Pencemaran udara

Daripada Wikipedia, ensiklopedia bebas.

Pemandangan dari Bukit Hollywood, jerebu menjejaskan penglihatan bandar Los Angeles pada waktu siang.

Pencemaran udara merupakan satu keadaan yang melibatkan pengenalan sebarang bahan kimia, jirim zarahan atau bahan biologi yang boleh menyebabkan mudarat, ketidakselesaan kepada manusia atau organisma hidup lain serta merosakkan alam sekitar apabila ia dibebaskan ke atmosfera. Contoh pencemar udara adalah seperti gas karbon dioksida, sulfur dioksida, kloroflorokarbon, bau-bauan, logam toksik seperti plumbum dan tembaga dan sisa radioaktif. Pencemaran udara berpunca daripada pelepasan asap kotor oleh industri terus ke udara melalui cerobong asap kilang, kenderaan motor di jalan raya dan letusan gunung berapi. Antara kesan pencemaran udara adalah penipisan lapisan ozon, jerebu, hujan asid dan pemanasan bumi. Pencemaran udara mungkin boleh memberi kesan terhadap kesihatan, keselamatan dan keselesaan manusia ataupun harta benda.

Pembebasan asap yang mengandungisulfur dioksida ke udara

Isi kandungan
[sorokkan]

1 Klasifikasi pencemaran udara

o o

1.1 Pencemaran primer 1.2 Pencemaran sekunder

2 Kesan

o o o

2.1 Kesihatan manusia 2.2 Tumbuhan 2.3 Haiwan

o o o o o

2.4 Bahan 2.5 Penyusutan lapisan ozon 2.6 Hujan asid 2.7 Kesan rumah hijau dan pemanasan global 2.8 Atmosfera

3 Lihat juga

[sunting]Klasifikasi

pencemaran udara

Pencemaran udara diklasifikasikan kepada dua bahagian iaitu pencemaran primer dan pencemaran sekunder.

[sunting]Pencemaran

primer

Pencemaran primer ialah pencemaran yang dihasilkan sulfur monoksida dan karbon monoksida hasil daripada pembakaran tidak lengkap. Ia menyebabkan zarah-zarah halus terampai di udara. Kebanyakan pencemaran udara primer ini dilepaskan melalui ekzos kenderaan, kawasan industri yang melepaskan asap atau bahan pencemar, dan penggunaan dapur arang kayu yang tidak terkawal

[sunting]Pencemaran

sekunder

Pencemaran udara sekunder adalah berpunca hasil daripada tindak balas sulfur dioksida yang bergabung dengan wap-wap air di udara.

[sunting]Kesan [sunting]Kesihatan

manusia

Kesan utama pencemaran udara kepada manusia adalah sistem pernafasan. Gas-gas seperti karbon monoksida akan meracuni sistem pengangkutan oksigen dalam darah dan melambatkan tindak balas manusia. Kesan seterusnya akan menyebabkan seseorang itu mengantuk, mempunyai penyakit lelah dan mengurangkan fungsi paru-paru. Bahan tercemar seperti nitrogen oksida boleh menyebabkan edema dan pendarahan pulmonari. Bahan tercemar seperti gas ozon boleh menimbulkan kerengsaan dan akan menyebabkan inflamasi paru-paru dan ketidakupayaan untuk bergerak. Habuk, asap, kabus, wap atau bahan-bahan lain juga menghalang penglihatan mata manusia. Kajian Pertubuhan Kesihatan Sedunia (WHO) telah menyatakan sebanyak 3.3 juta manusia mati setiap tahun disebabkan oleh pencemaran udara. Ia adalah tiga kali lebih tinggi daripada jumlah kematian yang disebabkan oleh kemalangan kenderaan.

[sunting]Tumbuhan
Kesan kepada tumbuhan adalah seperti mengalami kerosakan nekrosis (keguguran daun), klorosis (pertukaran warna), dan pertumbuhan terbantut.

Kesan ini juga akan menyebabkan sebahagian daripada penduduk bumi kekurangan sumber makanan dan ekonomi yang akhirnya menganggu kehidupan seharian. Selain itu, kesan ini akan mengganggu keseimbangan ekosistem.

[sunting]Haiwan
Haiwan akan terancam atau mati akibat daripada pencemaran udara. Perkara ini disebabkan oleh udara yang memasuki paru-paru haiwan. Selain itu, makanan daripada sumber tumbuhan akan tercemar oleh pencemaran udara.

[sunting]Bahan
Kesan kepada bahan bermaksud kerosakan berlaku akibat daripada pencemaran udara seperti kekotoran pada pakaian, pencemaran pada permukaan dinding bangunan dan sebagainya. Perkara ini berlaku akibat daripada pengenapan asap atau zarah halus. Hakisan logam juga merupakan kesan daripada pencemaran udara akibat kehadiran sulfur dioksida di dalam udara.

[sunting]Penyusutan

lapisan ozon

Pencemaran udara akan menyebabkan berlakunya pemanasan global akibat daripada penyusutan lapisan ozon yang melindungi bumi daripada sinaran terus cahaya matahari. Pendedahan secara terus kepada cahaya matahari boleh menyebabkan kanser kulit. Di samping itu, pancaran matahari yang terik juga akan menyebabkan berlakunya pencairan ais di bahagian kutub bumi. Pada masa kini, ekosistem di dunia mengalami ketidakseimbangan.

[sunting]Hujan

asid

Rencana utama: hujan asid Hujan asid berlaku disebabkan oleh penggabungan gas sulfur dioksida dan nitrogen oksida dengan air hujan dan seterusnya menjadi asid sulfurik dan asid nitrik. Asid ini akan terkumpul di dalam awan dan bergerak ke tempat-tempat lain. Asid tersebut akan turun bersama-sama dengan hujan dan menimpa hidupan yang terdapat di dunia. Kesannya, ia membunuh tumbuh-tumbuhan dan juga hidupan air. Tambahan pula, ia juga boleh menghakis pakaian, kertas dan bahan binaan bangunan. Selain itu, asid tersebut juga meresap ke dalam tanah dan menyebabkan kualiti tanah berkurang serta tidak subur.

[sunting]Kesan

rumah hijau dan pemanasan global

Rencana utama: kesan rumah hijau dan pemanasan global Kesan yang paling ketara dan sedang hangat diperbincangkan oleh seluruh negara pada masa kini adalah tentang kesan pemanasan global yang disebabkan oleh kesan rumah hijau. Kenaikan suhu bumi dan penipisan lapisan ozon juga menjadi punca kepada pemanasan global yang dapat dirasakan oleh seluruh dunia. Kenaikan suhu bumi adalah disebabkan oleh pembebasan gas-gas karbon dioksida yang terkumpul di dalam udara.

Gas karbon dioksida yang terlalu banyak telah menyebabkan haba di bumi terperangkap dan akhirnya suhu bumi meningkat dan persekitarannya menjadi panas. Penyusutan lapisan ozon juga menyebabkan kejadian pemanasan global ini. Kesannya adalah permukaan bumi akan menjadi panas, ekosistem terganggu, banjir berlaku secara kerap dan juga berlakunya kejadian alam yang tidak normal.

[sunting]Atmosfera
Kesan terhadap atmosfera yang dibawa oleh pencemaran udara pula ialah mengurangkan jarak penglihatan akibat jerebu.

Pemanasan global berkaitan dengan peningkatan suhu dunia. Suhu bumi telah meningkat dua darjah dan kadarnya berbeza mengikut benua dan kawasan tertentu. Kajian mendapati kawasan Artik lebih pantas menjadi panas berbanding kawasan lain. Perubahan iklim biasanya berlaku dalam tempoh 10,000 tahun tetapi kini perubahan iklim berubah dalam tempoh 100 tahun sahaja, jarak hanya 2 generasi sahaja. Suhu bumi meningkat sejak tahun-tahun 90an. Kajian mendapati iklim panas melampau di Perancis, iklim lebih panas di rantau Siberia dan pencairan "permafrost" (lapisan tanah yang kekal beku di rantau paling sejuk) terutamanya di rantau Artik. Ahli sains meramalkan keseluruhan ais laut di Artik akan cair pada musim panas 2099. Litupan ais Greenland dan Antartika Barat akan mencair . Paras laut akan meningkat kira-kira 7 meter secara mendadak.
Isi kandungan
[sorokkan]

1 Faktor pemanasan global 2 Pelepasan karbon dioksida 3 Kesan pemanasan global di Malaysia 4 Tenaga alternatif 5 Rujukan

[sunting]Faktor

pemanasan global

Panel Antara Kerajaan tentang Perubahan Cuaca (IPCC) ditubuhkan pada 1988 oleh Pertubuhan Meteorologi Sedunia serta Program Alam Sekitar Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu (PBB). Kegiatan terasnya adalah menyemak dan menilai maklumat saintifik, teknikal dan sosio-ekonomi yang terkini. Saintis alam sekitar telah ditempatkan dipelbagai lokasi strategik dan mengumpulkan laporan ilkim dan cuaca seluruh dunia secara sistermatik. Dapatan daripada kajian ini amat memeranjatkan terutama berhubung tentang faktor pemanasan global dan kesan jangka pendek dan panjang daripadanya. Laporan 1 (1990) dan Laporan 2 (1995) IPCC menunjukkan banyak ketidakpastian iklim dunia dan bersifat negatif . Pemanasan global ini akan menjejaskan manusia atau tamadunnya. Laporan ketiga (2001) berkisar kepada "Menangani Perubahan Iklim. Laporan Penilaian Keempat tentang (Perubahan Iklim 2007) .

Kajian mendapati 98 % punca pemanasan global ialah pelepasan karbon dioksida akibat pembakaran bahan bakar fosil yang telah dilakukan sejak abad ke-18. . Perubahan penggunaan tanah menyumbang 30 peratus pelepasan karbon dioksida. Kesan rumah hijau lebih hebat dan iklim dunia akan berubah secara mendadak, tanpa dapat dibendung lagi. [sunting]Pelepasan

karbon dioksida

Impak pelepasan karbon dioksida tidak difahami ramai kerana gas tersebut tidak berbau dan bukan toksik.Konsentrasi karbon dioksida di atmosfera telah meningkat daripada kira-kira 280 bahagian sejuta (ppm) dicatat di kurun ke-18 (sebelum era revolusi perindustrian) kepada 379 ppm pada tahun 2005.

Menjelang 2099 kadarnya meningkat kepada 700 ppm jika cara hidup sekarang berterusan. Secara bandingan , planet lain seperti Marikh, suhunya kira-kira 400 darjah celcius dan 90 peratus daripada atmosferanya adalah karbon dioksida. Hampir tiada kehidupan di Marikh dan bumi akan menjadi seperti itu. IPCC mendesak seluruh kerajaan dan penduduk dunia menstabilkan tahap karbon dioksida di atmosfera kepada paras yang boleh diuruskan iaitu 450 ppm. Bagi menghapuskan kepekatan karbon dioksida di dalam atmosfera, ia mengambil masa antara 200 atau 300 tahun . Walau apapun tindakan pemulihan dilakukan , untuk kembali pulih amat sedikit. Mulai abad ke-18 majoriti warga dunia menggunakan bahan bakar fosil daripada sumber asas air atau kayu . Dunia ada banyak alternatif tetapi kita tidak menggunakannya secara bijak , berkesan dan menyeluruh. Kita terlalu bergantung kepada bahan bakar fosil. Negara membangun seperti India dan China tidak setuju dengan pengurangan pengggunaan bahan bakar fosil. 2 bilion penduduk di India dan China menggunakan bahan bakar fosil secara keterlaluan. [sunting]Kesan

pemanasan global di Malaysia

Sumber ekosistem yang ada telah digunakan ke paras maksimum dengan penangkapan ikan berlebihan dan pemupusan kawasan besar hutan. Enam bilion penduduk dunia kini menggunakan sumber asli bumi secara berlebihan dan tidak terkawal . Jika pemanasan global berterusan , manusia dan tamdunnya akan pupus sebagaimana pupusnya dinosaur. Ramalan saintis menunjukkan peningkatan 7.0 meter paras laut, kawasan rendah seperti Kuala Muda (Kedah) dan Kelantan akan ditenggelami air. Keadaan monsun akan bertukar sama sekali kerana kita akan menerima lebih banyak hujan sewaktu monsun timur laut, yang bermakna lebih banyak kejadian banjir. Kesedaran rakyat Malaysia dan amnya masyarakat dunia sukar ditingkatkan. Hanya 3 /10 rakyat Malaysia yang prihatin kepada isu-isu alam sekitar. Kejadian gempa bumi 26 Disember 2004 dan banjir besar di Johor adalah pengajaran terbaik. Mendidik bukanlah untuk membuat mereka cemas tetapi meminta mereka bertindak secara betul dan tepat. [sunting]Tenaga

alternatif

Tenaga alternatif seperti tenaga nuklear dan suria sebagai alternatif yang berdaya maju. Malaysia perlu meneroka dan mempelajari sendiri tenaga nuklear sebagaimana Korea dan Jepun. Malaysia menerima 300 hingga 400 watt satu meter persegi cahaya matahari..

BEIJING: Outdoor air pollution contributed to 1.2 million premature deaths in China in 2010, nearly 40 per cent of the global total, according to a new summary of data from a scientific study on leading causes of death worldwide. Figured another way, the researchers said, China's toll from pollution was the loss of 25 million healthy years of life from the population. The data on which the analysis is based was first presented in the ambitious 2010 Global Burden of Disease Study, which was published in December in The Lancet, a British medical journal. The authors decided to break out numbers for specific countries and present the findings at international conferences. The China statistics were offered at a forum in Beijing on Sunday. "We have been rolling out the India- and China-specific numbers, as they speak more directly to national leaders than regional numbers," said Robert O'Keefe, the vice president of the Health Effects Institute, a research organization that is helping to present the study. The organization is partly financed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the global motor vehicle industry. What the researchers called "ambient particulate matter pollution" was the fourthleading risk factor for deaths in China in 2010, behind dietary risks, high blood pressure and smoking. Air pollution ranked seventh on the worldwide list of risk factors, contributing to 3.2 million deaths in 2010. By comparison with China, India, which also has densely populated cities grappling with similar levels of pollution, had 620,000 premature deaths in 2010 because of outdoor air pollution, the study found. That was deemed to be the sixth most common killer in South Asia. The study was led by an institute at the University of Washington and several partner universities and institutions, including the World Health Organization. Calculations of premature deaths because of outdoor air pollution are politically threatening in the eyes of some Chinese officials. According to news reports, Chinese officials cut out sections of a 2007 report called "Cost of Pollution in China" that discussed premature deaths. The report's authors had concluded that 350,000 to 400,000 people die prematurely in China each year because of outdoor air pollution. The study was done by the World Bank in cooperation with the Chinese State Environmental Protection Administration, the precursor to the Ministry of Environmental Protection. There have been other estimates of premature deaths because of air pollution. In 2011, the World Health Organization estimated that there were 1.3 million premature deaths in cities worldwide because of outdoor air pollution. Last month, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, based in Paris, warned that "urban air pollution is set to become the top environmental cause of

mortality worldwide by 2050, ahead of dirty water and lack of sanitation." It estimated that up to 3.6 million people could end up dying prematurely from air pollution each year, mostly in China and India. There has been growing outrage in Chinese cities over what many say are untenable levels of air pollution. Cities across the north hit record levels in January, and official Chinese newspapers ran front-page articles on the surge what some foreigners call the "airpocalypse" despite earlier limits on such discussion by propaganda officials. In February, the State Council, China's cabinet, announced a timeline for introducing new fuel standards, but state-owned oil and power companies are known to block or ignore environmental policies to save on costs. A study released on Thursday said the growth rate of disclosure of pollution information in 113 Chinese cities had slowed. The groups doing the study, the Institute of Public and Environmental Affairs, based in Beijing, and the Natural Resources Defense Council, based in Washington, said that "faced with the current situation of severe air, water and soil pollution, we must make changes to pollution source information disclosure so that information is no longer patchy, out of date and difficult to obtain." Chinese officials have made some progress in disclosing crucial air pollution statistics. Official news reports have said 74 cities are now required to release data on levels of particulate matter 2.5 micrometers in diameter or smaller, which penetrate the body's tissues most deeply. For years, Chinese officials had been collecting the data but refusing to release it, until they came under pressure from Chinese who saw that the United States Embassy in Beijing was measuring the levels hourly and posting the data in a Twitter feed, @BeijingAir. Last week, an official Chinese news report said the cost of environmental degradation in China was about $230 billion in 2010, or 3.5 per cent of the gross domestic product. The estimate, said to be partial, came from a research institute under the Ministry of Environmental Protection, and was three times the amount in 2004, in local currency terms. It was unclear to what extent those numbers took into account the costs of health care and premature deaths because of pollution

Pencemaran air
Daripada Wikipedia, ensiklopedia bebas.

Pencemaran sungai

Pencemaran air ialah pencemaran yang berlaku di sungai, tasik dan laut. Lokasi berair sering disalah anggap sebagai tempat pembuangan sampah terutama daripada aktiviti manusia.

[sunting]Pencemaran

Air di Malaysia

Punca utama pencemaran air di Malaysia adalah seperti pembuangan sampah dari kawasan perumahan di sepanjang sungai, tepi tasik dan laut. Penduduk membuang najis manusia dan najis binatang ternakan seperti ayam, babi, lembu dan lain-lain ke dalam sungai. Sebagai contoh, Sungai Semenyih pernah dicemari dengan puluhan ladang babi pada tahun 1980-an. Kilang memproses getah dan minyak kelapa sawit juga menjadi punca kepada pencemaran air sepanjang sungai di Malaysia. Sisa toksik dibuang dan dialirkan ke dalam longkang, parit, terusan dan seterusnya ke dalam sungai. Pemandangan dari udara yang bertempat di Sungai Juru yang terletak diSeberang Perai, Pulau Pinang telah menunjukkan warna air yang berwarna hitam pekat apabila sampai ke laut. Para petani yang bekerja di Tanah Tinggi Cameron telah mengamalkan penggunaan baja kimia dan racun serangga sehingga menjejaskan kualiti air minuman di Sungai Terla. Hotel dan rumah kongsi para pekerja tidak mempunyai sistem perparitan yang sempurna sehingga menyebabkan najis manusia tidak dapat dirawat dengan betul. Kes ini juga telah didedahkan kepada wartawan dan dipertontonkan di televisyen. Selepas itu, barulah Majlis Daerah Cameron Highlands mengambil peranan dengan turut sama mengambil tindakan bagi memperbetulkan keadaan. Pengilang dari Taiwan telah dilaporkan mengeksport sisa kimia ke Malaysia dan ditanam di kawasan terpencil di Johor, Malaysia. Beberapa negara maju juga membuang sisa radioaktif dengan memasukkan sisa ini ke dalam tong-tong dram sebelum membuangnya ke dalam laut. Tindakan ini boleh merosakkan hidupan laut. Longgokan tayar buruk di dasar laut terutamanya di Laut China Selatan telah digunakan

sebagai tempat ikan berlindung dan membiak di dasar laut. Sesetengah pulau tidak mempunyai sistem pelupusan sampah. Oleh itu, telah wujud istilah pulau sampah secara terancang atau tidak terancang.

Noise pollution is displeasing or excessive noise that may disrupt the activity or balance of human or animal life. The word noise is cognate with the Latin wordnauseas, which means disgust or [1] discomfort. The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is mainly caused [2][3] by machines and transportation systems, motor vehicles, aircrafts, and trains. Outdoor noise is summarized by the word environmental noise. Poor urban planning may give rise to noise pollution, since side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can result in noise pollution in the residential areas. Indoor noise is caused by machines, building activities, music performances, and especially in some workplaces. There is no great difference whether noise-induced hearing loss is brought about by outside (i.e. trains) or inside (i.e. music) noise. High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects in humans, a rise in blood pressure, and an increase in stress and vasoconstriction, and an increased incidence of coronary artery disease. In animals, noise can increase the risk of death by altering predator or prey detection and avoidance, interfere with reproduction and navigation, and contribute to permanent hearing loss.
Contents
[hide]

1 Health

o o

1.1 Human 1.2 Wildlife

2 Impact in the United Kingdom 3 Mitigation 4 Legal status 5 References 6 External links

[edit]Health [edit]Human

Loud music such as in a discothque can be a risk for human health

Main article: Health effects from noise

Noise pollution affects both health and behavior. Unwanted sound (noise) can damage psychological health. Noise pollution can cause annoyance and aggression,hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus, [4][5][6][7] hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful effects. Furthermore, stress and [5][8] hypertension are the leading causes to health problems. Chronic exposure to noise may cause noise-induced hearing loss. Older males exposed to significant occupational noise demonstrate significantly reduced hearing sensitivity than their nonexposed peers, though differences in hearing sensitivity decrease with time and the two groups are [9] indistinguishable by age 79. A comparison of Maaban tribesmen, who were insignificantly exposed to transportation or industrial noise, to a typical U.S. population showed that chronic exposure to [4] moderately high levels of environmental noise contributes to hearing loss. High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects and exposure to moderately high levels during a single eight-hour period causes a statistical rise in blood pressure of five to ten points and an [4] increase in stress, and vasoconstriction leading to the increased blood pressure noted above, as well as to increased incidence of coronary artery disease. Noise pollution also is a cause of annoyance. A 2005 study by Spanish researchers found that in urban areas households are willing to pay approximately four Euros per decibel per year for noise [10] reduction. [edit]Wildlife Noise can have a detrimental effect on wild animals, increasing the risk of death by changing the delicate balance in predator or prey detection and avoidance, and interfering the use of the sounds in communication, especially in relation to reproduction and in navigation. Acoustic overexposure can [11] lead to temporary or permanent loss of hearing. An impact of noise on wild animal life is the reduction of usable habitat that noisy areas may cause, which in the case of endangered species may be part of the path to extinction. Noise pollution has caused the death of certain species of whales that beached themselves after being exposed to the [12] loud sound of military sonar, (see also Marine mammals and sonar). Noise also makes species communicate more loudly, which is called Lombard vocal [13] response. Scientists and researchers have conducted experiments that show whales' song length is [14] longer when submarine-detectors are on. If creatures do not "speak" loudly enough, their voice will be masked by anthropogenic sounds. These unheard voices might be warnings, finding of prey, or preparations of net-bubbling. When one species begins speaking more loudly, it will mask other species' voice, causing the whole ecosystem eventually to speak more loudly. European Robins living in urban environments are more likely to sing at night in places with high levels of noise pollution during the day, suggesting that they sing at night because it is quieter, and their [15] message can propagate through the environment more clearly. The same study showed that daytime noise was a stronger predictor of nocturnal singing than night-time light pollution, to which the phenomenon often is attributed. Zebra finches become less faithful to their partners when exposed to traffic noise. This could alter a population's evolutionary trajectory by selecting traits, sapping resources normally devoted to other [16] activities and thus leading to profound genetic and evolutionary consequences. [edit]Impact

in the United Kingdom

Figures compiled by Rockwool, the mineral wool insulation manufacturer, based on responses from local authorities to a Freedom of Information Act (FOI) request reveal in the period April 2008

2009 UK councils received 315,838 complaints about noise pollution from private residences. This resulted in environmental health officers across the UK serving 8,069 noise abatement notices, or citations under the terms of the Anti-Social Behaviour (Scotland) Act. In the last 12 months, 524 confiscations of equipment have been authorised involving the removal of powerful speakers, stereos and televisions. Westminster City Council has received more complaints per head of population than any other district in the UK with 9,814 grievances about noise, which equates to 42.32 complaints per thousand residents. Eight of the top 10 councils ranked by complaints per 1,000 residents are located [17] in London. [edit]Mitigation

The sound tube in Melbourne, Australia is designed to reduce roadway noise without distracting from the area's aesthetics

Ear muffs for human protection against noise pollution

Main article: Noise mitigation Roadway noise can be reduced by the use of noise barriers, limitation of vehicle speeds, alteration of roadway surface texture, limitation of heavy vehicles, use of traffic controls that smooth vehicle flow to reduce braking and acceleration, and tire design. An important factor in applying these strategies is a computer model forroadway noise, that is capable of addressing local topography, meteorology, traffic operations, and hypothetical mitigation. Costs of building-in mitigation can be modest, provided these solutions are sought in the planning stage of a roadway project. Aircraft noise can be reduced by using quieter jet engines. Altering flight paths and time of day runway has benefitted residents near airports. Industrial noise has been addressed since the 1930s via redesign of industrial equipment, shock mounted assemblies and physical barriers in the workplace. [edit]Legal

status

Main article: Noise regulation Up until the 1970s governments viewed noise as a "nuisance" rather than an environmental problem. In the United States, there are federal standards for highway and aircraft noise; states and local

governments typically have very specific statutes on building codes, urban planning, and roadway development. Noise laws and ordinances vary widely among municipalities and indeed do not even exist in some cities. An ordinance may contain a general prohibition against making noise that is a nuisance, or it may set out specific guidelines for the level of noise allowable at certain times of the day and for certain activities. Portland, Oregon instituted the first comprehensive noise code in 1975 with funding from the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) and HUD (Housing and Urban Development). The Portland Noise Code includes potential fines of up to $5000 per infraction and is the basis for other [18] major U.S. and Canadian city noise ordinances. Many conflicts over noise pollution are handled by negotiation between the emitter and the receiver. Escalation procedures vary by country, and may include action in conjunction with local authorities, in particular the police. Noise pollution is a major problem in countries such as India during the festivals of Diwali, Navaratri, and Ganpati. The government of India has regulations against firecrackers and loudspeakers, but [19] enforcement is extremely lax. Awaaz Foundation is an Indian NGO working to control noise pollution from various sources in Mumbai through advocacy, public interest litigation, awareness, and educational campaigns since 2003