Chapter 1

The School as a Social System

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Chapter 1: The School as a Social System

What is Organizational Theory?
A set of interrelated concepts, assumptions, and generalizations that describes and explains patterns of behavior in organizations. Elements of Theory: Concepts Generalizations Assumptions Purposes of Theory: Provide an explanation of how things generally work. Guide research Guide practice Hypotheses: Conjectural statements that explain relationships. Use to test theories. Guide research Scientific Knowledge: Propositions supported by systematic research. Purpose of Science: To test theory and to provide reliable explanation.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Theory

Concepts

Assumptions And Generalizations

Concepts

Variables

Hypotheses

Empirical Testing

Principles

Figure 1.1: Theory-Research Relation ( Hoy 2007)

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Historical Development of Theory and Thought in Administration

I. Rational-Systems Perspective: A Machine Model
Scientific Management (The Beginning)
Frederick Taylor-Scientific Management Time and Motion Studies Standardization Exception Principle Division of Labor Span of Control

Rational-Systems Perspective
(A Contemporary View of Scientific Management) Goals--Organizations exist to attain collective goals Division of Labor for efficiency Specialization for expertise Standardization for routine performance Formalization for uniformity and coordination Hierarchy for unity of command and coordination Span of Control for effective supervision Exception Principle to free superiors from routine Coordination for administrative effectiveness Formal Organization is the official blueprint of the structure that guarantees efficiency and effectiveness. The formal organization is the key to organizational effectiveness.

Henri Fayol-Functions of Administration Planning Organizing Commanding Coordinating Controlling Luther Gulick--Functions of the Executive POSDCoRB

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

II. Natural-Systems Perspective: An Organic Model

Human Relations (The Beginning)
Mary Parker Follett Taylor antagonist and human relations advocate
Hawthorne Studies Illumination Studies--three studies Elton Mayo--more studies(1927-32) Hawthorne Effect Informal Organization Norms Grapevine Informal leaders Cliques Informal Norms No squealing No rate busting No chiseling Be a regular guy

Contemporary Natural System (Human Resources View)

Survival--organizations are more than instruments for goal attainment; they are social groups that adapt and survive. Individuals are more important than the structure. Needs motivate performance more than role demands . Specialization can promote boredom and frustration. Formalization produces rigidity and rule fixation. Informal Norms not formal rules are critical to performance. Hierarchy is ineffective because it usually neglects talent. Span of Control is dysfunctional because it fosters close and authoritarian supervision. Informal Communication is more efficient and open than formal communication. Informal Organization--informal structures are more important than formal ones just as informal leaders are more influential than formal ones. The informal organization is the key to effectiveness.

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

II. Open-systems Perspective: An Integration

Social Science: Interdependence, Integration, and Contingencies Max Weber Chester Barnard Herbert Simon Talcott Parsons Theory of Bureaucracy Functions of the Executive Administrative Behavior Social Systems Theory

Interdependence is a fact of organizational life. All organizations are open systems whose parts interact and depend on each other and are dependent on their environments.

Integration is central to an open-systems perspective.

Integration of goals and needs Integration of rational and natural elements Integration of tight and loose couplings Integration of planned and unplanned activities Integration of formal and informal. Behavior is a function of structure and needs. All organization have both rational and natural aspects. Organizations need both tight and loose couplings. Politics pervades organizational life. Organizations have two interactive faces: Formal & Informal.

Contingency Theory Effectiveness is contingent upon matching the situation with the appropriate technique.

There is no one best way to organize, motivate, decide, lead, or communicate-- it depends.

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Historical Development of Theory and Thought in Administration

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Key Properties of Open Systems

Inputs -- people, materials, and resources from the outside

Transformation -- the process transforming inputs into something of value by

the system.
Outputs

-- the byproduct of the transformation. -- how the system communicates to its parts and the environment.

Feedback

Boundaries
Environment Homeostatis Entropy

-- systems are differentiated from their environments.

-- is anything outside the system. -- a steady state of equilibrium -- the tendency for all systems for run down and die.

Equifinality

--the same end can be achieved many ways.

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Open System with Feedback Loops

Environment

Inputs
People
Materials Finances

Throughput [Transformation]

Outputs
Performance Products

Services
Feedback

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Social Systems Model: Key Assumptions

Social systems are open systems. Social systems consists of interdependent parts, which interact

with each other and the environment.

Social systems are goal oriented. Social systems are peopled. Social systems have structure. Social systems are political. Social systems have cultures. Social systems have norms.

Social systems are conceptual and relative.

All formal organizations are social systems, but not all social systems are organizations.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Key Elements of the School as a Social System

Schools are social systems with the following key parts:
Structure: roles are expectations of positions that are arranged in a hierarchy.

Individual:

the individual is a key unit in any social system; regardless of position, people bring with them individual needs, beliefs, and a cognitive understandings of the job.
represents the unwritten feeling part of the organizations: its shared values informal power relations that develop spontaneously. the teaching-learning process is the technical core of schools.

Culture:

Politics: Core:

Environment: everything outside the organization; source of inputs. Outputs: Feedback: the products of the organizations, e. g. educated students. communication that monitors behavior.

Effectiveness: the congruence between expected and actual outcomes.

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Internal Elements of the System

Environment
Transformation Process Structural System (Bureaucratic Expectations)

Inputs

Cultural System (Shared Orientations)

Political System (Power Relations)

Outputs

Individual System (Cognition and Motivation)

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Social System Model for Schools

Environment
Inputs Environmental constraints Human and capital resources Transformation Process Structural System (Bureaucratic Expectations) Outputs Achievement Job satisfaction Absenteeism Cultural System (Shared Orientations) Political System (Power Relations) Dropout rate Overall quality

Mission and board policy

Materials and methods

Individual System (Cognition and Motivation)

Discrepancy between Actual and Expected Performance

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

The Triadic Relations of Theory, Practice, and Research

Theory, research, and practice are in a dynamic relationship.

Each set of relationships is reciprocal: theory guides practice, but

practice reinforces, refines, or disconfirms theory; theory guides research, but research creates and refines theory; and research guides practice, but practice directs research. T

R
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Practical Imperatives
1. Seek and test good explanations in your administrative practice: Be both reflective and guided by evidence. 2. Be prepared for both rational and irrational behavior in schools: Both abound. 3. Cultivate informal relations to solve formal problems: The informal organization is a source of ingenious ideas. 4. Use multiple perspectives to frame school challenges: Framing the problem is often the key to its solution. 5. Engage informal leaders in problem solving: Cooperation between the formal and the informal is a key to success. 6. Be politically astute as you represent the school and its students: Politics is a fact of school life. 7. Encourage both stability and spontaneity as appropriate: Both are essential to good schools. 8. Be responsive to the community: The school is an open system. 9. Cultivate expertise as the basis for solving problems: Knowledge should be the basis of decision making. 10. Harness administration to the facilitation of sound teaching and learning: Teaching and learning is what schools are about.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011