Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Aimandpurpose
Thisunitaimstoenablelearnerstounderstandaspectsoftheanatomyand physiologyofhumanbodysystems.Learnerswillbeabletogainanoverviewof theorganisationofthehumanbodybeforelookingathowbodysystemswork togethertoprovideenergyforthebody.Learnerswillhavetheopportunityto investigatehowhomeostaticmechanismsoperateinthebody.
Unitintroduction
Thisunitintroducescoreknowledgeofcellularstructureandfunction,andthe organisationofthebodyasawhole,andthenbuildsonthistodevelopamore detailedknowledgeofthefineanatomyandphysiologyofthesystemsinvolvedin energymetabolism.Learnerswillexaminethehomeostaticmechanismsinvolvedin regulatingthesesystemstomaintainhealth.Learnerswillbegiventheopportunity toundertakepracticalactivitieswhichwillrequirethemtotakemeasurementsof thecardiovascularsystem,therespiratorysystemandofbodytemperature,using noninvasivetechniquestoinvestigatenormalresponsestoroutinevariationsin bodyfunctioning.Thisunitprovidesthecoreunderstandingofhumanphysiology thatunderpinsthestudyofthespecialistphysiologyunitswithinthisprogramme. Theunitalsoprovidesanoverviewofbodyfunctioningthatisvaluableforanyone workingorintendingtoworkinafieldrelatingtohealthandsocialcare.
Learningoutcomes
Oncompletionofthisunitalearnershould:
1. 2.
3.
4.
P1Describethefunctionsofthemaincellscomponents
Cellsarethebasicunitsiforganismsinwhichalllivingthingsaremade.The appearanceofthecellsdependsoftheareaitislocatedatandthefunctionswithinthe organism.Acellconsistsofmanycomponents.Theseareplasmamembrane,the cytoplasm,theendoreticulum(roughandsmooth),Golgiapparatus,lysosomes, mitochondrionandthenucleus.Eachofthesepartsofthecell,playanimportantrole,if itdidnothaveallthesepartsthenthecellwouldnotworkinandwhatitismeantto.
Thecellmembrane(orplasma)isathinskinaroundthecell.Itgivesthecellits
shapeandcontrolswhatgoesintoandoutofthecell.Iftheplasmamembranewasto getdamagedinanyway,anditwouldn'tletanythingenterorexitit,thenwewouldnot beabletogetoxygeninandletcarbondioxideout.Thismeansthatwewouldn'tbeable tolive,aswehavetoneedoxygenandtoletoutcarbondioxideforrespirationwhich providesourbodywiththeenergytogothroughtheprocessesthatitneeds.
Thecytoplasmisthefluidofthecell,whichismostlymadeupofwater.Thisisalso
wherechemicalreactionstakeplace,likemetabolism,whichkeepsthecellalive.The functionofthecytoplasmistoprovidestructuretothecell,aplaceforallthe
Thenucleusisthelargeststructurewithinthecell,containingmanyorganelles.Itis
usuallyfoundinthemiddleofthecell,butinsomeplantcellsitcanbefoundatthe bottom.Thefunctionofthenucleusisveryimportantbecauseitcontrolswhatthecell does,aswellascontaininginstructionsonhowtomakenewcells.ItisSphericalbody containingmanyorganelles,includingthenucleolus.Thenucleuscontrolsmanyofthe functionsofthecell(bycontrollingproteinsynthesis)andcontainsDNA(in chromosomes).Itisrepresentedbytheplum.
TheGolgiapparatusisaflattened,layered,saclikeorganellewhichlookslikea
stackofpancakes.ThemainfunctionoftheGolgiapparatusistoprocessandpackage proteinsandlipidsfordeliverytootherorganellesoroutwardsfromthecell.Itisalso responsiblefortheproducinglysosomes.TheGolgibodypackagesproteinsand carbohydratesintomembraneboundvesiclesfor"export"fromthecell.Itisrepresented byfoldedribbonsofhardcandy.
Themitochondriaareasphericaltorodshapedorganelleswithdoubledlayered
membraneswhicharescatteredroundthecytoplasm.Theinnermembraneisinfolded manytimes,formingaseriesofprojections(calledcristae).Themitochondrionconverts theenergystoredinglucoseintoATP(adenosinetriphosphate)forthecell.Theyare representedbyraisins.
Centrosomeasmallbodylocatednearthenucleusithasadensecentreand
radiatingtubules.Thisiswheremicrotubulesaremade.Duringcelldivision(mitosis), thecentrosomedividesandthetwopartsmovetooppositesidesofthedividingcell.It isrepresentedbyagumball.
Lysosomeitisalsocalledcellvesicles,anditsroundorganellessurroundedbya
membraneandcontainingdigestiveenzymes.Thisiswherethedigestionofcell nutrientstakesplace.TheyarerepresentedbyM&M's.
RibosomesmallorganellescomposedofRNArichcytoplasmicgranulesthatare
sitesofproteinsynthesis.Theyarerepresentedbycandysprinkles.
Roughendoplasmicreticulum(roughER)avastsystemofinterconnected,
membranous,infoldedandconvolutedsacksthatarelocatedinthecell'scytoplasm(the ERiscontinuouswiththeouternuclearmembrane).RoughERiscoveredwith ribosomesthatgiveitaroughappearance.RoughERtransportsmaterialsthroughthe cellandproducesproteinsinsackscalledcisternae(whicharesenttotheGolgibody, orinsertedintothecellmembrane).Itisrepresentedbysourgummyworms.
Smoothendoplasmicreticulum(smoothER)avastsystemofinterconnected,
membranous,infoldedandconvolutedtubesthatarelocatedinthecell'scytoplasm(the ERiscontinuouswiththeouternuclearmembrane).ThespacewithintheERiscalled theERlumen.SmoothERtransportsmaterialsthroughthecell.Itcontainsenzymesand producesanddigestslipids(fats)andmembraneproteinssmoothERbudsofffrom roughER,movingthenewlymadeproteinsandlipidstotheGolgibody,lysosomes, andmembranes.Itisrepresentedbygummyworms.
Vacuolefluidfilled,membranesurroundedcavitiesinsideacell.Thevacuolefillswith
foodbeingdigestedandwastematerialthatisonitswayoutofthecell.Theyare representedbyjawbreakers.
P2:outlinethestructureofthemaintissuesofthebodyandtheir roleinthefunctioningoftwonamedbodysystems.
Tissuesaregroupsofsimilarcellscarryoutspecificfunctionsinthinunit,anditis alsoanonlivingmaterialcalledintercellularmatrix,fillsthespacesbetweenthe cells. Thesearethetypesoftissues: Epithelial. Connective. Muscle. Nervous.
Epithelialtissues:theyperformavarietyoffunctionsthatincludesprotection
epitheliaaretheliningsofinternalandexternalsurfacesandbodycavities, includingducts(tubesorchannels)carryingsecretionsfromglands.Theymay becomposedofseverallayersofcells,calledcompoundepithelia,orjusta singlelayerknowsassimpleepithelia.Thewestorbottomlayerofcellsis attachedtoabasementmembraneforsupportorconnection.Therearenerve suppliestoepitheliabuttheyaresuppliedwithoxygenandnutrientsfrom deepertissuesbydiffusion.Astheyaresurfacetissuesandexposedto friction,theircapacityforgrowthandrepairisgreaterthanothertissuesand
usuallyoccursduringsleep.
Simplecuboidal_areepithelialcellsinasinglelayerofcubelikecellswith
large,sphericalcentralnuclei.Simplecuboidalepitheliaarefoundonthesurface ofovaries,theliningofnephrons,thewallsoftherenaltubules,andpartsofthe eyeandthyroid.Onthesesurfaces,thecellsperformsecretionandabsorption. Thesecellsprovideprotectionandmaybeactive(pumpingmaterialinoroutofthe lumen)orpassive,dependingonthelocationandcellularspecialization.Theyare alsofoundinkidneytubules,glandularducts,ovaries,andthethyroidgland. Simplecuboidalcellsarefoundinsinglerowswiththeirsphericalnucleiinthe centerofthecellsandaredirectlyattachedtothesurface.Simplecuboidal epitheliumcommonlydifferentiatestoformthesecretoryandductportionsof glands.[1]Theyalsoconstitutethegerminalepitheliumwhichproducestheeggcells inthefemaleovaryandthespermcellsinthemaletestes.[2]Thesecellsoffersome protectionandfunctioninabsorptionandsecretion.
Simplecolumnar_Simplecolumnarepithelialcellsarelongerthantheyare
wide.Characteristically,theirnucleuiarefoundatthebaseofthecell.Thecells areconnectedbytightjunctions.Thecellsreceivenutrientsthroughthebasement membrane,whichseparatesthecellsfromthecapillarybasallayer.Themain functionofsimplecolumnarepithelialcellsisprotection.Forexample,the epitheliuminthestomachanddigestivetractprovidesanimpermeablebarrier againstanybacteriathatcouldbeingestedbutispermeabletoanynecessary ions.Thisfunctionisespeciallyimportantinthecolon.Simplecolumnarepithelial cellscanspecializetosecretmucusthatcoatsandprotectsthesurrounding surfacefromdamage.Becausetheepitheliumcanbeinnervated,simplecolumnar epitheliumisalsospecializedtoprovidesensoryinput.Thesecellsarefoundinthe cornea,innerear,andnose.Finally,simplecolumnarepitheliumsareverygoodat absorpingandtransportingnutrientsfromlocationslikethesmallintestine.
Stratifiedsquambous_astratifiedsquamousepitheliumconsistsofsquamous
(flattened)epithelialcellsarrangedinlayersuponabasementmembrane.Only onelayerisincontactwiththebasementmembranetheotherlayersadhereto oneanothertomaintainstructuralintegrity.Althoughthisepitheliumisreferredto assquamous,manycellswithinthelayersmaynotbeflattenedthisisduetothe conventionofnamingepitheliaaccordingtothecelltypeatthesurface.Inthe deeperlayers,thecellsmaybecolumnarorcuboidal.Thistypeofepitheliumis wellsuitedtoareasinthebodysubjecttoconstantabrasion,asitisthethickest andlayerscanbesequentiallysloughedoffandreplacedbeforethebasement membraneisexposed.Itformstheoutermostlayeroftheskinandtheinnerlining ofthemouth,esophagus,andvagina.
Stratifiedcuboidal_itis:
Pseudostratifiedcolumnar_Pseudostratifiedcolumnarepitheliumislikesimple
columnarepithelium,onlyithasdifferentnuclearlayersmakingitlookstratified (hencethename).Somecellshaveacentrallylocatednucleusandothershavea morebasalnucleus.istypicallyfoundliningtherespiratorysystemandisalso foundinothertissuessuchastheepididymis.Threetypesofcellsmakeupthis epitheliumbasal,columnarandfusiformcells.Thefirsttwoareeasytosee,but fusiformcellsaredifficulttodemonstrateduetotheirshape.Allcellsrestonthe basementmembrane,butvaryinheight,and,asaresult,thenucleiareatdifferent levelsgivingtheappearanceofstratification.
Tissuesaregroupsofcellswithacommonstructureand
function
Epithelialtissuecoversthebodyandlinesitsorgansandcavities
Layers Simple(Onelayer)
CellShape Squamous(flat)
Location Capillaryandair saclinings. Kidneytubulesand thyroidgland. Intestinallining Skin Sweatglandsand mammaryglands. Pharynxandanus Upperrespiratory tract
Cuboidal(cube) Columnar(column) Stratified(Morethan onelayer) Squamous(flat) Cuboidal(cube) Columnar(column) Pseudostratified(one Columnar layerbutlookslike more)
Connectivetissuebindsandsupportsothertissues
Containsfewercells,scatteredthroughoutanextracellularmatrix Matrix: Secretedbythecells Containsaweboffibersembeddedinaliquid,jelly,orsolid Looseconnectivetissue:bindingandpackingmaterialtoholdorgansinplace Fibersaremainlylooselywovencollagenandelastic Fibrousconnectivetissue:tendonsandligaments Fibersaredenselypackedbundlesofcollagen Adiposetissue:padsandinsulatesthebodyandstoresenergy Storesfatwithincells Littlematrix Cartilage:shockabsorberinjoints,nose,andears Manycollagenfibersembeddedinarubberymatrix Bone:supportstructure Collagenfibersembeddedinahardmineralmatrixofcalcium,magnesium,and phosphate Blood:functionsintransportandimmunity Consistsofcellssuspendedinaliquidmatrix
Thesetissuesarethemostwidelydistributedinthebodyandlie beneaththeepithelialtissues,connectingdifferentpartsoftheinternal structure.Varioustypesofcellslieinabackgroundmaterialknowas matrix.Thematrixmaybeliquidasinblood,jellylikeasanareolar tissue,firmasincartilageorhardasinbone.Thematrixofatissueis usuallysecretedbytheconnectivetissuecells.Thefunctionsofthese tissuesaretotransportmaterial(asinblood),givesupport(asinareolar tissueandcartilage),andstrengthenandprotect(asinbone).Many tissuescontaindifferentfibressecretedbythecellstoprovidespecial characteristics.
Attachedtobonesbytendons Responsibleforvoluntarybodymovements Stripedorstriatedappearance Cardiacmuscle Formstheheart Cellsarestriatedandbranched Cellsconnectatspecializedjunctionsforcoordinated contraction Smoothmuscle Lacksstriations Responsibleforinvoluntaryorganmotions Ex:intestinalmovements(peristalsis) Nervoustissue:sensesstimuliandrapidlytransmits informationfromonepartoftheanimaltoanother Neuron:structuralandfunctionalunitofnervoustissue Specializedtoconductelectricalimpulses Dendritesconveyinformationtowardtheneuroncellbody Axonsconveyinformationawayfromtheneuroncellbody Nervoustissuealsoincludessupportingcells
ThetwoorgansIchoseare:
Thelungs:Thelungstissuesaremadeupmainlyofsquamous
epithelialtissue(calledalveolarepitheliuminthelungs).Thistypeof tissueservesacriticalfunctionwithinthelungsbecauseitallowsthe transferandexchangeofgaseswithlittleornoresistance. TheadvantagesareashortdistancebetweentheOxygeninthe alveoliandthebloodinthecapillaries. Thelungsalsocontainciliatedepithelium.Afunctionofciliated epitheliumisstimulationofgobletcellstoproduceamucouslike substancethatnotonlylubricatesbutalsotrapspathogensand particlesinthebronchi.
Thekidneys:
Thekidneysarecomposedofvarioustypesofepithelialtissue. Theproximalconvulatedtubuleismadeupofsimplecuboidal epitheliumwithmicrovilli. Thedistalconvulatedtubuleismadeupofsimplecuboidal epitheliumwithoutmicrovilli. Thecollectingductismadeupofsimplecuboidalepithelium. Theascendingthinlimbismadeupofsimplesquamous epithelium.
P3:Outlinethegrossstructureofallthemainbodysystems
Introduction Asystemismadeupofdifferenttissuesandorgansworkingtogethertoperforma specificfunctioninthebody.
Skeletalsystem:
Skeletalsystemisthesystemofbones,associatedcartilagesandjointsofhuman body.Togetherthesestructuresformthehumanskeleton.Skeletoncanbedefined asthehardframeworkofhumanbodyaroundwhichtheentirebodyisbuilt. Almostallthehardpartsofhumanbodyarecomponentsofhumanskeletalsystem. Jointsareveryimportantbecausetheymakethehardandrigidskeletonallow differenttypesofmovementsatdifferentlocations.Iftheskeletonwerewithout joints,nomovementwouldhavetakenplaceandthesignificanceofhumanbody nomorethanastone. ComponentsofHumanSkeleton: HumanskeletoniscomposedofthreemaincomponentsBones,Associated cartilagesandJoints. Bones:Boneisatoughandrigidformofconnectivetissue.Itistheweight bearingorganofhumanbodyanditisresponsibleforalmostallstrengthofhuman skeleton. Cartilages:Cartilageisalsoaformofconnectivetissuebutisnotastoughand rigidasbone.Themaindifferenceinthecartilageandboneisthemineralization factor.Bonesarehighlymineralizedwithcalciumsaltswhilecartilagesarenot. Joints:Jointsareimportantcomponentsofhumanskeletonbecausetheymake thehumanskeletonmobile.Ajointoccursbetweentwoormorebones,bone andcartilageandcartilageandcartilage. DivisionsofHumanSkeleton:Humanskeletoncanbedividedintotwodivisions. AxialSkeleton: Axialskeletonformstheaxisofhumanbody.ItconsistsofSkull,vertebralcolumn andthoraciccage. Skull:Skullisthatpartofhumanskeletonthatformsthebonyframeworkofthe head.Itconsistsof22differentbonesthataredividedintotwogroups:bonesof
craniumandbonesofface. VertebralColumn:Itisaflexiblecolumnofvertebrae,connectingthetrunkof humanbodytotheskullandappendages.Itiscomposedof33vertebraewhich aredividedinto5regions:Cervical,Thoracic,Lumbar,Sacral,andCoccygeal. RibCage:Itisabonycageenclosingvitalhumanorgansformedbythesternum andribs.Thereare12pairsofribsthataredividedintothreegroups:Trueribs, Falseribs,andFloatingribs. AppendicularSkeleton: Itistheskeletonofappendagesofhumanbody.ItconsistsofShouldergirdle, Skeletonofupperlimb,PelvicgirdleandSkeletonoflowerlimb. ShoulderGirdle:Itattachestheupperlimbtobodytrunkandisformedbytwo bones:clavicleandscapula.Clavicleisamodifiedlongboneandissubcutaneous throughoutitsposition.Itisalsoknownasthebeautybone.Scapulaisapear shapedflatbonethatcontainstheglenoidfossafortheformationofshoulderjoint. Itpossessesthreeimportantprocesses:Spineofscapula,Acromionprocessand Coracoidprocess. SkeletonofUpperlimb:Theskeletonofeachupperlimbconsistsof30bones. Thesebonesare:Humerus,Ulna,Radius,Carpals(8),Metacarpals(5),and Phalanges(14). PelvicGirdle:Therearetwopelvicgirdles(oneforeachlowerlimb)butunlikethe pectoralgirdles,theyarejointedwitheachotheratsymphysispubis.Eachpelvic girdleisasingleboneinadultsandismadeupofthreecomponents:Ileum, IschiumandPubis. SkeletonofLowerlimb:Theskeletonofeachlowerlimbconsistsof30bones. ThesebonesareFemur,Tibia,Patella,Tarsals(7),Metatarsals(5),Phalanges (14). Functionsofhumanskeleton: Humanskeletonperformssomeimportantfunctionsthatarenecessaryforsurvival ofhumanbeings.
1. Strength, support and shape: It gives strength, support and shape to the
body. Without a hard and rigid skeletal system, human body cannot stand upright,anditwillbecomejustabagofsofttissueswithoutanypropershape.
2. Protection of delicate organs: In areas like the rib cage and skull, the
skeleton protects inner soft but vital organs like heart and brain from external shocks. Any damage to these organs can prove fatal, therefore protective functionofskeletonisveryimportant
3. Leverage for movements: Bones of the human skeleton in all parts of body
provide attachment to the muscles. These muscles provide motor power for
producing movements of body parts. In these movements the parts of skeleton acts like levers of different types thus producing movements according to the needsofthehumanbody.
4. Production of red blood cells: Bones like the sternum, and heads of tibia
have hemopoeitic activity (blood cells production). These are the sites of productionofnewbloodcells.
Muscularsystem:
MuscularsystemisthesystemofHumanBodythatprovidesmotorpowerforall movementsofbodyparts.Muscularsystemiscomposedofspecialtissuecalled musculartissue.Muscleshavetheabilitytocontractactivelytoprovidetheforce formovementsofbodyparts.Muscularsystemisanimportantsystemofhuman bodybecausewithoutit,lifewillcompletelystop.Musclesproducenotonlythose movementsthatareunderthecontrolofourwillandthatwecanseeandfeel,but alsothosemovementsthatareresponsibleforactivitieslikebreathing,digestionof food,pumpingofbloodetc. Muscles: Musclesarebodytissuesthatprovidetheforceforallbodymovements.Theyare madeofspecialtypesofcells. Typesofmuscles: MusclesarebasicallyofthreetypesSkeletalMuscles,SmoothMusclesand CardiacMuscles. 1.SkeletalMuscles: Skeletalmusclesformmostofthehumanbodyweight.Theyareunderthecontrol ofhumanwillandallbodymovementsoccurringbyourwillareproducedby skeletalmuscles.Theyarecalledskeletalmusclesbecausetheyarealmostalways foundattachedtotheskeletonandproducemovementsindifferentpartsofthe skeleton. 2.SmoothMuscles: Smoothmusclesformthesoftbodyorganslikestomach,intestine,bloodvessels etc.Theyarenotunderthewillofhumanbeingsandareresponsiblefor unconsciousbodyactivitieslikedigestionoffood.Theyarecalledsmoothmuscles becausewhenseenunderthemicroscope,theydonothaveanystriationin contrasttotheothertwotypesofmuscles 3.CardiacMuscles: Cardiacmusclesareexclusivelyfoundinhumanheartandnowhereelse.They areextremelystrongandpowerfulmuscles.Theyarenotunderthecontrolof humanwillandareinvoluntary.Thepumpingofbloodbyhumanheartisbecause
Asaresultofhighmetabolicrate,musclesproducegreatamountofheatinthe body.Heatproducedbymusclesisveryimportantincoldclimates.
4. Circulation:Cardiacmusclesprovidethemainforceforcirculationofblood
throughouthumanbody.Theregularpumpingofheatkeepsthebloodinmotion andnutrientsarereadilyavailabletoeverytissueofhumanbody.
5. Helpindigestion:Smoothmusclesoforganslikestomachandintestinehelp
thedigestivesystemintheprocessofdigestionoffood.
Nervoussystem:
Nervoussystemisthechiefcontrollingandcoordinatingsystemofthebody.It controlsandregulatesallvoluntaryandinvoluntaryactivitiesofhumanbody.There arethreecharacteristicpropertiesofnervoussystemofhumanbodySensitivity, ConductivityandResponsiveness Neuronistheunitofnervoussystem: Thestructuralandfunctionalunitofnervoussystemiscalledneuron.Itisaspecial typeofcellwithacellbodyandcellprocesses. Partsofnervoussystem: NervoussystemofhumanbodyisdividedbroadlyintotwopartsCentralNervous System(CNS)andPeripheralNervousSystem(PNS).
Centralnervoussystem:Centralnervoussystemincludesbrainandspinal
cord.
Functionsofnervoussystem:
1. Controlofallbodyfunctions:Nervoussystemisthemastersystemofhuman
Respiratorysystem:
evenforaminuteortwo,theconditionwillbecomeseriousandwillultimatelyend indeath. Organsofhumanrespiratorysystem: Themainorgansofhumanrespiratorysystemarelungsandrespiratorypassages. Musclesofrespirationalsoformacomponentofrespiratorysystembutthere importanceisratherlittleascomparedtolungsandrespiratorypassages. Lungs: Lungsaretheorgansofhumanbodywheregaseousexchangetakeplace.Human beingshavetwolungsknownastherightandleftlungs.Lungsaresoft,spongy andveryelastic. RespiratoryPassages:Respiratorypassagesorairwaysaretheconducting portionsofhumanrespiratorysystem.Herenoexchangeofgasestakesplace,but theyguidetheairtogotothelungsandnotanywhereelseinthebody. ConductingportionofthehumanrespiratorysystemconsistsofTraches, Bronchi,Bronchioles,AlveolarsacsandAlveoli. FunctionsofRespiratorySystem:
1. Gaseousexchange:Mainfunctionofrespiratorysystemisgaseous
andmustbecontinuouslysuppliedforcontinuoussupplyofenergy.Supplyof oxygenismaintainedbyrespiratorysystem.
Cardiovascularsystem:
Heart Hollowmuscularorganprovidingtheforceforflowofblood throughouthumanbody Pathwaysofbloodflowinhumanbody,hollowtubes,of3 types Arteries Carrybloodawayfromhearttootherbody parts,verymuscularandelastic
Component s
Specialtypeofbodytissuethatisinfluidform,consistsof thefollowingcomponents Bloodcells Blood Plasma WhiteBlood Cells RedBlood Cells Platelets
Functions
Providenutrientstobodyparts,RemoveexcretoryProductsfrom bodyparts,Protectsbodyagainstinfection,Distributionofheat.
CardiovascularSystem:
Cardiovascularsystemmeansthesystemofheartandbloodvesselsofhuman body.ThetermcardiovascularisacombinationoftwowordCardioand vascular.ThetermcardioisderivedfromcardiacmeaningHeartandtheterm vascularmeansbloodvessels.Sothenameitselfindicatesthatacardiovascular systemisthesystemofheartandbloodvessels.Cardiovascularsystemisalso knownasCirculatorySystem. ComponentsofCardiovascularSystem: CardiovascularsystemismadeupofthreemajorcomponentsHeart,Blood vesselsandblood. Heart:Heartisahollowmuscularorganmadeofstrongcardiacmuscles.Heart canpushthebloodthroughthecirculatorysystemwithgreatforce.Infactpushof theheartisthemajorforcethatcausescirculationofbloodthroughouthuman body.HeartismadeupofthreelayersPericardium,Myocardiumand Endocardium. Bloodvessels:Humanbeingshaveaclosedtypeofcirculatorysysteminwhich blooddoesnotcomeindirectcontactwithbodytissues.Insteadthebloodflowsin restrictedpathwayscalledbloodvessels.Materialsareexchangedbetweenblood andbodytissuesthroughthewallsofbloodvessels.Thusbloodvesselsare pathwaysofbloodflowinhumanbody.Therearethreemaintypesofblood vesselsArteries,CapillariesandVeins. Blood:Bloodisaspecializedtissueofbodythatexistsinfluidform.Itisoneof thefivebasictypesoftissuesofhumanbody.Bloodconsistsoftwomajor portions:BloodcellsandPlasma.Plasmaisthewateryportionofbloodthatmakes itafluid.90%ofbloodplasmaiswaterandremaining10%areproteins,inclusions andwasteproductsetc.Bloodcellsareofthreemaintypes:RedBloodCells (RBCs),WhiteBloodCells(WBCs)andPlatelets. ImportanceofCardiovascularSystem: Perfectlyfunctioningcardiovascularsystemissoimportantforhumanbody,thatif itstopsforaminute,rapiddeathwilloccur.Theflowofbloodisnecessaryfor existenceoflife.Iftheflowofbloodisstopped,lifewillstop.Heartisthemain organofcardiovascularsystemanditisresponsiblefordistributingbloodallover humanbody.Heartdiseasesarecategorizedastheleadingcauseofdeathin UnitedStates.
LymphaticSystemOutline:
Carrylymphfromtissuespacestothevenous system,startsblindlyaslymphcapillariesintissue Lymphvessels spaces,theirwallsarepermeabletosubstancesof muchgreatersize Producesallpluripotentlymphoidcells Bone (inadults),helpsindifferentiationof Marrow BLymphocytes Helpsindifferentiationof Thymus TLymphocytes
Component s
Smallnodulesoflymphoidtissue Lymph foundinthecourseofsmallerlymph node vessels,purifythelymphfromharmful agents Removesoldbloodcellsfrom circulatingpool,Keepsareserveof Spleen bloodforemergency,Synthesizes antibodies Epithelial Lymphoidnodulesinplaceslike ymphoid alimentarycanalandrespiratory tissues tracts,Worksasasecuritycheck againsalltheincomingagents.
Lymphaticsystem:
Lymphaticsystemisthedrainagesystemofhumanbodyandisaccessorytothe
venoussystem.Atarterialendsofcapillariesfluidleaksoutandatthevenousend, itisabsorbedbackin.Someofthefluidremainsinthetissuespaces.Thisfluidis calledlymphandthesystembywhichthislymphisreturnedbacktobloodiscalled lymphaticsystem.Inadditiontoitsdrainagefunction,lymphaticsystemisalsoan effectivedefensesystemofthebodybecausesomeorgansofthelymphatic system(lymphoreticularorgans)areinvolvedindefenseactivitiesofthebody. Componentsoflymphaticsystem: Lymphaticsystemiscomposedofthefollowingimportantcomponents. Lymphvessels:Lymphvesselsarepathwaysforflowoflympharoundthebody. Lymphvesselsbeginaslymphcapillariesthatbeginblindlyintissuespacesand leadtolargerlymphvessels.Lymphvesselsdonotarisefromavascularstructures, brain,spinalcord,bonemarrowandsplenicpulp.Largerlymphvessels anastomosefreelywithoneanotherandtheyultimatelydrainthelymphintothe venoussystem. Centrallymphoidtissue:Centrallymphoidtissueconsistsofbonemarrowand thymus. Peripherallymphoidorgans:Peripherallymphoidorgansarelymphnodes, spleenandepithelialymphoidtissues(lymphoidtissuepresentinepitheliume.g. lymphoidtissueofalimentaryandrespiratorytracts). Circulatingpooloflymphocytes:ItcontainsmatureprogeniesofTlymphocytes andBlymphocytes.Theyformthefirstlineofdefenseofthebodyduring antigenicemergencies. FunctionsofLymphaticSystem:
1. Removeparticulatematter:Lymphcapillariesabsorbandremovelarge
proteinmoleculesandotherparticulatematterfromtissuespaces.Inthisway cellulardebrisandotherharmfulparticlesarewashedaway.
2. Filterthelymphforforeignharmful:Lymphnodesactasfilterforthelymph
andinthiswaytheypurifythelymphflowingthroughthem.
3. Phagocytosis:Antigensareremovedfromlymphbyphagocyticactivityof
cellsoflymphnode.
4. Productionoflymphocytes:MatureBlymphocytesandmature
Tlymphocytesareproducedinlymphnodes.
5. Immuneresponses:Lymphaticsystemcaninducebothcellularandhumoral
immuneresponses.
Endocrinesystem:
Masterglandofthebody,Ithastwolobes, Pituitary Presentatthebaseofbraininformofa Gland protrusion,Secretes9differentmajor hormones Oneofthelargestglandsofbody,Found Thyroid inneckbelowthethyroidcartilage,Mainly Gland controlsbodymetabolism,Secretes3 differenthormones
Organs Primarilyanorganofdigestivesystem, with Pancreas produces4differenthormonesincluding Secondary InsulinandGlucagon endocrine Primarilyorgansofreproductivesystem, function Gonads Testesinmalesproducetestosterone, OvariesinfemalesproduceOestrogens
Liver
Kidneys
Functions
Generallyitparallelstheassociatesthenervoussystemincontrolof bodyactivitie,Eachhormonehasaspecificfunction,
EndocrineSystem: Endocrinesystemisthesystemofglandsofhumanbody.Eachoftheseglands secretesoneormoredifferenthormonesinthebloodfordifferentfunctions.The secretionsofendocrineglandsareknownashormones.Eachendocrinegland maysecreteoneormorehormonesinthebloodandthesehormonesmayormay nothaverelatedfunctions.Generallythehormonesregulatedifferentfunctionsof humanbodylikegrowth,mood,development,andmetabolismetc.Theperform theirfunctionbyattachingtothetargetcellsandthencommunicatingwiththem. EndocrineGlands: Endocrineglandsareductlessglandsofhumanbodythatpourtheirsecretions (hormones)directlyintotheblood.Theyhavethreecharacteristicfeaturesthat are:
1. Theyareductless 2. Theyarehighlyvascularized 3. Theypossessintracellularvacuolesorgranulesthatstorethehormones
DigestiveSystem
Digestionistheprocessbywhichfoodisbrokendownintosmallerpiecessothebody canusethemtobuildandnourishcells,andtoprovideenergy.Digestioninvolvesthe mixingoffood,itsmovementthroughthedigestivetract(alsoknownasthealimentary canal),andthechemicalbreakdownoflargermoleculesintosmallermolecules.Every pieceoffoodweeathastobebrokendownintosmallernutrientsthatthebodycan
absorb,whichiswhyittakeshourstofullydigestfood. Thedigestivesystemismadeupofthedigestivetract.Thisconsistsofalongtubeof organsthatrunsfromthemouthtotheanusandincludestheoesophagus,stomach, smallintestine,andlargeintestine,togetherwiththeliver,gallbladder,andpancreas, whichproduceimportantsecretionsfordigestionthatdrainintothesmallintestine.The digestivetractinanadultisabout30feetlong MouthandSalivaryGlands Digestionbeginsinthemouth,wherechemicalandmechanicaldigestionoccurs. Salivaorspit,producedbythesalivaryglands(locatedunderthetongueandnearthe lowerjaw),isreleasedintothemouth.Salivabeginstobreakdownthefood,moistening itandmakingiteasiertoswallow.Adigestiveenzyme(amylase)inthesalivabeginsto breakdownthecarbohydrates(starchesandsugars).Oneofthemostimportant functionsofthemouthischewing.Chewingallowsfoodtobemashedintoasoftmass thatiseasiertoswallowanddigestlater. Movementsbythetongueandthemouthpushthefoodtothebackofthethroatforitto beswallowed.Aflexibleflapcalledtheepiglottisclosesoverthetrachea(windpipe)to ensurethatfoodenterstheoesophagusandnotthewindpipetopreventchoking. Oesophagus Oncefoodisswallowed,itenterstheoesophagus,amusculartubethatisabout10 incheslong.Theoesophagusislocatedbetweenthethroatandthestomach.Muscular wavelikecontractionsknownasperistalsispushthefooddownthroughtheoesophagus tothestomach.Amuscularring(cardiacsphincter)attheendoftheoesophagusallows foodtoenterthestomach,and,then,itsqueezesshuttopreventfoodandfluidfrom goingbackuptheoesophagus. Stomach ThestomachisaJshapedorganthatliesbetweentheoesophagusandthesmall intestineintheupperabdomen.Thestomachhas3mainfunctions:tostorethe swallowedfoodandliquidtomixupthefood,liquid,anddigestivejuicesproducedby thestomachandtoslowlyemptyitscontentsintothesmallintestine. Onlyafewsubstances,suchaswaterandalcohol,canbeabsorbeddirectlyfromthe stomach.Anyotherfoodsubstancesmustundergothedigestiveprocessesofthe stomach.Thestomach'sstrongmuscularwallsmixandchurnthefoodwithacidsand enzymes(gastricjuice),breakingitintosmallerpieces.Aboutthreequartsofthegastric juiceisproducedbyglandsinthestomacheveryday. Thefoodisprocessedintoasemiliquidformcalledchyme.Aftereatingameal,the chymeisslowlyreleasedalittleatatimethroughthepyloricsphincter,athickened muscularringbetweenthestomachandthefirstpartofthesmallintestinecalledthe
byintestinalcells,thepancreas,andtheliver.Glandsintheintestinewallssecrete enzymesthatbreakdownstarchesandsugars.Thepancreassecretesenzymesinto thesmallintestinethathelpbreakdowncarbohydrates,fats,andproteins.Theliver producesbile,whichisstoredinthegallbladder.Bilehelpstomakefatmolecules (whichotherwisearenotsolubleinwater)soluble,sotheycanbeabsorbedbythe body. 2. Thesmallintestineabsorbsthenutrientsfromthedigestiveprocess.Theinnerwall ofthesmallintestineiscoveredbymillionsoftinyfingerlikeprojectionscalledvilli. Thevilliarecoveredwitheventinierprojectionscalledmicrovilli.Thecombinationof villiandmicrovilliincreasethesurfaceareaofthesmallintestinegreatly,allowing absorptionofnutrientstooccur.Undigestedmaterialtravelsnexttothelarge intestine. LargeIntestine ThelargeintestineformsanupsidedownUoverthecoiledsmallintestine.Itbeginsat thelowerrighthandsideofthebodyandendsonthelowerlefthandside.Thelarge intestineisabout56feetlong.Ithasthreeparts:thececum,thecolon,andtherectum. Thececumisapouchatthebeginningofthelargeintestine.Thisareaallowsfoodto passfromthesmallintestinetothelargeintestine.Thecoloniswherefluidsandsalts areabsorbedandextendsfromthececumtotherectum.Thelastpartofthelarge intestineistherectum,whichiswherefeces(wastematerial)isstoredbeforeleaving thebodythroughtheanus. Themainjobofthelargeintestineistoremovewaterandsalts(electrolytes)fromthe undigestedmaterialandtoformsolidwastethatcanbeexcreted.Bacteriainthelarge intestinehelptobreakdowntheundigestedmaterials.Theremainingcontentsofthe largeintestinearemovedtowardtherectum,wherefaecesarestoreduntiltheyleave thebodythroughtheanusasabowelmovement.
UrinarySystem Kidneysaretwobeanshapedorganslyingclosetothe Kidneys lumbarspineoneitherside,theyaremultifunctionorgan, formurineandcontrolitsconcentration Twohollowmusculartubesonearisingfromeachkidney Ureters andendingattheurinarybladder,connectkidneysto Component thebladder s Urinary Storesurinebeforeitisexcretedfromthebody,hollow Bladder muscularanddistensibleorgan,sitsonthepelvicfloor. Urethra Atubeconnectingtheurinalybladdertothegenitalsfor excretion
Functions Excretionofnitrogenouswastes,Osmoregulation,AcidBasebalance
UrinarySystem Urinarysystemisalsoknownasexcretorysystemofhumanbody.Itisthesystem ofproduction,storageandeliminationofurine.Formationandeliminationofurine isimportantforhumanbodybecauseurinecontainsnitrogenouswastesofthe bodythatmustbeeliminatedtomaintainhomeostasis.Nitrogenouswastesare formedbymetabolicactivitiesinthecells.Thesenitrogenouswastesalongwith excessofsaltsandwaterarecombinedinthekidneystoformurine.Urinary systemisimportantforkeepingtheinternalenvironmentofthebodyclean.Urinary systemmaintainsproperhomeostasisofwater,saltsandnitrogenouswastes. Componentsofurinarysystem: Humanurinarysystemconsistsoftwokidneys,twoureters,aurinarybladder,a urethraandsphinctermuscles.
Ureters:Thesearemusculartubesextendingfromthekidneystotheurinary bladder.Urineflowsinthesetubesfromkidneytotheurinarybladder.
formationandeliminationofurine.Urineisformedbythekidneysin3steps1) GlomerularFiltration,2)Tubularreabsorption,and3)Tubularsecretion.
2. Osmoregulation:Kidneysareimportantosmoregulatoryorgansofhuman
KidneyskeepthepHbalancedwithinaverysmallrangeandprovidean optimumenvironmentforallprocessesoflife
Theintegumentarysystem
TheIntegumentarysystemistheorgansystemthatprotectshumanbodyfrom damage.Itconsistsofskinanditsappendages,whichincludehair,nails,and sweatglandsetc.Itformsabout16percentoftheweightofhumanbody.
Functions: TheIntegumentarysystemhasavarietyoffunctions.
Thereproductivesystem:
MaleReproductiveSystemOutline: Malecopulatoryorganhavingalongshaftandabulboustip, transfersthesemenintothefemalereproductivetract
Penis
Functions Fertilizationoffemalestoproduceoffspring MaleReproductiveSystem: Malereproductivesystemisthesystemofsexorgansofmalehumanbeingsthat areapartoftheoverallreproductiveprocessofhumanbeings.Reproductionis thecapacityofalllivingorganismstogiverisetotheirbabiesthataresimilarto them.Inhumanbeings,sexualtypeofreproductiontakesplaceandforthistypeof reproduction,maleandfemalereproductivesystemsarerequired.Male reproductivesystemismainlyconcernedwithproductionofsemen(whitish viscousfluidemittedfromthemalereproductivetractthatcontainsspermand fluids)andtransferringitintothefemalereproductivetract.
Internal Parts
Majorfemalereproductiveorgan,oneendcalled cervixopensintovaginaandotherendis Uterus connectedtothefallopiantubes,Developmentof foetusoccurswithinuterus Twoinnumber,Eggproducingfemale Ovarie reproductiveorgan,ovalinshapeandovaryof s eachsideislocatedintheovarianfossaof correspondingsideofpelvis
Functions
Receivethespermsfrommalereproductivesystem,Bearthe developingfoetusthroughtheentireperiodofgestation
FemaleReproductiveSystem: FemaleReproductiveSystem Femalereproductivesystemisthesystemofreproductioninfemalehuman beings.Thefemalereproductivesystemiscomplexascomparedtothemale reproductivesystem.Femaleshavetobearfetusduringfetalperiodof developmentwithintheirbodies.Modificationsandadaptationstobearthefetus makefemalereproductivesystemmorecomplex.Thefemalebodyalsoshows certainadaptationstobecomecapableofbearingthefetusforninemonths.Main roleoffemalereproductivesystemistoproduceeggsandallowtheprocessof fertilizationanddevelopmenttotakeplacewithintheirbody.Theorgansoffemale reproductivesystemare Organsoffemalereproductivesystem:Femalereproductivesystemconsists internalandexternalparts. Internalparts: Internalpartsarethefunctionalpartsoffemalereproductivesystem.Therearetwo maininternalpartstheuterusandtheovaries.
Sources:
http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/skeletalsystem http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/muscularsystem http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/nervoussystem http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/respiratorysystem http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/cardiovascularsystem http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/lymphaticsystem http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/endocrinesystem http://www.mananatomy.com/digestivesystem http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/urinarysystem http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/integumentarysystem http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/malereproductivesystem http://www.mananatomy.com/bodysystems/femalereproductivesyste m
Energyforms:
Energymetabolism: Theroleofenergyinthebody
Catabolicreactionsarethechemicalreactionswhichbreakdownmoleculesto releaseenergy.
Anabolicreactionsaretheoneswhosbuildingcomplexmoleculesfromsimple substancesandusingenergy.
Digestivesystem:
Thedigestivesystemisresponsiblefortakinginfoodandwaterand,using enzymes,breakingupcomplexmoleculesintosimplesolublematerialsthatare capableofpassingintotheadjacentcapillariesofthecardiovascularsystem. Metabolismincludesallchemicalbreakdowns(catabolic)andbuilding(anabolic) reactionsneededtomaintainlife. Weneedcarbohydratesbecausethemostimportantpartonitisglucose,and glucoseisthebody'smajorenergyfuel.Whenglucoseisoxidized,carbondioxide andwaterareformed.Thesequentialpathwaysofglucosecatabolismare glycolysis,whichoccursinthecytosol,andtheelectrontransportchain(inthe mitochondria). Duringhyperglycemiawhichmeansthatthereistoomuchglucoseinthe bloodstream,anditconnectedusuallywithdiabetesmellitus.Glucoseisstoredas glycogenorconvertedtofat.Inhypoglycemia,glycogenolysis(itisthe Breakdownofglycogentoglucose),gluconeogenesis(itistheformationof glucose,especiallybytheliver,fromnoncarbohydratesources,suchasamino acidsandtheglycerolportionoffats),andfatbreakdownoccurtorestorenormal bloodglucoselevels. Thenfatsinsulatethebody,protectorgans,buildsomecellstructures(membranes andmyelinsheaths),andprovidereserveenergy.Whencarbohydratesarenot available,morefatsareoxidizedtoproduceATP(theATPistoprovideenergyand runotherprocessesinthebodyitsextremelyimportantinCellularRespiration). Excessivefatbreakdowncausesbloodtobecomeacidic.Excessdietaryfatis storedinsubcutaneoustissueandotherfatdepots. ThenProteinsformthebulkofcellstructureandmostfunctionalmolecules.They arecarefullyconservedbybodycells.Aminoacidsareactivelytakenupfrom bloodbytissuecellsthosethatcannotbemadebybodycellsarecalledessential aminoacids.AminoacidsareoxidizedtoformATPmainlywhenotherfuel sourcesarenotavailable.Ammonia,releasedasaminoacidsarecatabolized,is detoxifiedbylivercellsthatcombineitwithcarbondioxidetoformurea.
Adynamicbalanceexistsbetweenenergyintakeandtotalenergyoutput(heat +work+energystorage).Interferencewiththisbalanceresultsinobesityor malnutritionleadingtobodywasting. Whenthethreemajortypesoffoodsareoxidizedforenergy,theyyield differentamountsofenergy,Carbohydratesandproteinsyield4kcal/gram fatsyield9kcal/gram.Basalmetabolicrate(BMR)isthetotalamountofenergy usedbythebodywhenoneisinabasalstate.Age,sex,bodysurfacearea, andamountofthyroxinproducedinfluenceBMR. Totalmetabolicrate(TMR)isnumberofcaloriesusedbythebodyto accomplishallongoingdailyactivities.Itincreasesdramaticallyasmuscle activityincreases.WhenTMRequalstotalcaloricintake,weightremains constant. AsfoodsarecatabolizedtoformATP,morethan60percentofenergy releasedescapesasheat,warmingthebody.Thehypothalamusinitiates heatlossprocesses(radiationofheatfromskinandevaporationofsweat)or heatpromotingprocesses(vasoconstrictionofskinbloodvesselsand shivering)asnecessarytomaintainbodytemperaturewithinnormallimits. Fever(hyperthermia)representsbodytemperatureregulatedat higherthannormallevels. Thecardiovascularsystemtransportsthesesimplematerialstotheliverand bodycellsviathebloodstream,drivenbythepumpingactiontotheheart. Anabolism Thecardiovascularsystemprovidesthebody'scellswiththeoxygen,obtained throughtherespiratorysystem,andnutrients,thatareprovidedbythedigestive
CardiovascularSystem
RespiratorySystem
therespiratorysystemconstantlyrefresheslungoxygenanddisposesofwaste products(carbondioxideandwater)throughtheprocessofbreathing. Dissolvedoxygenthroughthethinalvectorwallsintothebloodstreamandis transportedtocells.ThereareBodycellsthathaveaconstantdeliveryofraw materialssuchasglucoseandothernutrientsanddissolvedoxidation. Anabolism theRespiratorySystemprovidesaplatformforobtainingoxygenfortheusein cellularmetabolism.Throughtheuseofgaseousexchangeoxygenentersthe cardiovascularsystemfordistributionaroundthebody. Catabolism TheRespiratorySystemalsoprovidesaplatformforexcretingcarbondioxide oneofthewasteproductsofcellularmetabolism.Thisisalsocompletedthrough theuseofgaseousexchange.Theremovalofthiswasteproductensuresthat thereisspacefortheoxygentobecollectedtomeetcellulardemand. Howtwobodysystemsinterrelatetogether? Therespiratoryandcirculatorysystemsworktogethertodeliveroxygentocellsof thebody(thelungsthroughairexchange,andthecirculatorysystembydelivery ofhemoglobincontainingredcellstothecapillarieswhereoxygenisreleasedinto thetissues)andremovalofcarbondioxide.
Youbreatheinoxygenintoyourlungs.Theoxygendiffusesacrossthethinwallsof thealveoliinthelungsandthethinwallsofthebloodvesselsinthelungsintothe bloodstream.Hereitattachestothehaemoglobinmoleculesinsideredbloodcells. Theredbloodcellsarecarriedbythebloodvesselstoallpartsofthebody.The haemoglobinreleasesoxygenintheperiphery,andpicksupcarbondioxide (CO2).TheCO2attachedtothehaemoglobinmoleculesintheredbloodcellsis thentransportedtothelungs,whereitdiffusesacrossthewallsintothealveoli,and isbreathedout. Whenyourbloodgetstoyourlungs,theoxygenfromyourlungsgetputintoyour bloodstream.Thenitgoesbacktotheheart,withtheoxygenenrichedbloodbeing deliveredtoallpartsofyourbody. Essentially,therespiratorytakesintheair,andthecirculatorycirculatesitaround thebody.Webreatheinair,whichcontainsoxygen,andthisoxygeniscarriedby ourredcellsaroundthebody.Ifourrespiratorysystemispoor,ouroxygenwould notbeenough,wewouldbecomebreathlessetc.therespiratorysystemgives oxygentothebloodcellsinthecirculatorysystem.Also,theybothcontainthe lungsandgivesblood.Therespiratorysystemprovidesoxygentotheblood.The circulatorysystemcarriestheoxygenatedbloodthroughoutthebody,keepingcells (andyou)aliveandfunctioningwell.Whenyoubreatheinairitgoesinyourlungs andtheoxygendiffusesintothebloodstreamviathecapillaries.Thentheoxygen iscarriedthroughoutyourbodyasneeded.Therespiratorysystemwouldnot functionwithoutthecirculatorysystem,andviceversa.Thecirculatorysystem requiresoxygen,anditonlygetsthisoxygenwhenthebloodpassesthroughthe lungsandcollectsoxygentobringtotherestofyourbody.Therespiratorysystem usesbloodtoreplenishitselfwithinthelungs,continuingitsnormalfunction. Theheartpumpsbloodintothelungswherethebloodisoxygenated.Thebloodis thenreturnedtotheheartandthenewlyoxygenatedbloodiscirculatedtotherest ofthebody.
Sources:
atory_system_related#ixzz2BijDNDkX http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_law_of_conservation_of_energy
bodyandstasismeansthesame.Simplyput,homeostasisisaboutkeepingthe bodyinbalance.
E.g.ifyouaretoohotyoumayremovesomeofyourclothing(avoluntary response)andyoumaysweat(anautonomicresponse)tohelpgetyourbody temperaturebacktonormal. Examplesofconditionsthatarebalancedbyhomeostasisincludetemperature, bloodsugar,bloodoxygen,carbondioxide,waterandurealevels. Negativefeedbacksystemsrequire. Receptorstodetectchange. Acontrolcentretoreceivetheinformationandprocesstheresponse(usually thebrain). Effectorstoreversethechangeandreestablishtheoriginalstate.
Thisisimportantbecauseiftheinternalconditionswerenotkeptinbalance,then theenzymesandotherchemicalswouldnotbeabletofunctionproperly.Wehave lotsofmechanismstokeepyourbodyinbalance_someofthesearevoluntary (youcontrolthem)andsomeofthemareautonomic(youhavenocontrolover them).E.g.ifyouaretoohotyoumayremovesomeofyourclothing(avoluntary response)andyoumaysweat(anautonomicresponse)tohelpgetyour temperaturebacktonormal. Examplesofconditionsthatarebalancedbyhomeostasisincludetemperature, bloodsugar,bloodoxygen,carbondioxide,andwaterandurealevels. 1.Howdoesbreathingratereferto?Thenumberoftimesyoubreatheinacertain amountoftime. 2.Whatisthehomeostatictemperatureinyourbody?bodytemperatureis controlledbythethermoregulatorycentreinthehypothalamus.Itreceivesinput fromtwosetsofthermoreceptors:receptorsinthehypothalamusitselfmonitorthe temperatureofthebloodasitpassesthroughthebrain(thecoretemperature), andreceptorsintheskin(especiallyonthetrunk)monitortheexternal temperature.Bothsetsofinformationareneededsothatthebodycanmake appropriateadjustments. 3.Whatarebloodglucoselevels?(Bloodglucoselevel)Thebloodsugar concentrationorbloodglucoselevelistheamountofglucose(sugar)presentin thebloodofahumanoranimal. 4.Howdoeshomeostasisregulateheartrate?Thesetprocessfortheregulationof theheartrateisrathercomplexandisasfollows.Asanindividualexercises,
specialreceptorslocatedwithinthemusclessendimpulsestothemedulla. 5.Howdoeshomeostasisregulatebreathingrate?Therespiratorycontrolcentre ofthebrainsensesthatthelevelsareincorrectandincreasesboththeheartrate andbreathingratetomakeupthedifference.Asyoustoptheactivity,the respiratorycontrolcentreslowstheheartandbreathingratebackdowntomaintain homeostasisinthebloodstream. 6.Howdoeshomeostasisregulatebloodglucoselevels?Bloodsugarlevelsare regulatedbyhormonalcontrolthroughanegativefeedbacksystem.Iftheblood sugarlevelincreasestomuchBetacellsintheisletsofLangerhansfromthe pancreaswillsecreteinsulin.Nowinsulinwillreducebloodsugarlevelsina numberofdifferentways,itwillbindtoinsulinreceptorsonthecellsurface membranewhichcausesvesiclesthatcarryextraglucosecarriermoleculesto fusewiththemembraneofthecell,thisinturnincreasesthepermeabilityofthe cellmembranetoglucoseandsothecellwillincreasetheuptakeofglucose. Negativefeedbacksystemsrequire: Receptorstodetectchange. Acontrolcentretoreceivetheinformationandprocesstheresponse(usually thebrain). Effectorstoreversethechangeandreestablishtheoriginalstate.
Negativefeedbackasaformofregulation: Negativefeedbackoccurswhenanimportantvariable,sometimesknownasakey variable,suchasthePHofbloodandtissuefluid,deviatesfromtheaccepted rangeorlimits,andtriggersresponsetocounteractornullifythedeviation.The liverglycogenisconvertedintoglucoseinordertotopupthosecrucialenergy levelsincells. Thebrainandnervoussystemplayavitalroleincontrollinghomeostatic mechanismsandtheyalsohelpustoanticipatewhenkeyvariablesmightriseor fallbeyondtheacceptedrange.Forexample,ifitisseveralhourssinceyourlast mealandyouarefeelingtiredandcold,youwilltrytoeatawarm,energygiving mealtocounteractthesefeelings,thiscanbetermedasfeedforward(ratherthan feedback),asyouaretakingstepstoavoidalowenergystatebeforeithas happened. Negativefeedbacksystemsrequire:
Mostcontrolcentresarelocatedinthebrain.
Homeostaticmechanismsforregulationofheartrate:
Theheartiscontrolledbytheautonomicnervoussystemwhichhastwobranches, namelythesympatheticnervoussystemandtheparasympatheticnervoussystem.
Rolesofinternalreceptors:
Baroreceptors(aresensorslocatedinthebloodvesselsofseveralmammals.)detect changesinbloodpressureandarefoundinthewallsofaortaandpartofthe carotidarteriesdeliveringbloodtotheheadandneckandcalledtheaorticand carotidbodies.Asmallupwardchangeinbloodpressureinthesearteriesoften indicatethatextrabloodhasbeenpumpedoutbytheventriclesasaresultofextra bloodenteringtheheartonthevenousorrightside.Baroreceptorsdetectthe changeanddelaytheinformationinnerveimpulsestothecardiaccentres.Activity inthevagusnerveslowstheheartratedownanddecreasesbloodpressureback tonormal. ReceptorssensitivetotemperatureareknownastheThermoreceptorsandthese arepresentintheskinanddeepinsidethebody.Theyrelayinformationvianerve impulsestoapartofthebraincalledthehypothalamus,whichactivates appropriatefeedbacksystems.
Effectsofadrenalonheartrate:
Circulatingadrenaline,ahormonefromtheadrenalglandreleasedduringfear, stressandexertion,stimulatestheSAnodetoworkfaster,thudboostingthe effectsofthesympatheticnervoussystem.
Effectsoftheincreasedbodytemperatureonheartrate:
Thermoreceptorsindicatingariseinbodytemperaturetobraincausethe hypothalamustoactivatethesympatheticnervoussystemthisinturncausesthe heartratetoincrease.
Homeostaticmechanismsforregulationofbreathingrate:
returntonormal. Rolesofinternalreceptors: Internalreceptorscanbestretchreceptorsinmusclesandtissuesthatrelay nervousimpulsestothebrainaboutthestatusofventilationfromthedegreeof stretchofmusclesandothertissues.Theintercostalmusclesarethesiteofmany stretchreceptors. Respiratorycentre,diaphragmandintercostalmuscles: Thebrainarearesponsibleforvoluntarycontrolofbreathingisintheupperpartof thebrainknownasthecerebralcortex.Theinvoluntarycentre,knownasthe respiratorycentre,isinthemedullaandtheareajustabove,knownasthepons. Thesearebothatthebaseofthebrain.Eachcentregetsinformationfrominternal receptorsregardingthestateofventilation.
Homeostaticmechanismsforregulationofbodytemperature:
Humanbeingsaretheonlyanimalsthatcansurviveinbothtropicalandpolar regionsoftheearth.Thisislargelyduetoefficientthermoregulatoryhomeostatic processesandtheuseofintelligence,whichmeansthatbodytemperature,varies onlyminimally.Thefundamentalpreceptistokeeptheinnercoreofthebodyat normaltemperatureswhileallowingtheperipherytoadapttochangingconditions ofexternaltemperature. Atverylowtemperaturessuchas30c,thewatercomponentofthebodywould freezeandathightemperaturessuchas+50c,enzymesandbodyproteinswould bepermanentlyalteredordenatured.Lifewouldnotbepossibleunderthese conditionssohomeostaticregulationofbodytemperatureorthermoregulationis vital. Majorfunctionsofskinare:
Productionofheatbythebody: Heatisgeneratedbythemetabolicprocessestakingplaceinthebody.Although energyreleasedduringchemicalreactionsisusedtodriveprocessessuchas musclecontraction(heatpump,breathing,nerveimpulsesandmovement)someof italwaysreleasedasheat.Someheatisalsogainedfromhotfoodanddrinksand undersomecircumstances,fromthesunsrays. Lossofheatfromthebody: Skincapillariesformnetworksjustbelowtheouterlayerorepidermis.Whenyou arehot,youneedtoloseheatfromtheskinsurfacetocoolyourselfdown.There arefourwaysoflosingheatfromtheskin: Conduction:warmingupanythingthatyouAreincontactwith(likeclothesand seats)evenapenbecomeswarmfromyourhandwhenyouarewriting.# Convection:thisiswhenyouwarmupthelayerofairnexttoyourskinandit movesupwards(becausehotairislessdenseandrises),tobereplacedby colderairfromtheground. Radiation:heatwillpassfromyourskintowarmupanycolderobjectsaround youandconversely,youwillwarmupbyradiationfromanyobjectshotterthan yourself,likeafireorthesun. Evaporationofsweat:whenliquidwaterisconvertedintowatervapour(the technicaltermisevaporation),itrequiresheatenergytodoso.Whenyouare hot,sweatingwillonlycooltheskinsurfacetoconverttowatervapourand evaporate.
Althoughconductionandconvectiontakeplace,theycannotbechanged significantlytoalterbodytemperature.Themainmethodsofregulating temperaturearebychangingradiationandsweatevaporationprocesses. Effectsofshivering: Rhythmicinvoluntarycontractionsoftheskeletalmusclesareknownasshivering. Muscularactivitygeneratedheatsoinacoldenvironmentwemaystampourfeet, swingourarms,rubourface,handsandfeetandalsoshiver.Thisisveryeffective waytogenerateheat,asitallavailabletowarmthebodyup. Implicationsofsurfaceareatovolumeratiointhecareofbabies: Babieshavealargersurfaceareatovolumeratiothanadultsandcannoteffect changestogainorloseheatforthemselvesthismeansthattheyareatrisk developinghyperthermiaorhypothermia.Babiesdonotsweatmuchandnewborn babiesdonotshiver.Therefore,itisimportantincoldweathertowrapbabies
Homeostaticmechanismsforregulationofbloodglucose levels:
Intheabsenceofinsulin,verylittleglucoseisabletopassthroughthecell membranesandsotheplasmalevelofglucoserises.Individualswithuntreated diabetesmellitus(causedbyalackofinsulinsecretion)havehighplasmaglucose levelsandthisleadstootherbionomicalcircumstances.Inhealthypeople,the plasmaglucosehardlyvariesatallbecauselivercells,underthecontrolofinsulin, convertglucoseintoliverandmuscleglycogenforstorage. Whenbloodglucosestartstofallasaresultoffastingorbeingusedupby respiringcells,anotherhormone,glycogen,fromthealphacellsintheisletsof Langerhans,issecretedandthisconvertsliverglycogenbackintoglucosefro releaseintothebloodstream. Thesetwohormonesregulatetheamountofglucoseinthebloodplasmaby negativefeedbackmechanisms. Bothhavereceptorsattachedtotheirisletscellstoidentifyrisingandfallingplasma glucoselevels.Insulinalsopromotestheconversionofglucoseintofatanddelays
Whathappenstoyourbodyduringexercise?
Duringexercise,yourskeletalmusclesmetabolizefasterhencetheyrequiremore oxygenandnutrientsthanwhentheyareintherestingphase.Asaresultofthis, theheartpumpsbloodfasterandhardertocompensateforthisdemand.In addition,sincetheheartworksdoubletimetosupplyblood,thelungsalsotakein moreoxygenandyourbreathingrategetshighsoyoutendtohyperventilatealso. Asidefromthat,yourenergyandfluidstoresalsogetsdepletedespeciallyduring intenseworkoutsoyoutendtofeelhungryandthirstyafter.Whenyouexercise yourheartbeatsfastersothatitcanpumpmorebloodtothemuscles,andyour stomachshutsdownduringexercisesoitdoesnotwasteenergythatthemuscles canuse.Themusclestakeinasourcewhenwerunweneedoxygenso,wecould runeasily.Thebloodcarriesoxygentoeverycellinthebody. Homeostasispreventthecardiovascularsystemtonotovercompensatingduring exerciseandwhenwearenotexercisingthehomeostasiscontroltheheartandlet itpumpnormallywhennotexercising. Thehomeostasiscontrolhormoneswhenexercising.Homeostasisinthe respiratorysystemhelpstoremovecarbondioxideandwaterfromthebodysoit allowsustobreatheeasilywhenexercising.Homeostasishelpsthehearttoforce bloodaroundthebodythroughasystemofbloodvessels,arteries,veinsand capillaries.Bloodcarriesdissolvedoxygentothebodycellsandatthesametime removesthewasteproductsorrespiration(carbondioxideandwater).However, bloodisalsoimportantindistributingheataroundthebody,alongwithhormones, nutrients,salts,enzymesandurea.
Explaintheimportanceofhomeostasisinmaintainingthehealthy functioningofthebody?
Temperatureregulationoffallandriseabovenormalranges Hypothalamus:thehypothalamusinthebrainbehavesasathermostatand changesinthebloodtemperature.Whenthetemperatureofthebloodcomesthe
hypothalamusfalls,thisdeliversimpulsestoorgansinthebodysettingtheheat reducedless.Theoppositehappenswhenthetemperatureofthebloodentersthe hypothalamusrises.Thehypothalamustendstoactivatethesympatheticnervous systemandincreaseheheartratewhenthebodygetshot.Thethermoreceptors pointoutanincreaseinthebodytemperaturedeliveringmessagestothebrain. Thebodyfaceshypothermiaisthebodytemperaturefallsorrisesabovetheir normalranges.Whenthebodytemperaturegetstoocoldortoohot,messagesare mailedfromthethermoregulationintheskinorfromthebloodtothebrainandthe hypothalamus.Thechangethatissensesbythebrainallowsapersontochange intheirattitudeforexample,whenapersonfeelscoldtheymaycloseawindow. DuringHypothermiawhenthebodytemperaturefallsbelowthenormaltemperature ofthebodycanbedangerousastheheatenergyislostfromthebodythanitis produced.Brainisthefirstfeatureaffectedmakingthepersonclumsyandslow. Hypothermia Hypothermiaisastatewherethebody'snormalbodytemperatureof37C (98.6F)dropsbelow35(95F).Whenthebodyisexposedtocoldthe mechanismsareunabletofillinheatthatislosttoorganismssurroundings. Hypothermiaiscausednormallywhenapersonisaroundacoldenvironmentor stayingoutsideforalongperiodoftimeinthecoldrainorwind.Whenthebody getstoocolditusuallyactsfastinordertobecomewarmandgivingamessageto thebrainallowingthepersontowearmorelayersofclothingorgoinginside. Howeverduringhypothermiaifthecoldtendstocontinuethebody'sautomatic defencewilltrytopreventanyheatlossthroughvariouswaysandthiscouldbe through... *Shiveringtomakesuremajororgansstayatnormaltemperature, *Limitingbloodflowtotheskin,and *Releasinghormonesinordertoproduceheat. Therearemanypossiblecausesofarapidheartbeat,including:
Dehydration.Thismaybecausedbytoolittleintakeoffluids,lossofblood, diarrhoea,vomiting,ormedicationssuchasdiuretics,sometimescalled"water pills." Lowbloodpressure,alsocalledhypotension Hyperthyroidism,whichisalevelofthyroidhormoneinthebodythatistoohigh Congestiveheartfailure,aconditioninwhichtheheartcannotpumpblood effectively Irregularheartbeats,knownasarrhythmias,suchasatrialfibrillationor ventriculartachycardia.Thesemaybecausedbysaltimbalances,heartattack, andotherconditions.
Othercausesofrapidheartbeat.
Nervedamage,knownasperipheralneuropathy,thataffectsthenerves
attachedtotheheart.Thisisoftenduetodiabetes,aconditionthatresultsina highlevelofbloodsugar.
Lowoxygenintheblood,alsocalledhypoxia.Therecanbemanycausesfor
this.Examplesincludeasthmaandemphysema. Sources: http://www.markedbyteachers.com/asandalevel/healthcare/explaintheimp ortanceofhomeostasisinmaintainingthehealthyfunctioningofthebodye
xamplesfromdiabetes.html http://www.chelationtherapyonline.com/anatomy/p53.htm
Method:
1. Makesureyourpartnerhasbeenrestingfor5minutestoensurethattheyare
Ididprovemyhypothesisbecausetheresultsaboveshowsthatourheartrate, breatherateandtemperaturechangeswhenweexercise.Afterexercisingour heartrateincreasedto105andourbreathingrateincreasedto54,butthe temperaturestayedthesame. Someofthemeasurementswereinaccuratebecauseofrestingbeforetakingeach measurementwhichwillcausetheresultstobeinaccurate,whenyouare exercisingandyouwanttotakethemeasurementsyouneedapartnertohelpyou measureyoubreathing,heart,andtemperatureratestraightawayafterexercising sotheresultswouldbeaccurate.TheequipmentthatIusedintheexperimentwas accuratebutwhenIdidmymeasurementssomeofthemwereinaccuratebecause Ididntmeasureitstraightaway.
Aerobicrespirationandanaerobicrespirationtakeplace.Duringaerobic respirationbreathingrateincreasestobringmoreoxygenintothebody, maintaininghomeostasisasthecellareadequatelysuppliedwithoxygen.Also thereisincreasedperspirationtocoolthebodyandmaintainthebodytemperature astheheightenedmetabolicstate(duetotheexercise)producesheat.During anaerobicrespirationinthemusclesparticularly,lacticacidbuildsup.Thiscreates andoxygendebt,homeostasishopetocompensateforthisdebtandthereby removelacticacidfromthebody(asitistoxic),thusbreathingrateisalso increased.E.g.(theheartrateincreaseswhenexercisingsothehomeostasis controlsthebloodtopumparoundthebodysoyouwouldnthaveheartfailure.) Duringexercise,myskeletalmusclesmetabolizefasterhencetheyrequiremore oxygenandnutrientsthanwhentheyareintherestingphase.Asaresultofthis, theheartpumpsbloodfasterandhardertocompensateforthisdemand.Sincethe heartworksdoubletimetosupplyblood,thelungsalsotakeinmoreoxygenand yourbreathingrategetshighsoyoutendtohyperventilatealsobecauseofthatmy energyandfluidstoresalsogetsdepletedespeciallyduringintenseworkoutsoyou tendtofeelhungryandthirstyafter. Conclusion:insummarymyfindingswasthatthehomeostasiscontrolour breathingrate,heartrateandourtemperaturesowecoulddoexerciseeasilyand ifwedidnthaveitwewoulddie,sothatexplainshowmuchimportantthe homeostasisis. Sources: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_homeostatic_responses_to_changes_in_t he_internal_environment_during_exercise