Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
TO CHINESE
CULTURE
1
AN INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE CULTURE
Contents
Foreword
Part 4. Literature
1. Poetry
2. Essay Writing
3. The Novel
Part 5. Art
1. Calligraphy
2. Painting
3. Sculpture
4. Architecture
5. Music
6. Dance
7. Drama
8. Crafts
Ceramics
Silk Textiles
Lacquerware
9. Folk Art
Acrobatics
Miscellaneous Arts and Crafts
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2. Cultural Exchange in Modern China
Afterword
Foreword
In eastern Asia lies a vast land, 9.6 million square kilometers in area, that
stretches from the heights of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau in the west, to the
boundless Pacific Ocean in the east. This is China, the cradle of Chinese
civilization and home to fifty-six different ethnic groups.
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brother, Fuxi, became responsible for agriculture, hunting, and shelter.
Legend has it that four to five thousand years ago, a tribal leader known as
the Yellow Emperor battled for many years to defeat many other tribes. In the
end, he assimilated the tribe of Yan Di and established the Huaxia, or Han
Chinese people. For this reason, Han Chinese people all over the world refer
to themselves as the "descendents of Yan Di and the Yellow Emperor."
1. Early Civilization
When humanity's ancestors started to fashion tools out of stone, the curtain
slowly rose on human civilization.
China's Stone Age lasted for at least one million years. The Chinese
ancestors started to make pottery during the late Neolithic Period,
around 5000 BC. This period is represented by Yangshao Culture, on the
middle reaches of the Yellow River, and Hemudu Culture, on the lower
reaches of the Changjiang River.
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Painted pottery vessel with human faces and fish,
Yangshao Culture (c. 5000-3000 BC)
Carbonized traces of large amounts of rice have been excavated from the
ruins of a 7000 year-old Hemudu Culture site. This is a sign of the abundant
harvests and affluence enjoyed by these early Chinese ancestors. The
Hemudu people also invented mortise and tenon joinery, which they used to
construct China's earliest wooden post and beam buildings. These
characteristic interlocking joints are used to connect two pieces of lumber.
They consist of a protrusion (the tenon) on one piece, which fits into a
corresponding slot (the mortise) on another. This technique is still used in
China today to construct wooden buildings and furniture.
2. Jade Culture
The late Neolithic Age saw the advent of China's unique "jade culture."
The Chinese people have always considered jade to be foremost among the
infinite treasures that Nature has bestowed upon humanity. During the
Neolithic Age, stone working gradually gave rise to the production of jade
articles. Jade was first used to make ornaments, and later for ritual objects
used in sacrificial ceremonies.
Jade cong with carved animal face, Liangzhu Culture (c. 3300-2200 BC)
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The dragon is the totem of the Chinese ancestors. The early Chinese people
had no rational explanations for many natural phenomena. As a result, they
imagined that there must be some supernatural animal that controlled all other
animals, as well as celestial phenomena, in the same way that there must be
a leader for every clan. They combined characteristics of various animals to
create the dragon: the head of a camel, body of a snake, horns of a stag,
eyes of a tortoise, scales of a fish, paws of a tiger, claws of an eagle, and ears
of a cow. This combination of features indicated the dragon's status an
omnipotent deity and chief of all the animals. Many exquisitely carved jade
dragons have been excavated from Neolithic sites. Among them is a jade
dragon discovered in 1971. It is 26 cm tall, and carved out of a single piece of
dark green jade. The head, carved in bas-relief, resembles the head of a pig,
while the body is curved into the shape of a "C." The entire piece is highly
polished to a smooth and lustrous finish. Because it is the earliest example of
a Chinese jade dragon found to date, it is referred to as "China's first jade
dragon."
During the 6th century BC, the Confucian school of philosophy held that
ritual jade objects were symbolic of human nature. Their soft luster
represented serenity, while their flawless clarity represented refinement
of character. As Confucianism developed, ritual jade objects were
appropriated by the nobility as emblems of rank and status. Even more
importantly, they came to be seen as symbols of evolved character and
moral perfection.
3. Bronze Culture
China's Bronze Culture reached its peak in the 16th century BC and
flourished for 1000 years. Bronze was used primarily to craft ritual
objects and musical instruments, rather than the agricultural tools and
weapons characteristic of other Bronze Age cultures. Many cast bronze
objects bearing accounts of sacrificial rites and historical incidents were
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made during this time, providing important records of the period.
Bronze Simuwu ding (cooking vessel), Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BC)
Bronze rhinoceros zun (wine vessel) with inlaid gold and silver cloud
design,
Western Han (202 BC-9 AD)
Legend has it that the Ancient Kingdom of Shu existed in the Sichuan Basin
during the Shang-Zhou period. Although historical records provide no definite
dates for this ancient kingdom, its existence was confirmed by the discovery
of the Sanxingdui archeological site in Guanghan, Sichuan. The Sanxingdui
site is located in Guanghan, Sichuan Province, in Nanxing Township. The
surrounding terrain consists of three loess promontories rising out of the
Chengdu plain. The name Sanxingdui literally means "three promontories."
Most of the artifacts unearthed at Sanxingdui are bronze objects that are
approximately 5000 years old. They include a 262 centimeters tall standing
human figure, a bronze mask that is 65 centimeters tall, and bronze human
figures. Interestingly, these figures have characteristically Western features,
with high noses and large eyes, quite unlike the features that were common in
Central China at the time. A sacred bronze tree with nine mythical birds and
one dragon perched in its branches stands 395 centimeters tall. It is the tallest
single ancient bronze artifact in existence.
These human and animal figures are quite atypical of Central China's Bronze
Culture. No written records could be found on these bronze objects, so the
origins of Sanxingdui culture remains a mystery. The disappearance of the
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Ancient Kingdom of Shu also remains unexplained. The excavation of
numerous ritual objects, as well as golden staffs inscribed with indecipherable
symbols, only adds to the riddle of Sanxingdui civilization.
1. Chinese Characters
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Evolution of the character "日 " (ri, sun)
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(reigned 328-299 BC). They gave the holder permission to travel by land and water
routes. The inscriptions on the tallies are China's oldest existing written records
concerning safety regulations for water transportation.)
2. Chinese Dialects
China is a vast land with a huge population. Different regions have their own
dialects and pronunciations. There are seven main dialects in China, each
of which provides the foundation for its local culture. The northern
dialect, characterized by Beijing Mandarin Chinese, has the largest range of
any of China's language groups. It accounts for three-quarters of the country's
spoken Chinese, and is used by over 70% of Han Chinese people. In 1955,
the Chinese government officially established Mandarin Chinese as "the
modern common language of the Han Chinese people, utilizing Beijing
pronunciation as its standard, based on the northern Chinese dialect, and
employing the grammar of modern vernacular written Chinese." Standard
Mandarin Chinese has become the fundamental means of communication
among the Chinese people.
1. Confucianism
Confucianism emerged between the 6th through 5th century BC. Its
founder, Confucius, expanded upon ancient Chinese concepts of
humanism. He emphasized the value of the individual, the cultivation of
personal ethics, and the importance of moral character. The concepts of
benevolence (ren) and propriety (li) were the central tenants of
Confuciansim, and became the foundation of mainstream Chinese
culture.
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should be the highest moral standard of the individual. Fourth, people who
possess benevolence feel love for all of humanity. This spirit of benevolent
humanism had a profound influence on the development of Chinese culture. It
is the foundation that underlies the qualities of moderation, courtesy, and
respect for others that so deeply characterize the Chinese people.
2. Daoism
Daoism emerged between the 6th and 3rd centuries BC. The Daoist
philosophers Laozi and Zhuangzi taught that by withdrawing from the world,
people could avoid the chaos of society and achieve inner peace. Daoism
holds that it is possible to apply reason to transcend emotion and achieve
spiritual freedom. This viewpoint was later echoed by the Dutch philosopher
Baruch Spinoza.
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laissez-faire approach to government that did not interfere with personal
freedom, and allowed the populace to develop naturally. Laozi's policies were
implemented in the 2nd century BC during the Han Dynasty, resulting in
peace and prosperity for the Chinese people and the nation.
3. Chinese Buddhism
Buddhism was brought to China from India during the last years of the
Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-9 AD). As it was gradually assimilated by
Chinese culture, a new form of uniquely Chinese Buddhism arose. The
difference between Chinese and Indian Buddhism is as great as that
between Catholicism and Protestantism.
During the 7th century AD, a Chinese Buddhist monk named Hui Neng
transformed this situation. Hui Neng originated the school of Buddhism known
in China as Chan, and in the West as Zen Buddhism. Zen is the most
representative school of Chinese Buddhism. The term chan is a homonym of
the Sanskrit word dhyana, which means deep contemplation. This new form
of Buddhism cast off the restrictions of doctrine, encouraging free thinking and
debate by its adherents. It held that anyone, whether emperor or farmer, could
achieve enlightenment through labor and daily life. The Zen process of self-
cultivation has been described as "searching for the camel upon which one is
riding." That is, one must first transcend the material plane in order to discover
its true nature. Although Chinese Buddhism continued to emphasize the
importance of the Buddhist scriptures, it gradually combined with native
Chinese Confucian and Daoist thought, and eventually became completely
integrated with Chinese culture.
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Baima Temple, Luoyang, Henan Province (construction started 1st
century AD)
4. Historical Scholarship
As early as the 10th century BC, the Western Zhou Dynasty instituted the
position of official historian. Great importance was placed on the keeping of
historical records. Most early Chinese histories were chronological collections
of political and historical essays or records of major historical events. The
Spring and Autumn Annals, compiled by Confucius, was China's first such
chronological history. During the 2nd century BC, the Western Han Dynasty
historian Sima Qian compiled The Historical Records. This work established
biographies as the standard form for recording history. Biographic histories
focused on dynastic personages, rather than events, and took a
comprehensive view of history. A total of twenty-five biographic histories were
produced, known collectively as The Twenty-five Histories.
During the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127 AD), historian Sima Guang and
his assistants labored for nineteen years to compile a comprehensive history
of China. This record, The Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government, was
written in the chronological style and spanned 1362 years. The
Comprehensive Mirror both compiled and analyzed copious historical
material. It provided government officials with an overview of Chinese history,
as well as an opportunity to learn from the lessons of the past. This work
embodies the importance of historical scholarship to Chinese culture.
Part 4. Literature
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concerned with human relationships, the affairs of society, and everyday
life.
1. Poetry
China's earliest collections of poetry were The Book of Songs (Shi Jing),
and Poetry of the South (Chu Ci). The Book of Songs was compiled
between the 8th and 5th centuries BC. One section describes the work, life,
and loves of the common people. Another section records the rites and
ceremonies of the nobility. During the Warring States Period, the poet Qu
Yuan (340-278 BC) created a new form of deeply personal verse called
"poetry of the south." The Lament (Li Sao), Qu Yuan's most famous work,
established the lyric school of Chinese poetry.
Later ages saw the emergence of the romantic and realist schools of Chinese
poetry. This development reached its peak during the 8th century Tang
Dynasty, exemplified by the poets Li Bai and Du Fu. The poetry of this period
was highly structured.
After the 10th century AD, a new poetic genre emerged. Consisting of both
long and short lines, it was freer than previous forms. Story-song (shuochang)
was a popular form of folk entertainment. After the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368
AD), it gave rise to a new form of poetry known as qu, verse that was sung.
Today's free verse is written in the vernacular. It has no set format and
encompasses numerous styles, while still preserving the lyricism of classical
Chinese poetry.
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Portrait of Li Bai (701-762 AD)
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2. Essay Writing
Confucius (551 - 479 BC) held that essay writing was the ideal way to
disseminate ethics and ideology.
3. The Novel
The Chinese novel draws its material from the lives of the people. It was
from the people that the Chinese novel emerged, to eventually become
one of China's most important literary forms.
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From the 14th century to the early 20th century, Yuan-Ming-Qing period saw
the flourishing of the Chinese novel. Representative works of the period
include Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi), Outlaws of the
Marsh (Shuihu Zhuan), Journey to the West (Xiyou Ji), and Dream of the Red
Chamber (Honglou Meng). These novels are collectively known as the Four
Masterpieces of classical Chinese literature.
Romance of the Three Kingdoms describes the political upheaval and military
struggles of the Three Kingdoms period. Outlaws of the Marsh tells the story
of a 12th century peasant uprising. Journey to the West recounts the
legendary journey of the eminent Tang Dynasty monk Xuan Zang (c.600-664
AD) to India to bring the Buddhist scriptures back to China.
After 1919, Chinese authors started to use modern, rather than classical,
language in their writing. This marked the start of a dialogue between the
modern Chinese novel and world literature, and gave rise to a number of new
genres. These new styles initiated the integration of the traditional Chinese
novel and world literary trends.
Part 5. Art
The art of ancient Egypt, India, and Babylon has receded into the mists of the
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past. That of China, on the other hand, has developed without interruption for
thousands of years. Chinese art is richly diverse and highly comprehensive,
encompassing many forms and styles. Chinese art includes calligraphy,
painting, sculpture, architecture, music, dance, drama, film, crafts and
folk art.
1. Calligraphy
The earliest Chinese calligraphy was extremely controlled and formal, much
like the strict rites and ceremonies that defined the society of the time. Seal
script (zhuanshu), came into use during the Qin Dynasty (221-207 BC). It
used heavy, intricate brush strokes, while also prizing a balanced and
harmonious structure. Official script (lishu), introduced during the Qin-Han
period (221 BC-220 AD), had a more relaxed style and used variable brush
strokes. This development offered calligraphers more creative latitude, and
diverse new styles of calligraphy started to appear.
Wang Xizhi (303-361 AD), known as the Sage of Calligraphy, was a master
calligrapher of the Eastern Jin Dynasty. His calligraphy, with its concise
structure and refined brushwork, was famous for its elegance and scholarly
quality. It is said that Wang Xizhi once wrote a passage on a wooden board
for an engraver to carve. The ink permeated the wood to a depth of one
centimeter. As a result, the phrase "one centimeter into the wood" came to
describe elegant calligraphy, and later became a metaphor for profound ideas
or penetrating views.
Wang Xizhi's work Preface to the Orchid Pavilion (Lanting Xu), written in
expressive cursive script (xingshu), is considered to be the epitome of
classical Chinese calligraphy. In 353 AD, on the third day of the third lunar
month, Wang Xizhi and some friends visited the Lanting Orchid Pavilion in
Shaoxing. The friends drank wine and wrote improvised poems, which they
compiled into a book. Wang Xizhi's famous Preface to the Orchid Pavilion,
which he wrote on the spot, became known as the "greatest cursive
calligraphy under Heaven." Many romantic stories have been passed down
about this work, further embellishing its reputation. It is said that the original
calligraphy was buried in the tomb of Emperor Tang Taizong (reigned 626-649
AD). Today, all that remains of Wang Xizhi's masterpiece are reproductions of
the original created by calligraphers through the ages. The most famous, by
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Tang Dynasty calligrapher Feng Chengsu, is in the collection of the Palace
Museum in Beijing.
2. Painting
Early Chinese painting was primarily religiously oriented. After the 7th century
AD, Chinese painting was influenced by the holistic concept of seeking
harmony between Humanity and Nature. A new school of painting arose that
advocated breaking the bonds of concrete imagery and using symbolism to
represent the interior world. As a result, subject matter gradually changed
from religious figures to natural scenery, including landscape and "bird and
flower" painting.
Unlike Western painting, traditional Chinese painting does not employ a single
focal point. Rather, most Chinese landscapes utilize a panoramic perspective
to portray a sweep of connected views, such as mountains and rivers or a
long city street. These paintings, mounted on long scrolls, allow the viewer to
appreciate vistas that cannot be seen from a single perspective.
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Winter Forest in Snow (Xuejing Hanlin Tu) by Fan Kuan, c. Northern
Song Dynasty (960-1127 AD)
3. Sculpture
"Sculpture is the forerunner of all art." This saying truly describes the
Chinese sculptural arts. Jade carvings of people, pottery figurines of
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young women, and sculptures and carvings of animals appeared in
China as early as the Neolithic Age (c. 12,000-2000 BC). As Chinese
civilization flourished, so did Chinese sculpture.
The great underground terracotta army of Emperor Qin Shihuang was first
unearthed in 1974. The army includes a wide variety of soldiers, no two alike,
all with highly realistic carved faces and unique expressions. These figures
must have been created by a large number of artisans in order to display such
diverse technique.
The Buddhist statues found in China's grottoes and temples represent the
epitome of traditional Chinese sculpture. The massive and majestic Buddhas
of the Yungang and Longmen Grottoes have brought China's extraordinary
sculptural tradition to the eyes of the world. These sculptures often feature
beautifully carved clothing. They skillfully portray the form and dynamism of
their subjects.
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Buddhist Statue, Longmen Grottoes (post-5th century AD)
4. Architecture
Chinese architecture is consistent with social status and class. It is said that
the Lord of Heaven, the ruler of the spiritual realm, lives in a palace of 10,000
rooms. Therefore, the residence the Emperor of China, who is merely the
ruler of the temporal realm, may have no more than 9,999 ½ rooms. The
Forbidden City, the imperial residence of the emperors of China, is laid out in
a symmetrical pattern along a central axis. The southern section, or Outer
Court, is where the emperor exercised his supreme political power and carried
out government activities. The northern section, or Inner Court, is where the
emperor and members of the imperial family lived. At the center of the
Forbidden City is a huge square. In the center of the square stands the
enormous Hall of Supreme Harmony, the seat and symbol of imperial power.
The Forbidden City is an awesome expression of imperial grandeur and
might.
Many modern Chinese cities still follow traditional architectural models. They
are often laid out along a central axis and emphasize unity and balance.
Modern Chinese architects and city planners strive for a unified design
concept that incorporates both traditional and modern concepts.
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Forbidden City, Beijing
The residences of court officials and nobles in southern China were small but
exquisite. They included buildings, hills, ponds, and plantings that offered a
realistic reproduction of Nature in miniature. Upon entering the gates, the
visitor's line of sight is interrupted by artfully placed rises, so the entire estate
is not visible in one glance. Only as one strolls along are vistas of distant
mountains and intimate water gradually revealed, like a long scroll painting of
a panoramic landscape.
5. Music
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and foreign compositions in both seven-tone and five-tone scales. Traditional
Chinese instruments, like those of the West, encompass many types. They
include bowed string instruments, such as the erhu and banhu; plucked string
instruments, such as the pipa and zheng; wind instruments, such as the flute
and suona; and percussion instruments, such as the drum and gong.
6. Dance
Prehistoric Chinese dance had its origins in labor. It was often used to
recreate the motions of hunting and planting.
Around the 21st century BC, dance started to appear as a formal component
of religious rituals, palace ceremonies, and banquets. Over the following
centuries it gradually evolved from popular entertainment into performing art.
The Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) saw the rapid development of dance as
an art form and a major increase in the number of professional performers.
During this time, an official Conservatory of Music was established. This
government bureau not only collected and arranged popular music and
dance, but also selected outstanding artists from among the populace to
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perform at court. Some palace troupes had over one thousand members.
Further developments in palace dance occurred during the Tang Dynasty
(618-907 AD).
7. Drama
The Chinese dramatic tradition includes both traditional opera and modern
theater.
Traditional Chinese opera first appeared during the Han Dynasty (202
BC-220 AD). By the time of the Yuan Dynasty in the 13th century AD,
there were regional opera troupes established throughout China. Unlike
Western theater, which relies primarily on a single form of expression,
traditional Chinese opera combines dance, vocal and instrumental
music, dialogue, acrobatics, and martial arts, to create a uniquely
diverse dramatic form.
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of Guan Hanqing. His work Romance of the Western Chamber (Xixiang Ji) is
a complex and moving love story that is known throughout China.
Beijing opera emerged during the 18th to 19th century. With the widest
geographical range and largest audience of any form of traditional Chinese
opera, Beijing opera is said to embody the essence of Chinese culture. Mei
Lanfang is the most famous star of Beijing opera. He was the first Chinese
artist to perform traditional Chinese opera abroad and to introduce it to an
international audience. Traditional Chinese opera, represented by the art of
Mei Lanfang, is known as one of the world's three great theatrical traditions,
along with the method acting of Russia's Konstantin Stanislavsky and the epic
theater of Germany's Bertolt Brecht.
Photograph from Beijing opera Legend of White Snake (Bai She Zhuan),
with Mei Lanfang as White Snake
During the 20th century, Chinese playwrights started to draw from the literary
techniques and theories of the West to create a new form of modern Chinese
theater. The Thunderstorm (Leiyu) by Cao Yu, Teahouse (Chaguan) by Lao
She, and Qu Yuan by Guo Moruo may all be included on the list of modern
Chinese dramatic masterpieces.
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Photograph from Teahouse (Chaguan) by Lao She (1899-1966)
8. Crafts
Crafts integrate art and life, aesthetics and practicality. Ceramics, silk
textiles, and lacquerware represent the epitome of Chinese crafts. These
and other Chinese crafts spread throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe
early in human history.
• Ceramics
The Chinese ancestors first started to make fired earthenware pottery during
the Neolithic Age. Chinese pottery production reached its peak during Tang
Dynasty (618-907 AD) with the invention of tri-color pottery. Tang tri-color
pottery used yellow, green, and white glazes to create beautiful and vibrant
works of art. Representative pieces include lifelike figures of camels, horses,
and people that were used as funerary objects. Many of these human figures
had central Asian features and clothing, reflecting the extensive cultural
exchange that took place during this period.
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By the time of the Song Dynasty in the 10th century AD, ceramics production
was flourishing as never before. Jingdezhen in Jiangxi Province became an
important center of porcelain stoneware production during this time. It became
known as the "porcelain capital" of China, and was famous for its blue and
white glazed pieces.
• Silk Textiles
China has the world's oldest tradition of sericulture and silk production. As a
result, China was known throughout the ancient world as the "Land of Silk."
One of the oldest existing pieces of Chinese silk was found in the Mawangdui
tombs at Changsha, Hunan Province. Dating from the Western Han Dynasty
(202 BC-9 AD), this painted silk funeral banner is 160 cm long and weighs
only 49 grams. Ancient Chinese artisans also combined standard and
jacquard weaving techniques to produce silk brocade. These textiles used
gold, silver, and colored silk thread to create beautiful raised patterns.
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• Lacquerware
9. Folk Art
• Acrobatics
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Distinctively Chinese "hanging ribbon" acrobatics
Shadow puppetry uses two dimensional cutout figures, made from leather or
heavy paper, to present a play. A spotlight is shone onto the cutouts,
projecting their silhouettes onto a white screen. As the puppeteer manipulates
the figures, the audience watches the moving images from the other side of
the screen. With a history reaching back over 1,000 years, shadow puppetry
is the world's most ancient form of moving pictures. French film historian
Georges Sadoul states in his General History of the Cinema (Histoire
générale du cinéma) that China's shadow puppetry is the "forerunner of film."
Shadow puppetry
There are many other Chinese folk arts. Paper cutting uses scissors and
paper to create beautiful, intricate patterns. Doll making uses clay and paint to
make realistic human figurines. Embroidery uses needles and colored thread
to create various designs on silk or cotton textiles. Kites are made by weaving
thin bamboo strips into various forms, pasting silk or paper on the framework,
and then painting the kite with various designs. Sent aloft on the wind, the kite
soars through the sky, controlled by a long string. Each of these traditional folk
arts has many devoted followers.
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The river of Chinese culture has flowed without a break for thousands of
years. Extensive exchange with the outside world enabled ancient
China to draw from the cultures of Central Asia, Persia, India, the Arab
world, Europe, and Africa. At the same time, these foreign cultures were
nourished and stimulated by their contact with China. Sino-foreign
cultural exchange continues to be mutually beneficial and illuminating,
and has no end in sight.
During the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), the eminent monk Xuan Zang (600-
664 AD) undertook the arduous journey to distant India. His goal was to clarify
inaccurately translated portions of the Buddhist scriptures. Xuan Zang studied
at India's most renowned center of Buddhist learning, Nalanda Monastery. He
translated seventy-five Buddhist sutras and systematically introduced
Buddhism to China. The story of Xuan Zang's journey to retrieve the Buddhist
scriptures is known throughout China. During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644
AD) it became the basis for the famous novel Journey to the West (Xiyou Ji).
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Portrait of Xuan Zang (600-664 AD)
Development of a maritime Silk Route started during the Han Dynasty. By the
time of the Song-Yuan period (960-1368 AD), maritime expeditions launched
from the port of Quanzhou, on China's southeast coast, had reached south to
Thailand, the Philippines, and the Malay Peninsula in southeast Asia, and
west to the shores of the Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea
region. Chinese voyagers eventually reached Egypt and even Europe. Early
in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD), the great navigator and explorer Zheng
He commanded an enormous fleet that completed seven major maritime
expeditions. The scale of these voyages was unprecedented in the history of
the world.
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China via maritime and overland routes. They brought with them the scientific
achievements of the European Renaissance. Among them were Matteo Ricci
(1552-1610 AD) and Adam Schall von Bell (1591-1666). These missionary-
scholars introduced Western science to China by translating numerous
European books into Chinese, including works on astronomy, geography,
water conservancy, physics, and mathematics.
The modern era has seen an influx of progressive Western ideas into
China, giving rise to major changes in Chinese society. At the same
time, the Chinese people have actively studied a wide range of cultural
advancements, in order to more rapidly develop and transform their
country.
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Various Chinese cultural organizations and performing troupes have
organized major events around the world, introducing Chinese culture to the
international stage. At the same time, many internationally famous performers
have been invited to China, where they have introduced the classical and
modern art and music of their countries to the Chinese people. China has
initiated Culture Years with a number of countries, starting with the China-
France Culture Year in 2005. The 2008 Beijing Olympics, hosted by China,
was a great worldwide sports event – but even more importantly, it was an
incomparable opportunity for cultural exchange.
With the growth of the Chinese economy and tourist industry, international
travel has increased rapidly. As of June, 2007, 86 of 132 countries and
regions have been finalized as tourist destinations for Chinese citizens. Over
the last five years, the number of Chinese citizens who have traveled abroad
has increased by an average of 22.7% per year. The United Nations World
Tourism Organization estimates that by 2015, China will become the world's
most popular tourist destination, and the fourth largest source of tourists to
other countries.
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Afterword
Beijing
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