Liceo Tecnolgico Copiap English Department

Technical Drawing Course

For high school
Adapted text by Nicole Uribe O.

2009

UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION OF TECHNICAL DRAWING
Technical drawing is the discipline of creating standardized technical drawing by architects, CAD drafters, design engineers, and related professionals. Technical drawing includes the various fields and technologies underpinning electronics, which has in turn revolutionized the art with new tools in the form of Computer Aided Design (CAD). A technical drawing or engineering drawing is a type of drawing and form of graphic communication, used in the transforming of an idea into physical form. This type of drawing is used to fully and clearly define requirements for engineered items, and is usually created in accordance with standardized conventions for layout, nomenclature, interpretation, appearance (such as typefaces and line styles), size, etc. The process of creating a technical drawing is called drafting or technical drawing. A person who does drafting is known as a drafter. In some areas this person may be referred to as a drafting technician, draftsperson, or drawing can hold many purposes and meanings, while a technical drawing is intended to concisely and clearly communicate all needed specifications of a created object or objects. Technical drawing, also known as drafting, refers to the discipline of producing precise illustrations of things in fields like architecture and engineering. Generally, the term technical drawing pertains to any kind of drawing fashioned with technical ideas. Good examples of technical drawing are mechanical drawings, charts, and sketches. Technical drawings are a means of graphic communication, which aims to clearly and concisely communicate information about transforming technical ideas or concepts into reality. A technical drawing often contains both a graphic representation of its subject, and dimensions, notes and specifications. Today the mechanics of the drafting task have been greatly accelerated through the use of computer-aided design and drafting systems, but regardless of whether a draft is drawn by hand or with computer assistance, the field-use-drawing must be reproducible with a version control system to maintain authorized and approved changes to the master document (or computer files, the modern analog). In some fields, particularly electronics, draftsmen are also known by the ambiguous "designer", whose job would be distinct and separate from the engineers specifying and working out the design details. In short, draftsmen are communicators that are part of an engineering team charged with producing specialty documentation packaged as a design, which, following the standards of the field, can be understood by others with the same training. Technical drawing in perspective is a universal picture language by which ideas and information may be made readily available for others.

HISTORY
Drawing to communicate technical ideas may predate the written language. The oldest drawing instruments known, a drawing board inscripted with a temple plan, date from the 3rd millennium BC from the city of Lagash in Babylon. The ancient Greeks influenced drawing through their work in geometry, and tools such as the compass and triangles used in engineering were then developed.
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One of few surviving medieval architectural drawing from the period between the fall of the Roman Empire and the 13th century is the Plan of Saint Gall, a architectural drawing of a monastic compound dating from the early 9th century. The Plan depicts an entire Benedictine monastic compound including churches, houses, stables, kitchens, workshops, brewery, infirmary, and even a special house for bloodletting. The Plan was never actually built, and was so named because it was kept at the famous medieval monastery library of the Abbey of St. Gall, where it remains to this day.

Design for a Flying Machine, Leonardo da Vinci, 1488. The beginning of contemporary technical drawing originates from 15th century renaissance artists like the Italian Architect Filippo Brunelleschi, who in about 1415 demonstrated the geometrical method of perspective, used today by artists, by painting the outlines of various Florentine buildings onto a mirror. Leonardo da Vinci further developed perspective and technical drawing, using geometric principles from famous Greek mathematicians like Pythagoras of Samos, and Euclid of Alexandria. In the 18th century the mathematician Gaspard Monge developed descriptive geometry, when designing a complicated fortress in a star shape using orthographic projection. Early 19th century isometric drawing was introduced by the Englishman William Farish. Prior to the 18th century there was no need for interchangeable parts, the ability to select components for assembly at random and fit them together within proper tolerances, and accurate drawings were not necessary. Inventors, engineers and builders made each product one at a time, and each product was unique. Many designs used through the 19th century were accomplished by first completing a hand sketch of the object to build. These were them converted into wooden models from which patterns were constructed. This practice followed well into the 20th century by some. One of the first efforts to create a program to standardize drawing and establish a mechanical drawing school came from the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia in 1824. The 18th century architectural practice technical drawing had become the normal medium for design. Architects were among the first design discipline to make use of conventions of plan, elevation and section in design and production control. It was the scale of the projects and number of crafts involved that called for a separation between design and construction. By the time the Industrial revolution began, these architectural conventions were readily available to engineers. Since the Industrial Revolution specialized fields of engineering design have developed to meet the needs of industry. Military and civil engineering were the first, from which others developed such as mechanical, electrical, chemical, aerospace industrial engineering, and many others. Eventually the development of the computer had a major impact on the methods used to design and create technical drawings.
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Fields of technical drawing

The field of technical drawing and drafting work is applied in many specialties, such as: Aeronautical drafters: prepare engineering drawings detailing plans and specifications used in the manufacture of aircraft, missiles, and related parts. Architectural drawing : draw architectural and structural features of buildings and other structures. These workers may specialize in a type of structure, such as residential or commercial, or in a kind of material used, such as reinforced concrete, masonry, steel, or timber. Architectural drawing can includes all architectural contracts and drawings such as plot plans, floor plans, elevations, sections, details, schedules, etc., and any architectural drawing that forms a part of the contract documents. Civil drafters : prepare drawings and topographical and relief maps used in major construction or civil engineering projects, such as highways, bridges, pipelines, flood control projects, and water and sewage systems. Electrical drafters : prepare wiring and layout diagrams used by workers who erect, install, and repair electrical equipment and wiring in communication centers, power plants, electrical distribution systems, and buildings. Electronics drafters: draw wiring diagrams, circuit board assembly diagrams, schematics, and layout drawings used in the manufacture, installation, and repair of electronic devices and components. Mechanical drafters: prepare drawings showing the detail and assembly of a wide variety of machinery and mechanical devices, indicating dimensions, fastening methods, and other requirements. Process piping or pipeline drafters: prepare drawings used in the layout, construction, and operation of oil and gas fields, refineries, chemical plants, and process piping systems. Further, special fields of technical drawings, such as the drawing of gears and cams, welding, riveting, electrical components and circuits, piping, structures, and mapping and typography have evolved to support the specialized fields of engineering.

Types of technical drawings

Construction drawing

Construction drawing of a Machine tool part.

Construction drawing is a type of technical drawing, created within the engineering discipline, and used to fully and clearly define requirements for engineered items. Construction drawings are usually created in accordance with standardized conventions for layout, nomenclature, interpretation, appearance (such as typefaces and line styles), size, etc. Its purpose is to accurately and unambiguously capture all the geometric features of a product or a component. The end goal of an engineering drawing is to convey all the required information that will allow a manufacturer to produce that component.
Cutaway drawings

Cutaway drawing of a Nash 600.

A cutaway drawing is a technical illustration, in which surface elements three-dimensional models are selectively removing, to make internal features visible, but without sacrificing the outer context entirely. The purpose of a cutaway drawing is to allow the viewer to have a look into an otherwise solid opaque object. Instead of letting the inner object shine through the surrounding surface, parts of outside object are simply removed. This produces a visual appearance as if someone had cutout a piece of the object or sliced it into parts.
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Cutaway illustrations avoid ambiguities with respect to spatial ordering, provide a sharp contrast between foreground and background objects, and facilitate a good understanding of spatial ordering.
Explore view drawing

Gear pump exploded.

An exploded view drawing is a technical drawing of an object that shows the relationship or order of assembly of the various parts. It shows the components of an object slightly separated by distance, or suspended in surrounding space in the case of a three-dimensional exploded diagram. An object is represented as if there had been a small controlled explosion emanating from the middle of the object, causing the object's parts to be separated an equal distance away from their original locations. An exploded view drawing can show the intended assembly of mechanical or other parts. In mechanical systems usually the component closest to the center are assembled first, or is the main part in which the other parts get assembled. This drawing can also help to represent disassembly of parts, where the parts on the outside normally get removed first.
Patent drawing

Wright brothers Patent drawing, 1908. 6

A patent drawing is a technical drawing of a patent invention, that shows the nature of the invention. The drawing must show every feature of the invention specified in the claims, and is required by the patent office rules to be in a particular form. The applicant for a patent will be required by law to furnish a drawing of the invention whenever the nature of the case requires a drawing to understand the invention. This drawing must be filed with the application. This includes practically all inventions except compositions of matter or processes, but a drawing may also be useful in the case of many processes. The drawing must show every feature of the invention specified in the claims, and is required by the patent office rules to be in a particular form. The Office specifies the size of the sheet on which the drawing is made, the type of paper, the margins, and other details relating to the making of the drawing. The reason for specifying the standards in detail is that the drawings are printed and published in a uniform style when the patent issues and the drawings must also be such that they can be readily understood by persons using the patent descriptions.
Technical illustrations

Illustration of a drum set.

Technical illustration is the use of illustration to visually communicate information of a technical nature. Technical illustrations can be component technical drawings or diagrams. The aim of technical illustration is to generate expressive images that effectively convey certain information via the visual channel to the human observer. The main purpose of technical illustration is to describe or explain these items to a more or less nontechnical audience. The visual image should be accurate in terms of dimensions and proportions, and should provide an overall impression of what an object is or does, to enhance the viewers interest and understanding. Illustrative techniques are often designed in way that even a person with no technical understanding clearly understands the piece of art. The use of varying line widths to emphasize mass, proximity, and scale helped to make a simple line drawing more understandable to the lay person. Cross hatching, stippling, and other low abstraction techniques gave greater depth and dimension to the subject matter.

Sketch for a government building. Technical sketches

A sketch is a rapidly executed freehand drawing that is not intended as a finished work. In general, a sketch is a quick way to record an idea for later use. Architect's sketches primarily serve as a way to try out different ideas and establish a composition before undertaking a more finished work, especially when the finished work is expensive and time consuming. Architectural sketches, for example, are a kind of diagrams. These sketches, like metaphors, are used by architects as a mean of communication in aiding design collaboration. This tool helps architects to abstract attributes of hypothetical provisional design solutions and summarizes their complex patters, hereby enhancing the design process.

Manual drafting
The basic drafting procedure is to place a piece of paper (or other material) on a smooth surface with right-angle corners and straight sidestypically a drafting table. A sliding straightedge known as a T-square is then placed on one of the sides, allowing it to be slid across the side of the table, and over the surface of the paper.

A drafting table "Parallel lines" can be drawn simply by moving the T-square and running a pencil or technical pen along the Tsquare's edge, but more typically the T-square is used as a tool to hold other devices such as set squares or triangles. In this case the draftsman places one or more triangles of known angles on the T-squarewhich is itself at right angles to the edge of the tableand can then draw lines at any chosen angle to others on the page.
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Modern drafting tables (which have by now largely been replaced by CAD workstations) come equipped with a parallel rule that is supported on both sides of the table to slide over a large piece of paper. Because it is secured on both sides, lines drawn along the edge are guaranteed to be parallel.

Technical drawing instruments

Size chart with ANSI sizes

Stencils for correct technical writing. In addition, the draftsperson uses several tools to draw curves and circles. Primary among these are the compasses, used for drawing simple arcs and circles, and the: French curve, typically a piece of plastic with complex curves on it. A spline is a rubber coated articulated metal that can be manually bent to most curves.

Drafting templates assist the draftsperson with creating recurring objects in a drawing without having to reproduce the object from scratch every time. This is especially useful when using common symbols; i.e. in the context of stagecraft, a lighting designer will typically draw from: the USITT standard library of lighting fixture symbols to indicate the position of a common fixture across multiple positions. Templates are sold commercially by a number of vendors, usually customized to a specific task, but it is also not uncommon for a draftsperson to create their own templates.

Basic drafting system Drawing type "name" Dimensions Drawing Dimensions (width X height) type "name" (width X height) 8.5 by 11.0 inches 11.0 by 17.0 inches A-size B-size 22 cm by 28 cm 28 cm by 43 cm 17.0 by 22.0 inches 22.0 by 34.0 inches C-size D-size 43 cm by 56 cm 56 cm by 86 cm 34.0 by 44.0 inches 44.0 by 68.0 inches E-size F-size 86 cm by 112 cm 112 cm by 173 cm 68.0 by 88.0 inches 88.0 by 136 inches G-size H-size 224 cm by 173 cm 173 cm by 345 cm As can be seen in the series, the height of the previous drawing size becomes double the height of the next size in the sequence.

This basic drafting system requires an accurate table and constant attention to the positioning of the tools. A common error is to allow the triangles to push the top of the T-square down slightly, thereby throwing off all angles. Even tasks as simple as drawing two angled lines meeting at a point require a number of moves of the Tsquare and triangles, and in general drafting can be a time consuming process. A solution to these problems was the introduction of the mechanical "drafting machine", an application of the pantograph (sometimes referred to incorrectly as a "pentagraph" in these situations) which allowed the draftsman to have an accurate right angle at any point on the page quite quickly. These machines often included the ability to change the angle, thereby removing the need for the triangles as well. In addition to the mastery of the mechanics of drawing lines, arcs and circles (and text) onto a piece of paper with respect to the detailing of physical objectsthe drafting effort requires a thorough understanding of geometry, trigonometry and spatial comprehension, and in all cases demands precision and accuracy, and attention to detail of high order. Although drafting is sometimes accomplished by a project engineer, architect or even by shop personnel such as a machinistskilled drafters (and/or designers) usually accomplish the task and are always in demand to some level.
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Computer Aided Design

An oblique view of a four-cylinder inline crankshaft with pistons. Today, the mechanics of the drafting task have largely been automated and accelerated through the use of Computer Aided Design systems (CAD). Computer-aided design is the use of computer technology to aid in the design and particularly the drafting of a part or product, including entire buildings. It is both a visual (or drawing) and symbol-based method of communication whose conventions are particular to a specific technical field. Drafting can be done in two dimensions ("2D") and three dimensions ("3D"). Drafting is the integral communication of technical or engineering drawings and is the industrial arts sub-discipline that underlies all involved technical endeavors. In representing complex, three-dimensional objects in two-dimensional drawings, these objects have traditionally been represented by three projected views at right angles.

CAD drafters
CAD drafters prepare technical drawings and plans, which are used to build everything from manufactured products such as toys, toasters, industrial machinery, and spacecraft to structures such as houses, office buildings, and oil and gas pipelines. In the past, drafters sat at drawing boards and used pencils, pens, compasses, protractors, triangles, and other drafting devices to prepare a drawing by hand. Now, most drafters use Computer Aided Design and Drafting (CADD) systems to prepare drawings. Consequently, some drafters may be referred to as CADD operators. With CADD systems, drafters can create and store drawings electronically so that they can be viewed, printed, or programmed directly into automated manufacturing systems. CADD systems also permit drafters to quickly prepare variations of a design. Although drafters use CADD extensively, it is only a tool. Drafters still need knowledge of traditional drafting techniques, in addition to CADD skills. Despite the nearly universal use of CADD systems, manual drafting and sketching are used in certain applications.

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UNIT 2
HOW TO USE AUTO CAD AutoCAD and AutoCAD LT Interface Overview

The Ribbon Maximize the area available for work using a compact interface that contains the most commonly used controls. The ribbon can be displayed horizontally across the top of the drawing window, vertically to the left or right of the drawing window, or as a floating palette. The Application Menu Click the Application button to create, save, audit, recover, or publish a file. You can also perform a real-time search for commands available on the Quick Access toolbar, in the Application menu, or on the ribbon. The Application menu also allows you to view, sort, and access supported files you have recently opened. SteeringWheels Access navigation tools such as pan, zoom, orbit, rewind, and walk from a single interface. Start the navigation tools by clicking a wedge or by clicking and dragging the cursor over a wedge. You can access Steering Wheels from the drawing status bar.
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InfoCenter Search for information through keywords or phrases, display the Communication Center panel for product updates and announcements, or display the Favorites panel to access saved topics. You can also receive information from RSS feeds, or feeds published by your CAD manager.

Tool Palettes Organize, share, and place tools onto a tool palette or are provided from third-party developers. Change the properties of any tool on a tool palette and organize tool palettes into groups.

The Command Prompt Start a command by entering either the command name or the command alias at the command prompt and pressing Enter or Spacebar. When Dynamic Input is on and is set to display dynamic prompts, you can enter many commands in tooltips that are displayed near the cursor.

Model Viewports Display multiple views of the same drawing. Add or remove viewports using the VPORTS command, or from the ribbon on the View tab in the Viewports panel.

Status Bar View the coordinate values of your cursor, and access several buttons for turning drawing tools on and off, as well as several display tools used to scale annotations.

ShowMotion Access named views that are organized into animated sequences within the current drawing. You can access ShowMotion from the drawing status bar.

ViewCube When the cursor is positioned over the ViewCube tool, it becomes active; you can switch to one of the available preset views, roll the current view, or change to the Home view of the model. You can access the ViewCube from the drawing status bar.

Quick Access Toolbar Access frequently used commands such as New, Open, Save, Plot, Undo, and Redo from the Quick Access oolbar. Add commands to the Quick Access toolbar using the shortcut menus of all commands on the ribbon, application menu, and toolbars.

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Action Recorder Automate repetitive drafting and editing tasks by recording action macros. Use most of the commands and user interface elements that are available in AutoCAD to create your action macro and then save it. You can find the Action Recorder on the ribbon's Manage tab.

Menus, Toolbars, and Tool Palettes

You can use several menus, shortcut menus, tool palettes, and toolbars for access to frequently used commands, settings, and modes.

Tool Palettes
Tool palettes are tabbed areas within the Tool Palettes window that provide an efficient method for organizing, sharing, and placing blocks and hatches. Tool palettes can also contain custom tools provided by third-party developers. Tool palettes are tabbed areas within the Tool Palettes window that provide an efficient method for organizing, sharing, and placing blocks and hatches. Tool palettes can also contain custom tools provided by third-party developers. Create and Use Tools from Objects and Images You can create a tool by dragging objects from your drawing onto a tool palette. You can then use the new tool to create objects with the same properties as the object you dragged onto the tool palette.

Create and Use Tools from Objects and Images

You can create a tool by dragging objects from your drawing onto a tool palette. You can then use the new tool to create objects with the same properties as the object you dragged onto the tool palette. Tool palettes are tabbed areas within the Tool Palettes window. The items you add to a tool palette are called tools. You can create a tool by dragging any of the following, one at a time, onto your tool palette: Geometric objects such as lines, circles, and polylines Dimensions Blocks Hatches Solid fills Gradient fills Raster images External references (xrefs) You can then use the new tool to create objects in your drawing with the same properties as the object you dragged to the tool palette. For example, if you drag a red circle with a lineweight of .05 mm from your drawing to your tool palette, the new tool creates a red circle with a lineweight of .05 mm. If you drag a block or xref to a tool palette, the new tool inserts the block or xref with the same properties into your drawing.
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When you drag a geometric object or a dimension onto a tool palette, the new tool is automatically created with an appropriate flyout. Dimension tool flyouts, for example, provide an assortment of dimension styles. Click the arrow on the right side of the tool icon on the tool palette to display the flyout. When you use a tool on a flyout, the object in the drawing will have the same properties as the original tool on the tool palette. For block and xref tools, you can choose to be prompted at the command line for a rotation angle (starting from 0) when you click and place the block or xref. When you select this option, the angle that is specified under Rotation in the Tool Properties dialog box is ignored. The prompt for a rotation angle is not shown if you drag the block or xref or, if at the initial insertion command line prompt, you enter rotate. Blocks that are placed by dragging from a tool palette must often be rotated or scaled after they are placed. You can use object snaps when dragging blocks from a tool palette; however, grid snap is suppressed during dragging. You can set an auxiliary scale for a block or a hatch tool to override the regular scale setting when the tool is used. (An auxiliary scale multiplies your current scale setting by the plot scale or the dimension scale.) Scale Blocks Automatically When a block is dragged from a tool palette into a drawing, it is scaled automatically according to the ratio of units defined in the block and defined in the current drawing. For example, if the current drawing uses meters as its units and a block is defined using centimeters as its units, the ratio of the units is 1 m/100 cm. When the block is dragged into the drawing, it is inserted at 1/100 scale. Note In the Options dialog box, User Preferences tab, the Source Content Units and Target Drawing Units settings are used when Drag-and-Drop Scale is set to Unitless, either in the source block or target drawing.

Create and Use Command Tools You can create a tool on a tool palette that executes a single command or a string of commands. You can add frequently used commands to a tool palette. When the Customize dialog box is open, you can drag tools from a toolbar to a tool palette. Once you add a command to a tool palette, you can click the tool to execute the command. For example, clicking a Save tool on a tool palette saves a drawing just as the Save button on the Standard toolbar does. You can also create a tool that executes a string of commands or customized commands, such as an AutoLISP routine, a VBA macro or application, or a script.

Change Tool Palette Settings The options and settings for tool palettes are accessible from shortcut menus that are displayed when you right-click in different areas of the Tool Palettes window. The options and settings for tool palettes are accessible from shortcut menus that are displayed when you rightclick in different areas of the Tool Palettes window.
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These settings include Auto-hide. The Tool Palettes window can automatically roll open or roll away (called rollover behavior) when your cursor moves over the title bar on the Tool Palettes window. Transparency. The Tool Palettes window can be made transparent so it does not obscure objects under it. Views. The display style and size of the icons in a tool palette can be changed. You can dock the Tool Palettes window on the right or left edge of the application window. Press the CTRL key if you want to prevent docking as you move the Tool Palettes window. Tool palette settings are saved with your profile.

Control Tool Properties You can change the properties of any tool on a tool palette. Once a tool is on a tool palette, you can change its properties. For example, you can change the insertion scale of a block or the angle of a hatch pattern.

To change tool properties, right-click on a tool, and then click Properties on the shortcut menu to display the Tool Properties dialog box. The Tool Properties dialog box has the following two categories of properties:
Insert or Pattern properties. Control object-specific properties such as scale, rotation, and angle. General properties. Override the current drawing property settings such as layer, color, and linetype.

You can expand and collapse the property categories by clicking the arrow buttons.
Update the Icon for a Tool

The icon for a block, xref, or raster image in a tool palette is not automatically updated if its definition changes. If you change the definition for a block, xref, or raster image, you can update the icon by right-clicking the tool in the palette and selecting Update Tool Image. You must save the drawing before you can update the tool image. Alternatively, you can delete the tool, and then replace it using DesignCenter.
Specify Overrides for Tool Properties

In some cases, you may want to assign specific property overrides to a tool. For example, you may want a hatch to be placed automatically on a pre-specified layer, regardless of the current layer setting. This feature can save you time and reduce errors by setting properties automatically when creating certain objects. The Tool Properties dialog box provides areas for each possible property override.

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Layer property overrides affect color, linetype, lineweight, plot style, and plot. Layer property overrides are resolved as follows:
If a layer is missing from the drawing, that layer is created automatically. If a layer to which you are adding content is currently turned off or frozen, the layer is temporarily turned on or thawed.

Customize Tool Palettes You can add tools to a tool palette with several methods. You can add tools to a tool palette with several methods. You can create new tool palettes using the Properties button on the title bar of the Tool Palettes window. Add tools to a tool palette with the following methods:
Drag any of the following onto your tool palette: geometric objects such as lines, circles, and polylines; dimensions; hatches; gradient fills; blocks; xrefs; raster images. Drag drawings, blocks, and hatches from DesignCenter to the tool palette. Drawings that are added to a tool palette are inserted as blocks when dragged into the drawing. Using the Customize dialog box, drag commands to a tool palette just as you might add them to a toolbar. Use Cut, Copy, and Paste to move or copy tools from one tool palette to another. Create a tool palette tab with predetermined content by right-clicking a folder, a drawing file, or a block in the DesignCenter tree view, and then clicking Create Tool Palette on the shortcut menu.

Note If the source drawing file for a block, xref, or raster image tool is moved to a different folder, you must modify the tool that references it by right-clicking the tool and, in the Tool Properties dialog box, specifying the new source file folder. Once tools are placed on a tool palette, you can rearrange them by dragging them around or by sorting them. You can also add text and separator lines to tool palettes. You can move a tool palette tab up and down the list of tabs by using the tool palette shortcut menu or the Tool Palettes tab of the Customize dialog box. Similarly, you can delete tool palettes that you no longer need. Tool palettes that are deleted are lost unless they are first saved by exporting them to a file. You can control the path to your tool palettes on the Files tab in the Options dialog box. This path can be to a shared network location.
Read-Only Tool Palettes

If a tool palette file is set with a read-only attribute, a lock icon is displayed in a lower corner of the tool palette. This indicates that you cannot modify the tool palette beyond changing its display settings and rearranging the icons.

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To apply a read-only attribute to a tool palette, right-click the tool palette (ATC) files in the following location: C:\documents and settings\<user name>\application data\Autodesk\AutoCAD 2006\r16.2\menu\support\Tool Palette\Palettes. On the shortcut menu, click Properties. On the General tab, select Read-only, and click OK.

Organize Tool Palettes You can organize tool palettes into groups and specify which group of tool palettes is displayed. For example, if you have several tool palettes that contain hatch patterns, you can create a group called Hatch Patterns. You can then add all your tool palettes that contain hatch patterns to the Hatch Pattern group. When you set the Hatch Pattern group as the current group, only those tool palettes youve added to the group are displayed.

Save and Share Tool Palettes Save and share a tool palette by exporting it or importing it as a tool palette file. Save and share a tool palette by exporting it or importing it as a tool palette file. You can save and share a tool palette by exporting it or importing it as a tool palette file. You import and export a tool palette from the Tool Palettes tab of the Customize dialog box. Tool palette files have an .xtp file extension. Tool palettes can be used only in the version of AutoCAD in which they were created. For example, you cannot use a tool palette that was created in AutoCAD 2006 in AutoCAD 2005. The default path for tool palette files is set on the Files tab of the Options dialog box under Tool Palettes File Locations. Tool palette groups are saved in profiles. If you send tool palettes to someone who uses AutoCAD LT, note that some tools created in AutoCAD do not behave the same way or work in AutoCAD LT. Note the following limitations: The color property of tools that use a color other than an AutoCAD Color Index (ACI) color convert to ByLayer in AutoCAD LT. Gradient fill tools switch to hatch tools in AutoCAD LT. Raster image tools do not work in AutoCAD LT. Note if a tool palette file is set with a read-only attribute, a lock icon is displayed in a lower corner of the tool palette. This indicates that you cannot modify the tool palette beyond changing its display settings and rearranging the icons.

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Toolbars
Use buttons on toolbars to start commands, display flyout toolbars, and display tooltips. You can display or hide, dock, and resize toolbars. Toolbars contain buttons that start commands. When you move your mouse or pointing device over a toolbar button, the tooltip displays the name of the button. Buttons with a small black triangle in the lower-right corner are flyout toolbars that contain related commands. With the cursor over the icon, hold down the left button on your mouse until the flyout toolbar is displayed. The Standard toolbar at the top of the drawing area is displayed by default. This toolbar is similar to those found in Microsoft Office programs. It contains frequently used AutoCAD commands such as PROPERTIES, PAN, and ZOOM, as well as Microsoft Office standard commands such as New, Open, and Save.
Display or Hide, Dock, and Resize Toolbars

AutoCAD initially displays several toolbars:

Standard toolbar Styles toolbar Layers toolbar Properties toolbar Draw toolbar Modify toolbar

You can display or hide these toolbars and additional ones. You can also create your own toolbars. A toolbar can be floating or docked. A floating toolbar is located anywhere in the drawing area, and you can drag a floating toolbar to a new location, resize it, or dock it. A docked toolbar is attached to any edge of the drawing area. You can move a docked toolbar by dragging it to a new docking location.

The Menu Bar

Display pull-down menus from the menu bar using one of several methods. You can also specify alternate menus. Menus are available from the menu bar at the top of the AutoCAD drawing area. You can specify menus to display in the program by customizing a CUI file and loading it into the program.

Shortcut Menus
Display a shortcut menu for quick access to commands that are relevant to your current activity. Display a shortcut menu for quick access to commands that are relevant to your current activity. You can display different shortcut menus when you right-click different areas of the screen, including Within the drawing area with or without any objects selected Within the drawing area during a command Within the text and command windows
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Within areas and on icons in DesignCenter Within areas and on text in the In-Place Text Editor On a toolbar or tool palette On the Model or layout tabs On the status bar or the status bar buttons In certain dialog boxes Shortcut menus typically include options to Repeat the last command entered Cancel the current command Display a list of recent user input Cut, copy, and paste from the Clipboard Select a different command option Display a dialog box, such as Options or Customize Undo the last command entered You can customize right-click behavior to be time-sensitive, so that a quick right-click acts the same as pressing ENTER, and a longer right-click displays a shortcut menu. Shortcut menus can be customized using a customization (CUI) file. The main CUI file is called acad.cui by default.

The Object Snap Menu

Specify an object snap quickly and conveniently from a shortcut menu. The object snap menu is displayed at your cursor location when you hold down SHIFT and click the right mouse button or the equivalent button on another pointing device. The default object snap menu lists object snaps and tracking options. If you want to change the options, you can modify a customization file. The main customization file thats shipped with the product is acad.cui.

Create Your Own Menu and Toolbar Groups

Create your own menu and toolbar groups in a workspace.

You can identify task specific toolbars and menus for each workspace that you create or use. For more information about how toolbars and menus interact with workspaces, see Use Workspaces and Customize Workspaces in the Customization Guide. Commands COPYCLIP COPYHIST CUSTOMIZE CUTCLIP MENULOAD MENUUNLOAD

Copies objects or command line text to the Clipboard Copies the text in the command line history to the Clipboard Customizes tool palettes Copies objects to the Clipboard and removes the objects from the drawing Loads partial menu files Unloads partial customizaiton files
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OPTIONS OSNAP PAN PASTECLIP PROPERTIES TOOLPALETTES TOOLPALETTESCLOSE TRAYSETTINGS U UNITS WORKSPACE ZOOM System Variables CMDINPUTHISTORYMAX INPUTHISTORYMODE INSUNITSDEFSOURCE INSUNITSDEFTARGET PALETTEOPAQUE PICKFIRST SHORTCUTMENU TOOLTIPS TPSTATE TRAYICONS TRAYNOTIFY TRAYTIMEOUT

Customizes the program settings Sets running object snap modes Moves the view in the current viewport Inserts data from the Clipboard Controls properties of existing objects Opens the Tool Palettes window Closes the Tool Palettes window Controls the display of icons and notifications in the status bar tray Reverses the most recent operation Controls coordinate and angle display formats and precision Creates, modifies, and saves workspaces and makes a workspace current Increases or decreases the apparent size of objects in the current viewport Sets the maximum number of previous input values that are stored for a prompt in a command Controls the content and location of the display of a history of user input Sets source content units value when INSUNITS is set to 0 Sets target drawing units value when INSUNITS is set to 0 Controls whether windows can be made transparent Controls whether you select objects before (noun-verb selection) or after you issue a command Controls whether Default, Edit, and Command mode shortcut menus are available in the drawing area Controls the display of tooltips Determines whether the Tool Palettes window is active or not Controls whether a tray is displayed on the status bar Controls whether service notifications are displayed in the status bar tray Controls the length of time (in seconds) that service notifications are displayed

Commands CUSTOMIZE Customizes tool palettes TOOLPALETTES Opens the Tool Palettes window TOOLPALETTESCLOSE Closes the Tool Palettes window UNITS Controls coordinate and angle display formats and precision System Variables INSUNITSDEFSOURCE Sets source content units value when INSUNITS is set to 0 INSUNITSDEFTARGET Sets target drawing units value when INSUNITS is set to 0 PALETTEOPAQUE Controls whether windows can be made transparent TPSTATE Determines whether the Tool Palettes window is active or not

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UNIT 3
DESIGN
An Overview of the Design Process
Design Design is the process by which the needs of the customer or the marketplace are transformed into a product satisfying these needs. It is usually carried out a designer or engineer but requires help from other people in the company.

Design essentially is an exercise in problem solving. Typically, the design of a new product consists of the following stages:

The development of a new product may also require the development of a prototype to prove that new technologies work before committing resources to full-scale manufacture. The traditional view of the design to manufacture process is that it is a sequential process; the outcome of one stage is passed on to the next stage. This tends to lead to iteration in the design. I.e. having to go back to an earlier stage to correct mistakes. This can make products more expensive and delivered to the marketplace late. A better approach is for the designer to consider the stages following design to try and eliminate any potential problems. This means that the designer requires help from the other experts in the company for example the manufacturing expert to help ensure that any designs the designer comes up with can be made. So what factors might a designer have to consider in order eliminating iteration?
Manufacture - Can the product be made with our facilities? Sales - Are we producing a product that the customer wants? Purchasing - Are the parts specified in stock, or do why have to order them? Cost - Is the design going to cost too much to make? Transport - Is the product the right size for the method of transporting? Disposal - How will the product be disposed at the end of its life? 22

Design Brief The design brief is typically a statement of intent. I.e. "We will design and make a Formula One racing car". Although it states the problem, it isn't enough information with which to start designing. Product Design Specification (PDS) This is possibly the most important stage of the design process and yet one of the least understood stage. It is important that before you produce a 'solution' there is a true understanding of the actual problem. The PDS is a document listing the problem in detail. It is important to work with the customer and analyse the marketplace to produce a list of requirements necessary to produce a successful product. The designer should constantly refer back to this document to ensure designs are appropriate.

To produce the PDS it is likely that you will have to research the problem and analyse competing products and all important points and discoveries should be included in your PDS.
Concept Design Using the PDS as the basis, the designer attempts to produce an outline of a solution. A conceptual design is a usually an outline of key components and their arrangement with the details of the design left for a later stage. For example, a concept design for a car might consist of a sketch showing a car with four wheels and the engine mounted at the front of the car. The exact details of the components such as the diameter of the wheels or the size of the engine are determined at the detail design stage. However, the degree of detail generated at the conceptual design stage will vary depending on the product being designed.

It is important when designing a product that you not only consider the product design specification but you also consider the activities downstream of the design stage. Downstream activities typically are manufacture, sales, transportation etc. By considering these stages early, you can eliminate problems that may occur at these stages. This stage of the design involves drawing up a number of different viable concept designs which satisfy the requirements of the product outlined in the PDS and then evaluating them to decide on the most suitable to develop further. Hence, concept design can be seen as a two-stage process of concept generation and concept evaluation
Concept generation Typically, designers capture their ideas by sketching them on paper. Annotation helps identify key points so that their ideas can be communicated with other members of the company.

There are a number of techniques available to the designer to aid the development of new concepts. One of the most popular is brainstorming. This technique involves generating ideas, typically in small groups, by saying any idea that comes into your head no matter how silly it may seem. This usually sparks ideas from other team members. By the end of a brainstorming session there will be a list of ideas, most useless, but some may have the potential to be developed into a concept. Brainstorming works better if the members of the team have different areas of expertise.
Concept evaluation Once a suitable number of concepts have been generated, it is necessary to choose the design most suitable for to fulfil the requirements set out in the PDS. The product design specification should be used as the basis of any decision being made. Ideally a multifunction design team should perform this task so that each concept can be evaluated from a number of angles or perspectives. The chosen concept will be developed in detail. 23

One useful technique for evaluating concepts to decide on which one is the best is to use a technique called 'matrix evaluation' With matrix evaluation a table is produced listing important the features required from a product - usually this list is drawn up from the important features described in the product design specification. The products are listed across the table. The first concept is the benchmark concept. The quality of the other concepts are compared against the benchmark concept for the required features, to help identify if the concept is better, worse than, or is the same as the benchmark concept. The design with the most 'better than' is likely to be the best concept to develop further. Most people who use the matrix technique will assign points, rather than simple, better, worse, same, so that it is easier to identify which concepts are the best. It is also likely that some features of the design will be more important than others so a weighting is used.
Detail design In this stage of the design process, the chosen concept design is designed in detailed with all the dimensions and specifications necessary to make the design specified on a detailed drawing of the design.

It may be necessary to produce prototypes to test ideas at this stage. The designer should also work closely with manufacture to ensure that the product can be made.

The function of the PDS

Before we consider exactly what a Product Design Specification (PDS) is, let's spend five minutes on a short design project.
Design Brief

A customer has approached us and asked us to produce a design for a chair for their son. Read the design brief above and spend five minutes producing a design that you feels fulfils the brief. When you are happy click on the forward arrow.

Function of the PDS

As we have just seen, it is very easy to misinterpret a design brief and design a product the customer doesn't want. The aim of the product design specification or PDS as it is also known, is to help you to gain an understanding of the nature of the problem so that you can design a better solution to the problem. Going back to our example, it was important for instance to find out the type of chair the customer wanted before we produced a design. But there are other factors to be considered such as materials available, the size of the user, or even the colour they customer wants the product to be. The more we know about the problem the easier it will be to produce a final design that works first time and doesn't require alterations at a later stage. The product design specification will help you understand the problem before you start your design.
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How to write a PDS

The product design specification (PDS) is a very important document in the design process as it contains all the information necessary for a design team to successfully produce a solution to the design problem. A PDS splits the problem up into smaller categories to make it easier to consider the problem. The final document should fully document as unambiguously as possible all the requirements that a product must fulfil together with any constraints that may affect the product. The actual or intended customer should be consulted as fully as possible while the PDS is being drawn up as their requirements are of paramount importance. Any numeric properties in the PDS should be specified as exactly as possible together with any tolerances allowed on their value.

Common categories
Various aspects relating to the product must be considered. The actual categories can vary, but a typical PDS may consist of the following categories:
Appearance Documentation Installation Legal and safety implications Materials Processes Product life Standards Competition Ergonomics Product disposal Legislation, patents and copyright Packaging and transport Product cost Quality Testing Customer Environment Lead times Maintenance Performance Product dimensions Quantity Click on a category to find out more information.

The final document will be agreed by the customer.

Example Product Design Specification

Design Specification for a Portable Winch

The following example PDS, although longer than the PDS's you will produce for your projects, contains many aspects of a commercial PDS and was written with advice from a winch design company. A real design brief for a winch would contain many more aspects than outlined here. A PDS for family motor car for example, would have many more categories specific to the product and would require several large manuals to list the 'problem' in detail.
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Portable Winch
Design Brief

From internal market research, it has been decided that IWC need to design a general purpose winch to sell to the cable and pipe laying market sector. The winch should be portable but have mounting points for the end user. It is important that the winch sits within out current range of 'Excel General Purpose winches'.
Performance

1.1 Lift / lower a load of 2.5 tones (+/- 10%). 1.2 Draw in cable in at a rate of 0.2 m/s. 1.3 The winch drive should cut out when the load exceeds 10% of the specified load. 1.4 Drive to stop lowering load when only 1.5 metres of cable remains on winch drum. 1.5 Winch should operate with forward, reverse, stop and inch facility. 1.6 Any braking system employed, should produce a braking torque of 150% the full load torque. 1.7 Winch should have a manual device to control the brake release and load descent in the event of a power failure. 1.8 In the event of the winch 'overrunning', manual safeties relay/braking device should operate within 1 second or before the load exceeds a speed of 3m/s. 1.9 The product should be portable but with the option for permanent mounting. 1.10 The product must use a portable power source, preferably a diesel engine. 1.11 The weight of the product must be sufficient to aid the stability of the product. 1.12 Efficiency of the unit should be high, preferably in the area of 20 - 30%. 1.13 The drum should hold 50m of cable.
2.0 Environment

2.1 The winch drive and power unit should be power unit. 2.2 The unit will be mainly used in European weather conditions. But we could expect sales of about 2% unit volume to the Far East.
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2.3 Temperature ranges: -28 degree C - European 12 - 44 degree C - Far East 2.4 The product may experience humid conditions. 2.5 Corrosion resistance may be considered by the use of special materials or surface protection methods. 2.6 Any noise from the equipment should not exceed 95 dB at a distance of 1.0m. 2.7 The winch will be stored in suppliers warehouses before sales.
3.0 Product Life Span

3.1 Product will be on the market for 10 years. 3.2 Spare parts will be available for a further 5 years after that.
4.0 Life in Service

4.1 Should withstand an operating period of 1 hr uninterrupted use per day for 5 years. 4.2 Life in service should be assessed against the criteria outlined in the Performance and Environment categories.
5.0 Shelf Life

5.1 The product will be stored on-site for up to 1 month before dispatched. 5.2 Our Far East distributor may store the product for several months.
6.0 Target Costs

6.1 The product should have an end-user cost of 5500 within Britain. 6.2 The cost of manufacture should be less than 2750. 6.3 The cost of packaging and shipping should be no more than 15% of the manufacturing cost.
7.0 Quantity

7.1 150 units in the first year, increasing to 800 within four years.

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8.0 Maintenance

8.1 To be maintenance free except for light lubrication once a month and a recommended service every two years. 8.2 Parts requiring lubrication should be accessible within 15 minutes without the use of special tools or equipment. 8.3 All fasteners used should comply with BS6105. 8.4 Spares should be available for 5 years after the product is replaced with a new model. 8.5 No special tools should be required for maintenance.
9.0 Marketing

9.1 Initially to be manufactured for the European market but our Far Eastern distributors in Singapore, Hong Kong and Australia will be able to find a market for the product. 9.2 The winch should be operating against equivalent models which include the following companies:
Swansom - England Oholom - Sweden Winderhock - Germany

9.3 Applicable markets:

Telecom - Cable laying Gas and Electricity operators Pipe laying services Civil Engineering Operations

9.4 Summary of market requirements:

Portable winch which can be attached to vans and low loaders Use portable power source To be used in all weather To allow one man operation To have at least 40m of cable To pull 2000kg 10.0 Packaging

10.1 Packaging / transport cost should be kept to a minimum and preferably below 5% of the unit cost.
11.0 Size and Weight Restrictions

11.1 Weight should not exceed 500 kg.

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11.2 Length not to exceed 2500 mm. 11.3 Width not to exceed 2000mm. 11.4 Height not to exceed 2000mm.
12.0 Shipping

12.1 Product will be shipped by road within Europe. 12.2 Product will be shipped by sea to Far Eastern markets.
13.0 Manufacturing Processes

13.1 Capacity is available for current market demand within scope to increase production to 200 per year without investment / expansion. 13.2 Motors, transmissions, bearing and ropes are bought in from the following suppliers: Drives:
Electric Motors - Brook Compton Diesel Engines - Gardener Hydraulic Motors - Hydrostatic Transmission Ltd

Bearings:
RHP Bearings

Transmissions:
Couplings - Wellman Bibby Worm Gears - Reynold Planetary Gears - David Brown (PPG Divisions) In-Line Gears - David Brown Radicon Ltd V-belts - Fenner

Ropes:
Bridon

13.3 Castings and injection moulds produced by external suppliers.

14.0 Aesthetics

14.1 The form can follow function. 14.2 If cost dictates, the winch should look attractive to improve our perception within the market.
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15.0 Ergonomics

15.1 Controls to be mounted in an accessible position, relative to the operator i.e. waist height - around 1m, to accommodate 95% of the working population. 15.2 All controls should be hand operated, requiring one-hand operation with a maximum force of 1.5 N/m2 15.3 One man should be able to operate the product.
16.0 Customer Requirements

See Marketing
17.0 Competition

17.1 The winch will be operating against equivalent models which include the following companies:
Swansom - England Oholom - Sweden Winderhock - Germany 18.0 Quality and Reliability

18.1 Quality should be such that winches should not generally fail within a period of three years and only 1 in 50 should fail within the first year. 18.2 No winch should fail in the area of the safety overload device.
19.0 Standards and Specifications

19.1 Standards to be adhered to:

BS 5000 part 99 Motor Performance BS 6105 and BSEN 20898(1) Bolts BS 6322(2) & BS 4320 Nuts and washers BS 7676 and BS 4517 Gears BS 3019 Welding BS 5989 Bearings BS 2754 Electrical Insulation BS 5646 pt4 Bearing Housing BS 4235 Keys and Keyways BS 7664 Painting BS 1399 Seals 20.0 Company Constraints

20.1 None - except those outlines in Manufacturing and Processes.

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21.0 Processes

21.1 All components to be of metric form and comply with ISO 4900 for limits and fits.
22.0 Safety

22.1 No winch should fail in the area of the safety overload device. 22.2 Winch should not operate when maintenance is being carried out.
23.0 Testing

23.1 Testing is to be carried out on 5% of units. 23.2 All cables should be tested to BS3621.
24.0 Legal

24.0 Possible litigation lies in the user injuring themselves by having access to moving parts during winch operation.
25.0 Installation

N/A
26.0 Documentation

26.1 Product should be supplied with a user manual covering winch operation and maintenance. 26.2 Suppliers require maintenance and repair manual.
27.0 Disposal

27.1 Plastic parts should be separable and marked to aid disposal.

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UNIT 4
DRAWING SKILLS
Graphics Skills
Drawing in 3D Covers some of the more common 3D systems which can be used to make your drawings look more realistic

Improving your sketching skills

Engineering Drawing Covers some of the basic rules for engineering drawing such as: dimensioning, sectioning, etc.

Introduction to 3 Dimensional graphics

Representing 3 dimensions on a flat piece of paper is a very important skill for designers enabling them to communicate their ideas to other people. This is especially useful when showing your design to non designers such as managers and marketing personnel. There are several tried and tested 3 Dimensional drawing systems used to produce a realistic representation of an object. Some techniques such as isometric are based on mathematical systems, others a try to convey a larger degree of realism by applying perspective to the drawing. Amongst the methods covered in this tutorial are oblique, isometric, axonometric, and perspective drawing techniques.

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Oblique Isometric
Drawing a box in isometric. Drawing shapes other than cubes Drawing circles in isometric

Perspective
One Point Perspective Constructing a box in one point perspective Two point perspective Constructing circles in perspective Drawing Cylinders in perspective Constructing a grid (1) Constructing a grid (2) Using a grid Three point perspective

Axonometric Drawing 'holes' and cavities in objects

Oblique
Oblique drawing is the crudest '3D' drawing method but the easiest to master. Oblique is not really a '3D' system but a 2 dimensional view of an object with 'forced depth'. When using oblique the side of the object you are looking at is drawn in two dimensions, i.e. flat. The other sides are drawn in at 45 degrees but instead of drawing the sides full size they are only drawn with half the depth creating 'forced depth' adding an element of realism to the object. Even with this 'forced depth', oblique drawings look very unconvincing to the eye. For this reason oblique is rarely used by professional designer and engineers.

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How to draw an object using oblique

When drawing an object in oblique, the front view of the object is drawn flat

Oblique with 'foreshortening'

The side views are drawn in at a 45 degree angle. Standard practice is to 'foreshorten' the side views to provide a more convincing view of an object. To foreshorten the side views, the objects side measurements are halved. In this case, the sides are 50 mm long, but they have been drawn in at 25 mm.

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Oblique with no 'foreshortening

This view is drawn at full size. Notice how circle looks elongated

Isometric
Isometric is a mathematical method of constructing a 3 dimensional object without using perspective. Isometric was an attempt to make drawings more realistic. The mathematics involved mean that all lengths when drawn at 30 degrees can be drawn using their true length (in other words lines aren't shortened as with oblique drawings). An isometric drawing shows two sides of the object and the top or bottom of the object. All vertical lines are drawn vertically, but all horizontal lines are drawn at 30 degrees to the horizontal. Isometric is an easy method of constructing a reasonable '3 dimensional' images.

Drawing a box in isometric

To draw in isometric you will need a 30 / 60 degree set square (As illustrated). These can be purchased from all major stationary stores. The steps below demonstrate how to draw a 5cm3 box in isometric.

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Drawing a box in isometric

1. Draw the front vertical edge of the cube.

2. The sides of the box are drawn at 30 degrees to the horizontal to the required length. Note: All lengths are drawn as actual lengths in standard isometric.

3. Draw in the back verticals.

4. Drawn in top view with all lines drawn 30 degrees to the horizontal.

Drawing more complicated shapes

Initially when you first start using isometric it can be useful to use a simple box as a basic building block a guide to help you draw more complicated shapes.

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This simple example shows you how you can use a box to help you accurately draw a more complicated shape. The object we are going to draw is L-shaped as illustrated by the engineering drawing (left).

The first step is to draw our guide box. This box is the size of the maximum dimensions. In this case, 50 mm long, 25 mm wide and 50 mm high. Draw the box in very lightly. When we have the final shape we can darken the lines. Outline of 'guide box'

To get the L-shape we need remove an area from this box. Draw a box 40 x 10 x 50 mm, the shape that needs to be removed from the box to create the shape we require.

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Draw in the outline of the object using a heavier line. Using this technique you can draw complex shapes accurately because you can use the guide box as a means to measure your engineering drawing views.

The finished shape

Drawing circles in isometric

Circles in isometric don't appear circular. Instead they are skewed and are actually elliptical. There are several methods of constructing circles in isometric. By far the easiest method is to use an isometric circle template which can be bought from most good art shops. These templates contain a number of isometric circles of various sizes. If you decide not to buy a template then you must construct a circle.
Constructing an isometric circle

1. First draw an isometric square. Draw in the diagonals, a vertical and a line at 30 degrees from the midpoint of the sides as illustrated.

2. Place your compass point on the intersection of the horizontal line and the vertical line. Draw in a circle which touches the edges of the box

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3. To draw the next section of the isometric circle place your compass point on the corner of the isometric 'square' and draw in the arc as illustrated.

4. Complete the circle using the appropriate techniques.

Axonometric
Axonometric or planometric as it is sometimes known is a method of drawing a plan view with a third dimension. It is used by interior designers, architects and landscape gardeners. Axonometric works by drawing a plan view at a 45 degree angle with the depth added vertically. All lengths are drawn as their true lengths unlike when you use oblique. This gives the impression that you are viewing the objects from above. One advantage of axonometric is that circles drawn on the top faces of objects can be drawn as a normal circle.

Perspective
All objects we look at have perspective. Objects closer to us are bigger than objects further away. In other words as objects get further away they seem to 'vanish into the distance'. The ability to produce good sketches with convincing perspective is an important skill to
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master helping you to visualise your ideas. There are many ways to gain these skills. Practicing drawing objects can help you see how perspective works and will help you with freehand sketches. But this will take time. What we need are methods of constructing objects in using a reliable system. There are three main perspective systems which allow you to construct an object using a ruler.
One point perspective Two point perspective Three point perspective

One Point Perspective

Using one perspective, parallel lines converge to one point somewhere in the distance. This point is called the vanishing point (VP). This gives objects an impression of depth. When drawing using one point perspective all objects vanish to one common point somewhere on the horizon.

The sides of an object diminish towards the vanishing point. All vertical and horizontal lines though are drawn with no perspective. i.e. face on. One point perspective though is of only limited use, the main problem being that the perspective is too pronounced for small products making them looking bigger than they actually are. So when would you use one point perspective?

40

One area where one point perspective can be quite useful is for sketching room layouts.

Although it is possible to sketch products in one point perspective, the perspective is too aggressive on the eye making products look bigger than they actually are.

Constructing a box in one point perspective

1. Draw a horizon and place a vanishing point 2. Draw a square somewhere beneath the (VP) somewhere on this line. horizon. This will be the front of your box
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3. Draw four lines, one from each corner of the square which also pass through the vanishing point.

4. To complete the box, draw in the back vertical and an horizontal

The final box in all its glory!

Two Point Perspective

Two Point Perspective is a much more useful drawing system than the simpler One Point Perspective. Objects drawn in two point perspective have a more natural look. In two point perspective the sides of the object vanish to one of two vanishing points on the horizon. Vertical lines in the object have no perspective applied to them. The illustration to the right demonstrates the how to draw a box in two point perspective.
1. Put two vanishing points at opposite ends of the horizontal line. 2. Draw in the front vertical of the box. 42

Drawing the line below the horizontal will create a view which we are looking down on. To look at the object from below, draw the front vertical above the horizontal. 3. Draw lines from the top of the vertical which disappear back to both of the vanishing points. Repeat the process for the bottom of the line. 4. To complete both of the sides by drawing in the back verticals. 5. To draw the top of the box, draw lines from the back verticals to the opposite vanishing points.

By altering the proximity of the vanishing points to the object, you can make the object look big or small.

Vanishing Points close to the object

Vanishing Points far away from product

Constructing circles in perspective

A circle when viewed at an angle does not look circular but elliptical. For example look at the way the red circle gradually changes to a thinner and thinner ellipse as the disc rotates.

When a circle is drawn inside a square, the circle touches the edge of the square at the midpoint of each side. This enables you to create a guide for your perspective circle since you know that the circle must touch the midpoint of a square drawn in perspective.

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To find the midpoints of a perspective square, draw in the diagonals to find the centre of the box and then draw a vertical line through this centre point and a line going through the centre to the vanishing point. The ellipse can be drawn in by hand.

Perspective ellipse templates similar to isometric templates can also be bought. These come in a variety of sizes from 5 - 250 mm at various angles. The perspective of each template varies from fat almost circular ellipses to long thin ellipses. Using ellipse templates is very easy; every ellipse has a minor and major axis marked on it. So once you've drawn a perspective square, draw in the diagonals. These are the major and minor axis. It then a simple case of finding the correct ellipse to use.

Drawing cylinders in perspective

Many students find drawing cylinders difficult. The secret to drawing a cylinder is to construct the cylinder from a box as illustrated. First lightly sketch your box. Construct a perspective circle at each end of the box. Then draw in the edges. Once you have the basic shape you can ink in the shape and add shading.

Constructing a grid (1)

Once you can construct a simple box in perspective you can move on to more complex designs using the simple box as a guide by subdividing it into smaller boxes creating a perspective grid.

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1. Draw a box in perspective

2. Draw diagonals from corner to corner. This point is the centre of the box tacking into account perspective

3. Subdivide the box into four smaller boxes by drawing in centre lines for the box. These centre lines should go through the centre point found in step 2.

4. Repeat step 2 for each of the four new boxes.

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5. Subdivide these boxes into smaller boxes.

6. You now have a gird with with to work with.

Constructing a grid (2)

There is a second method of constructing a grid using a cube as the building block. If you draw two squares side by side and split the left hand square into four equal boxes. A line can be drawn diagonally from a corner of the square though the midpoint of the opposite side which will meet the far corner of the other square. You can extend this technique to construct adjacent perspective cubes.

1. Start by drawing a cube in perspective. Find the centre of one of the sides of the cube by drawing in diagonals

2. Draw a line extending through this centre, back to the vanishing point.

3. Extend the top of the cube back towards

4. Draw a line from the corner of the cube through 46

the vanishing point.

the midpoint so that it bisects the line we have just drawn.

5. This point coincides with the back of the next cube. Draw in the back vertical and top of the cube.

6. By using steps 1-5 one cube can be extended so that it forms a grid.

Using the grid

Split your object into squares, corresponding to your perspective grid. Draw onto the perspective grid the detail by finding the position on the flat view and using the grid as a guide. The example below shows how you can create a cassette in perspective.

Three Point Perspective

Three point perspectives is a development of two point perspective. Like two point it has two vanishing points somewhere on the horizon. But three point perspectives also have a vanishing point somewhere above or below the horizon which the vertical vanish to.

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The nearer the vanishing point is to the object, the bigger the object looks. Look at these buildings. All the vanishing points are too close. This has caused an excessive amount of vertical perspective. Learning how to apply vertical perspective is the key to making your drawings realistic.

In general most designers create drawings with a vanishing point far below the horizon so that the depth added to the verticals is only slight. In many cases the vanishing point isn't even on the paper. Learning how to apply vertical perspective will make your drawings more and more realistic.

Drawing cavities in objects

Some students when they first start to draw using a 3D system, whether it's isometric, perspective or oblique, do not stick to the system due to their lack of understanding of how to represent objects. One circumstance in which students produces incorrect drawings is when they draw circles, this has been covered. Another circumstance where students make mistakes, showing a lack of special awareness, is when they draw spaces in objects (such as a cupboard space or a drawer). Many students draw cupboards like this.

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This is supposed to be in one point perspective. Note how the cupboard space doesn't vanish into the distance the rest of the cupboard, but instead vanishes to its own vanishing point.

This view could mean one of two things.

Either there is a 'pyramidal' shape sticking out of the cupboard or the 'pyramidal' shape has been removed from the cupboard to create the space. But the space is definitely not the cubic space intended.

When you draw a space in an object you are removing a volume so you should draw that volume and then ink in the bit you see. See the examples below

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Oblique

Isometric

1 Point Perspective

2 Point Perspective

Improving your sketching skills

As a designer the most important thing is to get your ideas on to paper as quickly as possible. Sketching is therefore a very important skill to master. There are a few things which will help you sketch better.
Draw using your shoulder rather than your wrist.

To sketch quickly learn to sketch from your shoulder. Most people learn to sketch on small pieces of paper, usually no bigger than A4, sketching small images. Because the images are small, people tend to learn how to sketch from the wrist. Drawing a long line tends to consist of lots of small movements from your wrist, as you move your arm along. If you look carefully at these lines they consist of lots of small arches.

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Sketching from your shoulder means that you can draw lines in one continuous movement. Instead of drawing by moving your wrist, keep your wrist still and move your entire arm in one long movement from your shoulder. It's not an easy skill to master but once you have, you definitely will see the benefit. A good way to learn is to practice drawing on large A2 sheets of paper and have the paper vertical. This means that you can't rest your wrist on the page encouraging you to use your shoulder when drawing. There is a simple exercise that can help. Draw a series of opposing vertical and horizontal dots at each end of a piece of paper. Practice drawing a continuous line from one dot on one side of the paper to the dot on the opposite side of the paper. Gaining confidence in your drawing action is vital to improving your sketching skills.

Choosing the best type of paper

As mentioned above, sketching skills tend to improve if you use large pieces of paper. Learning to sketch on A2 paper is a very good way of gaining confidence in your skill. But most people find A2 an inconvenient size for project work. If you can, try to do sketches for your project on A3. Buy a pad of layout paper. This type of paper is useful because it is slightly opaque. When drawing final ideas you can quickly sketch your basic idea getting proportions correct and then use another sheet of layout paper placed above to trace the original sketch without mistakes and guide lines.
Sketching in pen

When sketching, pencils are the obvious choice, but I recommend using a biro for the simple reason that you can't rub out biro. This means that you will learn to put down only the marks that you really want to. Also you won't be tempted to rub out ideas. Never rub out an idea it shows the examiner that you have thought about your design and not just developed your only idea. Besides, occasionally you find that you can use some element of discounted designs.
Drawing box guides

A simple way to get the proportions of your idea correct is to sketch boxes in perspective. See the 'Drawing in 3D' section for more information about the various 3D sketching skills you can learn to master.

Engineering Drawing
Planning your engineering drawing Line Styles Dimensioning
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Types of Dimensioning Dimensioning Circles Dimensioning Holes Dimensioning Radii Tolerancing

Layout of Engineering Drawing Orthographic Projection Sectioning

Types of sectioning Hatching

Drawing thread parts Assembly Drawings

Planning your engineering drawing

Before starting your engineering drawing you should plan how you are going to make best use of the space. It is important to think about the number of views your drawing will have and how much space you will use of the paper.
Try to make maximum use of the available space. If a view has lots of detail, try and make that view as large as possible. If necessary, draw that view on a separate sheet. If you intend to add dimensions to the drawing, remember to leave enough space around the drawing for them to be added later. If you are working with inks on film, plan the order in which you are drawing the lines. For example you don't want to have to place your ruler on wet ink

Lines and line styles

In the first tutorial we learnt how to create simple shapes using the place line tool. The lines we created were all of the same thickness and type. But lines on an engineering drawing signify more than just the geometry of the object and it is important that you use the appropriate line types.
Line Thickness

For most engineering drawings you will require two thicknesses, a thick and thin line. The general recommendation is that thick lines are twice as thick as thin lines. A thick continuous line is used for visible edges and outlines. A thin line is used for hatching, leader lines, short centre lines, dimensions and projections.
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Line Styles

Other line styles used to clarify important features on drawings are: Thin chain lines are a common feature on engineering drawings used to indicate centre lines. Centre lines are used to identify the centre of a circle, cylindrical features, or a line of symmetry. Centre lines will be covered in a little bit more detail later in this tutorial. Dashed lines are used to show important hidden detail for example wall thickness and holes..

Dimensioning - An Overview
A dimensioned drawing should provide all the information necessary for a finished product or part to be manufactured. An example dimension is shown below.

Dimensions are always drawn using continuous thin lines. Two projection lines indicate where the dimension starts and finishes. Projection lines do not touch the object and are drawn perpendicular to the element you are dimensioning. In general units can be omitted from dimensions if a statement of the units is included on your drawing. The general convention is to dimension in mm's. All dimensions less than 1 should have a leading zero. i.e. .35 should be written as 0.35
Lettering

All notes and dimensions should be clear and easy to read. In general all notes should be written in capital letters to aid legibility. All lettering should be of the same size and preferably no smaller than 3mm. An example typeface is shown below.

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Types of dimensioning

Parallel Dimensioning

Parallel dimensioning consists of several dimensions originating from one projection line.

Superimposed Running Dimensions

Superimposed running dimensioning simplifies parallel dimensions in order to reduce the space used on a drawing. The common origin for the dimension lines is indicated by a small circle at the intersection of the first dimension and the projection line. In general all other dimension lines are broken. The dimension note can appear above the dimension line or in-line with the projection line

Chain Dimensioning

Chains of dimension should only be used if the function of the object won't be affected by the accumulation of the tolerances. (A tolerance is an indication of the accuracy the product has to be made to. Tolerance will be covered later in this chapter).

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Combined Dimensions

A combined dimension uses both chain and parallel dimensioning.

Dimensioning by Co-ordinates

Two sets of superimposed running dimensions running at right angles can be used with any features which need their centre points defined, such as holes.

Simplified dimensioning by co-ordinates

It is also possible to simplify co-ordinate dimensions by using a table to identify features and positions.

Dimensioning Small Features 55

When dimensioning small features, placing the dimension arrow between projection lines may create a drawing which is difficult to read. In order to clarify dimensions on small features any of the above methods can be used.

Dimensioning circles

All dimensions of circles are proceeded by this symbol; . There are several conventions used for dimensioning circles: (a) shows two common methods of dimensioning a circle. One method dimensions the circle between two lines projected from two diametrically opposite points. The second method dimensions the circle internally. (b) is used when the circle is too small for the dimension to be easily read if it was placed inside the circle. A leader line is used to display the dimension. (c) the final method is to dimension the circle from outside the circle using an arrow which points directly towards the centre of the circle. The first method using projection lines is the least used method. But the choice is up to you as to which you use.

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Dimensioning Holes

When dimensioning holes the method of manufacture is not specified unless they necessary for the function of the product. The word hole doesn't have to be added unless it is considered necessary. The depth of the hole is usually indicated if it isnt indicated on another view. The depth of the hole refers to the depth of the cylindrical portion of the hole and not the bit of the hole caused by the tip of the drip.

Dimensioning Radii
All radial dimensions are proceeded by the capital R. All dimension arrows and lines should be drawn perpendicular to the radius so that the line passes through the centre of the arc. All dimensions should only have one arrowhead which should point to the line being dimensioned. There are two methods for dimensioning radii. (a) shows a radius dimensioned with the centre of the radius located on the drawing. (b) shows how to dimension radii which do not need their centres locating.
Spherical dimensions

The radius of a spherical surface (i.e. the top of a drawing pin) when dimensioned should have an SR before the size to indicate the type of surface.

Tolerancing
It is not possible in practice to manufacture products to the exact figures displayed on an engineering drawing. The accuracy depends largely on the manufacturing process used and the care taken to manufacture a product. A tolerance value shows the manufacturing department the maximum permissible variation from the dimension. Each dimension on a drawing must include a tolerance value. This can appear either as:
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a general tolerance value applicable to several dimensions. i.e. a note specifying that the General Tolerance +/- 0.5 mm. or a tolerance specific to that dimension

The method of expressing a tolerance on a dimension as recommended by the British standards is shown below:

Note the larger size limit is placed above the lower limit. All tolerances should be expressed to the appropriate number to the decimal points for the degree of accuracy intended from manufacturing, even if the value is limit is a zero for example.
45.25 44.80 should not be expressed as 45.25 44.8

The layout of an engineering drawing

It is important that you follow some simple rules when producing an engineering drawing which although may not be useful now, will be useful when working in industry. All engineering drawings should feature an information box. An example is shown below.

Common information recorded on an engineering drawing TITLE The title of the drawing. NAME The name of the person who produced the drawing. This is important for quality control so that problems with the drawing can be traced back to their origin. CHECKED

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In many engineering firms, drawings are checked by a second person before they are sent to manufacture, so that any potential problems can be identified early. VERSION Many drawings will get amended over the period of the parts life. Giving each drawing a version number helps people identify if they are using the most recent version of the drawing. DATE The date the drawing was created or amended on. SCALE The scale of the drawing. Large parts won't fit on paper so the scale provides a quick guide to the final size of the product. PROJECTION SYSTEM The projection system used to create the drawing should be identified to help people read the drawing. (Projection systems will be covered later). COMPANY NAME Many CAD drawings may be distributed outside the company so the company name is usually added to identify the source.

Orthographic projection
The aim of an engineering drawing is to convey all the necessary information of how to make the part to the manufacturing department. For most parts, the information cannot be conveyed in a single view. Rather than using several sheets of paper with different views of the part, several views can be combined on a single drawing using one of the two available projection systems, first angle, and third angle projection.

The diagram below demonstrates how the projection systems work

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Sectioning - Introduction
Sections and sectional views are used to show hidden detail more clearly. They are created by using a cutting plane to cut the object. A section is a view of no thickness and shows the outline of the object at the cutting plane. Visible outlines beyond the cutting plane are not drawn. A sectional view, displays the outline of the cutting plane and all visible outlines which can be seen beyond the cutting plane. The diagram below shows a sectional view, and how a cutting plane works.

Types of sectioning
Sectional View in a single plane

The example below shows a simple single plane sectional view where object is cut in half by the cutting plane. The cutting plane is indicated on a drawing using the line style used for centre lines, but with a thick line indicating the end of lines and any change in the direction of the cutting plane. The direction of the view is indicated by arrows with a reference letter. The example below shows a sectional view of the cutting plane A - A.

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Sectional View in two planes

It is possible for the cutting plane to change directions, to minimize on the number of sectional views required to capture the necessary detail. The example below shows a pipe being cut by two parallel planes. The sketch shows where the object is cut.

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Half Sectional views

Half sections are commonly used to show both the internal and outside view of symmetrical objects.
Part Sectional views

It is common practice to section a part of an object when only small areas need to be sectioned to indicate the important details. The example above shows a part sectional view to indicate a through-hole in a plate. Notice that the line indicating the end of the section is a thin continuous line.

Which Sectional View?

Before proceeding, consider the diagrams below and select the correct sectional view.

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Hatching
On sections and sectional views solid area should be hatched to indicate this fact. Hatching is drawn with a thin continuous line, equally spaced (preferably about 4mm apart, though never less than 1mm) and preferably at an angle of 45 degrees.
Hatching a single object

When you are hatching an object, but the objects have areas that are separated, all areas of the object should be hatched in the same direction and with the same spacing.
Hatching Adjacent objects

When hatching assembled parts, the direction of the hatching should ideally be reversed on adjacent parts. If more than two parts are adjacent, then the hatching should be staggered to emphasize the fact that these parts are separate.

Reverse hatching
Hatching thin materials

Staggered Hatching

Sometimes, it is difficult to hatch very thin sections. To emphasize solid wall the walls can be filled in. This should only be used when the wall thickness size is less than 1mm

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.
Hatching large areas

When hatching large areas in order to aid readability, the hatching can be limited to the area near the edges of the part.

Drawing threaded parts

Drawing Conventions

Threads are drawn with thin lines as shown in this illustration. When drawn from end-on, a threaded section is indicated by a broken circle drawn using a thin line. A threaded part

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Frequently a threaded section will need to be shown inside a part. The two illustrations to the left demonstrate two methods of drawing a threaded section. Note the conventions. The hidden detail is drawn as a thin dashed line. The sectional view uses both thick and thin line with the hatching carrying on to the very edges of the object.

Assembly Drawings
The previous chapters covered the general aspects of engineering drawing and how to produce a detailed drawing of a single part with all the necessary information to make the part. The assembly of these parts is shown in an assembly drawing also known as a general arrangement.

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Features of an assembly drawing

Dimensions Detailed dimensions required for manufacture are excluded from assembly drawings. But overall dimensions of the assembled object are usually indicated. If the spatial relationship between parts if important for the product to function correctly then these should also be indicated on the drawing. For example idicating the maximum and minimum clearance between two parts. Internal Parts If there are internal assemblies, sectional views should be used. Parts list Each part is given a unique number, indicated on the drawing by a circle with the number in it and a leader line pointing to the part. The leader line terminates in an arrow if the line touches the edge of the component or in a circle if the line terminates inside the part. A table of parts should be added to the drawing to identify each part, an example of a parts list is shown below:
Item No. Description Qty Material Remarks

The first three items; Item No., Description, and Quantity should be completed for every distinct part on your drawing. (i.e. the number of duplicate parts are recorded in the quantity). The material is used for components that are being made within the company. The Remarks column is useful for specifying a manufacturers part number when using bough-in parts.

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Energy sources
Energy cannot be created or destroyed but only converted from one form to another. That is the meaning of Einstein's well-known theory E=mc2. In practice though, it seems to the user that energy is lost, but this is untrue. The energy used to power, say a motor, is converted into heat and noise. This is extremely difficult to convert back to a more practical form, so energy seems to be lost and more energy has to be ploughed into the system to keep it going. There are several sources of energy some of the more common are listed below

Non renewable energy sources

Fossil Fuels

Renewable Energy Sources

Solar Energy Hydroelectric Power Wind Energy Geothermal Energy Ocean Thermal Energy Nuclear Energy

Ergonomics and Anthropometrics

Anthropometrics Anthropometrics is the study and recording of the physical properties of the human body. Ergonomics Ergonomics investigates how we use our environment and the design of environments which enable users to use the environment easily and comfortably. An example of where ergonomics is used is the design of the cockpit of an aircraft. Anthropometric Data The anthropometrics of an average male and female

Materials

Materials
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Material Types Metals Woods Plastic Adhesives Material Structures Atoms Atomic Bonds General Information Costs of various materials relative to the cost of carbon steel.

Manufacturing
The way in which a product is made has a big effect on decisions taken by the designer during the design phase, after-all it is important that the product can be made. It is vitally important therefore that the correct manufacturing processes are chosen at the design stage so that your design doesn't have to be changed later. Obviously in industry, the aim is to produce a design which requires as little change as possible when being made, because change costs time, and time cost money!. In some engineering sectors you may design something in the morning, it will be made in the afternoon and reach the customer the next day! This section looks at many different aspects of manufacturing a product. Although it contains many techniques which can't be reproduced in schools and colleges, good students will demonstrate knowledge of appropriate mass production techniques throughout their projects even though you might not be able to achieve the desired effect in the workshop.

Manufacturing Processes and techniques Covers techniques such as casting, fabrication, plastic moldings and welding. Virtual Workshop Our virtual workshop showing some of the machines you might find in your workshop. Workshop Techniques (external link) How to safely use common machines in your workshop.

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Costing
All manufacturing companies sell their products to make profit. The profit on each product sold can be defined as the difference between the selling price of the product and the total cost of making the product. Cost therefore plays a very important role in the product design process. To be successful, a product must not only satisfy a set of functions defined in the product design specification, but it must also be possible to build the product within the cost criteria set out at the start of the project. Before the development of any product begins, it is essential to perform some form of economic analysis on the product to determine if it is worth making. This may involve some form of market analysis to determine what the customer is willing to pay for a product. The costs involved in any product can be spilt into development costs and the product cost. Interestingly, some companies do not actually know what their costs are which leaves them open to the possibility that their actual costs may be more than the selling price of their product! An example of this was the Mini when it was first produced in the early 60s. Market research suggested that the car should be sold for less than 500 so the company priced the car at 499. Later when they analysed the cost of producing the car they found that the car cost around 530 to build, resulting in large losses for the manufacturer. Development Costs Product Costs
Component Costs Material Costs Manufacturing Costs Storage Costs

Marketing
Marketing can be seen as fulfilling two important roles in an organisation. Determining the market requirements for a new (or revised product) and actually selling that product. By determining the market requirements marketing can play a vitally important role in the product design process.
The role of marketing when you are developing your product Selling your product

The role of marketing in product development

The requirements of a new or revised product are typically dictated by one of two sources.
1. A customer will approach a manufacturer (or a number of manufacturers) with the requirements of a product. It is likely that the customer has a good idea of the requirements of the product so the role of marketing is likely to be reduced to the role of advertising your companies services. 69

2. With no one particular customer to provide the requirements, an analysis of the existing marketplace and talking with potential customers can determine what the requirements of a product should be and try and find some niche or opening for a new product to occupy. This implies that the organization must do extensive market research in order to determine what requirements the product must satisfy. There is no point developing a product, no matter how well engineered, if there is no market for it. The marketing department will therefore have an important role, both identifying if the product should be developed but also developing a plan to sell the product to the market.

Whichever ways the requirements of the product are identified, the needs of the customer have a large influence on the decisions taken by designers. The marketing department will therefore have a major influence on the drawing up of the product design specification (PDS). The PDS is a vitally important document in the design process as it contains all the information necessary for a design team to successfully specify the requirements of the final product.
Analyzing the market

One way to decide on the features your product needs to have is to analyze what your competitors products have. There are a number of different techniques available to analyze the market to identify the requirement of your product. These include:
Parametric analysis Needs analysis Matrix analysis Finding out about what the user wants Focus Groups Market Surveys

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Bibliography References

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

What is Technical Drawing? David L. Goetsch et al. (2005). Technical Drawing. Cengage Learning, 2005. Gary R. Bertoline et al. (2002) Technical Graphics Communication. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2002. James Folkestad er al. (2001). Engineering Drawing & Design. Cengage Learning, 2001. Ken Baynes, Francis Pugh (1981) The Art of the Engineer. James Clarke & Co., 1981. J. Diepstraten, D. Weiskopf & T. Ertl (2003). "Interactive Cutaway Illustrations". Michael E. Brumbach, Jeffrey A. Clade (2003). Industrial Maintenance. Cengage Learning, Ivan Viola and Meister E. Grller (2005). "Smart Visibility in Visualization". In: Computational Aesthetics in Graphics, Visualization and Imaging. L. Neumann et al. (Ed.) 9. www.industriegrafik.com website, Last modified: Juni 15, 2002. Accessed 15 feb 2009. 10. Richard Boland and Fred Collopy (2004). Managing as designing. Stanford University Press, 2004. 11. Auto CAD tutorial 12. About.com Information provided by P E Waters, Secretary and Registrar Document last updated 7th May, 2002

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