the crankshaft profile in terms of structural strength, with evaluation being based on static and dynamic criteria. By way of example, shows a comparison of computed component stresses under flexural load on a conventional crankshaft (left) and on a crankshaft with U-shape concept (right) for which flexural load was in creased by 45%. Despite this increase in load, the crankshaft with U-shape contour shows similar maximum component
40
U-shape contour are stronger than the components with cylindrical bearings. To this end, crankshafts were examined for flexural and torsional strength in comprehensive shaker tests. The initial tests showed that the strength values attained fell somewhat short of the theoretical values. The grinding process, particularly at the rounded profile sections, as well as the penetration depth of in duction hardening, was further optimised to come closer to the theoretical values. The inductor was adapted specifically to the U-shape profile for this purpose. It is expected that the fatigue tests will soon be able to verify achievement of the values aimed for. Push-pull alternating fatigue tests were conducted to verify the connecting rods endurance strength in the connecting-rod eye cross section. The results provided the basis for approving the connecting rod in this area for forces equating more or less to twice the level of those from current engine load.
BEARING STUDIES
Component stress and fatigue resistance: Comparison of conventional bearing (left) and U-shape bearing
(right)
Investigations were carried out on the high-performance plain-bearing test bench at IAV in Chemnitz to analyse operation of the U-shape bearing, validate computation as well as conduct the initial fatigue tests, . The test bench provides the means for examining key parameters of an individual plain journal bearing under dynamic load. It provides major advantages over investigations in the engine. Bearing parameters can be varied individually and systematically, and determined with precision. The loads
the test bearing is exposed to are generated on the test bench by three servohydraulically controlled cylinders spaced at intervals of 120 around the bearing circumference. The cylinders are userprogrammable. In conjunction with a precision, highly dynamic control system, combustion engine plain-bearing load patterns can be reproduced ex tremely faithfully. On the test bench, it is possible to determine the variables of bearing force,
shaft displacement, lubricating-film and oil-feed pressure and electrical contact voltage as a function of shaft rotation angle. Also worthy of particular mention is a facility that permits precision measurement of friction as a function of rotational angle. A method designed specifically for measuring lubrication-gap width was additionally improved and also used for measuring lubrication film pressure. With this method, sensors integrated in the test shaft make it possible
BEARING DESIGN PEAK CYLINDER PRESSURE CON-ROD BEARING DIAMETER CON-ROD BEARING WIDTH MAX. LUBE FILM PRESSURE MIN. LUBRICATION GAP WIDTH OIL THROUGHPUT POWER LOSS
CYLINDRICAL
CYLINDRICAL
CYLINDRICAL
CYLINDRICAL
U-SHAPE
U-SHAPE
[bar] [mm] [mm] [MPa] [m] [l/min] [kW]
138 69 31 229.6 1.36 0.96 0.34
220 69 31 480.6 0.83 0.94 0.38
220 72 31 448.8 0.92 0.97 0.42
220 88 31 337.4 1.40 1.13 0.66 Proposed design
220 D min = 73.85 30 426.6 0.94 0.86 0.45
220 D min = 73.85 30 301.6 1.61 0.35 0.57
Unsuitable on account of inadequate

COMMENT
without strength and torsional vibration drawbacks
Present design
strength and excessive torsional vibration
U-shape solution1
U-shape solution2
Results of bearing computation

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higher power outputs without substantially increasing crankshaft bearing diameters, and thus without having to accept significantly more hydrodynamic friction. The U-shape concept makes it possible to avoid any cost-intensive modification to the crankcase and obviates the need to use a stronger material for the crankshaft. In advancing and optimising engines, the U-shape concept offers interesting alternatives to conventional designs not only from a technical point of view but also in terms of overall cost.
Plain-bearing test bench at IAV in Chemnitz
REFERENCES [1] Guerreiro, S.; Galli, L.; Tavares, O.; Rodrigues, A.: Crank Drive. Patent WO 2008/129395, 2008 [2] Souza Rodrigues, A.; Villalva, S.; Galli, L.: Increasing of Crankshaft Structural Strength by Means of Using Non-Straight Bearings, So-Called U-shape Bearing. SAE Technical Paper 2009-360188, 2009 [3] Junior, D.; Galli, L.; Cruz, R.: Lubrication Investigation of a Non-Straight Internal Combustion Hydrodynamic Bearing. SAE Technical Paper 2009-360171, 2009
to measure lubrication gap width, bearing deformation and lubrication film pressure over the entire bearing circumference, . It was only these comprehensive results that provided the basis for validating the computation programme. The investigations were carried out on the U-shape bearings as well as on conventional bearings. Correlating well with the measurements, it was possible to validate the variables computed for both bearing types. Endurance tests carried out on the plain-bearing test bench over a period of 600h demonstrate the U-shape bearings operational safety and reliability.
Further-reaching investigations are planned in the running engine to verify suitability of the U-shape concept for use in mass production. In addition to further functional analyses, coming months will focus in particular on verifying the long-term operating performance of crankshaft and connecting rod.
SUMMARY
THANKS
Dr.-Ing. Michael Berg, Senior Vice President of Base Engines/Transmissions at the IAV GmbH in Chemnitz (Germany), also assisted in the production of this article.
The newly developed U-shape concept provides the means to significantly improving torsional and flexural loading capacity of crankshafts. In advancing engines, this can be used for achieving
Engine speed: 700 rpm Mean bearing clearance: 77 m Dynamic viscosity: 12.3 mPa*s Oil feed pressure: 4.0 bar
Minimum lube gap width: 0.7 m Oil throughput: 0.13 l/min Friction: 64.7 W -150
Rotational direction of the shaft W 180 150
90 80 Lube gap width [m] 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 -180 -135 Ang le a -90 -45 t be 0 arin gc ircu 45 90 mfe ren 135 ce [] 180 0
-120
120
-90
20
40
60
80 100
90
Bearing force F [kN]
-60 450 360 270 [] 180 le ang Crank 540 630 720 -30 0 Angle of force direction [] 30
60
90
Lubrication gap width at the bearing's axial centre
Bearing force prole (shown in relation to the bearing)
Example of results from experimental analysis
42
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Vertrag, Planung und Ausfhrung; Contracting, Planning, Design and Execution 2010. EUR 169,95 ISBN 978-3-8348-0883-7 The electronic technical dictionary Projects Abroad is indispensable for all those communicating and negotiating with contractors, clients or engineers in English in the context of construction projects abroad. With some 84,000 English-German and 76,000 German-English entries it is one of the most comprehensive reference works on the market, covering engineering, operations and legislation in the construction sector - a reliable companion to help you successfully handle construction projects abroad. The UniLex Pro user interface includes many search features including a pop-up search option that automatically displays translations in a pop-up window - regardless of the program being used at the time. System requirements: - Windows 7, XP - Available hard disk space: min. 200 MB - Core memory: min. 512 MB - CD-ROM drive About the Author He has worked together with international partners to offer numerous seminars preparing students for construction projects abroad.
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10I2012Volume 73
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nderungen vorbehalten. Erhltlich im Buchhandel oder beim Verlag.
DE VELO PMENT Supercharging
TURBOCHARGING WITH LOW TEMPERATURE CHARGE AIR COOLING AND EGR

If an engine is downsized for reasons of fuel efficiency, the brake mean effective pressure must be raised in order to maintain the same power output as before. This is usually achieved by turbocharging the engine. The resulting challenges include poorer dynamic engine response and higher loads on the components. To counteract these phenomena, the TU Dresden has examined a concept that combines single-stage turbocharging with low-tem perature intercooling using a corresponding cooling unit and cooled external exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). Initial tests have shown promising results.
44
AUTHORS
LOW FUEL CONSUMPTION AND GOOD DYNAMICS
DR.-ING. CARSTEN GUHR was at the time of this elaboration Scientific Assistant at the Institute of Internal Combustion Engines of the the TU Dresden (Germany).
PROF. DR.-ING. HANS ZELLBECK is Tenured Professor of the Chair of Internal Combustion Engines at the TU Dresden (Germany).
In consideration of rising fuel prices, the automotive industry is facing the challenge to develop new engine concepts with low fuel consumption. Engine size and weight are important issues. Therefore the direction of development is the reduction of engine displacement. The most effective method to reduce displacement is the reduction in the number of cylinders. To achieve the target of maintaining a given maximum power, the engine must operate at higher specific loads. Turbocharging is a well-known technology and can be used for this purpose. This concept is known asdownsizing. The positive effects of downsizing are mainly related to the NEDC cycle but elsewhere result in some problems: :: losses in the characteristic of torque at low engine speed, the so-called lowend torque :: bad engine response behaviour because of less displacement :: high enrichment demand at full load for protection of the exhaust-side components :: increased maximum cylinder pressure, higher risk of engine knock and irregu lar combustion. This will lead to a new concept with a high customer benefit regarding fuel consumption without the above quoted problems and shall be achieved within the present paper. The used engine is a single-stage turbocharged direct injection gasoline engine with a three-cylinder layout. This shows an improved scavenging efficiency compared to a four-cylinder configuration with equal displacement. The single-stage turbo-
charger is combined with low temperature charge air cooling using a refrigerator system and cooled external exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). The charge air cooler has a switchable arrangement for improving dynamic response. The cooled EGR shall ensure an engine operation at full load with stoichiometric air/fuel ratio.
BASE ENGINE ARCHITECTURE
The used three-cylinder engine is based on a turbocharged direct injection gasoline four-cylinder engine, the 1.4TSI engine from Volkswagen. At the chair of combustion engines of the Technical University Dresden this engine was re built to a three-cylinder engine by taking one cylinder out of service. A variable timing sprocket was added to the exhaust camshaft and the cam profile was modified. A free programmable rapid control prototyping ECU was used. The general technical data are summarised in . The thermal management of intercooler and EGR-cooler is based on three independent coolant circuits: :: high temperature coolant circuit (HT): temperature level about 90 C :: mean temperature coolant circuit (MT): temperature level about 40 C :: low temperature coolant circuit (LT): temperature level about 0 C.
LOW TEMPERATURE CHARGE AIR COOLING
An increase of the air density in the intake manifold is the goal of turbocharging. Due to the polytropic compression within the compressor, the increase in pressure is inevitably associ-
VOLKSWAGEN 1.4 TSI DESIGN/CYLINDER FIRING ORDER ENGINE TYPE DISPLACEMENT BORE/STROKE COMPRESSION RATIO VALVETRAIN
TU DRESDEN 1.0 L
Inline/4 1-3-4-2 1390 cm 3 76.5 mm/75.6 mm 10.0 DOHC, four valves per cyl., variable intake valve timing
Inline/3 1-2-3 1042 cm 3 9.5 DOHC, four valves per cyl., variable intake- and exhaust valve timing Target: 90 kW (app. 90 kW/l) Target: 200 Nm (app. 200 Nm/l) 24 bar
Four-stroke gasoline with DI, homogeneous
CHARGE SYSTEM MAX. POWER MAX. TORQUE MAX. BMEP
Single-stage turbocharger with wastegate 90 kW (app. 64 kW/l) 200 Nm (app. 142 Nm/l) 18 bar
Comparison of technical data

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Thermal conditioning mode MT circuit
Two-stage intercooling MT circuit
9 HT circuit 7 5 HT circuit 7
10
10
3 LT circuit 1 MT circuit 2 1 Mean temperature intercooler 2 Bypass ap system 3 Low temperature intercooler 4 Throttle 5 A/C compressor 6 EGR valve 7 High temperature EGR cooler 8 Flapper valve 9 Mean temperature EGR cooler 1 MT circuit LT circuit
2 10 Cylinder selective EGR discharge
Schematic of charge air cooling andEGR circuits
ated with an increase in temperature. A maximised density can be achieved by reducing the tem perature after compres-
sor with a suit ableheat exchanger. Particularly in terms of the engine response behaviour,the pressure loss and the vol-
Arrangement of the charge air cooler
ume ofthe whole intake path should be as small as possible. A solution for this purpose is the indirect charge air cooling, that means heat removal by an air/ coolant-intercooler e.g. within the mean temperature coolant circuit. The inter cooler (IC) can be installed near the intake manifold. A higher decrease of air temperature can be achieved by supporting the charge air cooling by a refrigerator system. A technical solution for cold production is the compression refrigeration process asit applies to the air conditioning (A/C) of the vehicle. The existent refrigerant circuit must simply be ex tended by a few components. The following configuration was carried out: The compressed air is pre-cooled by an indirect intercooler (MT IC) within the MT coolant circuit. Downstream there is a further indirect intercooler (LT IC), and , within the LT coolant circuit, which is cooled by the A/C system, . The LT intercooler can be bypassed onthe air side by a flap-system. If the bypass is active, a flap simultaneously prevents the flow through the LT inter-
46
Arrangement of the
refrigeration system
improved due to the immediately provided cooled air. Furthermore a heat sink within the LT coolant circuit is in tegrated in addition as cold storage. Thatmeans that the A/C compressor canbe switched off in case of a dynamic load request. The heat sink is a simple tank. An increase in storage efficiency can be obtained by thermal layering. The LT-coolant circuit has four operation modes, : :: thermal conditioning of heat sink and LT intercooler (a in ) :: thermal conditioning of heat sink (b) :: charge air cooling with the A/C s ystem (c) :: charge air cooling with the heat sink (A/C compressor inactive) (d).
COOLED EXTERNAL EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION
cooler whereby the trapped air isconditioned to the low temperature level of about 0C. In case of a dynamic load
request the bypass flap closes and the flap upstream the intercooler opens. Theengine response behaviour will be
The cooled external EGR is one of many possibilities to realise a reduction of fuel consumption within the whole engine operating map. The used effects mainly depend on the engine operation point. In the presented paper the use of EGR is focused on the reduction of fuel consumption at full load operating condition. Thepotential for reduction of fuel
Schematic of the
refrigerant circuit
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Arrangement of the EGR cooler
consumption is based on the decrease of fuel enrichment. Due to a deceleration of the laminar flame speed and an increase of the overall heat capacity of the cylinder charge, the pressure and temperature level in the cylinder will be reduced. This leads to a reduction of knock and an improved combustion phasing with EGR. The base engine is equipped with a two-stage EGR cooling path. The first EGR cooler (HT EGR cooler) is placed within the engine coolant circuit (HT) and the second EGRcooler (MT EGR cooler) is placed within the MT coolant circuit. Both heatexchangers can be bypassed. A flapper valve is placed between the two EGR coolers to ensure the flow direction. The discharge of the recirculated exhaust gas is cylinder selective, and .
RESULTS
IMPROVEMENT OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR
All measurements were performed at a dynamic engine test stand. By means of the experimental data a GT-Power simulation model was validated. This model can be used both for steady-state and transient studies. It contains the engine, the MT and the LT coolant circuit as well as the refrigerant circuit. The simulation results are used for analysing and evaluating the concept under defined boundary conditions.
The new concept of switchable low temperature charge air cooling can be used to optimise the dynamic behaviour at low engine speed. In the first moment after a dynamic load request, there is only the torque of a naturally aspired engine available. This torque is low due to the small engine displacement. The difference to the full load torque is the available torque reserve. By closing the bypass around the LT IC, this reserve is 10 to 25% higher because of the trapped conditioned air within the intercooler. Asa result, the torque of the baseline en gine can be reached faster respectively a higher steady state torque can be reached. Though this increase is only available for a short duration, depending on the charge condition of the heat sink, it can still be used for the improvement of the dynamic behaviour. The temperature level of the LT coolant circuit can be maintained by the help of the heat sink so the A/C compressor (ACC) can be switched off. The new concept has been reviewed on the engine test stand in terms of dy namic behaviour. As start condition a part load operating point was set. The bypass around the LT IC is active, i.e. the trapped air is conditioned to 0C.
The A/C compressor operates at maximum power and the heat sink is fully charged. The load request occurs at a constant engine speed. Four basic strategies were compared: :: LT IC=0 / ACC=1: bypass and A/C compressor remains active (strategy a) :: LT IC=1 / ACC=1: LT charge air cooling and A/C compressor remains active (b) :: LT IC=0 / ACC=0: bypass remains active and A/C compressor switched off (c) (equates baseline engine, i.e. without LT charge air cooling) :: LT IC = 1 / ACC = 0: LT charge air cooling and A/C compressor switched off (d). The progression of effective mean pressure (bmep) for the reviewed engine speeds is shown graphically in . In the lower parts of the figure the time relating to the time to reach 50, 75, 90 and 100% bmep (steady state) of the baseline engine (c) can be seen. As expected, with an active A/C compressor, the bmep of the baseline engine cant be reached without additional LT charge air cooling (a). At tempting to compensate the power loss caused by the A/C compressor with additional LT charge air cooling (b) is not possible atan engine speed of 1200rpm and at the other reviewed en gine speeds of l imited suitability. At an engine speed of 1600rpm the steady-state bmep (100%) can be reached about 17% faster compared to the baseline engine (c), however till 90% of full load bmep the progression is below the baseline engine, (top left). The same applies to an engine speed of 1800rpm, but without the advantage at 100% bmep. Not till 2000rpm the power loss caused by the A/C compressor can be overcompensated and a better progression of bmep compared to the baseline engine can be achieved, (bottom right). Only the strategy with LT charge air cooling and inactive A/C compressor (d) shows an improved dynamic behaviour at all reviewed engine speeds. It can be concluded that in this case switching off the A/C compressor is mandatory. As shown in the diagrams, with LT charge air cooling and switched off A/C compressor the steady-state bmep can be achieved about 40% faster compared to the baseline engine. The maintenance of the temperature within the LT-coolant circuit must be ensured by the heat sink.
48
neng = 1200 rpm 14 12 BMEP [bar] 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 (a) LT IC = 0/ACC = 1 (b) LT IC = 1/ACC = 1 (c) LT IC = 0/ACC = 0 (d) LT IC = 1/ACC = 0 4 Time [s] 6 8 0
neng = 1600 rpm 26 22 18 14 10 6 2 2 4 Time [s] 6 8 BMEP [bar]
100 80 Time deviation* [%] 60 40 20 0 -20 -40 t50 % t75 % t90 % t100 %
60 40 20 0 -20 -40 t50 % t75 % t90 % t100 %
Time for reaching x % of BMEP*
Time for reaching x % of BMEP*
*bezogen auf die Dreizylinder-Basisversion (c)

neng = 1800 rpm 22 18 BMEP [bar] 14 10 6 2 0 2 (a) LT IC = 0/ACC = 1 (b) LT IC = 1/ACC = 1 (c) LT IC = 0/ACC = 0 (d) LT IC = 1/ACC = 0 4 Time [s] 6 8 0 2 4 Time [s] 6 8 neng = 2000 rpm 22 18 14 10 6 2 BMEP [bar]
100 80 Time deviation* [%] 60 40 20 0 -20 -40
60 40 20 0 -20 -40 t50 % t75 % t90 % t100 % t50 % t75 % t90 % t100 %
Time deviation* [%]
(a) LT IC = 0/ACC = 1 (b) LT IC = 1/ACC = 1 (c) LT IC = 1/ACC = 0
100 80
Time deviation* [%]
(a) LT IC = 0/ACC = 1 (b) LT IC = 1/ACC = 1 (c) LT IC = 1/ACC = 0
100 80
Full load step,

measurement (start load 2 bar, 1200 and 1600 rpm (left); 1800and 2000 rpm (right))
Time for reaching x % BMEP*
Time for reaching x % BMEP*
*Referred to three-cylinder basic version (c)

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24 BMEP [bar] 22 20 18 16 14 12 360 BSFC [g/kWh] 340 320 300 280 260 240 Effective lambda [-] 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 1000 2000 3000 4000 neng [rpm] 5000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 neng [rpm] 5000 6000 EGR -17.9 % Basic version LT coolant circuit 20 C LT coolant circuit 10 C LT coolant circuit 0 C
120 100 60 40 20 0 12 10 6 4 2 0 24 20 16 12 8 4 50 % BCA [CA a. TDC] 28 PACC [kW] 8 Peff [kW] 80
Temperature
ariation (ACC active; v full load)
EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION AND LOW TEMPERATURE CHARGE AIR COOLING
A variation of EGR rate was carried out by numerical simulation. The exhaust gas temperature is limited to 950C by enrichment of the mixture. The performance of the baseline engine without EGR should be achieved but with a better fuel consumption. The mixing temperature of fresh air and exhaust gas in the cylinder is important for the efficiency of the cooled external EGR. This mixing temperature must be accordingly decreased. The cooling of the exhaust gas within the EGR cooler is suitable only to a limited extent. The main problem is a temperature below the dew point of the contained water vapour. Inconjunction with other exhaust gas components corrosion damage or sootingcould occur. Regarding the fresh aira temperature below the dew point within the LT IC leads to much less aggressive media. Therefore the cooling of the fresh air is the preferred proceeding. This is only limited by the freeze point temperature of the contained water to avoid freezing of the intercooler. The coolant temperatures of the different heat exchangers arise to: HT EGR cooler about 90C, MT EGR
cooler and MT IC about 40C and LT IC about 0C. Due to the consideration, that the dwell duration at full load operating points and high engine speed may be long, maintenance of the coolant temperature only by usage of the heat sink appears to be not feasible. For that reason a continuous operation of the A/C compressor for direct cooling will be required. As shown in , already the decrease of charged air temperature itself causes a significant reduction of specific fuel consumption (about 18%) and shows the tremendous potential of the concept. Due to the reduction of knock and for this reason the possibility to advance the spark timing, the 50% burn point also occurs earlier. Because of the improved engine efficiency, the power loss caused by the A/C compressor can be compensated. The early end of combustion reduces the exhaust gas temperature and in order that the need for enrichment. However a stoichiometric air/fuel ratio of =1 cant be reached in the whole engine speed range. At this point the EGR must make a contribution. The results of the simulated variation of EGR rate are shown in . Because of the EGR, the spark timing can be advanced further and the increased burn duration caused by the EGR can be slightly compensated.
Due to the decreased temperature level in the cylinder, the exhaust gas temperature drops and the exhaust-side components thermal stress and the need for en richment are notable reduced. As of an EGR rate of about 10% it is possible to achieve the target value of =1 within the whole engine speed range. That means an average reduction in fuel consumption of about 8.7% can be obtained. As a result of a delayed combustion and the associated decrease of efficiency, a further increase of EGR rate changes the fuel consumption to the worse. In addition the maximum cylinder peak pressure rises. shows a comparison of fuel consumption and air/fuelratio for various coolant temperature of the LT IC. The decline of fuel consumption with an EGR rate above 10% can be seen here aswell. The differences in fuel consumption according to the coolant temperature are within in a range of approximate ly 4%. But the heat flux and the required power for the A/C compressor are considerably higher with lower coolant temperature. It must be balanced between reduction of fuel consumption and thermal stress respectively heat removal. The right balance requires knowledge about boundary condition in the vehicle. Nevertheless it can be stated that EGR in conjunction with low temperature charge
50
air cooling is an effective way to achieve a stoichiometric air/fuel ratio of =1 in the entire engine operating range. The shown potential for lowering the fuel consumption at full load operating conditions arises from a combination of reducing the need for enrichment and engine efficiency improvement. The possibility of high cylinder peak pressure and high heat flux are critical points. It must be balanced between operating reliability, cooling effi-
ciency and specific fuel consumption. Nevertheless the possible potential of the new approach of combining an innovative charge air cooling system with cooled external EGR on a three-cylinder direct injection gasoline engine could be shown.
SUMMARY
In the present paper a new concept of a switchable low temperature charge air
cooling in combination with cooled ex ternal EGR was introduced on a three-cylinder gasoline engine. Because of the switchable arrangement of the intercooler an improvement of the dynamic response can be achieved. It was also shown, that in this case switching off the A/C compressor is mandatory. The usage of a heat sink here is an effective way to improve the dynamic behaviour. Thus, a reduction
380 360 BSFC [g/kWh] 340 320 300 280 260 240 2.5 2.4 pIM [bar, abs.] 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.8 1250 1200 1150 TEM [K] 1100 1050 1000 950 900 5 Spark timing [CA a. TDC] 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 60 Burn duration [CA] 55 50 45 40 35 30 2000 3000 4000 neng [rpm] 5000 6000 2000 3000 4000 neng [rpm] 5000 6000 Basic version -8.7 % TIM TEGR
1.05 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 350 340 320 310 300 290 280 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 28 24 20 16 12 8 4 % % % % 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 90 % BCA [CA a. TDC] 50 % BCA [CA a. TDC] pcylinder_max [bar] TIM | TEGR [K] 330 Effective lambda [-] 1.00
EGR EGR EGR EGR
Rate Rate Rate Rate
= = = =
0 5 10 15
EGR variation
(ACC active; full load)
10I2012Volume 73
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intime of about 40% to reach the full load steady-state bmep according to the baseline en gine was achieved. After that, a concept to reduce fuel consumption at high engine speeds was reviewed by the help of a simulation model. For this purpose the LT charge air cooling was combined with external EGR. The lowering of the charge air temperature itself re sults in a reduction of specific fuel consumption of ap proximately 18%. With
the additional EGR a further re duction of about 8.7% was achieved. A stoichiometric air/fuel ratio of =1 in the entire engine operating rage was reached. The negative effects of high cylinder peak pressure and high heat flux to the LT coolant circuit must be stated out. A higher coolant temperature in the LT IC and in order to that less fuel saving capability may be necessary. As presented in this paper, the new concept of a switcha-
ble low temperature charge air cooling in conjunction with cooled external EGR has the potential to lower specific fuel consumption while improving dynamic behaviour.
REFERENCE [1] Guhr, C.: Verbesserung von Effizienz und Dynamik eines hubraumkleinen turboaufgeladenen 3-Zylinder-DI-Ottomotors durch Abgasrckfhrung und ein neues Ladeluftkhlkonzept. Dissertation, Technische Universitt Dresden, 2011
Basic version w/o EGR LT coolant circuit 20 C
LT coolant circuit 10 C LT coolant circuit 0 C 1.10 1.05 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 Effective lambda [-]
380 360 BSFC [g/kWh] 340 320 300 280 260 240 0 % EGR rate 0 % EGR rate
0.75
380 360 BSFC [g/kWh] 340 320 300 280 260 240 5 % EGR rate 5 % EGR rate 3.5 %
1.10 1.05 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 Effective lambda [-]
380 360 BSFC [g/kWh] 340 320 300 280 260 240 10 % EGR rate 10 % EGR rate 3.8 %
1.10 1.05 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 Effective lambda [-]
380 360 BSFC [g/kWh] 340 320 300 280 260 240 2000 3000 4000 neng [rpm] 15 % EGR rate 5000 6000 15 % EGR rate 2000 3000 4000 neng [rpm] 5000 6000 6.1 %
1.10 Effective lambda [-] 1.05 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75
Fuel consumption
and air/fuel ratio for temperature and EGR variation at full load
52
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NEW GENERATION OF SCROLL-TYPE SUPERCHARGER MORE POWER AND REDUCED CONSUMPTION

Handtmann Systemtechnik in Biberach has re-examined and completely redesigned the scroll-type supercharger system for supercharging and increasing the power output of gasoline engines. Sophisticated engine process simulation carried out by the project partner Bertrandt has proven the benefits of the scroll-type supercharger compared to other supercharging concepts. As a result, Handtmann is now presenting the scroll-type supercharger as a solution for downsizing applications. Areas of application include single- and two-stage supercharging concepts for gasoline and diesel engines designed to achieve low exhaust emissions. 54
AUTHORS
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
DIPL.-ING. (FH) JUERGEN LICHT is Managing Director of Handtmann Systemtechnik GmbH & Co. KG in Biberach/Ri (Germany).
The scroll-type supercharger belongs to the group of mechanical superchargers and works according to the displacement principle. It was invented and patented as long ago as 1905. At that time however, the complex manufacturing and material requirements prevented it from being produced on a large scale. It was not until the 1980s that Volkswagen took up this technology and marketed vehicles with a system that became known as a so-called G-Lader (G supercharger) [1].
DESIGN AND PRODUCTION
DIPL.-ING. (BA) STEPHAN WANNER is Division Manager Pre-Development at Handtmann Systemtechnik GmbH & Co. KG in Biberach/Ri (Germany).
DR.-ING. OLIVER MAIWALD is Head of the Powertrain System Development Department at Bertrandt Ingenieurbro GmbH in Neckarsulm (Germany).
Handtmann Systemtechnik has a high level of expertise in aluminium and magnesium die casting due to its integration into the Handtmann Group. What is more, its systematic approach is consistently complemented by a high level of development competence and broad technical knowledge of assembly and testing processes. In addition, Handtmanns Automotive division supplies intake mani fold modules, exhaust gas recirculation components and other add-on parts for car engines, thus ensuring an optimum and highly cost-effective manufacturing process due to the integrated network of casting, mechanical machining, assembly and testing activities [2]. The depth of in-house production at Handtmann therefore guarantees a high level of process reliability.
This special level of experience and development expertise is a pre-requisite for the companys ability to fully exploit the potential of the scroll-type supercharger. Using state-of-the-art methods, the Handtmann scroll-type supercharger (Handtmann Spirallader, HSL), , was further developed, turning it into a highly efficient supercharging system to meet the future requirements of the automotive industry [3]. The aim was to produce a cost-optimised supercharger system capable of being mass-produced and especially suitable for downsizing concepts. The development phase of the HSL focused on the optimisation of fuel consumption and CO2 emissions as well as the superchargers response in the low engine speed range, to name just a few of the key points. The most fundamental modification tothe HSL compared to the previous G supercharger concept is the displacer. The single-scroll design the previous version had a twin-scroll design sig nificantly reduces the machining re quirements. The use of a special sealing contour (hook-type seal) in the HSL eliminates the need for an outer running surface, thus noticeably reducing the size of the unit while still maintaining the same displacement volume. A further-developed high temperature resistant magnesium die cast alloy for the displacer considerably improves its mechanical properties. What is more, all sliding
DIPL.-ING. (FH) JENS KEULER is Development Engineer for engine simulation in the Powertrain System Development Department at Bertrandt Ingenieurbro GmbH in Neckarsulm (Germany).
Cut-open view of the scroll-type supercharger

Handtmann Spirallader (HSL)
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components, such as sealing strips and sealing surfaces, are now made of the very latest friction- and wear-optimised materials and tribological coatings.
PRACTICAL BENEFITS
Compared to a mechanical screw-type supercharger or an exhaust gas turbocharger, the HSL enables the internal combustion engine to develop maximum torque even from idling speed (low-end torque) while at the same time having a higher overall efficiency. The resulting high level of dynamics significantly en hances the driving experience. This is essentially due to the overall higher isentropic efficiency and a very high overall efficiency [4], . At the current state of
de velopment, efficiency is more than 70% over a broad map area and is thus ap proximately 10% points higher than the overall efficiency of previous scrolltype supercharger concepts. In customer-relevant driving situations, the HSL operates for the most part in its optimum efficiency range. For the customer, this means measurable fuel consumption benefits. Additional potential is provided by downspeeding of the engine in combination with longer gear ratios while still offering excellent driving performance. To minimise the mechanical friction losses of the internal combustion engine, the HSL can be optionally equipped with an electromagnetic coupling. This offers on-demand control of the power supplied
by the HSL at an almost constant driving speed or low engine load. The low mass moment of inertia of the HSL ensures large ly unnoticed activation processes and a spontaneous response to different power requirements. Further advantages of the HSL include: :: controllability of the boost pressure independent of the exhaust gas flow :: almost vibration-free operation in the charge air flow eliminates the need forcost-intensive noise reduction or insulation measures :: improvement in the thermodynamic efficiency of the internal combustion engine due to positive gas exchange work :: the high EGR compatibility supports optimisation measures inside the engine :: the optimised close-coupled catalytic converter arrangement ensures better light-off behaviour due to the elimination of the exhaust gas turbocharger (enthalpy sink) :: the lower exhaust backpressure re duces the boost pressure required and lowers the knocking potential, thus offering the possibility of increasing the compression ratio :: no need for measures to protect the turbocharger, such as full-load enrichment :: compact design and no maintenance requirements. These and other advantages can be flexibly combined to make the HSL suitable for all gasoline and diesel engine applications. Furthermore, the scroll-type supercharger housing can be provided with numerous fittings for other aux iliary units of the engine periphery. This specific design of the HSL should be f undamentally taken into consideration in an engine package.
SIMULATION-AIDED POTENTIAL ASSESSMENT
Comparison of selected supercharging systems (top) and HSL efficiency map (bottom)
The engine efficiency advantages of an HSL compared to an exhaust gas turbocharger were evaluated by means of gas exchange simulation carried out at the development service provider Bertrandt at its Neckarsulm site. The engine mod elwas derived from a 1.0l gasoline engine that is normally supercharged by an ex haust gas turbocharger and which is adapted and optimised to the specific requirements of exhaust gas turbocharging. The exhaust gas turbocharger used
56
Full-load curves and engine maps of a gasoline engine with 1.0l displacement and HSL supercharging
orexhaust gas turbocharging at a required specific power output of 90kW/l
were not considered in the gas exchange simulation in the first evaluation. Additional potential is available by applying such measures as [5, 8]: :: optimised valve timing (later exhaust valve opening) :: an adapted intake runner length and intake volume of the induction system :: an optimised charge air duct. The application of Bertrandts own simulation tool called Virtual Powertrain for cycle simulation [6] clearly showed that, with an unchanged powertrain configuration, fuel consumption advantages of up to 3% can be achieved by using the HSL. Advanced optimisation measures were not considered, which means that the real fuel consumption reduction potential in a cycle, for example by applying downspeeding measures, is likely to be even greater. Due to its working principle, the HSL is largely stable towards pressure fluctuations in the intake manifold and is therefore predestined for use in internal combus tion engines with only two or three cylinders in particular.
TEST BENCH RESULTS
as a reference in this case was selected to achieve a high specific power output of more than 90kW/l for the engine. At the same time, very high low-end torque was required from 1700rpm upwards, , thus corresponding to the current state of technology. The aim of the gas exchange simulation was to create an efficiency map for the engine, . In order to compare the different types of compressor drive systems (mechanical energy in the HSL compared to exhaust enthalpy in the ex haust gas turbocharger), the boost pressure of the two supercharger versions was controlled by a wastegate or bypass. The other boundary conditions remained unchanged. The calculated differential map of the effective specific fuel consumption (BSFC) shows efficiency advantages of upto 7% for the gasoline engine supercharged using the HSL. An explanation for the fuel consumption advantage can be found in the lack of a turbine. Due to the lower exhaust backpressure, the HSL has to build up less boost pressure for the same engine output [7]. Although the exhaust gas turbocharger has some ad vantages in this respect by using exhaust enthalpy to compress the charge air, the HSL has clear advantages not least due to
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the fact that maximum overall efficiency is between 10 and 12% higher. Optimisation measures to improve the efficiency, in respect of the particular charging system, of the internal combustion engine
After the extensive simulations carried out by Bertrandt, several prototypes were developed and built. These were
Percental specific fuel consumption benefit of the HSL compared to an exhaust gas turbocharger
57
then subjected to intensive test bench testing, during which the HSL fulfilled the endurance strength requirements with excellent results. In addition, a turbocharged gasoline engine was equipped with two-stage supercharging with the HSL, which generated the boost pressure in combination with an exhaust gas turbocharger. The original power output of the gasoline engine was raised by over 40% to more than 170kW. Maximum torque increased by more than 100Nm to 365Nm and is available virtually above idling speed. These figures are approximately at the same level as those of a current 2.0l turbocharged gasoline engine, but are achieved with 30% less cubic capacity. Development partners confirmed the excellent drivability of the prototype during road tests.
AREAS OF APPLICATION
figuration it is suitable for en gines with displacements of up to 2.0l. Compared to a mechanical screw-type supercharger, the HSL provides better power and torque characteristics at low engine speeds, while at the same time significantly reducing fuel consumption. On the other hand, an exhaust gas turbocharger can be used to achieve a higher end power output due to the relatively wider compressor map.
OUTLOOK
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
When used as a stand-alone supercharging system, the HSL is suitable for smalldisplacement downsized gasoline engines in which the less favourable efficiency ofthe exhaust gas turbocharger at low engine speeds comes together with a low exhaust gas enthalpy. In this case, the HSL offers significantly better low-end torque characteristics as well as the possibility to use a speed-reducing and therefore more fuel-efficient transmission design. Due to its good efficiency characteristics, the HSL is optimally suited for use as a booster for two-stage supercharging systems in combination with an exhaust gas turbocharger. In this con-
A further application area of the HSL is emission-optimised small-displacement diesel engines. For this application, Handtmann has developed a complete low-pressure EGR circuit and has equipped it with components developed in-house. This proved that the HSL can provide high boost pressures in combination with a high exhaust gas recircu lation rate even at low engine speeds. Due to the elimination of the exhaust gas turbocharger, the exhaust system can beconsistently further dethrottled. Compared to a diesel engine with an exhaust gas turbocharger, a significant reduction in NOx and particulate emissions is possible at low engine speeds, particularly during acceleration phases. Handtmann is currently testing this application on an engine test bench with a small-displacement series-production engine. As in gasoline engines, the HSL also achieves higher low-end torque in diesel engines, thus enabling the use of longer and consumption-optimised gear ratios.
Supercharging with a Handtmann scrolltype supercharger offers a high potential for improving fuel consumption and exhaust emissions in gasoline and dieselengines. What is more, this technology can be combined with start/stop systems or integrated into hybrid powertrains. By applying state-of-the-art development and production methods and using innovative materials, Handtmann has succeed ed in adapting the scroll-type supercharger to todays requirements. Its high efficiency even at low engine speeds makes the HSL predestined for use as part of a two-stage supercharging system. At the same time, it is also beneficial when used as a stand-alone application in small-displacement combustion engines.
REFERENCES [1] http://www.g-laderseite.de/g-lader_geschichte.php [2] http://www.handtmann.de/handtmann-gruppe.html [3] http://www.ausleidenschaft.de/ [4] Hack, G.; Langkabel, I.: Turbo- und Kompressormotoren: Entwicklung, Technik, Typen. Stuttgart: Motorbuch, 2003 [5] Zinner, K.: Aufladung von Verbrennungsmotoren. Berlin: Springer, 1980 [6] Maiwald, O.; Poumbga, P.; Regeisz, R.; Rhl, M.: Simulationsumgebung zur Analyse verschiedener Hybridantriebskonfigurationen. In: ATZ 112 (2010), No. 1 [7] Merker, G.; Schwarz, C.; Teichmann, R. (Hrsg.): Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren Funktionsweise, Simulation, Messtechnik. Berlin/Wiesbaden: Springer, 2006 [8] Khler, E.; Flierl, R.: Verbrennungsmotoren Motormechanik, Berechnung und Auslegung des Hubkolbenmotors. Wiesbaden: Vieweg+Teubner, 2006
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DE VELO PMENT Measurement technolo gy
A NEW TERAHERTZ ANALYTICAL TOOL F OR EXHAUST AFTERTREATMENT SYSTEMS

Effective regeneration of the particulate filter and removal of ash have a favourable influence on the performance of a diesel engine and help to reduce fuel consumption. The innovative TAS7000 Imaging Analysis System from Advantest Europe GmbH is a new, non-destructive analysis system that uses terahertz (THz) wave technology to examine the exhaust system components and to assess the systems performance.
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A U T H OR S
BACKGROUND
JRGEN ROTT, is Technical Support Engineer, TAS Project, at Advantest Europe GmbH in Munich (Germany).
In 2011, Advantest completed a quantitative study to characterise and map the density distribution of particulate matter (PM) and ash, as well as determine the ash cleaning effectiveness, using a single cordierite c-DPF (diesel particulate filter). The study results demonstrate terahertz waves unique capabilities to provide data that can be a critical tool in developing efficient after-treatment systems in compliance with new diesel exhaust emissions requirements.
TERAHERTZ WAVE TECHNOLOGY
JUDY FEUERBACH, is Consultant TAS at Advantest Europe GmbH in Munich (Germany).
YOSHI MITANI, is Product Manager TAS, Products & Services at Advantest Europe GmbH in Munich (Germany).
In the electromagnetic spectrum, terahertz waves have frequencies between radio and light waves, resulting in waves that have both the transmissivity of radio waves and the directivity of light waves, . These low energy electromagnetic waves possess remark ableproperties including absorption spectra that enable them to penetrate visually opaque materials. Because of itslow energy, THz wave does not ionise or damage an electron from an atom or molecule and is sensitive to light atoms such as carbon (soot). Therefore, it is a non-destructive technique. In contrast, X-ray, is ionising, breaks mo lecular bonds, and has little sensitivity for light atoms (carbon/soot).
THz waves good penetrability of ceramic substrates (Cordierite, Aluminum-Titanate, Mullite) and catalytic coatings can be used to analyse the interior of a DPF, a diesel oxidation cata lyst (DOC) and other emission system components (SCR, LNT, etc.). Computed tomography (CT) technology uses the THz wave spectral information to provide a quantitative 3D distribution mapping visualisation of substrate homogeneity, catalytic coating coverage, soot and ash accumulation and post cleaning efficacy. The data generated from this measurement technique can be applied to make better modeling possible for improvements in: :: DPF and exhaust gas after-treatment system design :: uniformity of exhaust gas flow :: engine control optimisation :: defect reduction. Until recently, THz techniques had not been developed for commercial use. Ad vantest has applied its proprietary terahertz wave technology to non-destructive analysis and characterisation of aftertreatment systems for exhaust emissions.
THE STUDY
Advantest performed TAS7000 nondestructive THz CT for two and three dimensional (2D & 3D) distribution mapping using the spectroscopic pro
Terahertz wave in the electromagnetic spectrum

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Quantitative analysis procedure for THz CT
perties of terahertz light waves at three different stages of the same DPF: :: post soot loading :: post regeneration :: post ash cleaning. Liebherr Machines Bulle (Switzerland) provided a 9 D x 9 L Cordierite filter with washcoat (c-DPF) with 200 CPSI at12/10.000 inch mil. Before each analy sis, the substrate was placed in a dryingoven at 150C for three hours to remove any moisture that may influence weight measurement and terahertz wave transmission through the sample.
The sample was loaded with soot and ash and then analysed by THz CT to characterise the soot load and distribution. This same filter was again measured after regeneration for ash char acterisation and then measured a third time after cleaning to evaluate the cleaning process effectiveness.
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS MEASUREMENT
The quantity of the target substance distributed within the sample can be
measured in 3D via the construction of acalibration curve for the 3D tomographic qualities measured. shows the reference values and the method of determining fixed quantity coefficients. THz wave CT analyses the reference sample containing no soot. The measured values are taken as the calibration curve reference values such that the substrate density prior to soot loading becomes 0g/l or the baseline. Then, forthe substrate loaded with soot, the average value of the difference between the THz transmission parameter and the
Base material
reference method
62
Perspective of the analysis results
reference value is calculated. A gradient (coefficient) of the calibration curve is determined as the ratio of the average and the expected value. The calibration curve is then applied to all 3D tomographic data. By applying the calibration curve to the 3D tomographic data, the TAS7000 provides a 3D image and quantitative distribution of the target material (in this case, soot and ash) throughout the filter. Optimally, the same filter would also be measured as a bare filter for substrate irregularities and after catalyst coating for coating coverage variations to ensure a comprehensive, quantitative life stage DPF performance characterisation from bare filter to post regeneration cleaning. In this
instance, the scope of the study was limited to the three stages listed above and the regenerated filter was used as a baseline to calculate the average density of soot, . Using this method, the substrate and coating irregularities plus ash could be eliminated by subtracting the regenerated, ash only sample data, (middle) from the soot and ash loaded Sample, (left) so that only the soot data could be visualised, (right).
DATA PROVIDED
For each cross-section slice, the TAS7000 can display five different results for an overview of the target material (substrate, catalyst, soot, ash, etc.) distribution and
density. The five results are comprised of a 2D cross sectional image, a stereoscopic image and three spectral images. The 2D image is the target material variation across the X-Y axis, G1 in . The 3D image is viewed from the horizontal direction along the plane across the vertical axis. It displays the target material variation through the length of the Z axis slice, G2 in . TAS7000 also displays the total av erage density of the selected slice in grams per liter, G3 in . Density is defined as the target material weight per liter of substrate volume. Two of the three spectra depict the density variation across the Xaxis, G4 in , and across the Y axis, G5 in , of the cross section. The third spectrum shows the
Net soot distribution

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Stereoscopic and 2D images of cross section slice Z24
average density variation along the Z axis, G6 in . The com bination of these images gives a clear characterisation of the target material density and variation within the cross section slice and the entire substrate.
THE FINDINGS
For the soot loaded sample analysis, the average particulate material was calculated at 4 g/l. On the Z axis (height), the soot was highly concentrated towards the outlet side of the filter between cross section slice Z10 and Z20 as can be seen in in the 3D image and the spectrum to its right.
The cross sectional slice Z14 represents one of the highest soot density slices with an average soot density of 5.6g/l. On the X-Y cross sections, the soot density shows deeper and lighter density areas indicating variations in the soot loading. The higher particulate material density closer to the outlet is attributed to pressure drop and exhaust flow changes from inlet to outlet. For the ash only sample, the average ash load was 9.8g/l. Similar to , the substrate irregularity may be removed by subtracting the ash cleaned filter data so that only the ash data could be visu alised, . In the Z Axis (height), the ash density is consistently light from the inlet side of
the filter to the lower centre. It becomes denser toward the outlet side with the highest density close to the outlet. The density distribution on the X-Z cross sections shows high density around the outlet and almost no accumulation in theupper half of the filter, . After analysis, the ash only sample was cleaned of ash and again analysed. The efficacy of the ash cleaning process can also be clearly seen in (middle). The highest density ash accumulation close to the outlet has been significantly reduced. The Z axis spectral curve post cleaning is significantly less than that for the post regeneration (ash loaded) Z axis spectrum on the left. The cross sectional
Net ash distribution
64
slice Z24 confirms this finding at 2.2g/l on the ash loaded filter but 0.0g/l on the cleaned filter. Variations across the X-Y axis spectrum show a reduction in ash on the cross sectional view. By using the base reference method, the substrate andwash coat variation images could be suppressed to display only the ash re moved with cleaning.
CONCLUSION
In this study, the TAS7000 Imaging System used THz wave technology with computed tomography to measure a single sample filter at three stages and clearly characterised: :: variations in soot loading from inlettooutlet and across the X-Y axis :: effective soot regeneration with post regeneration ash accumulation at the outlet :: significantly reduced ash post cleaning, indicating an effective cleaning process. Although not included in this study, THz CT can characterise DPF performance by the optimal measurement
sequence of a single bare filter throughout the coating, soot loading, regen eration and ash cleaning processes. Theresulting quantitative and quali tative data can be used to help identifythe influences or damage contributed from substrate variations, coatinganomalies, inconsistent soot loading, ineffective regeneration and incompleteash-cleaning. Through multiple analyses of the same sample in this study, it has been shown that non-destructive THz wave CT measurement is repeatable and reproducible. The non-destructive properties of THz wave also make it the only tool that can conduct such a study. THz wave technology can be applied to measure and characterise individual system components as well as the entire exhaust aftertreatment system performance. THz wave measurement can be used as a tool in designing more efficient systems by: :: incorporating the extensive dataintoexhaust gas flow designmodels :: conducting active regeneration studiesto optimise engine control
:: characterising poisoning materialdistribution and high temperatureregeneration effects on them :: analysing defects for optimal maintenance schedule development. THz wave technology has proven to be a viable new measurement technique for current and future performance characterisation, troubleshooting and ex haust system design in compliance with regulatory exhaust emissions requirements.
THANKS
A DPF with soot and ash was provided by Liebherr Machines Bulle Switzerland (Roland Wiltz and Dr Regis Vonarb).
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IMPRINT
www.MTZonline.com Founded 1939 by Prof. Dr.-Ing. E. h. H einrich Buschmann and Dr.-Ing. E. h. Prosper LOrange Organ of the Fachverband Motoren und S ysteme im VDMA, Verband D eutscher M aschinen- und An l agenbau e.V., Frankfurt/Main, for the areas combustion engines and g as turbines Organ of the Forschungsvereinigung Verbrennungskraftmaschinen e.V. (FVV) Organ of the Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft fr Kraftfahrzeug- und Motorentechnik e.V. (WKM) Organ of the sterreichischer Verein fr Kraftfahrzeugtechnik (VK) Cooperation with the STG, Schiff b au t echnische Gesellschaft e.V., Hamburg, in the area of ship drives by combustion engine
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RWTH Aachen University HAW Hamburg Technische Universitt Braunschweig RWTH Aachen University Universitt Stuttgart Karlsruher Institut fr Technologie Technische Universitt Dresden
Institut fr Kraftfahrzeuge Aachen Department Fahrzeugtechnik und Flugzeugbau Institut fr Fahrzeugtechnik Lehrstuhl fr Verbrennungskraftmaschinen Institut fr Verbrennungs motoren und Kraftfahrwesen Institut fr Kolbenmaschinen Lehrstuhl fr Verbrennungsmotoren
GUTACHTERAUSSCHUSS
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Klaus Augsburg Prof. Dr.-Ing. Michael Bargende Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dr. techn. Christian Beidl Prof. Dr. sc. techn. Konstantinos Boulouchos Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. Manfred Broy Prof. Dr.-Ing. Ralph Bruder Dr. Gerhard Bruner Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Heiner Bubb Prof. Dr. rer. nat. habil. Olaf Deutschmann Prof. Dr.-Ing. Klaus Dietmayer Dr. techn. Arno Eichberger Prof. Dr. techn. Helmut Eichlseder Prof. Dr. Wilfried Eichlseder Dr.-Ing. Gerald Eifler Prof. Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Eifler Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Frank Gauterin Prof. Dr. techn. Bernhard Geringer Prof. Dr.-Ing. Uwe Dieter Grebe Dr. mont. Christoph Guster Prof. Dr.-Ing. Holger Hanselka Prof. Dr.-Ing. Horst Harndorf Prof. Dr. techn. Wolfgang Hirschberg Univ.-Doz. Dr. techn. Peter Hofmann Prof. Dr.-Ing. Bernd-Robert Hhn Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Peter Holstein Prof. Dr.-Ing. Volker von Holt Dr. techn. Heidelinde Holzer Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Werner Hufenbach Prof. Dr.-Ing. Armin Hu Prof. Dr.-Ing. Roland Kasper Prof. Dr.-Ing. Tran Quoc Khanh Dr. Philip Khn Prof. Dr.-Ing. Ulrich Konigorski Dr. Oliver Krcher Prof. Dr.-Ing. Peter Krug Dr. Christian Krger Univ.-Ass. Dr. techn. Thomas Lauer Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Uli Lemmer
Dr. Malte Lewerenz Prof. Dr.-Ing. Markus Lienkamp Prof. Dr. rer. nat. habil. Ulrich Maas Prof. Dr.-Ing. Markus Maurer Prof. Dr.-Ing. Martin Meywerk Ao. Univ.-Prof. Dr. Gregor Mori Prof. Dr.-Ing. Klaus D. Mller-Glaser Dr. techn. Reinhard Mundl Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Peter Neugebauer Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Cornelius Neumann Prof. Dr.-Ing. Nejila Parspour Prof. Dr.-Ing. Peter Pelz Prof. Dr. techn. Ernst Pucher Dr. Jochen Rauh Prof. Dr.-Ing. Konrad Reif Prof. Dr.-Ing. Stephan Rinderknecht Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jrg Roth-Stielow Dr.-Ing. Swen Schaub Prof. Dr. sc. nat. Christoph Schierz Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Christof Schulz Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Andy Schrr Prof. Dr.-Ing. Ulrich Seiffert Prof. Dr.-Ing. Hermann J. Stadtfeld Prof. Dr. techn. Hermann Steffan Prof. Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Steiger Prof. Dr.-Ing. Peter Steinberg Dr.-Ing. Peter Stommel Dr.-Ing. Ralph Sundermeier Prof. Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Thiemann Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr. h.c. Helmut Tschke Prof. Dr.-Ing. Georg Wachtmeister Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Wiedemann Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Gerhard Wiegleb Prof. Dr. techn. Andreas Wimmer Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Hermann Winner Prof. Dr. med. habil. Hartmut Witte Dr.-Ing. Michael Wittler
Scientific articles of universities in ATZ Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift, MTZ Motortechnische Zeitschrift and ATZelektronik are subject to a proofing method, the so-called peer review process. Articles accepted by the editors are reviewed by experts from research and industry before publication. For the reader, the peer review process further enhances the quality of the magazines content on a national and international level. For authors in the institutes, it provides a scientifically recognised publication platform. In the Peer Review Process, once the editors has received an article, it is reviewed by two experts from the Advisory Board. If these experts do not reach a unanimous agreement, a member of the Steering Committee acts as an arbitrator. Following the experts recommended corrections and subsequent editing by the author, the article is accepted. In 2008, the peer review process utilised by ATZ and MTZ was presented by the WKM (Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft fr Kraftfahrzeug- und Motorentechnik e. V./ German Professional Association for Automotive and Motor Engineering) to the DFG (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft/German Research Foundation) for official recognition. ATZelektronik participates in the Peer Review since 2011.
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PHENOMENOLOGICAL BURN-RATE MODELFOR DIESEL ENGINES WITHPARTLY HOMOGENOUS LOAD

Because of the inhomogeneous mixture process soot and nitrogen oxide are formed during the conventional Diesel combustion. In homogeneous or partly homogeneous operation combustion occurs in premixed and lean conditions. Therefore soot and NOx emissions are significantly reduced. In the past the last-named operating modes have been investigated mostly by experimental test-bench measurements. So far, the nonexistence of easy to use and accurate burn-rate models for these types of combustion regimes have prevented researchers and developers from using one-dimensional simulation tools. The University of Stuttgart and the ETH Zurich developed such a model within the framework of FVV project No. 996.
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DIPL.-ING. DOMINIKRETHER was Research Associate at the Institute for Internal C ombustion Engines and Automotive Engineering (IVK) at the University of Stuttgart and is now Employee at the 0D/1Dsimulation team at FKFS Stuttgart (Germany).
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PROF. DR.-ING. MICHAEL BARGENDE is Professor for Internal Combustion Engines at the Institute for Internal Combustion Engines and Automotive Engineering (IVK) at the University of Stuttgart (Germany).
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DR. SC. TECHN. CHRISTIAN LMMLE was Senior Research Associate at the LAV of the ETH Zrich and is Owner/Chief Executive Officer of the ETH spin-off combustion and flow s olutions GmbH Zrich (Switzerland).
PROF. DR. SC. TECHN. KONSTANTINOS BOULOUCHOS is Professor and Head of the Aerothermochemistry and Combustion Systems Laboratory (LAV) of the ETH Zrich (Switzerland).
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1 OVER ALL MODEL SE TUP 2 MIX TURE- FORMATION MODEL 3 REPRESENT OF THE LOW TEMPER ATURE C OMBUSTION 4 IGNITION DEL AY OF THE HIGH -TEMPER ATURE C OMBUSTION 5 CALCUL ATING THE HIGH -TEMPER ATURE C OMBUSTION 6 SIMUL ATION RESULTS OF THE NE W BURN - R ATE MODEL 7 SUMMARY
2 MIXTURE-FORMATION MODEL
1 OVERALL MODEL SETUP
Depending on the type of mixture formation (external or direct injection) the combustion chamber is divided into one zone or two zones, , where the charge non-homogeneity in the combustion chamber is to be represented using the two-zone model approach. The freshcharge zone always exists and contains the entire gas mass of the combustion chamber at the start of computation (intake closes). During direct injection (DI) operation the vaporising fuel is fed to the mixture zone after the start of injection. At the same time charge admixture starts from the fresh-charge zone to the mixture zone, in which the combustion also takes place. Because there is extensive prevailing homogeneity with regard to the charge in the case of external mixture formation, the one-zone approach is sufficient there and the combustion takes place in the freshcharge zone. To reproduce the low-temperature combustion, which occurs during homogeneous and in some cases during partly homogenous Diesel combustion the heat-release is calculated using a reaction mechanism. Some of the energy released via the reaction rates is included in the calculation of an ignition integral, which is used to determine the ignition point of the high-temperature combustion. When this is reached the reaction mechanism is shut down and the heat release is reproduced in due course using a phenomenological approach, which takes into account both the charge and the temperature non-homogeneities in the combustion chamber. The following sections contain a rough overview of the individual submodels. Please refer to the final report on the project for a detailed description of all submodels and further validation studies done during the project [3].
The mixture-formation model calculates the admixture of fresh charge in the mixture zone during DI operation. During injection the injection sprays propagate in the combustion chamber, mix locally with air and thereby form mixture clouds. These have more time to propagate and increase in mass the longer the ignition delay lasts. In the model described here the mixture clouds of the individual injection sprays are represented in summarised form over the mixture zone. During vaporisation the enthalpy of vaporisation is removed from the mixture zone and the vaporising fuel mass is added to it. The admixture rate of the fresh charge to the mixture zone is calculated using a combined turbulence- and density-difference approach (Eq.1) where the two submodels can be adjusted via the parameters c1 and c2, . The front term is based on [4], where it is used to describe turbulence-controlled mixture-formation processes. The calculation of the specific turbulence in the combustion chamber is based on an established k--approach, which is also used for example in [5] to model the air admixture in conventional Diesel combustion. The injection, the air swirl and the piston stroke are sources of turbulence. The influence of injection, air swirl and dissipation can be matched to each other using three parameters. In all the mixtureformation model is thus matched using five parameters, where normally only the two parameters from Eq.1 are adapted and the remaining parameters are merely needed for fine-tuning.
dmadmixtion, m-zone k ___________ =c1mf-c-zone_____ dt l
__
EQ. 1
+c2Vm-zone(f-c-zonem-zone)
char,mc
The density-difference approach amplifies the admixture rate as soon as a larger density difference between the fresh-charge and mixture zones arises. In this way fuel and air are subject to extensive mixing during the high-temperature combustion, where this may not however be equated with a complete homogenisation. This model assumption corresponds to experimental observations, since the evaluation of existing measuring data taking the exhaust-gas measurement into account showed that at some DI operating points at least 89 % of the cylinder charge must be involved in the combustion so that the conversion rates of the test-bench measurement can be correctly reproduced.
3 REPRESENT OF THE LOW TEMPERATURE COMBUSTION
Schematic representation of zone distribution

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Due to the fact that low temperature combustion (LTC) appears especially at homogenous Diesel combustion (HCCI, HCLI) this effect has to be reproduced by the burn rate model. Briefly described LTC occurs because of chemical pre-reactions taking place in a small range of temperature which quench at higher temperatures leading to the typical burn-rates shown in . Such chemical processes are usually described by reaction mechanism whose usage within phenomenological burn-rate models is unusual however. The Zheng mechanism [6], whose reaction equations can be taken from , were integrated in the model presented here. It consists of seven reactions (reactions2 and 3 take place in both directions) and eight variable species as well as nitrogen as an inert gas. Reactions1 and 2, which are intended by Zheng et al. to describe the high-temperature combustion [6], are used in the model presented here to cal culate the
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ignition integral, which is described in the next section. Reactions 3 through 7 reproduce the low-temperature combustion. First of all mass-based species (unburned air, unburned fuel, burned air, burned fuel) are converted into the amount-of-substance-based species of the Zheng mechanism at the start of computation. In each following computation step the rates of change of the amounts of substance and the rate of enthalpy change caused by each reaction are calculated, using the equations shown in to determine the reaction velocities vr.
EQ. 2 ___ =vr, jVr-zoneH0 r, j dt By summarizing the rates of enthalpy change and multiplying them
d Hj
by a prefactor, the burn rate is obtained: _______ =Hr0 dt

dQb, Zheng d H ___ dt
7
j
EQ. 3
j=l
SYMBOLS
UNIT
EXPLANATION
c HTC,hom,a c HTC,hom,b c HTC,hom,c c HTC,p.hom c Ign-1 c1 c2 d H j/d t d m admixtion,m-zone/d t d Q b,Zheng /d t E act egr X Hr0 Hu IMEP k l char,mc MF m f-c-zone m fuel,pool 1,SOC m fuel,p.hom m fuel,ub,1 m r-zone n fuel,ub,1 R R Ign-1 R Ign r HTC,hom,1. r HTC,hom,2. r HTC,p.hom Tcyl(,SOC) t t SOC t0 Vr-zone Vm-zone v r,j H
0 r, j 0
[1/s 3] [1/s] [s/m2] [m3/s] [J/kg] [-] [1/s] [J/s] [kg/s] [J/s] [J/mol] [-] [-] [-] [J/kg] [bar] [m2/s2] [m] [kg/mol] [kg] [kg] [kg] [kg] [kg] [mol] [J/(molK)] [J/kg] [J/kg] [kg/s] [kg/s] [kg/s] [K] [s] [s] [s] [m3] [m3] [mol/(m3s)] [J/mol] [J/mol] [-] [kg/m3] [kg/m3]
Parameter for matching the time influence Parameter for matching the temperature influence Parameter for matching the falling edge Parameter for matching the partly homogeneous HTC Ignition limit for external mixture formation Matching parameter of turbulence influence Matching parameter of density-difference influence Rate of enthalpy change of reaction j Admixture rate of fresh charge into mixture zone Burn rate calculated using the Zheng mechanism Activation energy of high-temperature combustion Function for depicting the EGR influence Function for changing the ignition limit Prefactor for adapting the standard reaction enthalpies Net calorific value Indicated mean effective pressure Specific turbulence energy in combustion chamber Sphere radius of a single mixture cloud Molar mass of species F of reaction mechanism Mass of fresh-charge zone The fuel mass allocated to homogeneous pool 1 at the ignition point Current unburned fuel mass of the partly homogeneous pool Unburned fuel mass Mass of zone in which the reaction takes place Amount of substance matching mfuel,ub,1 Universal gas constant Ignition limit (energy density necessary for ignition) Ignition integral (current energy density) Rising edge of the mass conversion rate of the homogeneous HTC Falling edge of the mass conversion rate for describing the homogeneous HTC Mass conversion rate for describing the partly homogeneous HTC Temperature in combustion chamber (at start of combustion) Time in current computation step Time of start of combustion Time at start of computation Volume of zone in which the reaction takes place Volume of mixture zone Reaction velocity of reaction j Standard reaction enthalpy of reaction j Standard reaction enthalpy of complete combustion Air ratio in the zone in which the reaction takes place Density of fresh-charge zone Density of mixture zone
H R, vV
ub,r-zone f-c-zone m-zone
Explanation of used symbols
70
The prefactor is necessary since diesel fuel consists of a multitude of hydrocarbons, the basis of which is formed in the standard reaction enthalpies used in the reaction mechanism however by a mixture of n-heptane and iso-octane as fuel. Within the framework of the work-process calculation fluctuations in the chemical composition of the diesel fuel is represented via the net calorific value, which is specified by the user. For a correct energy calculation it is therefore necessary to scale the standard reaction enthalpies and thus also the rates of enthalpy change in such a way that they are equivalent in energy terms to the net calorific value:
mfuel, ub, 1
EQ. 4
u u = MF _________ Hr0=_______ _____ nfuel, ub, 1 0 0
H H r,cc
H H r, cc
It has transpired in the course of the project that to adjust the lowtemperature combustion just two parameters the pre-exponential factor of reaction 3+ and the activation energy of reaction 7 have to be adapted.
4 IGNITION DELAY OF THE HIGH-TEMPERATURE COMBUSTION
Representation of homogeneous and partly homogeneous operating

strategies [1, 2]
NO.
v R [MOL/(M3S)]
A [#]
E [J/MOL]
1 2+ 23+ 34
5
k[F] 0.25[O 2]1,5 k[CO][H 2O] [O 2]

0.5 0.25
7.2E+07 3.2E+09 1.2E+07 1.5E+08 4.4E+31 2.4E+06 1.0E+12 2.8E+10 1,5E+13
166216 167472 167472 157507 368899

16580
k[CO 2] k[F][O 2][M](p/10 bar) -2.2C 3+ k[I1](p/10 bar) -3.5 k[I1] k[F][Y] k[I1] k[I 2][M]
(order of reaction-1)
Based on the rates of enthalpy change of reactions 1 and 2 the ignition integral with which the start of combustion of the high-temperature combustion is determined is calculated:
dH dH + __ d t ( __ dt dt ) t RIgn= __________ mr-zone
1 2
EQ. 5
136783 58029 223826
6 7 [#]= ___ m3
(mol )
1 __ s
The counter contains the energy hitherto released via reactions 1 and 2, which is positive as a result of the change of the algebraic sign for an exothermic reaction. The energy is distributed, depending on the operating mode, to the fresh-charge zone or the mixture zone and thereby creates an energy density. The ignition integral is to reproduce the effect of the changing boundary conditions of temperature, pressure and mixture compositions on the ignition delay. However, the temperature and mixture non-homogeneities for the different operating modes (Atomiser-HCCI, HCLI and HPLI) vary in intensity. In DI operation the non-homogeneity is greatest during injection. Consequently there are many points in the mixture zone whose temperature is clearly above the zone temperature and therefore also ignite earlier than the calculations would predict based on the zone temperature. In comparison, in Atomiser-HCCI operation there are significantly fewer points in the combustion chamber whose temperature is above the temperature of the fresh-charge zone (mass mean temperature). This difference is illustrated by a variable ignition limit:
1. 2. 3. 4.
F+7.50 28H 2O+7CO CO+0.50 2CO 2 F+2O 2I1 I12Y
5. Y+0.5F+6.50 2 8H 2O+7CO 6. I1 I 2 7. I 2 2Y
C 3+=(110-PRF)/10 PRF: Primary reference fuel
Reaction rates of the Zheng mechanism [6]
prior to the start of injection. In each computation step the ignition integral is compared with the ignition limit. If this is exceeded, the high-temperature combustion is ignited. The reaction mechanism is shut down and the high-temperature combustion is calculated using a phenomenological approach. The ignition-delay calculation is matched not only by means of the parameter cIgn-l. but also a second parameter for adapting the starting value of function fX.
5 CALCULATING THE HIGH-TEMPERATURE COMBUSTION
EQ. 6
RIgn-l.=cIgn-lx
Factor fX is always 1 in the case of external mixture formation, while in the case of DI operation it is initially lower in order to reproduce the shorter ignition delays of individual hot spots. From the start of homogenisation it is a function of the mass fraction of the mixture zone and approaches the value 1, through which the ignition limit is also raised, . Homogenisation only begins once the specific turbulence in the combustion chamber has fallen below the level
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Unburned fuel can generally be classified into the following distinct forms: :: fuel present in the combustion chamber in gaseous form :: fuel present in the combustion chamber in liquid form :: not yet injected fuel. The phenomenological approach to reproducing the high-temperature combustion (HTC) consists of the following fuel pools, which represent the mass-balancing areas within the fresh-air/mixture zone:
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Characteristic of ignition
integral and ignition limit for an HCLI operating point
:: homogeneous pool 1: Share, which can be converted, and share, which cannot be converted (incomplete combustion) :: homogeneous pool 2 :: partly homogeneous pool :: diffusion pool. The fuel already present in the combustion chamber in gaseous form at the start of the high-temperature combustions is allocated entirely to the first homogeneous pool. In the case of external mixture formation all the fuel is thus in this pool. In the case of DI operation the mass fraction is dependent on the duration of the high-temperature ignition delay, because as the ignition delay increases so too the vaporised fuel quantity increases. In the case of HCCI operation and sometimes also HCLI operation the conversion efficiency is really low. Thus there were Atomiser-HCCI operating points with a conversion efficiency of just 60%, while for HCLI operation there were measurements of 85%. In order to represent the incomplete combustion, the inert-gas density and the specific turbulence and in the case of
external mixture formation also the fuel mass are used to calculate the non-convertible share of the first homogeneous pool. If at the start of combustion there is still liquid fuel in the combustion chamber, this, provided it vaporises within a period of time to be specified by the user, is allocated to the second homogeneous pool. The remaining fuel, which was already injected at the start of combustion but only vaporises much later, is allocated to the partly homogeneous pool. The fuel not yet injected at the start of combustion can only be converted via a diffusion combustion and is therefore added to the diffusion pool after it has vaporised. However, since the aim of the homogeneous and partly homogeneous Diesel combustion processes is to avoid diffusion combustion, the latter is currently not represented by the model. The diffusion pool represents the interface to which one would have to connect a conventional burn-rate model to represent conventional Diesel combustion. The combustion in the two homogeneous pools is represented using a common calculation approach. It is to be assumed that the
OPERATING POINT
OPERATING MODE
SPEED [RPM]
MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE [BAR]
RAIL PRESSURE [BAR]
VARIATION
15 610 1113
Atomiser-HCCI Atomiser-HCCI Atomiser-HCCI
2000 2000 2000
<0.4 1.4 1.42.4
EGR EGR Load at maximum EGR (55%) air mass constant SOI (56 CA to 1 CA b. TDC) SOI (56 CA to 1 CA b. TDC) EGR (SOI 1.5 CA after TDC) EGR (SOI 1.5 CA after TDC) EGR (SOI 1 CA before TDC)
1424
HCLI
2000
1200
2535
HCLI
2000
1200
3641
HPLI
2000
800
4147
HPLI
2000
1200
4854
HPLI
2000
1200
Operating points used for validation
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by a normalised Arrhenius term. In addition, a higher degree of robustness in model matching can generally be achieved with normalised Arrhenius terms. The combustion-lessening influences are summarised in the falling edge (Eq.8). These are the unburned fuel mass, the specific turbulence in the combustion chamber and again the function for describing the EGR influence. If there is temporarily a rich mixture in the mixture zone due to deficient charge admixture, the combustion is additionally lessened. The common conversion rate of the two homogeneous pools is obtained from the smaller value of the two edges and is distributed in accordance with the fuel-mass ratios proportionally to the two homogeneous fuel pools. r HTC, hom, 2=cHTC, hom, cmfuel, pool 1&2kegr
GL. 8
ub, r-zone0.25
Only for <1
Operating point 4: IMEP (simulation) = 1.52 bar; IMEP (PTA) = 1.6 bar; stoichiometric EGR = 13.2%
fuel has already been generously distributed in the combustion chamber and is therefore combusting to a large extent homogeneously. The combustion-enhancing and lessening effects are described in each case by independent terms (edges). The rising edge is calculated as shown in Eq. 7:
r HTC, hom, l= cHTC, hom, a(ttSOC)2egr+cHTC, hom, b

GL . 7
_______ mfuel, pool l, SOC Eact

cyl
Eact _____ RT
cyl,SOC
_______ RT
The partly homogeneous pool is allocated during HPLI operation between 15 and 30 % of the injected fuel mass. The conversion of this fuel is limited by the local air ratio. The mixing of this fuel with air is however not driven by the spray decomposition, but by slower mixture processes. However, it is virtually impossible to give a detailed phenomenological description of the local mixing of fuel with fresh charge and sometimes already converted mixture. For this reason a pragmatic approach was chosen in which the conversion rate is determined using the fuel density in the mixture zone and a time function (Eq.9). The time function initially increases exponentially, but then decreases towards a limit value and can thus represent in a qualitatively correct form the burnout at HPLI operating points.
________ r HTC, p.hom=cHTC, p.hom (t) V
m-zone
GL. 9
mfuel., p.hom
At the ignition point there will initially be an ignition at the hottest points in the combustion chamber. In due course more and more points in the combustion chamber attain a comparable temperature level, which is expressed by the t2 term. The influence of the EGR rate is reproduced via the function fEGR. Advancing combustion is accompanied by a temperature increase, which additionally amplifies the reactivity. Since the reactivity at the ignition point is to be independent of the temperature, the temperature influence is modelled
6 SIMULATION RESULTS OF THE NEW BURN-RATE MODEL
The validation of the new burn-rate model was conducted using existing measuring data [7], whereupon all operating points shown in have been measured with identical engine geometry. An ini-
Operating point 6 (left): IMEP (simulation) = 2.6 bar, IMEP (PTA) = 2.38 bar, stoichiometric EGR = 0%; Operating point 10 (right): IMEP (simulation) = 2.73 bar,
IMEP (PTA) = 2.74 bar; stoichiometric EGR = 13.2%
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Operating point 23 (left): IMEP (simulation) = 5 bar, IMEP (PTA) = 4.6 bar, stoichiometric EGR = 54.9%; Operating point 20 (right): IMEP (simulation) = 5 bar,
IMEP (PTA) = 5 bar, stoichiometric EGR = 61.3%
tial matching of the fully homogeneous Diesel combustion was performed at the Atomiser-HCCI operating points (operating points 1 to 13), where eight parameters were adapted. This was followed by the matching of the five parameters of the mixture-formation model and of the additional four parameters for representing the ignition delay and the conversion rate of the high-temperature combustion during DI operation (operating points 14 to 54). The already matched parameters for representing the homogeneous Diesel combustion in the case of external mixture formation remained unchanged such that all the operating modes were simu lated with a common set of parameters. The burn rates of the pressure trace analysis and the simulation are compared in the following diagrams. shows operating point 4. External mixture formation gives rise to a pronounced low-temperature combustion, which is very good reproduced by the simulation model. The ignition delay of the high-temperature combustions is correctly reproduced. Even the combustion with its pronounced burnout is correctly reproduced. shows operating points 6 and 10. It can be seen that in this series of measurements
the burn rate is only slightly changed by the EGR rate. The simulation model can reproduce this aspect. and shows some HCLI operating points with different starts of injection. At operating points 23 and 20 there is a marked low-temperature combustion both during the measurement and during the simulation. The later injection takes place, the higher already the combustionchamber temperatures on account of compression such that no low-temperature combustion takes place at operating point 14, which is also reproduced by the model. At operating point 20 the ignition delay of the high-temperature combustion is calculated a little too short. To conclude, shows the relative deviation of the indicated mean effective pressure and of the combustion efficiency for all the operating points listed in . However, for a few exceptions the deviations are 10 %, where the deviations tend to be lower at near-production operating points with injection around TDC. In view of the fact that a broad spectrum of operating modes can be predictively calculated, the level of accuracy achieved can be classified as very good.
Operating point 18 (left): IMEP (simulation) = 5.45 bar, IMEP (PTA) = 5.21 bar, stoichiometric EGR = 53.8%; Operating point 14 (right): IMEP (simulation) = 5.12 bar,
IMEP (PTA) = 4.99 bar, stoichiometric EGR = 7.2%
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Relative deviation of the

ndicated mean effective i pressure and of the conversion efficiency of all the simulated operating points
7 SUMMARY
In the course of the FVV project Homogeneous Burn Rate a phenomenological burn-rate model for simulating fully and partly homogeneous Diesel combustion was created and integrated into the FVV cylinder module [8, 9]. Fundamental investigations at the start of the project have shown that the low-temperature combustion occurring during homogeneous Diesel combustion can be represented by way of a very simple reaction mechanism. However, this is not suitable for simulating the high-temperature combustion, which is why a general phenomenological approach was developed for it. An established k- -approach was combined with a density-difference term to represent mixture formation. The model consists of a total of 17 parameters. Eight parameters are required to represent the homogeneous Diesel combustion in the case of external mixture formation. The remaining nine parameters serve to adapt the model to the unavoidable non-homogeneities encountered during DI operation. What is advantageous with regard to model adaptation is the fact that the different parameters for the most part adjust only one determined partial phenomenon. It was therefore possible to develop a useful procedure for matching, making it easier for beginners to use the model. The computing time of the model for calculating the high-pressure phase of an engine combustion cycle is between 1 and 2s on a current desktop computer. This falls well below the limit of 20s set at the start of the project. The new burn-rate model is able, after the parameters have been adapted to an engine, with the aid of a set of parameters to reproduce with a good degree of accuracy the homogeneous or partly homogeneous Diesel combustion (Atomiser-HCCI, HCLI, HPLI) within the framework of the work-process calculation.
REFERENCES [1] Figer, G.; Pirker, G.; Wimmer, A.; Jauk, T.; Eichlseder, H.; Fuchs, C.; Schutting, E.: Analyse von HCCI-Brennverfahren beim direkteinspritzenden Diesel motor. 9. Tagung Der Arbeitsprozess des Verbrennungsmotors, 2003 [2] Chmela, F.; Piock, W. F.; Sams, T.; Pirker, G.: Potenzial alternativer Verbrennungsverfahren fr Otto- und Dieselmotoren. 9. Tagung Der Arbeitsprozess des Verbrennungsmotors, 2003
[3] Rether, D.; Lmmle, C.: Modell zur Berechnung der Brennrate bei homogener und teilhomogener Dieselverbrennung. Final report of FVV research project 996, issue 960, Forschungsvereinigung Verbrennungskraftmaschinen, Frankfurt am Main, 2012 [4] Chmela, F.; Orthaber, G.; Schuster, W.: Die Vorausberechnung des Brenn verlaufs von Dieselmotoren mit direkter Einspritzung auf der Basis des Einspritzverlaufs. In: MTZ 59 (1998), No. 7/8, pp. 484-492 [5] Kouch, P.: Ein phnomenologisches Modell zur kombinierten Stickoxidund Ruberechnung bei direkteinspritzenden Dieselmotoren. University of Stuttgart, Dissertation, 2004, elib.uni-stuttgart.de/opus/ v olltexte/2004/2104/ pdf/Diss_Kozuch.pdf [6] Zheng, J.; Miller, D. L.; Cernansky, N. P.: A Global Reaction Model for the HCCI Combustion Process. SAE-Paper 2004-01-2950, 2004 [7] Haas, S.: Experimentelle und theoretische Untersuchung homogener und teilhomogener Dieselbrennverfahren. University of Stuttgart, Dissertation, 2007, http://elib.uni-stuttgart.de/opus/volltexte/2007/3242/pdf/Diss_Haas.pdf [8] Grill, M.: Zylindermodul. Final report of FVV research project 869, issue 866-1, Forschungsvereinigung Verbrennungskraftmaschinen, Frankfurt am Main, 2008 [9] Grill, M.; Bargende, M.: Das Zylindermodul Neue Simulation nicht nur fr zuknftige Brennverfahren, In: MTZ 70 (2009), No. 10, pp. 778-785
THANKS
The results presented in this report were found along the research project No. 996 of the Forschungsvereinigung fr Verbrennungskraftmaschinen e.V. (FVV). The processing involved the IVK at the University of Stuttgart administrated by Prof. Michael Bargende and the LAV at the ETH of Zrich administrated by Prof. Kontantinos Boulouchos. The project was financed by own resources of the FVV. A working group under the direction of Dr.-Ing. C.-O. Schmalzing, MTU Friedrichshafen GmbH, accompanied the research work. The authors are grateful for the possibility to perform this project.
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MTZ worldwide 10/2012 http://www.mtz-worldwide.com

October 2012 | Volume 73

SIX-CY LINDER Diesel Engine from

T URBOCH A RGING with Low

BURN-R AT EMODEL for Diesel Engines

CLEAN AND FUEL-EFFICIENT COMMERCIAL VEHICLE POWERTRAINS

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CLEAN AND FUEL-EFFICIENT COMMERCIAL VEHICLE POWERTRAINS

12 Technology Trends in Commercial Vehicle Base Engine Development

38 Innovative Bearing Design for Optimising Crankshafts

44 Turbocharging with Low Temperature Charge Air Cooling and EGR

54 New Generation of Scroll-type Supercharger More Power and Reduced Consumption

26 New Battery Concepts A User-centred Approach

60 A New Terahertz Analytical Tool for Exhaust Aftertreatment Systems

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DR. ALEXANDER HEINTZEL, Editor in Chief Wiesbaden, 14 August 2012

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C OVER STORY C ommercial V ehicl e P owertr ains

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Engine portfolio Daimler Trucks (lower power range)

Single turbo Max. compressor pressure ratio: 3.5

Dual turbo Max. compressor pressure ratio: 4.0

Single turbo Max. compressor pressure ratio: 3.6

Dual turbo Max. compressor pressure ratio: 4.1

Cornerstones of the combustion recipe

Turbocharging variants of the OM 93x model series

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OM 936 longitudinal and

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Engine brake unit

Coolant intake from engine Oil lter

Housing for double thermostat with coolant outlet to vehicle radiator

Coolant intake from vehicle radiator

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Aftertreatment control unit (ACM) Pressure sensor upstream DPF

Control unit NOx sensor (tailpipe-out emission)

Pressure sensor downstream DPF

Exhaust aftertreatment system

System architecture exhaust aftertreatment

HC dosing EGR cooler

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)

Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)

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Control unit NOx sensor (engine-out emission)

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Engine torque [Nm]

Power output and torque

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Comparison of operating costs OM 926 LA Euro V versus OM 936 Euro VI (WHTC)

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DEF consumption [%] (related to fuel)

Operating costs of DEF and fuel [%]

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TECHNOLOGY TRENDS IN COMMERCIAL VEHICLE BASE ENGINE DEVELOPMENT

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HOLISTIC CONSIDERATION NECESSARY

Advanced materials Thermal spray coating

Demand controlled auxiliaries