1 Kelly McGovern December 8, 2012 Modern Algebra Project

Modular Arithmetic and Divisibility Rules Modular arithmetic was discovered in the 19th century by Carl Friedrich Gauss (Ash 2006). The basic concept of modular arithmetic is to calculate where something would land in a cycle count; meaning once it gets to n, the count starts back at 0. A simple example of this is determining what day of the week it is n days from now, with the circular count being seven for the seven days of the week. Another simple way to think about it is looking at the face of a clock. Modular arithmetic is what allows us to easily convert between the 24-hour clock that is frequently used in Europe and throughout the military and the 12-hour clock that is used here in the United States of America. The 24-hour clock is a convention of time keeping in which the day runs from midnight to midnight and is divided into 24 hours, indicated by the hours passed since midnight, from 0 to 23 (Wikipedia). For example, if you ask someone in Europe what time it is and they respond 15:24, you know 15 is the hour. In order to figure out what time it is on the 12 hour clock you mod out 12. Therefore, 15 mod 12 is 3 so it is 3:24 pm (Neale, 2012). Thus, modular arithmetic is utilized in many ways. Throughout this project, we will show how modular arithmetic allows us to use simple divisibility tricks and explain why they work as they do. There are two different ways to write a modular problem, depending on the area of study. In computer science, a modular problem is written in the form a % n, whereas in a more mathematical situation it would be written a (mod n) (Ash 2006). Once more, when comparing two equations that have the same result under the same modulus, they can be written in two different forms. In computer science notation, an equation might be written as

x % n = y % n, whereas in a more mathematical notation, this equivalence, or congruence, can be written as x y (mod n) (Ash 2006).

These basic equation setups are at the core of modular arithmetic and are easily utilized for small numbers; however, they become more difficult to utilize when larger numbers are involved. This requires the use of the Euclidean Algorithm. The Euclidean Algorithm involves finding the greatest common divisor of two numbers starting by modding out the smaller number from the larger number. This computes a remainder, which is then divided into the previous divisor (the original bigger number). The process continues with the remainders always being divided into the previous divisors until the remainder is 0 (Christensen 2006). If your final remainder results in 0, then the previous remainder is the greatest common divisor of the two numbers. However, if the answer does not result in 0, then it is not a divisor. This can also be written in the form of y = qn + r, where if n is a prime number and r doesnt equal 0, then y and n have no common factors for r between greater than or equal to 0 and less than n (Gallian 2010). Notice that if the greatest common divisor is one, then the two numbers are relatively prime to each other. Another theorem that is applicable to modular arithmetic that also explains this is Bezouts Theorem. Bzout's Theorem for polynomials states that if P and Q are two polynomials with no roots in common, then there exist two other polynomials A and B such that A P + B Q = 1 (Weisstein 2012). This formula demonstrates that the two polynomials are relatively prime to each other because they would need more than one component in common to get something other than one. As explained, two algebraic curves of degrees m and n intersect in mn points and cannot meet in more than mn points unless they have a component in common

(i.e., the equations defining them have a common factor) (Weisstein 2012). One purpose of modular arithmetic is testing for divisibility. By using the modular arithmetic process, we are able to utilize simple divisibility rules, which compute divisibility much easier and quicker than long division or other division methods used to test divisibility. Modular arthritic is what allows those divisibility tricks and short cuts to work. Some are pretty simple, especially those that contain a smaller mod number. For example, given x mod 2 where x is some 13-digit number, if the last digit is divisible by 2, then the entire 13-digit number is divisible by two. However, the bigger the mod number, the more complicated the divisibility rules may get. One way to explain the divisibility tricks is to look at the factors themselves. First, lets take a look at the division algorithm: Theorem 0.1 Division Algorithm: Let a and b be integers with b > 0. Then there exist unique integers q and r with the property that 2012) For , r is the remainder. It will be determined whether or not a is divisible by n. If r , where 0 r < b. (Gallian,

is zero, then a is divisible by n because there is no remainder and n divides y, meaning that there are n many qs in a. In other words, n*q= a (* represents the operation for multiplication). In modular arithmetic,

. In other words, if b is divisible by m then a is 0. If b is not

divisible by m then a is the remainder after taking out all ms from a. In order to better understand the divisibility tricks and why they work, it is necessary to understand n. The objective is to determine whether or not n divides a, making n a factor of a if in fact n divides a. Lets look at a specific example and then generalize. Two is simple when it comes to determining whether or not a number is divisible by two, but lets take a deeper look at

two and its self-products: 2, 4, 8, and 16. Basic math education would most likely only require divisibility up 12 or so in regard to tricks, but for sake of the process we will look at some larger numbers as well. The rule for determining whether or not a is divisible by two is if the last digit is divisible by two, then the entire number is divisible by two (if a is even, then a is divisible by 2). The explanation for 2 as well as other integers is as follows: Table A Place Value

Exponent

100,000 105 (2x5)5 25x55 5

10,000 104 (2x5)4 24x54 4

1000 103 (2x5)3 23x53 3

100 102 (2x5)2 22x52 2

10 101 (2x5)1 21x51 1

1 100 (2x5)0 20x50 0

Rule: An integer is divisible by 2 if it is even (i.e. ends in 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8).

For , an integer is divisible by 2x if its last x digits are divisible by 2x. Lets look at a few examples determining if a is divisible by 2, 4, 8, and 16. In order to determine if a is divisible by these factors, it is important to factor down the factors themselves and apply the 2x explanation. For example, we can break down the factors as follows: 21=2 To determine divisibility by 2, we only need to ask if the last digit is divisible by 2.

Two has the exponent 1. If we look at Table A, if we break down 10 into two factors we have 21 and 51 where there is only one 2 so we look at the ones place.
Two itself is a prime. Like any other prime, its only factors are 1 and itself, in other words, 1 and 2. So we have either: 0 mod 2 = 0 1 mod 2 = 1 2 mod 2 = 0 Therefore, as long as the modulo is equal to 0, the number will be divisible by 2. Two is a prime so you have to reference 2 as factor itself.

Example: Is 754 divisible by 2? Lets break it down. 754 = 75x10 + 4 = (75x10 mod 2) + (4 mod 2) = 0+0 By the rules of modular arithmetic, (0 + 0) mod 2 =0, so 754 is divisible by 2. Non-Example: Is 641 divisible by 2? Lets break it down. 641 = 64x10 + 1 = (64x10 mod 2) + (1 mod 2) = 0+1 By the rules of modular arithmetic, (0 + 1) mod 2 =1, so 641 is NOT divisible by 2.

Rule: An integer is divisible by 4 if the integer formed by its tens and ones digits is divisible by 4.
For 22=4 , an integer is divisible by 2x if its last x digits are divisible by 2x. To determine divisibility by 4, we only need to ask if the last 2 digits are divisible by 4.

If we look at Table A, 22 is a factor of 100 so we look at the last two place holders to check for divisibility. We know 100 is divisible by 4, so any multiples for 100 will also be divisible by 4. Example: Is 1456 divisible by 4? Lets break it down. 1456 = 1400 + 50 + 6 = (14x100 mod 4) + (50 mod 4) + (6 mod 4) = 0+2+2 By the rules of modular arithmetic, (0 + 2 + 2) mod 4 = 4 mod 4 = 0, so 1456 is divisible by 4. Non-Example: Is 538 divisible by 4? Lets break it down. 538 = 500 + 30 + 8 = (5x100 mod 4) + (30 mod 4) + (8 mod 4) = 0+2+0 By the rules of modular arithmetic, (0 + 2 + 0) mod 4 = 2 mod 4 = 2, so 538 is NOT divisible by 4.

Rule: An integer is divisible by 8 if the integer formed by its hundreds, tens, and ones, digits is divisible by 8.
For 23=8 , an integer is divisible by 2x if its last x digits are divisible by 2x To determine divisibility by 8, we only need to ask if the last 3 digits are divisible by 8.

If we look at Table A, 23 is a factor of 1000 so we look at the last three place holders to check for divisibility. Example: Is 520 divisible by 8? Lets break it down. 520 = 500 + 20 + 0 = (500 mod 8) + (20 mod 8) + (0 mod 8) = 0+0+0 By the rules of modular arithmetic, (0 + 0 + 0) mod 8 = 0 mod 8 = 0, so 520 is divisible by 8. Non-Example: Is 21644 divisible by 8? Lets break it down. 21644 = 21x1000 + 600 + 40 + 4 = (21x1000 mod 8) + (600 mod 8) + (40 mod 8) + (4 mod 8) = 0+0+0+4 By the rules of modular arithmetic, (0 + 0 + 0 + 4) mod 8 = 4 mod 8 = 4, so 21644 is NOT divisible by 8.

Rule: An integer is divisible by 5 if it ends in 0 or 5.

For , an integer is divisible by 5x if its last x digits are divisible by 5x Five is a factor of 10 so the same type of rule applies 5 as it does to 2, 4, and 8. However, for simplicitys sake, we will only look at the multiples of five, not the powers of five. Five is a prime number. If we reference Table A, we see that 51 equals 5, which is a factor of 10. Hence, we only refer to the last digit or place holder.
0 mod 5 = 0 5 mod 5 = 0

Example: Is 725 divisible by 5? Lets break it down. 725 = 72x10 + 5 = (72x10 mod 5) + (5 mod 5) = 0+0 By the rules of modular arithmetic, (0 + 0) mod 5 = 0, so 725 is divisible by 5. Non-Example: Is 523 divisible by 5? Lets break it down. 523 = 52x10 + 3 = (52x10 mod 5) + (3 mod 5) = 0+3 By the rules of modular arithmetic, (0 + 3) mod 5 = 3, 523 is NOT divisible by 5.

Rule: An integer is divisible by 10 if it ends in at least one 0.

For , an integer is divisible by 10x if its last x digits are 0.
Ten is a factor of 10, so it is only necessary to look at the ones place holder. You have to be able to

write a number in the form 10 times another number in order for it to be divisible by 10. Example: Is 730 divisible by 10? Lets break it down. 730 = 73x10 = (73x10 mod 10) = 0 By the rules of modular arithmetic, (0) mod 10 = 0, so 730 is divisible by 10. Non-Example: Is 525 divisible by 10? Lets break it down. 525 = 52x10 + 5 = (52x10 mod 10) + (5 mod 10) = 0+5 By the rules of modular arithmetic, (0 + 5) mod 10 = 5, so 525 is NOT divisible by 10.

Rule: By definition, division by 0 is undefined.

Rule: All integers are divisible by 1.

Rule: An integer is divisible by 11 if the sum of every other one of its digits subtracted from the sum of the remaining digits is divisible by 11.
We know that 10 mod 11 = 10. Similarly, -1 mod 11 = 10 since 10 is one less than 11. Thus, we can simplify and break down our numbers into 10s and 1s. Example: Is 1023 divisible by 11? Lets break it down. 1023 = 1000 + 20 + 3 = 103 + 2x101 + 3 (apply modular equivalence) = (-1)3 + 2x(-1)1 + 3 = -1 + (-2) + 3 = 0 mod 11 By the rules of modular arithmetic, (0) mod 11 = 0, so 1023 is divisible by 11. Note: n mod 11 must equal either 0 or a multiple of 11 for the number to be divisible by 11. Non-Example: Is 618 divisible by 11? Lets break it down. 618 = 600 + 10 + 8 = 6x102 + 101 + 8 (apply modular equivalence) = 6(-1)2 + (-1)1 + 8 = 6 + (-1) + 8 = 13 mod 11 By the rules of modular arithmetic, (13) mod 11 = 2, so 618 is NOT divisible by 11.

Rule: An integer is divisible by 9 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.

We know that 10 mod 9 = 1. Thus, we are able to break our numbers down into 10s. Example: Is 3276 divisible by 9? Lets break it down. 3276 = 3000 + 200 + 70 + 6 = 3x103 + 2x102 + 7x101 + 6 (apply modular equivalence) = 3x(1)3 + 2x(1)2 + 7x(1)1 + 6 = 3x1 + 2x1 + 7x1 + 6 (sum of all digits) = 3+2+7+6 By the rules of modular arithmetic, (18) mod 9 = 0, so 3276 is divisible by 9. Non-Example: Is 933 divisible by 9? Lets break it down. 933 = 900 + 30 + 3 = 9x102 + 3x101 + 3 (apply modular equivalence) = 9x(1)2 + 3x(1)1 + 3 = 9+3+3 By rules of modular arithmetic, (15) mod 9 = 6, so 933 is NOT divisible by 9.

Rule: An integer is divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.

We know that 10 mod 3 = 1. Thus, we are able to break our numbers down into 10s. Example: Is 723 divisible by 3? Lets break it down. 723 = 700 + 20 + 3 = 7x102 + 2x101 + 3 (apply modular equivalence) = 7x(1)2 + 2x(1)1 + 3 = 7+2+3 By rules of modular arithmetic, (12) mod 3 = 0, so 723 is divisible by 3. Non-Example: Is 6793 divisible by 3? Lets break it down. 6793 = 6000 + 700 + 90 + 3 = 6x103 + 7x102 + 9x101 + 3 (apply modular equivalence) = 6x(1)3 + 7x(1)2 + 9x(1)1 + 3 = 6x1 + 7x1 + 9x1 + 3 (sum of all digits) = 6+7+9+3 By the rules of modular arithmetic, (25) mod 3 = 1, so 6793 is NOT divisible by 3.

Rule: An integer is divisible by 6 if it is even integer (divisible by 2) that is divisible by 3.

If we factor 6, we are left with 2 x 3. Thus, a number that is divisible by 6 must be divisible by both 2 and 3. In other words, it must be an even number that is divisible by 3. Example: Is 672 divisible by 6? By rules of two, 672 is even. We want to show that 672 is also divisible by 3. Lets break it down. 672 = 600 + 70 + 2 = 6x102 + 7x101 + 2 (apply modular equivalence) = 6x(1)2 + 7x(1)1 + 2 = 6x1 + 7x1 + 2 (sum of all digits) = 6+7+2 By the rules of modular arithmetic, (15) mod 3 = 0, so 672 is divisible by 3. Since 672 is divisible by both 2 and 3, it is divisible by 6. Non-Example: Is 723 divisible by 6? By rules of two, 723 is odd so it cannot be divisible by 6.

Rule: An integer is divisible by 12 if it is divisible by both 3 and 4.

If we factor 12, we are left with 4 x 3 or 22 x 3. Thus, a number that is divisible by 12 must be divisible by both 4 and 3. (Since it is divisible by 4, it must be divisible by 2, meaning that it should be an even number for starters.) Example: Is 5580 divisible by 12? Is 5580 divisible by 3? Lets break it down. 5580 = 5000 + 500 + 80 + 0 = 5x103 + 5x102 + 8x101 + 0 (apply modular equivalence) = 5x(1)3 + 5x(1)2 + 8x(1)1 + 0 = 5x1 + 5x1 + 8x1 + 0 (sum of all digits) = 5+5+8+0 By the rules of modular arithmetic, (18) mod 3 = 0, so 5580 is divisible by 3. Is 5580 divisible by 4? Lets break it down. 5580 = 5000 + 500 + 80 + 0 = 50x100 + 8x10 + 0 (apply modular equivalence) = (50x100 mod 4) + (8x10 mod 4) + (0 mod 4) = 0+0+0 By the rules of modular arithmetic, (0) mod 4 = 0, so 5580 is divisible by 4. Since 5580 is divisible by both 3 and 4, it is divisible by 12. Non-Example: Is 423 divisible by 12? By the rules of 4, we know that it must be divisible by 2 and its odd. Hence, 423 is NOT divisible by 12.

Rule: An integer is divisible by 7 if the result of multiplying the last digit by (-2) and adding it to the rest of the number is divisible by 7.
In other words, an integer is divisible by 7 if the result of multiplying the last digit by 2 and subtracting it from the rest of the number is 0 or divisible by 7. When this is done, you drop a tens place of the number. For example, the number 672 now becomes 67 4 which is 63. Example: Is 672 divisible by 7? Lets break it down. 672 = 67x10 + 2x1 = 67x(10 mod 7) + 2x(1 mod 7) (apply modular equivalence) = 67x3 + 2x(-6) (factor out by 3) = 3(67 + 2(-2)) = 3(63) By the rules of modular arithmetic, we are able to see how the rule applies to the breakdown of the numbers. As long as (67 + 2(-2)) = 3(63) 63 is divisible by 7, then 672 is divisible by 7. In this case, 63/7 = 9, so 672 is divisible by 7. We only care about 63 and not the 3 because multiplying 63 by 3 is multiple of 63 and so if 63 is divisible by 7, its multiple will be too.

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Thus, as demonstrated in the last several pages, modular arithmetic is what allows us to be able to apply the divisibility tricks that we learn as children. Jamie: These divisibility tricks, with the use of modular arithmetic, make solving for equations much easier. Personally, I had only learned a couple of them as a child and always had to just do the work every time, which can take a long time. I think its great to implement these in the classroom, teaching students what the divisibility tricks are and exactly why they work. Having this foundational knowledge of numbers and how you can relate them to other numbers (their divisors) is a great skill that will ultimately only make math easier to understand as they advance into harder math classes. Kelly: I am glad that I chose this topic for our project. I learned a lot. It will come in handy when I have a student just like myself. Not so much now, but when I was younger I always wanted to know why the math rules that we were learning worked. I distinctly remember asking my 5th grade math teacher questions like why? or how/why does that work? and she would always respond because the mathematician said so. And I hated it. I am not sure how I would actually use this in my classroom yet depending on the level that I am teaching, but if the opportunity presents itself I think it would be insightful for my students to look deeper into something as simple as divisibility. For me, it was a nice wrap-up before student teaching showing how higher level math applies to some of the most basic math. I really enjoyed this project and learned quite a bit from the research.

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Works Cited
Ash, A. a. (2006). Fearless Symmetries: Exposing the Hidden Patterns of Numbers . New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Christensen, C. (2006). Finding Multiplicative Inverses Modulo n. Retrieved November 2012, from http://www.nku.edu/~christensen/section%206%20appendix%20euclidean%20algorithm.pdf Gallian, J. A. (2010). Contemporary Abstract Algebra (Seventh ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. Haselton, B. (2006, October 17). Modular Arithmetic. Retrieved from http://www.brainjammer.com/math/modular-arithmetic/ Neale, V. (2012). An Introduction to Modular Arithmetic. (University of Cambridge) Retrieved November 28, 2012, from Nrich.maths.org: http://nrich.maths.org/4350 Weisstein, Eric W. "Bzout's Theorem." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BezoutsTheorem.html. 2012.