RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
LESSON 14:
DESIGNING SAMPLE
Hello, students today we shall be continuing our discussing on
issues in sampling. Before proceeding further let us recaptulate
what we had studied in the last lecture first.
We have learned that a sample is a part or aggregate selected with
a view to obtaining information about the whole group also
known as population. The population is composed of a number
of units. The total number of units in the population and in the
sample are known as population size and sample size. We also
came to know that sampling is the scientific technique of drawing
a sample. Any characteristic of population is called parameter and
that of sample is called statistic. Also, the standard deviation of
sampling distribution is called standard error, larger the sample
size lower will be the standard error. We have also studied various
sources of sampling and non-sampling error along with principles
of sampling.
For the process of statistical inference to be valid we must ensure
that we take a representative sample of our population.
Whatever method of sample selection we use it is vital that the
method is described.
How do we know if the characteristics of a sample we take match
the characteristics of the population we are sampling? The short
answer is we don’t. We can, however, take steps that make it as
likely as possible that the sample will be representative of the
population.
Two simple and effective methods of doing this are making sure
the sample size is large and making sure it is randomly selected.
A large sample size is more likely to be representative of a
population than a small one.
Think of extreme cases. If we want to know the average height
of the population and we select just one person and measure
their height it is unlikely to be close the population average. If we
took 1,000,000 people, measured their heights and took the average,
this figure would be likely to be close to the population average.
Types of Sampling
The type of enquiry you want to have and the nature of data that
you want to collect fundamentally determines the technique or
method of selecting a sample.
The procedure of selecting a sample may be broadly classified
under the following three heads:
• Non-Probability Sampling Methods: Subjective or
Judgement Sampling
• Probability Sampling
• Mixed Sampling
Now let us discuss these in detail. We will start with the non-
probability sampling then we will move on to probability sampling.
Non-Probability Sampling Methods
The common feature in non probability sampling methods is
that subjective judgments are used to determine the population
© Copy Right: Rai University
11.556
that are contained in the sample .We classify non-probability
sampling into four groups:
1. Convenience Samples
2. Judgement Samples
3. Quota Samples
4. Snowball samples
A. Convenience Samples
• These types of samples are used primarily for reasons of
convenience.
• It is used for exploratory research and speedy situations.
• It is often used for new product formulations or to provide
gross-sensory evaluations by using employees, students,
peers, etc.
Convenience sampling is extensively used in marketing studies
and otherwise.
This would be clear from the following examples
1. Suppose a marketing research study aims at estimating the
proportion of Pan (Beetle leaf) shops in Delhi, which store a
particular drink Maaza. It is decided to take a sample of size
150. What the investigator does is to visit 150 Pan shops
near his place of office as it is very convenient to him and
observe whether a Pan shop stores Maaza or not.
This is definitely not a representative sample, as most Pan
shops in Delhi had no chance of being selected. It is only
those Pan shops which were near the office of the
investigator has a chance of being selected
2. The other example where convenience sampling is often
used is in test marketing. There might be some cities whose
demographic make-ups are approximately the same as
national average. While conducting marketing tests for new
products, the researcher may take samples of consumers
from such cities and obtain consumer evaluations about
these products as these are supposed to represent “national”
tastes.
3. A ball pen manufacturing company is interested in knowing
the opinions about the ball pen (like smooth flow of ink,
resistance to’ breakage of the cover etc.) it is presently
manufacturing with a view to modify it to suit customers
need. The job is given to a marketing researcher who visits a
college near his place of residence and asks a few students (a
convenient sample) their opinion about the ‘ball pen” in
question.
4. As another example a researcher might visit a few shops to
observe what brand of vegetable oil people are buying so as
to make inference about the share of a particular brand he is
interested in.
83
 B. Judgement Samples
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
• It is that sample in which the selection criteria are based upon
your (researcher’s) personal judgment that the members of
the sample are representative of the population under study.
• It is used for most test markets and many product tests
conducted in shopping malls.If personal biases are avoided,
then the relevant experience and the acquaintance of the
investigator with the population may help to choose a
relatively representative sample from the population. It is
not possible to make an estimate of sampling error as we
cannot determine how precise our sample estimates are.
Judgement sampling is used in a number of cases, some of which
are:
1. Suppose we have a panel of experts to decide about the
launching of a new product in the next year. If for some
reason or the other, a member drops out, from the panel,
the chairman of the panel may suggest the name of another
person whom he thinks has the same expertise and
experience to be a member of the said panel. This new
member was chosen deliberately - a case of Judgment
sampling.
2. The method could be used in a study involving the
performance of salesmen. The salesmen could be grouped
into top-grade and low-grade performer according to certain
specified qualities. Having done so, the sales manager may
indicate who in his opinion, would fall into which category.
Needless to mention this is a biased method. However in
the absence of any objective data, one might have to resort
to this type of sampling.
C. Quota Samples
This is a very commonly used sampling method in marketing
research studies.Here the sample is selected on the basis of certain
basic parameters such as age, sex, income and occupation that
describe the nature a population so as to make of it representative
of the population.
The Investigators or field workers are instructed to choose a sample
that conforms to these parameters.The field workers are assigned
quotas of the number of units satisfying the required
characteristics on which data should be collected.
However, before collecting data on these units the investigators
are supposed to verify that the units qualify these characteristics.
Suppose we are conducting a survey to study the buying behavior
of a product and it is believed that the buying behaviour is greatly
influenced by the income level of the consumers. We assume that
it is possible to divide our population into three income strata
such as high-income group, middle-income group and low-income
group. Further it is known that 20% of the population is in high-
income group, 35% in the middle-income group and 45% in the
low-income group. Suppose it is decided to select a sample of size
200 from the population. Therefore, samples of size 40, 70 and
90 should come from high income, middle income and low income
groups respectively. Now the various field workers are assigned
quotas to select the sample from each group in such a way that a
total sample of 200 is selected in the same proportion as mentioned
above. For example, the first field
© Copy Right: Rai University
84
• Selection is done by non-probability means and are based
upon the researcher’s judgement of appropriate
demographics.
D. Snowball Sampling
• It is that samples in which the selection of additional
respondents (after the first small group of respondents is
selected) is based upon referrals from the initial set of
respondents.
• It is used to sample low incidence or rare populations
• It is done for the efficiency of finding the additional, hard-
to-find members of the sample.
Advantages of Non-probability Samples
• It is much cheaper to probability samples.
• It is acceptable when the level of accuracy of the research
results is not of utmost importance.
• Less research time is required than probability samples.
• It often produces samples quite similar to the population of
interest when conducted properly.
Disadvantages of Nonprobability Samples
• You cannot calulate Sampling error. Thus, the minimum
required sample size cannot be calculated which suggests that
the you (researcher) may sample too few or too many
members of the population of interest.
• You do not know the degree to which the sample is
representative of the population from which it was drawn.
• The research results cannot be projected (generalized) to the
total population of interest with any degree of confidence.
Probability Sampling
Probability sampling is the scientific method of selecting samples
according to some laws of chance in which each unit in the
population has some definite pre-assigned probability of being
selected in the sample. The different types of probability sampling
are :
1. where each unit has an equal chance of being selected.
2. Sampling units have different probabilities of being selected
3. Probability of selection of a unit is proportional to the
sample size.
Simple Random Sampling
It is the technique of drawing a sample in such a way that each unit
of the population has an equal and independent chance of being
included in the sample.
In this method an equal probability of selection is assigned to
each unit of population at the first draw.It also implies an equal
probability of selecting in the subsequent draws.
Thus in simple random sample from a population of size N, the
probability of drawing any unit in the first draw is 1/N.The
probability of drawing a second unit in the second draw is 1/N-
1.
The probability of selecting a specified unit of population at any
given draw is equal to the probability of its being selected at the
first draw.
11.556
Selection of a Simple Random Sample
As we all know Simple Random Sample refers to that method of
selecting a sample in which each and every unit of population is
given independent and equal chance to be included in the sample.
But, Random Sample does not depend only upon selection of
units but also on the size and nature of the population.
One procedure may be good and simple for a small sample but it
may not be good for the large population.
Generally, the method of selecting a sample must be independent
of the properties of sampled population.
Proper precautions should be taken to ensure that your selected
sample is random. Although human bias is inherent in any
sampling scheme administered by human beings.
Random selection is best for two reasons - it eliminates bias and
statistical theory is based on the idea of random sampling.
We can select a simple random sample through use of tables of
random numbers , computerized random number generator or
lottery method . Thus, the three methods of drawing simple
random sample are:
• Mechanical method and using tables of random numbers,
• sealed envelopes (lottery system) etc.
Lottery Method
This is the simplest method of selecting a random sample.
We will illustrate it by means of example for better
understanding:Suppose, we want to select “r” candidates out of
“n”. We assign the numbers from 1 to n i.e to each and every
candidate we assign only one exclusive number. These numbers
are then written on n slips which are made as homogeneous as
possible in shape, size, colour, etc.
These slips are then put in a bag and thoroughly shuffled and
then “r” slips are drawn one by one. The “r” candidates
corresponding to numbers on the slips drawn will constitute a
random sample.
This method of selecting a simple random sample is independent
of the properties of population. Generally in place of slips you
can use cards also. We make one card corresponding to one unit of
population by writing on it the number assigned to that particular
unit of pipulation. The pack of cards is a miniature of population
for sampling purposes. The cards are shuffled a number of times
and then a card is drawn at random from them. This is one of the
most reliable methods of selecting a random sample.
Mechanical Randomisation or Random Numbers
Method
The explained method of lottery is very time consuming and
cumbersome to use if population is very large.
Therefore the most practical and inexpensive method of
selecting a random sample consists in the use of Random
Numbers Tables, which has been constructed that each of the
digits 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 appear with approximately the same
frequency and independently of each other.
If we have to select a simple random sample from a population
of size N(d”99) then the numbers can be combined two by two
to give pairs from 00 to 99.
© Copy Right: Rai University
11.556
Similarly if Nd”999 or Nd”9999 and so on, then combining the
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
digits three by three ( or four by four and so on ), we get numbers
from 000 to 999 or (0000 to 9999) and so on. Since each of the
digits 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 appear with approximately the same
frequency and independently of each other, so does each of the
pairs 00 to 99 or triplets from 000 to 999 or quadruplets 0000 to
9999 and so on .
Thus, the method of drawing the random sample consists in the
following steps:
i. Identify the N units in the population with the numbers
from 1 to N
ii. Select at random, any page of the random number tables and
pick up the numbers in any row or column or diagonal at
random.
iii. The population units corresponding to the number of unit
selected in step (ii) comprise the random sample.
I will tell you about the different sets of random numbers
commonly used in practice. The numbers in these tables have
been subjected to various statistical tests for randomness of a
series and their randomness has been well established for all practical
purposes.
1. Tippets (1927) Random Number Table: (Tracts for
computers No. 15 Cambridge University Press)
Tippet number tables consist of 10,400 four digited
numbers, giving in all 10,400 x 4 , i.e.,41600 digits selected at
random from the British Census Report.
2. Fisher and Yates (1938) Tables (in statistical tables for
biological, Agricultural and Medical Research) comprise
15,000 digits arranged in twos. Fisher and Yates obtained
these tables by drawing numbers at random from 10th to 19th
digits of A.S.Thomson’s 20- figure logarithmic tables.
3. Kendall and Babington Smith’s (1939) random tables consist
of 1,00,000 digits grouped into 25,000 sets of 4 digited
random numbers (Tracts for computers No. 24 Cambridge
University Press)
4. Rand Corporation (1955) (free oress, Illinois) random
number tables consist of one million random digits
consisting of 5 digits each.
5. TI-82: Generating Random Numbers
You can generate random numbers on the TI-82 calculator using
the following sequence. N is the number of different values, which
could be, and S is the minimum number.
int (N*rand+S)
If you have two values (A and B) that you need random numbers
between, then you can generate them using the following formule
N=B-A+1
int (N*rand+A)
Notice it is B-A+1 not B-A. Everyone agrees there are 10 numbers
between 1 and 10 (inclusive). But, if you take 10-1, you get 9, not
10. Also, in the formula above, replace the N by the actual number
of different values.
Since the calculator remembers the last formula put in, and evaluates
it when you hit enter, to generate more random numbers, just hit
85
 enter again. Each time you hit enter, you will get another random
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
number.
Merits and Limitations of Simple Random Sampling
Merits
1. Since samples units are selected at random providing equal
chance to each and every unit of population to be selected ,
the element of subjectivity or personal bias is completely
eliminated. Therefore, we can say that simple random
sample is more representative of population than purposive
or judgement sampling.
2. You can ascertain the efficiency of the estimates of the
parameters by considering the sampling distribution of the
statistic (estimates)
For example:One measure of calculating precision is sample size.
Sample mean becomes an unbiased mean of population mean
or a more efficient estimate of population mean as sample size
increases.
Limitations
1. The selection of simple random sample requires an up- to -
date frame of population from which samples are to be
drawn. Although it is impossible to have knowledge about
each and every unit of population if population happens to
be very large.
This restricts the use of simple random sample.
2. A simple random sample may result in the selection of the
sampling units,which are widely spread geographically and in
such a case the administrative cost of collecting the data may
be high in terms of time and money.
3. Sometime, a simple random sample might give most non-
random looking results, which I will explain with the help
of an illustration next.
4. For a given precision, simple random sample usually requires
larger sample size as compared to stratified random
sampling which we will be studying next.
The limitations of simple random sample will be clear from
the example.
If I were conducting a study looking at two treatments, A and B
then one way I could allocate patients to treatment groups would
be by using a table of random numbers.
The following set of random numbers came from a popular
statistics tables (most statistics textbooks have them):
65246356854282020026
I could allocate patients to treatment A if the number were odd
and B if it were even. This would result in successive patients
being allocated in the sequence:
BABBBAABBABBBBBBBBBB
Randomly selected numbers often seem to have patterns in them,
like long runs of the same number. This is not a problem if we
are conducting a large study, everything evens out over time.
But if the above study had stopped after recruiting 20 patients
then we would have had four patients on treatment A and sixteen
on B. This would not be a very good basis for comparing the two
treatments.
© Copy Right: Rai University
86
Therefore, some of the randomly allocated sample prove very
non-random. This type of problem can be eliminated by use of
Stratified Random Sampling, in which the population is divided
into different strata.
Now, we will move into details of stratified random sampling.
Stratified Random Sampling
We have understood that in simple random sampling, the variance
of the sample estimate of the population is
a. Inversely proportional to the sample size, and
b. Directly proportional to the variability of the sampling units
in the population.
We also know that the precision is defined as reciprocal of its
sampling variance. Therefore as sample size increases precision
increases.
Apart from increasing the sample size or sampling fraction n/N,
the only way of increasing the precision of sample mean is to
devise a sampling technique which will effectively reduce variance,
the population heterogeneity. One such technique is Stratified
Sampling.
Stratification Means Division into Layers
Past data or some other information related to the character under
study may be used to divide the population into various groups
such that
i. units within each group are as homogeneous as possible and
ii. the group means are as widely different as possible.
Thus, if we have a population consisting of N sampling units, it
is divided into k relatively homogeneous mutually disjoint (non
overlapping) sub-groups, termed as strata, of sizes N1, N2 —————
——————
Nk , such that N = “Ni for i =1 to k .
Now you draw a simple random sample of size n i (i=1,2,3,-k)
from each stratum.
This type of technique of drawing a sample is called stratified
random sampling and the sample is called stratified random
sampling.
There are two points which you have to keep in mind while drawing
a stratified random sample.
• Proper classification of the population into various strata,
and
• A suitable sample size from each stratum.
Both these points are important to be considered because if your
stratification is faulty, it cannot be compensated by taking large
samples.
Principle advantages of Stratified Random Sampling
1. More Representative
In an non-stratified random sample some strata may be over
represented, others may be under-represented while some may
be excluded altogether. Stratified sampling ensures any desired
representation in the sample of the various strata in the population.
It over-rules the possibility of any essential group of the
population being completely excluded in the sample. Stratified
sampling thus provides a more representative cross section of the
population and is frequently regarded as the most efficient system
of sampling.
11.556
2. Greater Accuracy
Stratified sampling provides estimates with increased precision .
Moreover, stratified sampling enables us to obtain the results of
known precision for each stratum.
3. Administrative Convenience
As compared with simple random sample, the stratified random
samples are more concentrated geographically. Accordingly, the
time and money involved in collecting the data and interviewing
the individuals may be considerably reduced and the supervision
of the field work could be allocated with greater ease and
convenience.
4. Sometimes you will notice that sampling problems may
differ markedly in different parts of population. For example
• Literates and Illiterate .People living in ordinary homes
and people living in institutions, hostels, hospitals etc.
In such cases we will deal with the problem through stratified
sampling by regarding the different parts of the population as
stratum and tackling the problems of the survey within each
stratum independently.
Note: You can allocate the sample sizes for different strata can be
done in two ways:
1. Proportional allocation
2. Optimum allocation
In proportional allocation, allocation of ni , the sample size of
each strata is called proportional if the sample fraction is constant
for each stratum i.e.,
n1 = n 2 = - - - - - - - - - - - = nk
N1 N2 Nk
Optimum Allocation is another guiding principle in the
determination of the n i is to choose them so as to :
1. Minimise the variance (i.e., maximize the variance) of the
estimate for (i) fixed sample size, (ii) fixed cost
2. Minimise the total cost for fixed desired precision
Systematic Random Sampling
If you have the complete and up-to-date list of sampling units is
available you can also employ a common technique of selection
of sample , which is known as systematic sampling.
In systematic sampling you select the first unit at random, the rest
being automatically selected according to some predetermined
pattern involving regular spacing of units.
Now let us assume that the population size is N. We number all
the sampling units from 1 to N in some order and a sample of
size n is drawn in such a way that
N = nk i.e. k = N/n
Where k, usually called the sampling interval, is an integer.
In systematic random sampling we draw a number randomly, let
us suppose that the number drawn is i d•k and selecting the
unit corresponding to this number and every k th unit subsequently
. Thus the systematic sample of size n will consist of the units
i, i+k, i+2k, - - - - - - - - - - - - , i+ (n-1)k
© Copy Right: Rai University
11.556
The random number i is called the random start and its value
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
determines the whole sample.
Merits and Demerits of Systematic Random Sampling
Now students we will discuss the merits and demerits of
systematic random sampling
Merits
I. .Systematic sampling is operationally more convenient than
simple random sampling or stratified random sampling.
It saves your time and work involved.
II. This sampling is more efficient to simple random sample,
provided the frame (the list from which you have drawn the
sample units ) is arranged wholly at random
Demerits
I. The main disadvantage of systematic sampling is that
systematic sampling is that systematic samples are not in
general random samples since the requirement in merit two
is rarely fulfilled.
II. If N is not a multiple of n, then
• The actual sample size is different from that required,
and
• Sample mean is not an unbiased estimate of the
population mean.
III.It does not provide the sampling error
IV.Systematic sampling may yield highly biased estimates if
there are periodic features associated with the sampling
interval, I.e., if the frame (list) has a periodic feature and k is
equal to or a multiple of the period.
Cluster Sampling
In this type of sampling you divide the total population ,
depending upon the problem under study, into some recognizable
sub-divisions which are termed as clusters and a simple random
sample of n blocks is drawn.
The individuals which you have selected from the blocks constitute
the sample.
Notations
N ‡Total number of clusters ;
n !number of sampled :
n
M‡ “ Mi is total number of units in the population.
i=1
Mi !Number of sampling units in the ith cluster;
Y ij ‡ jth obsevation in the i th cluster ( j = 1, 2, 3 - - - - - - - - Mi, i= 1,
2, 3 - - - - -N)
yij ‡ jth obsevation in the ith sampled cluster ( j = 1, 2, 3 - - - - - - -
- Mi, i= 1, 2, 3 - - - - -n).
In some situations Mi as well as M are not known.
Notes
• Clusters should be as small as possible consistent with the
cost and limitations of the survey
• The number of sampling units in each cluster should be
approximately same.
87
 Thus cluster sampling is not to be recommended if we are • In contrast -nonprobability selection is not random. When
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

sampling areas in the cities where there are private residential houses, each sample element is drawn individually from the
business and industrial complexes, apartment buildings, etc., with population at large, it is unrestricted sampling.
widely varying number of persons or households.
References
Multistage Sampling Aaker D A , Kumar V & Day G S - Marketing Research (John
One better way of selecting a sample is to resort to sub-sampling Wiley &Sons Inc, 6th ed.)
within the clusters , instead of enumerating all the sampling units
Bell J- Doing your Research Project (OU Press, 1993)
in the selected cluster.
Donald R. Cooper – Business Research Methods, Tata McGraw –
This technique is called two-stage sampling, clusters being termed
Hill Publication
as primary units and the units within the clusters being termed as
primary units and the units within the clusters as secondary units. Kothari C R – Quantitative Techniques (Vikas Publishing House
3rd ed.)
This technique can be generalized to multistage sampling.
Levin R I & Rubin DS - Statistics for Management (Prentice Hall
We regard population as a number of primary units each of which
of India, 2002)
is further composed of secondary stage units and so on , till we
ultimately reach a stage where desired sampling units are obtained. Notes
In multi-stage sampling each stage reduces the sample size.
Merits and Limitations
i. Multistage sampling is more flexible as compared to other
methods .It is simple to carry out and results in
administrative convenience by permitting the field work to
be concentrated and yet covering large area.
ii. It saves a lot of operational cost as we need the second stage
frame only for those units which are selected in the first stage
sample .
iii. It is generally less efficient than a suitable single- stage
sampling of the same size.This brings an end on today’s
discussion on sampling techniques.
Thus in the nutshell we can say that Non probabilistic sampling
such as Convenience sampling, Judgement Sampling and Quota
sampling are sometimes used although representative ness of
such a sample cannot be ensured. Whereas a probabilistic sampling
to each unit of the population to be included in the sample and in
this sense it is a representative sample of the population.
Points to Ponder
• Sampling is based on two premises. One is that there is
enough similarity among the elements in a population that a
few of these elements will adequately represent the
characteristic of the total population.
• The second premises is that while some elements in a
sample underestimate th population value, others
overestimate the value.
• The results of these tendencies are that a sample mean is
generally a good estimate of population mean.
• A good sample has both accuracy & precision. An accurate
sample is one which there is little or no bias or systematic
variance. A sample with adequate precision is one that has a
sampling error that is within acceptable limits.
• A variety of sampling technique is available, of which
probability sampling is based on random selection – a
controlled procedure that ensures that each population
element is given a known nonzero chance of selecion.

© Copy Right: Rai University

88 11.556