I. !

Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg

II. Purpose ! The purpose of these labs was to reenforce the ideas of the Hardy- Weinberg Theorem. It was also to show evolution at work in a population of organisms. Evolution usually occurs through Natural Selection which will happen as an animal needs to change and adapt to the needs of a changing environment. The proportion of genotypes in a population from generation to generation can be determined using that HardyWeinberg Theorem. This only works though under the conditions of Mendelian segregation and recombination of alleles is at work. This theorem shows how Mendelian genetic inheritance preserves genetic variation. The proportion of allelic frequencies can be calculated by using the formulas p2+2pq+q2 and p-q=1. Genetic frequencies would change with the changes in the environment, the phenotype or genotype that is best suited for that specic environment will be the most observed at the time. When a bottleneck effect is observed the allelic frequency will be drastically changed from what it was. In addition when a founders affect is observed two populations of a species will evolve differently and become genetically different as they are no longer breeding together. III.Hypothesis ! Lab A. If you Randomly pick variable then the offspring produced in each generation will evolve to suit their changing environment. ! Lab B. If organisms are separated randomly then the offsprings that evolve from the parents will have a smaller gene pool and evolve differently from one another. IV.Materials ! Lab A. Computer, Paper, Pencil, AP Biology Investigative Lab book, Excel (spreadsheet) ! Lab B. Paper, Pencil, Ruler, Lab Packet, Notebook, Classmates V.Procedure Lab A: Step 1: Open a program that enables the creation of spreadsheets. Step 2: Complete the steps of model making 1. Formulate the question. 2. Determine the basic ingredients. 3. Quantitatively describe the biological system. 4. Quantitatively describe the biological system. 5. Analyze the equations. 6. Perform the checks and balances. 7. Relate the results back to the question. Step 3: To quantitatively describe the biological system you need to: 1. Set variable for the frequency of the alleles. a. Allele A can be p and Allele B can be q 2. P and q must add up to be 1. So after you input a value for p in D2 you can then put =1-D2 into D3 3. Next it is necessary to simulate random mating and this is done by using the function =RAND(). In E5 input the equation =IF(RAND()<=D$2,A, B)

4. 5.

Create the same formula in E5. Then Copy them both down for 16 cells. Place the zygote in cells G by entering the equation =CONCATENATE(E5,F5) then copy this formula down to match the numbers in column F. 6. Columns H,I,and J are used to keep track o the numbers of each zygotes genotype. 7. In H5 input the equation =IF(G5=AA,1,0). Then copy it down the column 8. In J5 input the equation =IF(G5=BB,1,0). Then copy it down the column 9. In I5 input the equation =IF(G5=AB,1,(IF(G5=BA,1,0))Then copy it down the column 10. Calculate the sums of each generation by using the sum function. 11. Use the genotype frequencies to calculate new allele frequencies and to recalculate new p and q values. 12. Make a bar graph of the genotypes using the chart tool. 13. Copy the chart and use different p and q values to describe the patterns of different allele frequencies over many generations. 14. Use the model before to determine the p and q values of the next generation. 15. Create graphs for the following generations to observe the change. ! Lab B: Step 1: Determine if you are a PTC taster and if your earlobes are attached or unattached. Step 2: Determine of homozygous recessive frequency (q2). Do this by dividing the number of students who cannot taste PTC by number of students in the class. This gives you the q2 value. ! Do the same for attached earlobes. ! Fill in the rst column of table 1. Step 3: Determine the frequency of the recessive allele (q) by calculating the square root of q2. Fill in the second column of table 1. Step 4: Determine the frequency of the dominant allele (p) using the formula p+q=1, that is, p=1-q and ll in the third column of table 1. Step 5: Determine the frequency of the homozygous dominant genotype (p2) by multiplying p times p and ll in the fourth column of table1. Step 6: Determine the frequency of the heterozygous genotype (2pq) by multiplying 2 times p times q and complete column ve in table 1. Step 7: Select a trait for further testing. Step 8: Test the Hardy-Weinberg law 1. Calculate the genotypic frequencies for the given trait. 2. Once the genotype to be used is contrived you must mate randomly with your fellow class mates for ve generations and then record your results. 3. Separate 6 students onto and island to create a founders effect and mate within your population for ve generations. 4. Calculate the genetic frequencies of each population and how they have become different. VI. Data Collection ! Lab A:

P = Frequency of A= q= Frequency of B=

0.6 0.4 0.4 A A A B A A B B A B A A B B B B

Gametes A A B A B B A A A A A B A A A A

Zygote BB BB AB BB AB AB BB BB AB BB AA AA BA BA BA BB

Sums for each genotype

Number of each Genotype AA AB BB 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 7 7 A B 0.125 0.4375 0.4375 p q 0.3536 0.6614 0.6614

number of each allele allele frequency next generation Generation 2 p 0.3536 q 0.6614 B B A B A B A A A A A B A B Gametes A A B A A B B A A A B A A A Zygote AB AB AB BB AB BB AB AB AB AB AB BB AB BB

AA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

AB 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0

BB 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

A B

B A

AB BB

0 0 0 A p

1 0 11

0 1 5

B 0 0.6875 0.3125 q 0 0.8292 0.559

Generation 3 p q 0 0.559 A A B B B A B A A A B A B B A B Gametes A A A B A A A B B A B A A B B B Zygote AB AB BB BB BB AB BB AB AB AB BB AB BB BB AB BA AA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 A p P= Q= 0 0.66143783 AB 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 9 BB 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 7

B 0 0.5625 0.4375 q

Genotype Frequencies
10 8 5 3 0 Generation 1

AA

AB Genotype Frequencies

BB

0 Generation 2

AA

AB

BB

Genotype Frequencies
9

0 Generation 3

AA
1

AB

BB

0 Allelic Frequencies

P
! Lab B: Non Taster with attached ear lobes

Taster x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 7 Table 1 Trait PTC Tasting Earlobes Genotypes 0.58 0.41 q2

Non-taster

Attached Earlobe x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 7 aa 10 p 0.23 0.35 0.05 0.12 p2

Free Earlobe

10 aa q 0.76 0.64

2pq 0.35 0.45

Table 2: Present Generation Genotypic Frequencies PTC Tasting Homozygous Recessive (q2) 0.59 Earlobes 0.41 Number of Students PTC Tasting 10 Earlobes 8

Genotypes Homozygous Dominant (p2) Heterozygous (2pq)

Genotypic Frequencies 0.06 0.45 0.13 0.46 1 6

Number of Students 2 7

Breeding Round 1: ! ME! MATE!! F1! tt! tt! ! F2! tt! Tt! ! F3! Tt! Tt! ! F4! TT! Tt! ! F5! Tt! Tt! ! Table 4: F5 Generation Genotypes Homozygous recessive (q2) Homozygous dominant (p2) Heterozygous (2pq) Genotypes Homozygous recessive (q2) Homozygous dominant (p2) Heterozygous (2pq)

Child! tt Tt TT Tt Tt

Genotypic Frequencies 0.05 0.57 0.36 Genotypic Frequencies 0.05 0.57 0.36 1 10 6 1 10 6

Number of Students

Table 5: Parental Generation Number of Students

Class Results: Heterozygotes! Tt ! ! ! 12 ! ! !

! ! !

Homozygous Recessive ! ! tt ! ! ! ! ! 1! ! ! ! !

Homozygous Dominant TT! ! ! 4! !

Breeding Round 2: ! ME! MATE!! F1! Tt! Tt! ! F2! TT! Tt! ! F3! Tt! tt! ! F4! tt! tt! ! F5! tt! Tt! ! Our portions results: Heterozygotes! ! Tt ! ! ! ! 6! ! ! !

Child 1! Tt! ! Tt! ! Tt! ! tt! ! Tt! !

Child 2! Tt! ! Tt! ! tt! ! tt! ! tt! !

Chosen Child! Tt! ! Tt tt! tt! ! ! tt Homozygous Dominant TT! ! ! 3! !

Homozygous Recessive ! ! tt ! ! ! ! ! 2! ! ! ! !

Table 6: F5 Generation Genotypes Homozygous recessive (q2) Homozygous dominant (p2) Heterozygous (2pq) Island Results: Heterozygotes! Tt ! ! ! 1! ! ! Genotypic Frequencies 0.181818 0.3294 0.489 2 3.6 5.4 Number of Students

! ! !

Homozygous Recessive ! ! tt ! ! ! ! ! 1! ! ! ! !

Homozygous Dominant TT! ! ! 4

Table 7: Island Results Genotypes Homozygous recessive (q2) Genotypic Frequencies 0.166 1 Number of Students

Genotypes Homozygous dominant (p2) Heterozygous (2pq)

Genotypic Frequencies 0.35 0.48 2 3

Number of Students

VII. Assigned Questions Lab A. 1. What can you change in your model? If you change something, what does the change tell you about how alleles behave? ! You can change the original allelic frequencies and this shows that everything is completely random. 2. Do alleles behave the same way if you make a particular variable more extreme? Less extreme? ! The should behave the same way in the fact that they will combine together randomly. 3. Do alleles behave the same way no matter what the population size is? to answer this question you can insert rows of data somewhere between the rst row of data and the last row the copy the formulas down to ll in the space. ! They will still behave randomly but it depends on how large the population size is. 4. What would happen if there were no randomness to this selection? ! It would not be an accurate display of the Hardy-Weinberg equation or evolution. 5. What kind of pattern of genotypes would you expect in the next generation? ! The genotype that is best suited for the environment that its living in will be most present. 6. In the absence of random events ( an innitely large population), are the allele frequencies of the original population expected to change from generation to generation? ! No because the random events are what makes evolution happen. 7. How does this compare to a population that has random gamete selection but its small ! the gametes will still display genetic variation though it will have a smaller population which would make evolution occur faster. 8. What happens to allele frequencies in such a population? Is it predictable ? ! They become concentrated toward one side or another, yes as long as there is random mating. Lab B. 1. List the condition that must exist for the Hardy-Weinberg law to apply. ! Random mating must be present. 2.What evidence would you look for to indicate that a population is evolving? ! The phenotypes are changing in one direction or another. 3.Assume Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

a. If p=0.8 for a population, calculate the values of q,p2,q2, and 2pq. Show all your working. q=.2 p2=.64 q2= .04 2pq= .32 b. what would be the gene pool frequencies in the next generation if evolution does not occur? ! it would continue shifting toward the Q direction. VIII. Conclusion ! The reason behind this lab was to try to use the Hardy-Weinberg equation in a real life situation. The rst lab was teaching us to create a model on the computer and to show us something that is very important to the science eld , as nothing can be proven unless math is behind it. A generalized error for this section of the lab is that Excel is not the easiest application to use and the lab was meant to be used with Excel. For this reason it made it slightly more difcult to concentrate on what the lab was trying to teach. The second lab though was a more hands on way to teach the same thing. Through mating with people in the class room the different theories of selection were demonstrated while given a more realistic example of speciation and what the HardyWeinberg equation is composed of. Some errors that might have occurred in this section of the lab is that some of the results might not have been recorded down correction and there may be variation between the genotypes that were recorded between the class. ! In this lab i learned why and how the Hardy-Weinberg equation should be used and why it is used. I also realized what is happening to the population not just that numbers are being found through the equation. It helped to illustrate what the equation means and how it should be used. Also i learned how to create a mathematical model. More importantly than that i learned how to use Microsoft Excel. I also learned through this lab that communicating with a lot of people you have to be organized with your data, as people are moving around constantly. ! Experiments that could be done to further the study might be to look at real life examples or organisms in an environment and to observe how they are changing with the environment in which they live. In addition to this bacteria could be observed to see how it becomes resistant to antibiotics and also use to Hardy-Weinberg equation to predict what might happen. ! This applies to both evolution and in a small way genetics. Evolution because it shows the amount change in a population of organisms over many different generations. There are many real life applications for the skills and topics that were learned through these labs. For example mathematical modeling is used in many different elds of science, for predicting almost everything. This can also be used to predict the evolution of a species over time and also what that species might do to the environment it lives in.

Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg Theory A.P Biology 3rd Block Denise Grover