Complete Textbook

Mathematics Preliminary Course
maths
Mathematics Preliminary Course
maths
Margaret Grove
Text 2010 Grove and Associates Pty Ltd Illustrations and design 2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd Additional owners of copyright are acknowledged in on-page credits Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyrighted material. The authors and publishers tender their apologies should any infringement have occurred. Reproduction and communication for educational purposes The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of the pages of this work, whichever is the greater, to be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the institution (or the body that administers it) has sent a Statutory Educational notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) and been granted a licence. For details of statutory educational and other copyright licences contact: Copyright Agency Limited, Level 15, 233 Castlereagh Street, Sydney NSW 2000. Telephone: (02) 9394 7600. Website: www.copyright.com.au Reproduction and communication for other purposes Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Act, no part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed or transmitted in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the written permission of McGraw-Hill Australia including, but not limited to, any network or other electronic storage. Enquiries should be made to the publisher via www.mcgraw-hill.com.au National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Author: Grove, Margaret. Title: Maths in focus: mathematics preliminary course/Margaret Grove. Edition: 2nd ed. ISBN: 9780070278561 (pbk.) Target Audience: For secondary school age. Subjects: MathematicsProblems, exercises, etc. MathematicsTextbooks. Dewey Number: 510.76 Published in Australia by McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd Level 2, 82 Waterloo Road, North Ryde NSW 2113 Publisher: Eiko Bron Managing Editor: Kathryn Fairfax Production Editor: Natalie Crouch Editorial Assistant: Ivy Chung Art Director: Astred Hicks Cover and Internal Design: Simon Rattray, Squirt Creative Cover Image: Corbis Proofreader: Ron Buck CD-ROM Preparation: Nicole McKenzie Typeset in ITC Stone serif, 10/14 by diacriTech Printed in China on 80 gsm matt art by iBook
Contents
PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS CREDITS FEATURES OF THIS BOOK SYLLABUS MATRIX STUDY SKILLS Chapter 1: Basic Arithmetic INTRODUCTION REAL NUMBERS DIRECTED NUMBERS FRACTIONS, DECIMALS AND PERCENTAGES POWERS AND ROOTS ABSOLUTE VALUE TEST YOURSELF 1 CHALLENGE EXERCISE 1 Chapter 2: Algebra and Surds INTRODUCTION SIMPLIFYING EXPRESSIONS BINOMIAL PRODUCTS FACTORISATION COMPLETING THE SQUARE ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS SUBSTITUTION SURDS TEST YOURSELF 2 CHALLENGE EXERCISE 2 Chapter 3: Equations INTRODUCTION SIMPLE EQUATIONS SUBSTITUTION INEQUATIONS EQUATIONS AND INEQUATIONS INVOLVING ABSOLUTE VALUES EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS QUADRATIC EQUATIONS QUADRATIC INEQUATIONS SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS TEST YOURSELF 3 CHALLENGE EXERCISE 3 viii viii viii viii ix ix 2 3 3 9 12 19 37 41 43 44 45 45 51 55 69 71 73 76 90 93 94 95 95 100 103 107 114 118 125 127 133 134
vi
Chapter 4: Geometry 1 INTRODUCTION NOTATION TYPES OF ANGLES PARALLEL LINES TYPES OF TRIANGLES CONGRUENT TRIANGLES SIMILAR TRIANGLES PYTHAGORAS THEOREM TYPES OF QUADRILATERALS POLYGONS AREAS TEST YOURSELF 4 CHALLENGE EXERCISE 4 Practice Assessment Task Set 1 Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs INTRODUCTION FUNCTIONS GRAPHING TECHNIQUES LINEAR FUNCTION QUADRATIC FUNCTION ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION THE HYPERBOLA CIRCLES AND SEMI-CIRCLES OTHER GRAPHS LIMITS AND CONTINUITY REGIONS TEST YOURSELF 5 CHALLENGE EXERCISE 5 Chapter 6: Trigonometry INTRODUCTION TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLE PROBLEMS APPLICATIONS EXACT RATIOS ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES NON-RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLE RESULTS APPLICATIONS AREA TEST YOURSELF 6 CHALLENGE EXERCISE 6 Chapter 7: Linear Functions INTRODUCTION DISTANCE MIDPOINT
136 137 137 138 145 149 155 159 167 173 180 184 191 193 195 200 201 201 212 220 224 230 238 242 250 256 260 270 271 274 275 275 283 292 302 306 320 326 331 342 346 349 350 352 353 353 358
vii
GRADIENT EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES INTERSECTION OF LINES PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE TEST YOURSELF 7 CHALLENGE EXERCISE 7 Chapter 8: Introduction to Calculus INTRODUCTION GRADIENT DIFFERENTIATION FROM FIRST PRINCIPLES SHORT METHODS OF DIFFERENTIATION TANGENTS AND NORMALS FURTHER DIFFERENTIATION AND INDICES COMPOSITE FUNCTION RULE PRODUCT RULE QUOTIENT RULE TEST YOURSELF 8 CHALLENGE EXERCISE 8 Practice Assessment Task Set 2 Chapter 9: The Quadratic Function INTRODUCTION GRAPH OF A QUADRATIC FUNCTION QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES THE DISCRIMINANT QUADRATIC IDENTITIES SUM AND PRODUCT OF ROOTS EQUATIONS REDUCIBLE TO QUADRATICS TEST YOURSELF 9 CHALLENGE EXERCISE 9 Chapter 10: Locus and the Parabola INTRODUCTION LOCUS CIRCLE AS A LOCUS PARABOLA AS A LOCUS GENERAL PARABOLA TANGENTS AND NORMALS TEST YOURSELF 10 CHALLENGE EXERCISE 10 Practice Assessment Task Set 3 Answers
360 370 374 379 384 389 390 392 393 394 403 419 425 430 432 436 439 442 443 446 450 451 451 457 461 468 472 477 481 482 484 485 485 493 497 516 531 534 535 536 540
viii
PREFACE
This book covers the Preliminary syllabus for Mathematics. The syllabus is available through the NSW Board of Studies website on www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au. You can also access resources, study techniques, examination technique, sample and past examination papers through other websites such as www.math.nsw.edu.au and www.csu.edu.au. Searching the Internet generally will pick up many websites supporting the work in this course. Each chapter has comprehensive fully worked examples and explanations as well as ample sets of graded exercises. The theory follows a logical order, although some topics may be learned in any order. Each chapter contains Test Yourself and Challenge exercises, and there are several practice assessment tasks throughout the book. If you have trouble doing the Test Yourself exercises at the end of a chapter, you will need to go back into the chapter and revise it before trying them again. Dont attempt to do the Challenge exercises until you are condent that you can do the Test Yourself exercises, as these are more difcult and are designed to test the more able students who understand the topic really well.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks go to my family, especially my husband Geoff, for supporting me in writing this book.
CREDITS
Fairfax Photos: p 311 Istockphoto: p 101, p 167 Margaret Grove: p 18, p 37, p 159, p 202, p 242, p 256, p 275, p 292 (bottom), p 294, p 295, p 297, p 300, p 353, p 497 Photolibrary: p 201 Shutterstock: p 74, p 160, p 225, p 292 (top), p 486
FEATURES OF THIS BOOK

This second edition retains all the features of previous Maths in Focus books while adding in new improvements. The main feature of Maths in Focus is in its readability, its plentiful worked examples and straightforward language so that students can understand it and use it in self-paced learning. The logical progression of topics, the comprehensive fully worked examples and graded exercises are still major features. A wide variety of questions is maintained, with more comprehensive and more difcult questions included in each topic. At the end of each chapter is a consolidation set of exercises (Test yourself) in no particular order that will test whether the student has grasped the concepts contained in the chapter. There is also a challenge set for the more able students. The three practice assessment tasks provide a comprehensive variety of mixed questions from various chapters. These have been extended to contain questions in the form of sample examination questions, including short answer, free response and multiple-choice questions that students may encounter in assessments. The second edition also features a short summary of general study skills that students will nd useful, both in the classroom and when doing assessment tasks and examinations. These study skills are also repeated in the HSC book.
ix
A syllabus matrix is included to show where each syllabus topic ts into the book. Topics are generally arranged in a logical order. For example, arithmetic and algebra are needed in most, if not all other topics, so these are treated at the beginning of the book. Some teachers like to introduce particular topics before others, e.g. linear functions before more general functions. However, part of the work on gradient requires some knowledge of trigonometry and the topic of angles of any magnitude in trigonometry needs some knowledge of functions. So the order of most chapters in the book have been carefully thought out. Some chapters, however, could be covered in a different order, such as geometry which is covered in Chapter 4, and quadratic functions and locus, which are near the end of the book.
SYLLABUS MATRIX
This matrix shows how the syllabus is organised in the chapters of this book.
Mathematics (2 Unit)
Basic arithmetic and algebra (1.1 1.4) Chapter 1: Basic arithmetic Chapter 2: Algebra and surds Chapter 3: Equations Chapter 5: Functions and graphs
Real functions (4.1 4.4)
Trigonometric ratios (5.1 5.5)
Chapter 6: Trigonometry
Linear functions (6.1 6.5, 6.7)
Chapter 7: Linear functions
The quadratic polynomial and the parabola (9.1 9.5)
Chapter 9: The quadratic function Chapter 10: Locus and the parabola
Plane geometry (2.1 2.4)
Chapter 4: Geometry 1
Tangent to a curve and derivative of a function (8.1 8.9)
Chapter 8: Introduction to calculus
STUDY SKILLS
You may have coasted through previous stages without needing to rely on regular study, but in this course many of the topics are new and you will need to systematically revise in order to build up your skills and to remember them. The Preliminary course introduces the basics of topics such as calculus that are then applied in the HSC course. You will struggle in the HSC if you dont set yourself up to revise the preliminary topics as you learn new HSC topics. Your teachers will be able to help you build up and manage good study habits. Here are a few hints to get you started.
There is no right or wrong way to learn. Different styles of learning suit different people. There is also no magical number of hours a week that you should study, as this will be different for every student. But just listening in class and taking notes is not enough, especially when learning material that is totally new. You wouldnt go for your drivers licence after just one trip in the car, or enter a dance competition after learning a dance routine once. These skills take a lot of practice. Studying mathematics is just the same. If a skill is not practised within the rst 24 hours, up to 50% can be forgotten. If it is not practised within 72 hours, up to 8590% can be forgotten! So it is really important that whatever your study timetable, new work must be looked at soon after it is presented to you. With a continual succession of new work to learn and retain, this is a challenge. But the good news is that you dont have to study for hours on end!
In the classroom
In order to remember, rst you need to focus on what is being said and done. According to an ancient proverb:
I hear and I forget I see and I remember I do and I understand
If you chat to friends and just take notes without really paying attention, you arent giving yourself a chance to remember anything and will have to study harder at home. If you have just had a ght with a friend, have been chatting about weekend activities or myriad other conversations outside the classroom, it helps if you can check these at the door and dont keep chatting about them once the lesson starts. If you are unsure of something that the teacher has said, the chances are that others are also not sure. Asking questions and clarifying things will ultimately help you gain better results, especially in a subject like mathematics where much of the knowledge and skills depends on being able to understand the basics. Learning is all about knowing what you know and what you dont know. Many students feel like they dont know anything, but its surprising just how much they know already. Picking up the main concepts in class and not worrying too much about other less important parts can really help. The teacher can guide you on this. Here are some pointers to get the best out of classroom learning: Take control and be responsible for your own learning Clear your head of other issues in the classroom Active, not passive, learning is more memorable Ask questions if you dont understand something Listen for cues from the teacher Look out for what are the main concepts
xi
Note taking varies from class to class, but there are some general guidelines that will help when you come to read over your notes later on at home: Write legibly Use different colours to highlight important points or formulae Make notes in textbooks (using pencil if you dont own the textbook) Use highlighter pens to point out important points Summarise the main points If notes are scribbled, rewrite them at home
At home
You are responsible for your own learning and nobody else can tell you how best to study. Some people need more revision time than others, some study better in the mornings while others do better at night, and some can work at home while others prefer a library. There are some general guidelines for studying at home: Revise both new and older topics regularly Have a realistic timetable and be exible Summarise the main points Revise when you are fresh and energetic Divide study time into smaller rather than longer chunks Study in a quiet environment Have a balanced life and dont forget to have fun! If you are given exercises out of a textbook to do for homework, consider asking the teacher if you can leave some of them till later and use these for revision. It is not necessary to do every exercise at one sitting, and you learn better if you can spread these over time. People use different learning styles to help them study. The more variety the better, and you will nd some that help you more than others. Some people (around 35%) learn best visually, some (25%) learn best by hearing and others (40%) learn by doing. Here are some ideas to give you a variety of ways to study: Summarise on cue cards or in a small notebook Use colourful posters Use mindmaps and diagrams Discuss work with a group of friends Read notes out aloud Make up songs and rhymes Do exercises regularly Role play teaching someone else
xii
Assessment tasks and exams

Many of the assessment tasks for maths are closed book examinations. You will cope better in exams if you have practised doing sample exams under exam conditions. Regular revision will give you condence and if you feel well prepared, this will help get rid of nerves in the exam. You will also cope better if you have had a reasonable nights sleep before the exam. One of the biggest problems students have with exams is in timing. Make sure you dont spend too much time on questions youre unsure about, but work through and nd questions you can do rst. Divide the time up into smaller chunks for each question and allow some extra time to go back to questions you couldnt do or nish. For example, in a 2 hour exam with 6 questions, allow around 15 minutes for each question. This will give an extra half hour at the end to tidy up and nish off questions. Here are some general guidelines for doing exams: Read through and ensure you know how many questions there are Divide your time between questions with extra time at the end Dont spend too much time on one question Read each question carefully, underlining key words Show all working out, including diagrams and formulae Cross out mistakes with a single line so it can still be read Write legibly
And nally
Study involves knowing what you dont know, and putting in a lot of time into concentrating on these areas. This is a positive way to learn. Rather than just saying, I cant do this, say instead, I cant do this yet, and use your teachers, friends, textbooks and other ways of nding out. With the parts of the course that you do know, make sure you can remember these easily under exam pressure by putting in lots of practice. Remember to look at new work today tomorrow in a week in a month Some people hardly ever nd time to study while others give up their outside lives to devote their time to study. The ideal situation is to balance study with other aspects of your life, including going out with friends, working and keeping up with sport and other activities that you enjoy.
Good luck with your studies!
1
Basic Arithmetic
TERMINOLOGY
Absolute value: The distance of a number from zero on the number line. Hence it is the magnitude or value of a number without the sign Directed numbers: The set of integers or whole numbers f -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, f Exponent: Power or index of a number. For example 23 has a base number of 2 and an exponent of 3 Index: The power of a base number showing how many times this number is multiplied by itself e.g. 2 3 = 2 # 2 # 2. The index is 3 Indices: More than one index (plural) Recurring decimal: A repeating decimal that does not terminate e.g. 0.777777 is a recurring decimal that can be written as a fraction. More than one digit can recur e.g. 0.14141414 ... Scientic notation: Sometimes called standard notation. A standard form to write very large or very small numbers as a product of a number between 1 and 10 and a power of 10 e.g. 765 000 000 is 7.65 # 10 8 in scientific notation
Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic
INTRODUCTION
THIS CHAPTER GIVES A review of basic arithmetic skills, including knowing the
correct order of operations, rounding off, and working with fractions, decimals and percentages. Work on significant figures, scientific notation and indices is also included, as are the concepts of absolute values. Basic calculator skills are also covered in this chapter.
Real Numbers
Types of numbers
Unreal or imaginary numbers Real numbers
Rational numbers
Irrational numbers
Integers
Integers are whole numbers that may be positive, negative or zero. e.g. - 4, 7, 0, -11 a Rational numbers can be written in the form of a fraction b 3 where a and b are integers, b ! 0. e.g. 1 , 3.7, 0. 5, - 5 4 a Irrational numbers cannot be written in the form of a fraction (that b is, they are not rational) e.g. 2 , r
EXAMPLE
Which of these numbers are rational and which are irrational? 3 r 3 , 1. 3, , 9 , , - 2.65 4 5
Solution
r are irrational as they cannot be written as fractions (r is irrational). 4 3 13 1 1. 3 = 1 , 9 = and - 2.65 = - 2 so they are all rational. 3 1 20 3 and
Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course
Order of operations
1. Brackets: do calculations inside grouping symbols rst. (For example, a fraction line, square root sign or absolute value sign can act as a grouping symbol.) 2. Multiply or divide from left to right. 3. Add or subtract from left to right.
EXAMPLE
Evaluate 40 - 3 ] 5 + 4 g .
Solution
40 - 3 (5 + 4) = 40 - 3# 9 = 40 - 27 = 13
BRACKETS KEYS
Use ( and ) to open and close brackets. Always use them in pairs. For example, to evaluate 40 - 3 ] 5 + 4 g press 40 - 3 # ( 5 + 4 ) = = 13 5.67 - 3.49 correct to 1 decimal place To evaluate 1.69 + 2.77 press : ( ( 5.67 - 3.49 ) ' ( 1.69 + 2.77 ) ) = = 0.7 correct to 1 decimal place
PROBLEM
What is wrong with this calculation? Evaluate 19 - 4 1+2 Press 19 - 4 ' 1 + 2 = 19 - 4 '1 + 2
17
What is the correct answer?
MEMORY KEYS
Use STO to store a number in memory. There are several memories that you can use at the same timeany letter from A to F, or X, Y and M on the keypad. To store the number 50 in, say, A press 50 STO A To recall this number, press ALPHA A = To clear all memories press SHIFT CLR
Different calculators use different keys so check the instructions for your calculator.
X -1 KEY
Use this key to find the reciprocal of x. For example, to evaluate 1 - 7.6 # 2.1 -1 = press ( (-) 7.6 # 2.1 ) x = - 0.063 (correct to 3 decimal places)
Rounding off
Rounding off is often done in everyday life. A quick look at a newspaper will give plenty of examples. For example in the sports section, a newspaper may report that 50 000 fans attended a football match. An accurate number is not always necessary. There may have been exactly 49 976 people at the football game, but 50 000 gives an idea of the size of the crowd.
EXAMPLES
1. Round off 24 629 to the nearest thousand.
Solution
This number is between 24 000 and 25 000, but it is closer to 25 000.
` 24 629 = 25 000 to the nearest thousand
CONTINUED
2. Write 850 to the nearest hundred.
Solution
This number is exactly halfway between 800 and 900. When a number is halfway, we round it off to the larger number. ` 850 = 900 to the nearest hundred
In this course you will need to round off decimals, especially when using trigonometry or logarithms. To round a number off to a certain number of decimal places, look at the next digit to the right. If this digit is 5 or more, add 1 to the digit before it and drop all the other digits after it. If the digit to the right is less than 5, leave the digit before it and drop all the digits to the right.
EXAMPLES
1. Round off 0.6825371 correct to 1 decimal place.
Add 1 to the 6 as the 8 is greater than 5.
Solution
0.6825371 # ` 0.6825371 = 0.7 correct to 1 decimal place 2. Round off 0.6825371 correct to 2 decimal places.
Drop off the 2 and all digits to the right as 2 is smaller than 5.
Solution
0.6825371 # ` 0.6825371 = 0.68 correct to 2 decimal places 3. Evaluate 3.56 ' 2.1 correct to 2 decimal places.
Check this on your calculator. Add 1 to the 69 as 5 is too large to just drop off.
Solution
3.56 ' 2.1 = 1.69 # 5238095 = 1.70 correct to 2 decimal places
FIX KEY
Use MODE or SET UP to fix the number of decimal places (see the instructions for your calculator). This will cause all answers to have a fixed number of decimal places until the calculator is turned off or switched back to normal.
While using a fixed number of decimal places on the display, the calculator still keeps track internally of the full number of decimal places.
EXAMPLE
Calculate 3.25 ' 1.72 # 5.97 + 7.32 correct to 2 decimal places.
Solution
3.25 ' 1.72 # 5.97 + 7.32 = 1.889534884 # 5.97 + 7.32 = 11.28052326 + 7.32 = 18.60052326 = 18.60 correct to 2 decimal places If the FIX key is set to 2 decimal places, then the display will show 2 decimal places at each step. 3.25 ' 1.72 # 5.97 + 7.32 = 1.89 # 5.97 + 7.32 = 11.28 + 7.32 = 18.60 If you then set the calculator back to normal, the display will show the full answer of 18.60052326.
Dont round off at each step of a series of calculations.
The calculator does not round off at each step. If it did, the answer might not be as accurate. This is an important point, since some students round off each step in calculations and then wonder why they do not get the same answer as other students and the textbook.
1.1 Exercises
1. State which numbers are rational and which are irrational. (a) 169 (b) 0.546 (c) -17 r (d) 3 (e) 0.34 (f) 218 (g) 2 2 1 (h) 27 (i) 17.4% 1 (j) 5
2.
Evaluate (a) 20 - 8 ' 4 (b) 3 # 7 - 2 # 5 (c) 4 # ] 27 ' 3 g ' 6 (d) 17 + 3 # - 2 (e) 1.9 - 2 # 3.1 14 ' 7 (f) -1 + 3 3 1 2 (g) 2 - # 5 5 3 3 1 1 4 8 (h) 5 6 5 5 ' 8 6 (i) 1 1 + 4 8 1 7 3 5 10 (j) 1 1 1 4 2 Evaluate correct to 2 decimal places. (a) 2.36 + 4.2 ' 0.3 (b) ] 2.36 + 4.2 g ' 0.3 (c) 12.7 # 3.95 ' 5.7 (d) 8.2 ' 0.4 + 4.1# 0.54 (e) ] 3.2 - 6.5 g # ] 1.3 + 2.7 g 1 (f) 4.7 + 1.3 1 (g) 4.51 + 3.28 0.9 + 1.4 (h) 5.2 - 3.6 5.33 + 2.87 (i) 1.23 - 3.15 (j) 1.7 2 + 8.9 2 - 3.94 2
7.
A crowd of 10 739 spectators attended a tennis match. Write this figure to the nearest thousand. A school has 623 students. What is this to the nearest hundred? A bank made loans to the value of $7 635 718 last year. Round this off to the nearest million.
8.
9.
10. A company made a profit of $34 562 991.39 last year. Write this to the nearest hundred thousand. 11. The distance between two cities is 843.72 km. What is this to the nearest kilometre? 12. Write 0.72548 correct to 2 decimal places. 13. Round off 32.569148 to the nearest unit. 14. Round off 3.24819 to 3 decimal places. 15. Evaluate 2.45 # 1.72 correct to 2 decimal places. 16. Evaluate 8.7 ' 5 correct to 1 decimal place. 17. If pies are on special at 3 for $2.38, find the cost of each pie. 18. Evaluate 7.48 correct to 2 decimal places. 19. Evaluate 6.4 + 2.3 correct to 8 1 decimal place.
3.
4.
Round off 1289 to the nearest hundred. Write 947 to the nearest ten. Round off 3200 to the nearest thousand.
5. 6.
20. Find the length of each piece of material, to 1 decimal place, if 25 m of material is cut into 7 equal pieces.
21. How much will 7.5 m 2 of tiles cost, at $37.59 per m2? 22. Divide 12.9 grams of salt into 7 equal portions, to 1 decimal place. 23. The cost of 9 peaches is $5.72. How much would 5 peaches cost? 24. Evaluate correct to 2 decimal places. (a) 17.3 - 4.33 # 2.16 (b) 8.72 # 5.68 - 4.9 # 3.98
(c)
3.5 + 9.8 5.6 + 4.35 15.9 + 6.3 - 7.8 (d) 7.63 - 5.12 1 (e) 6.87 - 3.21
25. Evaluate
9.91 - ] 9.68 - 5.47 g 5.39 2 correct to 1 decimal place.
DID YOU KNOW?

In building, engineering and other industries where accurate measurements are used, the number of decimal places used indicates how accurate the measurements are. For example, if a 2.431 m length of timber is cut into 8 equal parts, according to the calculator each part should be 0.303875 m. However, a machine could not cut this accurately. A length of 2.431 m shows that the measurement of the timber is only accurate to the nearest mm (2.431 m is 2431 mm). The cut pieces can also only be accurate to the nearest mm (0.304 m or 304 mm). The error in measurement is related to rounding off, as the error is half the smallest measurement. In the above example, the measurement error is half a millimetre. The length of timber could be anywhere between 2430.5 mm and 2431.5 mm.
Directed Numbers
Many students use the calculator with work on directed numbers (numbers that can be positive or negative). Directed numbers occur in algebra and other topics, where you will need to remember how to use them. A good understanding of directed numbers will make your algebra skills much better.
^ - h KEY
Use this key to enter negative numbers. For example, press (-) 3 =
10
Adding and subtracting
To add: move to the right along the number line To subtract: move to the left along the number line
-4 -3 -2 -1
1 Add
Subtract
EXAMPLES
You can also do these on a calculator, or you may have a different way of working these out.
Evaluate 1. - 4 + 3
Solution
Start at - 4 and move 3 places to the right.
-4
-3
-2
-1
- 4 + 3 = -1 2. -1 - 2
Solution
Start at -1 and move 2 places to the left.
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1 - 2 = -3
Multiplying and dividing

To multiply or divide, follow these rules. This rule also works if there are two signs together without a number in between e.g. 2 - -3
Same signs = + + + =+ - - =+ Different signs = + - =- + =-
11
EXAMPLES
Evaluate 1. - 2 #7
Solution
Different signs (- 2 and + 7) give a negative answer. - 2 # 7 = -14 2. -12 ' - 4
Solution
Same signs (-12 and - 4) give a positive answer. -12 ' - 4 = 3 3. -1 - - 3
Solution
The signs together are the same (both negative) so give a positive answer. -1 - 3 = -1 + 3 =2
-
Start at -1 and move 3 places to the right.
1.2 Exercises
Evaluate 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. -2 + 3 -7 - 4 8 # -7 7 - ]-3 g 28 ' -7 - 4.9 + 3.7 - 2.14 - 5.37 4.8 # -7.4 1.7 - ] - 4.87 g 3 2 -1 5 3 11. 5 - 3 # 4 12. - 2 + 7 # - 3 13. 4 - 3 # - 2 14. -1 - -2 15. 7 + - 2 16. 2 - ] -1 g 17. - 2 + 15 ' 5 18. - 2 # 6 # - 5 19. - 28 ' -7 # - 5 20. ] - 3 g2
10. -
12
Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

Conversions
You can do all these conversions on your calculator using the b a or S + D key. c
EXAMPLES
1. Write 0.45 as a fraction in its simplest form.
Solution
0.45 = 45 5 ' 5 100 9 = 20 3 to a decimal. 8
3 means 3 ' 8. 8
2. Convert
Solution
0.375 8 g 3.000 3 So = 0.375 8 3. Change 35.5% to a fraction.
Solution
35.5% = 35.5 2 # 100 2 71 = 200
4. Write 0.436 as a percentage.
Solution
Multiply by 100% to change a fraction or decimal to a percentage.
0.436 = 0.436 #100% = 43.6% 5. Write 20 g as a fraction of 1 kg in its simplest form.
Solution
1 kg = 1000 g 20 g 20 g = 1000 g 1 kg 1 = 50
13
6. Find the percentage of people who prefer to drink Lemon Fuzzy, if 24 out of every 30 people prefer it.
Solution
24 100% # = 80% 30 1
Sometimes decimals repeat, or recur. Example 1 = 0.33333333 f = 0. 3 3 There are different methods that can be used to change a recurring decimal into a fraction. Here is one way of doing it. Later you will discover another method when studying series. (See HSC Course book, Chapter 8.)
EXAMPLES
1. Write 0. 4 as a rational number.
A rational number is any number that can be written as a fraction.
Solution
Let n = 0.44444 f Then 10n = 4.44444 f (2) - (1): 9n = 4 4 n= 9

(1 ) (2 )
Check this on your calculator by dividing 4 by 9.
2. Change 1.329 to a fraction.
Solution
n = 1.3292929 f Let Then 100n = 132.9292929 f (2) - (1): 99n = 131.6 131.6 10 n= # 99 10 1316 = 990 163 =1 495 (1 ) (2 )
Try multiplying n by 10. Why doesnt this work?
CONTINUED
14
Another method
This method avoids decimals in the fraction at the end.
Let n = 1.3292929 f Then 10n = 13.2929292 f and 1000n = 1329.292929 f (2) - (1): 990n = 1316 1316 n= 990 163 =1 495
(1 ) (2 )
1.3 Exercises
1. Write each decimal as a fraction in its lowest terms. (a) 0.64 (b) 0.051 (c) 5.05 (d) 11.8 Change each fraction into a decimal. 2 (a) 5 7 (b) 1 8 5 (c) 12 7 (d) 11 Convert each percentage to a fraction in its simplest form. (a) 2% (b) 37.5% (c) 0.1% (d) 109.7% Write each percentage as a decimal. (a) 27% (b) 109% (c) 0.3% (d) 6.23% Write each fraction as a percentage. 7 20 1 (b) 3 (a) (c) 2 4 15 1 (d) 1000
6.
2.
Write each decimal as a percentage. (a) 1.24 (b) 0.7 (c) 0.405 (d) 1.2794 Write each percentage as a decimal and as a fraction. (a) 52% (b) 7% (c) 16.8% (d) 109% (e) 43.4% 1 (f) 12 % 4 Write these fractions as recurring decimals. 5 (a) 6 7 (b) 99 13 (c) 99 1 (d) 6 2 (e) 3
7.
3.
8.
4.
5.
15
5 33 1 (g) 7 2 (h) 1 11 (f) 9. Express as fractions in lowest terms. (a) 0. 8 (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) 0. 2 1. 5 3. 7 0. 67 0. 54 0.15

31 99 13 + 6 (e) 7+4 (d) 1 11. Evaluate and write as a fraction. (a) 7.5 ' ] 4.1 + 7.9 g 15.7 - 8.9 (b) 4.5 - 1.3 6.3 + 1.7 (c) 12.3 - 8.9 + 7.6 4 .3 (d) 11.5 - 9.7 64 (e) 8100 12. Angel scored 17 out of 23 in a class test. What was her score as a percentage, to the nearest unit? 13. A survey showed that 31 out of 40 people watched the news on Monday night. What percentage of people watched the news? 14. What percentage of 2 kg is 350 g? 15. Write 25 minutes as a percentage of an hour.
(h) 0.216 (i) 0.2 19 (j) 1.074 10. Evaluate and express as a decimal. 5 (a) 3+6 (b) 8 - 3 ' 5 4+7 (c) 12 + 3
Investigation
Explore patterns in recurring decimals by dividing numbers by 3, 6, 9, 11, and so on. Can you predict what the recurring decimal will be if a fraction has 3 in the denominator? What about 9 in the denominator? What about 11? Can you predict what fraction certain recurring decimals will be? What denominator would 1 digit recurring give? What denominator would you have for 2 digits recurring?
Operations with fractions, decimals and percentages

You will need to know how to work with fractions without using a calculator, as they occur in other areas such as algebra, trigonometry and surds.
16
The examples on fractions show how to add, subtract, multiply or divide fractions both with and without the calculator. The decimal examples will help with some simple multiplying and the percentage examples will be useful in Chapter 8 of the HSC Course book when doing compound interest. Most students use their calculators for decimal calculations. However, it is important for you to know how to operate with decimals. Sometimes the calculator can give a wrong answer if the wrong key is pressed. If you can estimate the size of the answer, you can work out if it makes sense or not. You can also save time by doing simple calculations in your head.
DID YOU KNOW?

Some countries use a comma for the decimal pointfor example, 0,45 for 0.45. This is the reason that our large numbers now have spaces instead of commas between digitsfor example, 15 000 rather than 15,000.
EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate 1 3 2 - . 5 4
Solution
1 3 3 2 7 - = 5 4 5 4 28 15 = 20 20 13 = 20 1 ' 3. 2
2. Evaluate 2
Solution
2 3 5 1 '3 = ' 2 2 1 5 1 = # 2 3 5 = 6
3. Evaluate 0.056 # 100.

Move the decimal point 2 places to the right.
Solution
0.056 #100 = 5.6
17
4. Evaluate 0.02 # 0.3.
Solution
0.02 # 0.3 = 0.006 5. Evaluate 8.753 . 10
Multiply the numbers and count the number of decimal places in the question.
Solution
8.753 ' 10 = 0.8753 1 6. The price of a $75 tennis racquet increased by 5 %. Find the new 2 price.
Move the decimal point 1 place to the left.
Solution
1 5 % = 0.055 2 1 ` 5 % of $75 = 0.055#$75 2 = $4.13 1 or 105 % of $75 = 1.055#$75 2 = $79.13
So the price increases by $4.13 to $79.13. 7. The price of a book increased by 12%. If it now costs $18.00, what did it cost before the price rise?
Solution
The new price is 112% (old price 100%, plus 12%) $18.00 ` 1% = 112 $18.00 100 100% = # 112 1 = $16.07 So the old price was $16.07.
1.4 Exercises
1. Write 18 minutes as a fraction of 2 hours in its lowest terms. Write 350 mL as a fraction of 1 litre in its simplest form. Evaluate 3 1 (a) + 5 4 2 7 -2 5 10 3 2 (c) #1 5 4 3 (d) ' 4 7 3 2 (e) 1 ' 2 5 3 (b) 3
2.
3.
18
4. 5.
Find
3 of $912.60. 5
15. Increase 350 g by 15%. 1 16. Decrease 45 m by 8 %. 2 17. The cost of a calculator is now $32. If it has increased by 3.5%, how much was the old cost? 18. A tree now measures 3.5 m, which is 8.3% more than its previous years height. How high was the tree then, to 1 decimal place?
5 Find of 1 kg, in grams correct 7 to 1 decimal place. Trinh spends sleeping, 1 of her day 3
6.
7 1 at work and 24 12
eating. What fraction of the day is left? 7. I get $150.00 a week for a casual 1 job. If I spend on bus fares, 10 2 1 on lunches and on outings, 15 3 how much money is left over for savings? John grew by 17 of his height 200 this year. If he was 165 cm tall last year, what is his height now, to the nearest cm?
8.
9.
Evaluate (a) 8.9 + 3 (b) 9 - 3.7 (c) 1.9 #10 (d) 0.032 #100 (e) 0.7 # 5 (f) 0.8 # 0.3 (g) 0.02 # 0.009 (h) 5.72 #1000 8.74 (i) 100 (j) 3.76 # 0.1
19. This month there has been a 4.9% increase in stolen cars. If 546 cars were stolen last month, how many were stolen this month? 20. Georges computer cost $3500. If it has depreciated by 17.2%, what is the computer worth now?
10. Find 7% of $750. 11. Find 6.5% of 845 mL. 12. What is 12.5% of 9217 g? 13. Find 3.7% of $289.45. 14. If Kaye makes a profit of $5 by selling a bike for $85, find the profit as a percentage of the selling price.
19
PROBLEM
If both the hour hand and minute hand start at the same position at 12 oclock, when is the first time, correct to a fraction of a minute, that the two hands will be together again?
Powers and Roots

A power (or index) of a number shows how many times a number is multiplied by itself.
EXAMPLES
1. 4 3 = 4 # 4 # 4 = 64 2. 2 5 = 2 # 2 # 2 # 2 # 2 = 32
In 4 3 the 4 is called the base number and the 3 is called the index or power.
A root of a number is the inverse of the power.
EXAMPLES
1.
3
36 = 6 since 6 2 = 36 8 = 2 since 2 3 = 8 64 = 2 since 2 6 = 64
2.
3.
DID YOU KNOW?

Many formulae use indices (powers and roots). For example the compound interest formula that you will study in Chapter 8 of the HSC n Course book is A = P ^ 1 + r h 4 Geometry uses formulae involving indices, such as V = rr 3. Do you know what this 3 formula is for? In Chapter 7, the formula for the distance between 2 points on a number plane is d= (x 2 - x 1) + (y 2 - y 1)
2 2
See if you can find other formulae involving indices.
20
POWER AND ROOT KEYS

Use the x 2 and x 3 keys for squares and cubes.
y Use the x or ^ key to find powers of numbers.
Use the Use the Use the

3 x
key for square roots. key for cube roots. for other roots.
These laws work for any m and n, including fractions and negative numbers.
Index laws
There are some general laws that simplify calculations with indices.
am # an = am + n
Proof
a m # a n = (a # a #f# a) # (a # a #f# a) 14444244443 14444244443 m times n times =a # # f # a a 1444 42444 43 m + n times = am + n
am ' an = am - n
Proof
am ' an = am an a # a #f# a (m times) = a # a #f# a (n times) a # a #f# a (m - n times) = 1 = am - n
(a m)n = a mn
Proof
(a m) n = a m # a m # a m #f# a m = am + m + m + f + m = a mn (n times) (n times)
21
(ab) n = a n b n
Proof
(ab) n = ab # ab # ab #f# ab (n times) = (a # a #f# a) # (b # b #f# b) 14444244443 14444244443 n times n times = an bn
a n an c m = n b b
Proof
a n a a a a c m = # # #f# b b b b b a # a # a #f # a = b # b # b #f # b an = n b (n times) (n times) (n times)
EXAMPLES
Simplify 1. m 9 # m 7 ' m 2
Solution
m9 #m7 ' m2 = m9 + 7 - 2 = m 14 2. (2y 4)3
Solution
(2y 4) 3 = 2 3 (y 4) 3 = 23 y4 # 3 = 8y 12
CONTINUED
22
3.
(y 6) 3 # y - 4 y5
Solution
(y 6) 3 # y - 4 y5 = = = y 18 # y - 4 y 18 + (- 4) y5 y
14
y5
y5 = y9
1.5 Exercises
1. Evaluate without using a calculator. (a) 5 3 # 2 2 (b) 3 4 + 8 2 1 3 (c) c m 4 (d) (e) 2.
3 4
(h) (i) (j) (k)
(x 7) 3 (2x 5) 2 (3y - 2) 4 a3 #a5 ' a7

5
27 16
Evaluate correct to 1 decimal place. (a) 3.7 2 (b) 1.06 1.5 (c) 2.3 - 0.2 (d) 3 19 (e) 3 34.8 - 1.2 # 43.1 1 (f) 3 0.99 + 5.61 Simplify (a) a 6 # a 9 # a 2 (b) y 3 # y - 8 # y 5 (c) a -1 # a -3 (d) w 2 # w 2 (e) x 6 ' x (f) p 3 ' p - 7 y 11 (g) 5 y
1 1
x2 p y9 w6 # w7 (m) w3 2 p #(p 3) 4 (n) p9 6 x ' x7 (o) x2 2 a # ( b 2) 6 (p) a4 # b9 (x 2) - 3 #(y 3) 2 (q) x -1 # y 4 (l) f 4. Simplify (a) x 5 # x 9 (b) a -1 # a - 6 m7 (c) m3 (d) k 13 # k 6 ' k 9 (e) a - 5 # a 4 # a - 7 (f) x 5 # x 5 m5 # n4 (g) 4 m # n2
2 3
3.
23
(h)
p2 # p2
2
10. (a) Simplify
p5 q8 r4 p4 q6 r2
. p5 q8 r4
p (i) (3x 11) 2 (x 4) 6 (j) x3
(b) Hence evaluate
5.
Simplify (a) (pq 3) 5 a 8 (b) c m b 4a 3 (c) d 4 n b (d) (7a5b)2 m4 xy 3 #(xy 2) 4 (f) xy 8 4 (2k ) (g) (6k 3) 3 y 12 7 (h) _ 2y 5 i # 8 (i) e (j) f a6 # a4 o a 11 3 5xy 9 x8 # y3
-3
as a p4 q6 r2 7 2 fraction when p = , q = and 8 3 3 r= . 4

1 4 3
2 6 11. Evaluate (a ) when a = c m . 3 12. Evaluate b= 2 . 3 x4 y7 x5 y5 when x = 1 and 3 a3 b6 1 when a = and 2 b4
(e)
(2m 7) 3
13. Evaluate y= 2 . 9
14. Evaluate
k-5 1 when k = . 3 k-9 a4 b6 3 when a = and 3 2 2 4 a (b )
15. Evaluate b= 1 . 9
6.
Evaluate a3b2 when a = 2 and 3 b= . 4 If x = of 2 1 and y = , find the value 3 9 .
16. Evaluate
a6 # b3 as a fraction a5 # b2 3 1 when a = and b = . 4 9
7.
x3 y2 xy 5
17. Evaluate
8.
If a =
1 1 1 , b = and c = , 4 2 3 a2 b3 evaluate 4 as a fraction. c a b . a8 b7 a 11 b 8 when a8 b7

11 8
a2 b7 as a fraction in a3 b 2 4 index form when a = c m and 5 5 3 b=c m. 8 as a fraction a (b 2) 4 c 3 6 1 7 when a = , b = and c = . 7 3 9 (a 3) 2 b 4 c
18. Evaluate
9.
(a) Simplify
(b) Hence evaluate a=
5 2 and b = as a fraction. 5 8
24
Negative and zero indices
Class Investigation
Explore zero and negative indices by looking at these questions. For example simplify x 3 ' x 5 using (i) index laws and (ii) cancelling. (i) x 3 ' x 5 = x - 2 by index laws 3 x# x# x (ii) x = 5 x x# x# x# x # x 1 = 2 x 1 So x - 2 = 2 x Now simplify these questions by (i) index laws and (ii) cancelling. (a) x 2 ' x 3 (b) x 2 ' x 4 (c) x 2 ' x 5 (d) x 3 ' x 6 (e) x 3 ' x 3 (f) x 2 ' x 2 (g) x ' x 2 (h) x 5 ' x 6 (i) x 4 ' x 7 (j) x ' x 3 Use your results to complete: x0 = x-n =
x0 = 1
Proof
xn ' xn = xn - n = x0 xn xn ' xn = n x =1 ` x0 = 1
25
x-n =
1 xn
Proof
x0 ' xn = x0 - n = x-n x0 x0 ' xn = n x 1 = n x 1 ` x-n = n x
EXAMPLES
1. Simplify e ab 5 c o . abc 4
0
Solution
e
ab 5 c o =1 abc 4
2. Evaluate 2 - 3 .
Solution
2-3 = 1 23 1 = 8
3. Write in index form. 1 x2 3 (b) 5 x 1 (c) 5x 1 (d) x +1 (a)

CONTINUED
26
Solution
1 = x-2 x2 3 (b) 5 = 3# 15 x x -5 = 3x 1 1 1 = #x (c) 5x 5 1 -1 = x 5 1 1 = (d) x +1 (x + 1) 1 = ] x + 1 g-1 (a) 4. Write a3 without the negative index.
Solution
a-3 = 1 a3
1.6 Exercises
1. Evaluate as a fraction or whole number. (a) 3 - 3 (b) 4 - 1 (c) 7 - 3 (d) 10 - 4 (e) 2 - 8 (f) 60 (g) 2 - 5 (h) 3 - 4 (i) 7 - 1 (j) 9 - 2 (k) 2 - 6 (l) 3 - 2 (m) 40 (n) 6 - 2 (o) 5 - 3 (p) 10 - 5 (q) 2 - 7 (r) 2 0 (s) 8 - 2 (t) 4 - 3 2. Evaluate (a) 2 0 1 -4 (b) c m 2 2 -1 (c) c m 3 5 -2 (d) c m 6 x + 2y 0 p (e) f 3x - y 1 -3 (f) c m 5 3 -1 (g) c m 4 1 -2 (h) c m 7 2 -3 (i) c m 3 1 -5 (j) c m 2 3 -1 (k) c m 7
27
8 0 (l) c m 9 6 -2 (m)c m 7 9 -2 (n) c m 10 6 0 (o) c m 11 1 -2 (p) c - m 4 2 -3 (q) c - m 5 2 -1 (r) c - 3 m 7 3 0 (s) c - m 8 1 -2 (t) c - 1 m 4 3. Change into index form. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) 1 m3 1 x 1 p7 1 d9 1 k5 1 x2 2 x4 3 y2 1 2z 6 3 5t 8 2 7x
1 (3x + 4) 2 1 (o) ( a + b) 8 1 (p) x-2 (n) 1 (5p + 1) 3 2 (r) (4t - 9) 5 1 (s) 4 (x + 1) 11 5 (t) 9 ( a + 3 b) 7 (q) 4. Write without negative indices. (a) t - 5 (b) x - 6 (c) y - 3 (d) n - 8 (e) w - 10 (f) 2x -1 (g) 3m - 4 (h) 5x - 7 (i) ]2xg- 3
(j) ] 4n g-1 (k) ] x + 1 g- 6
(n) ^ 3x + 2y h- 9 1 -5 (o) b x l 1 -10 (p) c y m 2 -1 (q) d n p 1 -2 m a+b x + y -1 (s) e x - y o (r) c (t) e 2w - z - 7 o 3x + y
(l) ^ 8y + z h-1 (m) ]k - 3g- 2
5 2m 6 2 (m) 7 3y
28
Fractional indices
Class Investigation
Explore fractional indices by looking at these questions. For example simplify (i) ` x 2 j and (ii) ^ x h .
1 2 2
(i) ` x 2 j = x 1 =x 2 (ii) ^ x h = x
1 2 1
1 2
^ by index laws h
So ` x 2 j = ^ x h = x
2
x2 =
1
Now simplify these questions. (a) ^ x 2 h 2 (b) x2

1 3 1
(c) ` x 3 j
(d) ^ x 3 h 3
3
3 (e) ^ 3 x h
(f)
x3
1 4 1
(h) ^ x 4 h 4
4
4 (g) ` x j
4 (i) ^ 4 x h
(j)
x4
Use your results to complete: xn =

1
a =n a
1 n
Proof
àn j = a ^ n a hn = a
1 n
^ by index laws h
` a =n a
1 n
29
EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate (a) 49
1 2 1
(b) 27 3
Solution
(a) 49 = 49 =7 (b) 27 = 3 27 =3 2. Write 3x - 2 in index form.
1 3 1 2
Solution
3x - 2 = (3x - 2) 2 3. Write (a + b) 7 without fractional indices.
1 1
Solution
( a + b) 7 = 7 a + b
1
Putting the fractional and negative indices together gives this rule.
1 -n
1 a
Here are some further rules.
a = n am = (n a ) m
m n
Proof
n n a = à j m = ^n a h m 1 m
a = ^ am h = n am
m n
1 n
30
a -n b n c m = bal b
Proof
a -n 1 c m = b a n c m b 1 = n a bn an bn bn =1# n a bn = n a b n = bal =1'
EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate
4
(a) 8 3 (b) 125

1 3
2 -3 (c) c m 3
Solution
(a) 8 3 = (3 8 ) 4 (or 3 8 4 ) = 24 = 16 (b) 125
1 3 4
1
1
125 3 1 =3 125 1 = 5
31
(c) c 2 m 3
-3
3 3 =c m 2 27 = 8 3 =3 8
2. Write in index form. (a) (b)

3
x5 1 (4x - 1) 2
2
Solution
(a) (b)
3
x5 = x 2 1 (4x - 1)
2 2
1 (4x 2 - 1) 3
2 2 3
= (4x 2 - 1)
3 5
3. Write r
without the negative and fractional indices.
Solution
r
3 5
= =
1
3
r5 1
5
r3
DID YOU KNOW?

Nicole Oresme (132382) was the first mathematician to use fractional indices. John Wallis (16161703) was the first person to explain the significance of zero, negative and fractional indices. He also introduced the symbol 3 for infinity. Do an Internet search on these mathematicians and find out more about their work and backgrounds. You could use keywords such as indices and infinity as well as their names to find this information.
32
1.7 Exercises
1. Evaluate (a) 81
1 2 1
3.
Write without fractional indices.

1
(a) y 3
2
(b) 27 3
1
(b) y 3 (c) x
1 2 1
(c) 16 2
1
(d) 8 3
1
(d) (2x + 5) 2 (e) (3x - 1)

1 1 1 2
(e) 49 2 (f) 1000 3

1
(f) (6q + r) 3 (g) (x + 7) 4.

2 5
(g) 16 4
1
(h) 64 2 (i) 64 (j) 1

1 7 1 4 1 5 1 3
Write in index form. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

3 5
t y x3 9-x 4s + 1 1 2t + 3 1 (5x - y) 3 (3x + 1) 5 1

3
(k) 81 (l) 32
1
(m) 0 8 (n) 125

1 3 1
(g) (h) (i)
(o) 343 3
1
(p) 128 7
1
(q) 256 4 (r) 9 (s) 8

3 2 1 3 2 3
(t) 64 2.
Evaluate correct to 2 decimal places.

1
(a) 23 4 (b) 4 45.8 (c) (d) (e) (f)

7
(x - 2) 2 1 (j) 2 y+7 5 (k) 3 x+4 2 (l) 3 y2 - 1 3 (m) 5 4 (x 2 + 2) 3 Write in index form and simplify. (a) x x x (b) x x (c) 3 x x2 (d) 3 x (e) x 4 x
1.24 + 4.3 2 1 12.9 3 .6 - 1 .4 1 .5 + 3 .7
5.
5 .9 # 3 .7 8.79 - 1.4
33
6.
Expand and simplify, and write in index form. (a) ( x + x) 2 (b) (3 a + 3 b ) (3 a - 3 b ) 1 2 (c) f p + p p (d) ( x + (e) 1 2 ) x x ( x 2 - 3x + 1 ) x3
7.
Write without fractional or negative indices. (a) (a - 2b) (b) (y - 3)

2 3 4 7 1 3
(c) 4 (6a + 1) ( x + y) (d) 3

5 4
6 (3 x + 8 ) (e) 7
2 9
Scientic notation (standard form)

Very large or very small numbers are usually written in scientic notation to make them easier to read. What could be done to make the gures in the box below easier to read?
DID YOU KNOW?

The Bay of Fundy, Canada, has the largest tidal changes in the world. About 100 000 000 000 tons of water are moved with each tide change. The dinosaurs dwelt on Earth for 185 000 000 years until they died out 65 000 000 years ago. The width of one plant cell is about 0.000 06 m. In 2005, the total storage capacity of dams in Australia was 83 853 000 000 000 litres and households in Australia used 2 108 000 000 000 litres of water.
A number in scientic notation is written as a number between 1 and 10 multiplied by a power of 10.
EXAMPLES
1. Write 320 000 000 in scientic notation.
Solution
320 000 000 = 3.2 #10 8 2. Write 7.1#10 -5 as a decimal number.
Write the number between 1 and 10 and count the decimal places moved.
Solution
7.1#10
-5
= 7.1 ' 10 = 0.000 071

5
Count 5 places to the left.
34
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION KEY

Use the EXP or #10 x key to put numbers in scientific notation. For example, to evaluate 3.1#10 4 ' 2.5 #10 - 2, press 3.1 EXP 4 ' 2.5 EXP (-) 2 = = 1 240 000
DID YOU KNOW?

Engineering notation is similar to scientific notation, except the powers of 10 are always multiples of 3. For example, 3.5 # 10
3 -6
15.4 # 10
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES The concept of signicant gures is related to rounding off. When we look at very large (or very small) numbers, some of the smaller digits are not signicant. For example, in a football crowd of 49 976, the 6 people are not really signicant in terms of a crowd of about 50 000! Even the 76 people are not signicant. When a company makes a prot of $5 012 342.87, the amount of 87 cents is not exactly a signicant sum! Nor is the sum of $342.87. To round off to a certain number of signicant gures, we count from the rst non-zero digit. In any number, non-zero digits are always signicant. Zeros are not signicant, except between two non-zero digits or at the end of a decimal number. Even though zeros may not be signicant, they are still necessary. For example 31, 310, 3100, 31 000 and 310 000 all have 2 signicant gures but are very different numbers! Scientic notation uses the signicant gures in a number.
EXAMPLES
12 000 = 1.2 #10 4 0.000 043 5 = 4.35#10 - 5 0.020 7 = 2.07 #10 - 2 (2 significant figures) (3 significant figures) (3 significant figures)
When rounding off to signicant gures, use the usual rules for rounding off.
35
EXAMPLES
1. Round off 4 592 170 to 3 significant figures.
Solution
4 592 170 = 4 590 000 to 3 significant figures 2. Round off 0.248 391 to 2 significant figures.
Remember to put the 0s in!
Solution
0.248 391 = 0.25 to 2 significant figures 3. Round off 1.396 794 to 3 significant figures.
Solution
1.396 794 = 1.40 to 3 significant figures
1.8 Exercises
1. Write in scientific notation. (a) 3 800 (b) 1 230 000 (c) 61 900 (d) 12 000 000 (e) 8 670 000 000 (f) 416 000 (g) 900 (h) 13 760 (i) 20 000 000 (j) 80 000 Write in scientific notation. (a) 0.057 (b) 0.000 055 (c) 0.004 (d) 0.000 62 (e) 0.000 002 (f) 0.000 000 08 (g) 0.000 007 6 (h) 0.23 (i) 0.008 5 (j) 0.000 000 000 07 3. Write as a decimal number. (a) 3.6 #10 4 (b) 2.78 #10 7 (c) 9.25#10 3 (d) 6.33#10 6 (e) 4 #10 5 (f) 7.23#10 - 2 (g) 9.7 #10 - 5 (h) 3.8 # 10 - 8 (i) 7 #10 - 6 (j) 5#10 - 4 Round these numbers to 2 significant figures. (a) 235 980 (b) 9 234 605 (c) 10 742 (d) 0.364 258 (e) 1.293 542 (f) 8.973 498 011 (g) 15.694 (h) 322.78 (i) 2904.686 (j) 9.0741
2.
4.
36
5.
Evaluate correct to 3 significant figures. (a) 14.6 # 0.453 (b) 4.8 ' 7 (c) 4.47 + 2.59 #1.46 1 (d) 3.47 - 2.7
6.
Evaluate 4.5#10 4 # 2.9 #10 5, giving your answer in scientific notation. 8.72 #10 - 3 and write 1.34 #10 7 your answer in standard form correct to 3 significant figures. Calculate
7.
Investigation
A logarithm is an index. It is a way of finding the power (or index) to which a base number is raised. For example, when solving 3 x = 9, the solution is x = 2. The 3 is called the base number and the x is the index or power. You will learn about logarithms in the HSC course.
The a is called the base number and the x is the index or power.
If a x = y then log a y = x
1. The expression log7 49 means the power of 7 that gives 49. The solution is 2 since 7 2 = 49. 2. The expression log2 16 means the power of 2 that gives 16. The solution is 4 since 2 4 = 16. Can you evaluate these logarithms? 1. log3 27 2. log5 25 3. log10 10 000 4. log2 64 5. log4 4 6. log7 7 7. log3 1 8. log4 2 1 9. log 3 3 1 10. log 2 4
37
Absolute Value
Negative numbers are used in maths and science, to show opposite directions. For example, temperatures can be positive or negative.
But sometimes it is not appropriate to use negative numbers. For example, solving c 2 = 9 gives two solutions, c = !3. However when solving c 2 = 9, using Pythagoras theorem, we only use the positive answer, c = 3, as this gives the length of the side of a triangle. The negative answer doesnt make sense. We dont use negative numbers in other situations, such as speed. In science we would talk about a vehicle travelling at 60k/h going in a negative direction, but we would not commonly use this when talking about the speed of our cars!
Absolute value definitions

We write the absolute value of x as x
We can also define x as the distance of x from 0 on the number line. We will use this in Chapter 3.
x =)
x when x $ 0 - x when x 1 0
EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate 4 .
Solution
4 = 4 since 4 $ 0
CONTINUED
38
2. Evaluate - 3 .
Solution
-3 = - ] - 3 g since - 3 1 0 =3
The absolute value has some properties shown below.
Properties of absolute value
| ab | = | a |#| b | |a | = a
2 2
e.g. | 2 # - 3 | = | 2 |#| - 3 | = 6 e.g. | - 3 | 2 = ] - 3 g2 = 9 e.g. 5 2 = | 5 | = 5 e.g. | -7 | = | 7 | = 7 e.g. | 2 - 3 | = | 3 - 2 | = 1 e.g. | 2 + 3 | = | 2 | + | 3 | but | - 3 + 4 | 1 | - 3 | + | 4 |
a2 = | a | |- a | = | a | |a - b | = | b - a | | a + b |#| a | + | b |
EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate 2 - -1 + - 3 2.
Solution
2 - -1 + - 3 2 = 2 - 1 + 3 2 =2 -1 + 9 = 10 2. Show that a + b # a + b when a = - 2 and b = 3.
Solution
LHS means Left Hand Side.
LHS = a + b = -2 + 3 = 1 =1
39
RHS = a + b = -2 + 3 = 2+3 =5 Since 11 5 a+b # a + b 3. Write expressions for 2x - 4 without the absolute value signs.
RHS means Right Hand Side.
Solution
2x - 4 = 2x - 4 when 2x - 4 $ 0 i.e. 2x $ 4 x$2 2x - 4 = - ] 2x - 4 g when 2x - 4 1 0 = - 2x + 4 i.e. 2x 1 4 x12
Class Discussion
Are these statements true? If so, are there some values for which the expression is undefined (values of x or y that the expression cannot have)? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. x =1 x 2x = 2x 2x = 2 x x + y = x+y
2 x = x2 3 x = x3 x +1 = x +1
3x - 2 =1 3x - 2 x 9. =1 x2 10. x $ 0 Discuss absolute value and its definition in relation to these statements.
40
1.9 Exercises
1. Evaluate (a) 7 (b) - 5 (c) - 6 (d) 0 (e) 2 (f) -11 (g) - 2 3 (h) 3 - 8 2 (i) - 5 (j) - 5 3 Evaluate (a) 3 + - 2 (b) - 3 - 4 (c) - 5 + 3 (d) 2 # -7 (e) - 3 + -1 2 (f) 5 - - 2 # 6 (g) - 2 + 5# -1 (h) 3 - 4 (i) 2 - 3 - 3 - 4 (j) 5 - 7 + 4 - 2 Evaluate a - b if (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 4. a = 5 and b = 2 a = -1 and b = 2 a = - 2 and b = - 3 a = 4 and b = 7 a = -1 and b = - 2. (h) a + 1 when a 1 -1 (i) (j) 5. x - 2 when x 2 2 x - 2 when x 1 2.
Show that a + b # a + b when (a) a = 2 and b = 4 (b) a = -1 and b = - 2 (c) a = - 2 and b = 3 (d) a = - 4 and b = 5 (e) a = -7 and b = - 3. Show that x 2 = x when (a) x = 5 (b) x = - 2 (c) x = - 3 (d) x = 4 (e) x = - 9. Use the definition of absolute value to write each expression without the absolute value signs (a) x + 5 (b) b - 3 (c) a + 4 (d) 2y - 6 (e) 3x + 9 (f) 4 - x (g) 2k + 1 (h) 5x - 2 (i) a + b (j) p - q Find values of x for which x = 3. n Simplify n where n ! 0. x-2 and state which x-2 value x cannot be.
2.
6.
7.
3.
Write an expression for (a) a when a 2 0 (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) a when a 1 0 a when a = 0 3a when a 2 0 3a when a 1 0 3a when a = 0 a + 1 when a 2 -1
8. 9.
10. Simplify
41
Test Yourself 1
1. Convert (a) 0.45 to a fraction (b) 14% to a decimal 5 (c) to a decimal 8 (d) 78.5% to a fraction (e) 0.012 to a percentage 11 (f) to a percentage 15 Evaluate as a fraction. (a) 7 - 2 (b) 5 -1 (c) 9 3.
1 2
6.
Evaluate (a) 1 (b) (c) (d) (e) 3 7 5 8 6 2 #3 7 3 3 9' 4 2 1 +2 5 10 5 15# 6
2.
7.
Evaluate (a) - 4
1
Evaluate correct to 3 significant figures. (a) 4.5 2 + 7.6 2 (b) 4.3 0.3 2 (c) 3 5.7 (d) 1.3#10 9 3.8 #10 6
2 3
(b) 36 2 (c) - 5 2 - 2 3 (d) 4 - 3 as fraction

2
(e) 8 3 (f) - 2 - 1 (g) 49

1 4 1 2
as a fraction
(e) 6 4.
Evaluate (a) |-3 | -| 2 | (b) | 4 - 5 | (c) 7 + 4 # 8 (d) [(3 + 2)#(5 - 1) - 4] ' 8 (e) - 4 + 3 - 9 (f) - 2 - -1 (g) - 24 ' - 6 Simplify (a) x 5 # x 7 ' x 3 (b) (5y 3) 2 (a 5) 4 b 7 (c) a9 b 3 2x 6 n (d) d 3 (e) e ab 4 o a5 b6
0
(h) 16 (i) ] -3 g0 (j) 4 - 7 2 - -2 - 3 8. Simplify (a) a 14 ' a 9 6 (b) _ x 5 y 3 i (c) p 6 # p 5 ' p 2
5.
4 (d) ^ 2b 9h (2x 7) 3 y 2 (e) x 10 y
9.
Write in index form. n 1 (b) 5 x 1 (c) x+y (d)

4
(a)
x +1
42
(e)
a+b
2 (f) x 1 (g) 2x 3 (h) (i) (j)

3 7
(c) If he spends 3 hours watching TV, what fraction of the day is this? (d) What percentage of the day does he spend sleeping? 16. The price of a car increased by 12%. If the car cost $34 500 previously, what is its new price? 17. Rachel scored 56 out of 80 for a maths test. What percentage did she score? 18. Evaluate 2118, and write your answer in scientific notation correct to 1 decimal place. 19. Write in index form. (a) x 1 (b) y (c) x+3 1 (d) (2x - 3) 11
6
x4 (5x + 3) 9 1 m3
10. Write without fractional or negative indices. (a) a - 5

1
(b) n 4
(c) (x + 1) 2 (d) (x - y) -1 (e) (4t - 7) - 4 (f) (a + b) 5 (g) x

1 3 3 1
(h) b 4 (i) (2x + 3) (j) x

3 2 4 3
(e)
y7
20. Write in scientific notation. (a) 0.000 013 (b) 123 000 000 000 21. Convert to a fraction. (a) 0. 7 (b) 0.124 22. Write without the negative index. (a) x - 3 (b) (2a + 5)- 1 a -5 (c) c m b 23. The number of people attending a football match increased by 4% from last week. If there were 15 080 people at the match this week, how many attended last week? 24. Show that | a + b | # a + b when a = - 2 and b = - 5.
11. Show that a + b # a + b when a = 5 and b = - 3. 9 2 12. Evaluate a b when a = and b = 1 . 25 3

2 4
3 1 4 13. If a = c m and b = , evaluate ab 3 as a 4 3 fraction. 14. Increase 650 mL by 6%. 15. Johan spends 1 of his 24-hour day 3 1 sleeping and at work. 4 (a) How many hours does Johan spend at work? (b) What fraction of his day is spent at work or sleeping?
43
Challenge Exercise 1
1. 2. 3. Simplify c 8 3 2 2 7 + 3 m ' c4 - 1 m. 4 5 3 8 11. Show that 2 (2 k - 1) + 2 k + 1 = 2 (2 k + 1 - 1) . 12. Find the value of a in index form if b3 c2
3 5 149 7 Simplify + + . 5 12 180 30 Arrange in increasing order of size: 51%, 51 0.502, 0. 5, . 99 1 1 of his day sleeping, 3 12 1 of the day eating and of the day 20 watching TV. What percentage of the day is left? Mark spends Write 64
2 3
3 2 2 4 1 3 a = c m , b = c - m and c = c m . 5 5 3 13. Which of the following are rational 3 numbers: 3 , - 0.34, 2, 3r, 1. 5, 0, ? 7 14. The percentage of salt in 1 L of water is 10%. If 500 mL of water is added to this mixture, what percentage of salt is there now? 15. Simplify |x + 1 | x2 - 1 for x ! !1.
4.
5. 6.
as a rational number.
25
Express 3.2 ' 0.014 in scientific notation correct to 3 significant figures. Vinh scored 17 1 out of 20 for a maths 2 1 test, 19 out of 23 for English and 55 2 out of 70 for physics. Find his average score as a percentage, to the nearest whole percentage. Write 1.3274 as a rational number. The distance from the Earth to the moon is 3.84 #10 5 km. How long would it take a rocket travelling at 2.13#10 4 km h to reach the moon, to the nearest hour? 8.3# 4.1 correct to 0.2 + 5.4 ' 1.3 3 significant figures.

16. Evaluate 6
7.
4.3 1.3 - 2.9 correct to 2.4 3 + 3.31 2 2 decimal places.
17. Write 15 g as a percentage of 2.5 kg. 18. Evaluate 2.3 1.8 + 5.7 #10 - 2 correct to 3 significant figures. 19. Evaluate - 3.4 #10 - 3 + 1.7 #10 - 2 and (6.9 #10 5) 3 express your answer in scientific notation correct to 3 significant figures.
8. 9.
20. Prove | a + b | # | a | + | b | for all real a, b.
10. Evaluate 3
2
Algebra and Surds
TERMINOLOGY
Binomial: A mathematical expression consisting of two terms such as x + 3 or 3x - 1 Binomial product: The product of two binomial expressions such as (x + 3) (2x - 4) Expression: A mathematical statement involving numbers, pronumerals and symbols e.g. 2x - 3 Factorise: The process of writing an expression as a product of its factors. It is the reverse operation of expanding brackets i.e. take out the highest common factor in an expression and place the rest in brackets e.g. 2y - 8 = 2 (y - 4) Pronumeral: A letter or symbol that stands for a number Rationalising the denominator: A process for replacing a surd in the denominator by a rational number without altering its value Surd: From absurd. The root of a number that has an irrational value e.g. 3 . It cannot be expressed as a rational number Term: An element of an expression containing pronumerals and/or numbers separated by an operation such as + , - , # or ' e.g. 2x, - 3 Trinomial: An expression with three terms such as 3x 2 - 2x + 1
Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds
45
INTRODUCTION
THIS CHAPTER REVIEWS ALGEBRA skills, including simplifying expressions, removing grouping symbols, factorising, completing the square and simplifying algebraic fractions. Operations with surds, including rationalising the denominator, are also studied in this chapter.
DID YOU KNOW?

One of the earliest mathematicians to use algebra was Diophantus of Alexandria. It is not known when he lived, but it is thought this may have been around 250 AD. In Baghdad around 700800 AD a mathematician named Mohammed Un-Musa Al-Khowarezmi wrote books on algebra and Hindu numerals. One of his books was named Al-Jabr wal Migabaloh, and the word algebra comes from the first word in this title.
Simplifying Expressions
Addition and subtraction
EXAMPLES DID YOU KNOW?

Simplify 7x Box 1. text... -x
Here x is called a pronumeral.
Solution
7x - x = 7x - 1 x = 6x 2. 4x 2 - 3x 2 + 6x 2
Solution
4x 2 - 3x 2 + 6x 2 = x 2 + 6 x 2 = 7x 2
CONTINUED
46
3. x 3 - 3x - 5x + 4
Only add or subtract like terms. These have the same pronumeral (for example, 3x and 5x).
Solution
x 3 - 3 x - 5x + 4 = x 3 - 8 x + 4 4. 3a - 4b - 5a - b
Solution
3a - 4b - 5a - b = 3a - 5a - 4b - b = - 2a - 5b
2.1 Exercises
Simplify 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 2x + 5x 9a - 6a 5z - 4z 5a + a 4b - b 2r - 5r - 4y + 3y - 2x - 3x 2a - 2a 16. 7b + b - 3b 17. 3b - 5b + 4b + 9b 18. - 5x + 3x - x - 7x 19. 6x - 5y - y 20. 8a + b - 4b - 7a 21. xy + 2y + 3xy 22. 2ab 2 - 5ab 2 - 3ab 2 23. m 2 - 5m - m + 12 24. p 2 - 7p + 5p - 6 25. 3x + 7y + 5x - 4y 26. ab + 2b - 3ab + 8b 27. ab + bc - ab - ac + bc 28. a 5 - 7x 3 + a 5 - 2x 3 + 1 29. x 3 - 3xy 2 + 4x 2 y - x 2 y + xy 2 + 2y 3 30. 3x 3 - 4x 2 - 3x + 5x 2 - 4x - 6
10. - 4k + 7k 11. 3t + 4t + 2t 12. 8w - w + 3w 13. 4m - 3m - 2m 14. x + 3x - 5x 15. 8h - h - 7h
47
Multiplication
EXAMPLES
Simplify 1. - 5x # 3y # 2x
Solution
- 5x # 3y # 2x = - 30xyx = - 30x 2 y 2. - 3x 3 y 2 # - 4xy 5
Solution
- 3x 3 y 2 # - 4xy 5 = 12x 4 y 7
Use index laws to simplify this question.
2.2 Exercises
Simplify 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 5 # 2b 2x # 4y 5p # 2p - 3z # 2w - 5a # - 3b x # 2y # 7z 8ab # 6c 4d # 3d 3a # 4a # a
5 11. ^ 2x 2h
12. 2ab 3 # 3a 13. 5a 2 b # - 2ab 14. 7pq 2 # 3p 2 q 2 15. 5ab # a 2 b 2 16. 4h 3 # - 2h 7 17. k 3 p # p 2
4 18. ^ - 3t 3 h
19. 7m 6 # - 2m 5 20. - 2x 2 # 3x 3 y # - 4xy 2
10. ^ - 3y h3
48
Division
Use cancelling or index laws to simplify divisions.
EXAMPLES
Simplify 1. 6v 2 y ' 2vy
Solution
By cancelling, 6v 2 y ' 2vy = = 6v 2 y 2vy 63 # v # v1 # y1 21 # v # y1
= 3v Using index laws, 6v 2 y ' 2vy = 3v 2 - 1 y 1 - 1 = 3v 1 y 0 = 3v 2. 5a 3 b 15ab 2
Solution
5a 3 b = 1 a3 -1 b1- 2 3 15ab 2 = 1 a 2 b -1 3 a2 = 3b
2.3 Exercises
Simplify 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 30x ' 5 2y ' y 7. 8a 2
2
6.
xy 2x 12p 3 ' 4p 2 3a 2 b 2 6ab 20x 15xy - 9x 7 3x 4
8.
8a 2 a 8a 2 2a
9. 10.
49
11. -15ab ' - 5b 12. 2ab 6a 2 b 3 - 8p 4pqs
16.
42p 5 q 4 7pq 3 2 ^ a -5 h b 4
2 -1
17. 5a 9 b 4 c - 2 ' 20a 5 b -3 c -1 18. 4a - 9 ^ b 2 h
13.
14. 14cd 2 ' 21c 3 d 3 15. 2xy 2 z 3 4x 3 y 2 z
19. - 5x 4 y 7 z ' 15xy 8 z - 2 20. - 9 ^ a 4 b -1 h ' -18a -1 b 3

3
Removing grouping symbols

The distributive law of numbers is given by a ] b + c g = ab + ac
EXAMPLE
7 # (9 + 11) = 7 # 20 = 140 Using the distributive law, 7 # (9 + 11) = 7 # 9 + 7 # 11 = 63 + 77 = 140
This rule is used in algebra to help remove grouping symbols.
EXAMPLES
Expand and simplify. 1. 2 ] a + 3 g
Solution
2 (a + 3) = 2 # a + 2 # 3 = 2a + 6
CONTINUED
50
2. - ] 2x - 5 g
Solution
-(2x - 5) = -1 (2x - 5) = -1 # 2x - 1 # - 5 = - 2x + 5 3. 5a 2]4 + 3ab - c g
Solution
5a 2 (4 + 3ab - c) = 5a 2 # 4 + 5a 2 # 3ab - 5a 2 # c = 20a 2 + 15a 3 b - 5a 2 c 4. 5 - 2 ^ y + 3 h
Solution
5 - 2 (y + 3 ) = 5 - 2 # y - 2 # 3 = 5 - 2y - 6 = - 2y - 1 5. 2 ] b - 5 g - ] b + 1 g
Solution
2 (b - 5) - (b + 1) = 2 # b + 2 # - 5 - 1 # b -1 # 1 = 2b - 10 - b - 1 = b - 11
2.4 Exercises
Expand and simplify 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 2]x - 4 g 3 ] 2h + 3 g -5 ] a - 2 g x ^ 2y + 3 h x]x - 2 g 2a ] 3a - 8 b g 7. 8. 9. ab ] 2a + b g 5n ] n - 4 g 3x 2 y _ xy + 2y 2 i
10. 3 + 4 ] k + 1 g 11. 2 ] t - 7 g - 3 12. y ^ 4y + 3 h + 8y
51
13. 9 - 5 ] b + 3 g 14. 3 - ] 2x - 5 g 15. 5] 3 - 2m g + 7 ] m - 2 g 16. 2 ] h + 4 g + 3 ] 2h - 9 g 17. 3 ] 2d - 3 g - ] 5d - 3 g 18. a ] 2a + 1 g - ^ a 2 + 3a - 4 h 19. x ] 3x - 4 g - 5 ] x + 1 g
20. 2ab ] 3 - a g - b ] 4a - 1 g 21. 5x - ] x - 2 g - 3 22. 8 - 4 ^ 2y + 1 h + y 23. ] a + b g - ] a - b g 24. 2 ] 3t - 4 g - ] t + 1 g + 3 25. 4 + 3 ] a + 5 g - ] a - 7 g
Binomial Products
A binomial expression consists of two numbers, for example x + 3. A set of two binomial expressions multiplied together is called a binomial product. Example: ] x + 3 g ] x - 2 g. Each term in the rst bracket is multiplied by each term in the second bracket.
] a + b g ^ x + y h = ax + ay + bx + by
Proof
]a + bg]c + d g = a ]c + d g + b ]c + d g
= ac + ad + bc + bd
EXAMPLES
Expand and simplify 1. ^ p + 3h^ q - 4h
Solution
^ p + 3 h ^ q - 4 h = pq - 4p + 3q - 12
2. ]a + 5g2
Solution
] a + 5 g2 = (a + 5)(a + 5) = a 2 + 5a + 5a + 25 = a 2 + 10a + 25
Can you see a quick way of doing this?
52
The rule below is not a binomial product (one expression is a trinomial), but it works the same way.
] a + b g ^ x + y + z h = ax + ay + az + bx + by + bz
EXAMPLE
Expand and simplify ] x + 4 g ^ 2x - 3y - 1 h .
Solution
(x + 4) (2x - 3y - 1) = 2x 2 - 3xy - x + 8x - 12y - 4 = 2x 2 - 3xy + 7x - 12y - 4
2.5 Exercises
Expand and simplify 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
]a + 5g]a + 2g
]x + 3g]x - 1g
17. ]a + 2bg]a - 2bg 18. ^ 3x - 4y h^ 3x + 4y h 19. ]x + 3g]x - 3g 20. ^ y - 6h^ y + 6h 21. ] 3a + 1 g ] 3a - 1 g 22. ]2z - 7g]2z + 7g 23. ]x + 9g^ x - 2y + 2h 24. ] b - 3 g ] 2a + 2b - 1 g 25. ]x + 2g^ x 2 - 2x + 4h 26. ]a - 3g^ a 2 + 3a + 9h 27. ]a + 9g2 28. ]k - 4g2 29. ]x + 2g2 30. ^ y - 7h2 31. ]2x + 3g2 32. ]2t - 1g2
^ 2y - 3h^ y + 5h
]m - 4g]m - 2g ]x + 4g]x + 3g
^ y + 2h^ y - 5h
]2x - 3g]x + 2g
]h - 7g]h - 3g ]x + 5g]x - 5g
10. ] 5a - 4 g ] 3a - 1 g 11. ^ 2y + 3h^ 4y - 3h 12. ]x - 4g^ y + 7h 13. ^ x 2 + 3h]x - 2g 14. ]n + 2g]n - 2g 15. ]2x + 3g]2x - 3g 16. ^ 4 - 7y h^ 4 + 7y h
53
33. ]3a + 4bg2 34. ^ x - 5y h2 35. ]2a + bg2 36. ] a - b g ] a + b g
37. ] a + b g2 38. ] a - b g2 39. ] a + b g ^ a 2 - ab + b 2 h 40. ] a - b g ^ a 2 + ab + b 2 h
Some binomial products have special results and can be simplified quickly using their special properties. Binomial products involving perfect squares and the difference of two squares occur in many topics in mathematics. Their expansions are given below.
Difference of 2 squares
] a + b g ] a - b g = a2 - b2
Proof
(a + b) (a - b) = a 2 - ab + ab - b 2 = a2 - b2
Perfect squares
] a + b g2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
Proof
] a + b g2 = (a + b) (a + b)
= a 2 + ab + ab + b 2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
]a - bg2 = a 2 - 2ab + b 2
Proof
] a - b g2 = (a - b) (a - b)
= a 2 - ab - ab + b 2 = a 2 - 2ab + b 2
54
EXAMPLES
Expand and simplify 1. ]2x - 3g2
Solution
] 2x - 3 g2 = ] 2x g2 - 2 (2x) 3 + 3 2 = 4x 2 - 12x + 9
2. ^ 3y - 4h^ 3y + 4h
Solution
(3y - 4) (3y + 4) = ^ 3y h2 - 4 2 = 9y 2 - 16
2.6 Exercises
Expand and simplify 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
]t + 4g2 ]z - 6g2
] x - 1 g2
16. ^ p + 1 h ^ p - 1 h 17. ]r + 6g]r - 6g 18. ] x - 10 g ] x + 10 g 19. ]2a + 3g]2a - 3g 20. ^ x - 5y h^ x + 5y h 21. ] 4a + 1 g ] 4a - 1 g 22. ]7 - 3xg]7 + 3xg 23. ^ x 2 + 2h^ x 2 - 2h
2 24. ^ x 2 + 5h
^ y + 8h2
^ q + 3h2
]k - 7g2
] n + 1 g2
]2b + 5g2
]3 - xg2
10. ^ 3y - 1 h2 11. ^ x + y h2 12. ] 3a - b g2 13. ]4d + 5eg2 14. ]t + 4g]t - 4g 15. ] x - 3 g ] x + 3 g
25. ]3ab - 4cg]3ab + 4c g 2 2 26. b x + x l 1 1 27. b a - a lb a + a l 28. _ x + 6 y - 2 @ i _ x - 6 y - 2 @ i 29. 6]a + bg + c @2
55
30. 7 ] x + 1 g - y A
36. ] x - 4 g3 1 2 1 2 37. b x - x l - b x l + 2 38. _ x 2 + y 2 i - 4x 2 y 2 39. ]2a + 5g3 40. ] 2x - 1 g ] 2x + 1 g ] x + 2 g2

2
Expand (x - 4) (x - 4) 2 .
31. ] a + 3 g2 - ] a - 3 g2 32. 16 - ]z - 4g]z + 4g 33. 2x + ]3x + 1g2 - 4 34. ^ x + y h2 - x ^ 2 - y h 35. ] 4n - 3 g ] 4n + 3 g - 2n 2 + 5
PROBLEM
Find values of all pronumerals that make this true. a b d f e i i i h i i c c c e b g b #
Try c = 9.
Factorisation
Simple factors
Factors are numbers that exactly divide or go into an equal or larger number, without leaving a remainder.
EXAMPLES
The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24 are all the factors of 24. Factors of 5x are 1, 5, x and 5x.
To factorise an expression, we use the distributive law. ax + bx = x ] a + b g
56
EXAMPLES
Factorise 1. 3x + 12
Solution
Divide each term by 3 to find the terms inside the brackets.
The highest common factor is 3. 3x + 12 = 3 ] x + 4 g 2. y 2 - 2y
Solution
Check answers by expanding brackets.
The highest common factor is y. y 2 - 2y = y ^ y - 2 h 3. x 3 - 2x 2
Solution
x and x2 are both common factors. We take out the highest common factor which is x2. x 3 - 2x 2 = x 2 ] x - 2 g 4. 5] x + 3 g + 2y ] x + 3 g
Solution
The highest common factor is x + 3. 5 ] x + 3 g + 2y ] x + 3 g = ] x + 3 g ^ 5 + 2 y h 5. 8a 3 b 2 - 2ab 3
Solution
There are several common factors here. The highest common factor is 2ab2. 8a 3 b 2 - 2ab 3 = 2ab 2 ^ 4a 2 - bh
57
2.7 Exercises
Factorise 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 2y + 6 5x - 10 3m - 9 8x + 2 24 - 18y x 2 + 2x m 2 - 3m 2y 2 + 4y 15a - 3a 2 19. x ] m + 5 g + 7 ] m + 5 g 20. 2 ^ y - 1 h - y ^ y - 1 h 21. 4^ 7 + y h - 3x ^ 7 + y h 22. 6x ]a - 2g + 5]a - 2g 23. x ] 2t + 1 g - y ] 2t + 1 g 24. a ] 3x - 2 g + 2b ] 3x - 2 g - 3c ] 3x - 2 g 25. 6x 3 + 9x 2 26. 3pq 5 - 6q 3 27. 15a 4 b 3 + 3ab 28. 4x 3 - 24x 2 29. 35m 3 n 4 - 25m 2 n 30. 24a 2 b 5 + 16ab 2
2
10. ab 2 + ab 11. 4x 2 y - 2xy 12. 3mn 3 + 9mn 13. 8x 2 z - 2xz 2 14. 6ab + 3a - 2a 15. 5x 2 - 2x + xy 16. 3q 5 - 2q 2 17. 5b 3 + 15b 2 18. 6a 2 b 3 - 3a 3 b 2
31. 2rr 2 + 2rrh 32. ]x - 3g2 + 5]x - 3g 33. y 2 ]x + 4g + 2]x + 4g 34. a ] a + 1 g - ] a + 1 g2 35. 4ab ^ a 2 + 1 h - 3 ^ a 2 + 1 h
Grouping in pairs
If an expression has 4 terms, it may be factorised in pairs.
ax + bx + ay + by = x(a + b) + y (a + b) = ( a + b) ( x + y)
58
EXAMPLES
Factorise 1. x 2 - 2x + 3x - 6
Solution
x 2 - 2x + 3x - 6 = x (x - 2) + 3 (x - 2) = (x - 2) (x + 3) 2. 2x - 4 + 6y - 3xy
Solution
2x - 4 + 6y - 3xy = 2 (x - 2) + 3y (2 - x) = 2 ( x - 2) - 3y ( x - 2 ) = (x - 2) (2 - 3y) or 2x - 4 + 6y - 3xy = 2 (x - 2) - 3y (- 2 + x) = 2 ( x - 2) - 3y ( x - 2 ) = (x - 2) (2 - 3y)
2.8 Exercises
Factorise 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 2x + 8 + bx + 4b ay - 3a + by - 3b x 2 + 5x + 2x + 10 m 2 - 2m + 3m - 6 ad - ac + bd - bc x 3 + x 2 + 3x + 3 5ab - 3b + 10a - 6 2xy - x 2 + 2y 2 - xy ay + a + y + 1 12. m - 2 + 4y - 2my 13. 2x 2 + 10xy - 3xy - 15y 2 14. a 2 b + ab 3 - 4a - 4b 2 15. 5x - x 2 - 3x + 15 16. x 4 + 7x 3 - 4x - 28 17. 7x - 21 - xy + 3y 18. 4d + 12 - de - 3e 19. 3x - 12 + xy - 4y 20. 2a + 6 - ab - 3b 21. x 3 - 3x 2 + 6x - 18 22. pq - 3p + q 2 - 3q
10. x 2 + 5x - x - 5 11. y + 3 + ay + 3a
59
23. 3x 3 - 6x 2 - 5x + 10 24. 4a - 12b + ac - 3bc 25. xy + 7x - 4y - 28 26. x 4 - 4x 3 - 5x + 20
27. 4x 3 - 6x 2 + 8x - 12 28. 3a 2 + 9a + 6ab + 18b 29. 5y - 15 + 10xy - 30x 30. rr 2 + 2rr - 3r - 6
Trinomials
A trinomial is an expression with three terms, for example x 2 - 4x + 3. Factorising a trinomial usually gives a binomial product. x 2 + ] a + b g x + ab = ] x + a g ] x + b g
Proof
x 2 + (a + b) x + ab = x 2 + ax + bx + ab = x(x + a) + b(x + a) = (x + a) (x + b)
EXAMPLES
Factorise 1. m 2 - 5m + 6
Solution
a + b = - 5 and ab = + 6 -2 +6 ' -3 -5 Numbers with sum - 5 and product + 6 are - 2 and - 3. ` m 2 - 5m + 6 = [m + ] - 2 g] [m + ] - 3 g] = ]m - 2g]m - 3g 2. y 2 + y - 2
Guess and check by trying - 2 and - 3 or -1 and - 6.
Solution
a + b = + 1 and ab = - 2 +2 -2 ' -1 +1 Two numbers with sum + 1 and product - 2 are + 2 and -1. ` y2 + y - 2 = ^ y + 2 h ^ y - 1 h
Guess and check by trying 2 and -1 or - 2 and 1.
60
2.9 Exercises
Factorise 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. x 2 + 4x + 3 y 2 + 7y + 12 m 2 + 2m + 1 t 2 + 8t + 16 z2 + z - 6 x 2 - 5x - 6 v 2 - 8v + 15 t 2 - 6t + 9 x 2 + 9x - 10 14. a 2 - 4a + 4 15. x 2 + 14x - 32 16. y 2 - 5y - 36 17. n 2 - 10n + 24 18. x 2 - 10x + 25 19. p 2 + 8p - 9 20. k 2 - 7k + 10 21. x 2 + x - 12 22. m 2 - 6m - 7 23. q 2 + 12q + 20 24. d 2 - 4d - 5 25. l 2 - 11l + 18
10. y 2 - 10y + 21 11. m 2 - 9m + 18 12. y 2 + 9y - 36 13. x 2 - 5x - 24
The result x 2 + ] a + b g x + ab = ] x + a g ] x + b g only works when the coefficient of x 2 (the number in front of x 2) is 1. When the coefficient of x 2 is not 1, for example in the expression 5x 2 - 2x + 4, we need to use a different method to factorise the trinomial. There are different ways of factorising these trinomials. One method is the cross method. Another is called the PSF method. Or you can simply guess and check.
EXAMPLES
Factorise 1. 5y 2 - 13y + 6
Solutionguess and check

For 5y2, one bracket will have 5y and the other y: ^ 5y h ^ y h . Now look at the constant (term without y in it): + 6.
61
The two numbers inside the brackets must multiply to give + 6. To get a positive answer, they must both have the same signs. But there is a negative sign in front of 13y so the numbers cannot be both positive. They must both be negative. ^ 5y - h ^ y - h To get a product of 6, the numbers must be 2 and 3 or 1 and 6. Guess 2 and 3 and check: ^ 5y - 2 h ^ y - 3 h = 5y 2 - 15y - 2y + 6 = 5y 2 - 17y + 6 This is not correct. Notice that we are mainly interested in checking the middle two terms, -15y and - 2y. Try 2 and 3 the other way around: ^ 5y - 3 h ^ y - 2 h . Checking the middle terms: -10y - 3y = -13y This is correct, so the answer is ^ 5y - 3 h ^ y - 2 h . Note: If this did not check out, do the same with 1 and 6.
Solutioncross method
Factors of 5y 2 are 5y and y. Factors of 6 are -1 and - 6 or - 2 and - 3. Possible combinations that give a middle term of -13y are 5y y 5y y -2 -3 -3 -2 5y y -3 -2 5y y -1 -6 5y y -6 -1
By guessing and checking, we choose the correct combination. 5y # - 2 = -10y y # - 3 = - 3y -13y
` 5y 2 - 13y + 6 = ^ 5y - 3 h ^ y - 2 h
SolutionPSF method
P: Product of first and last terms S: Sum or middle term F: Factors of P that give S - 3y 30y 2 ) -10y -13y 30y 2 -13y - 3y, -10y
` 5y 2 - 13y + 6 = 5y 2 - 3y - 10y + 6 = y ^ 5y - 3 h - 2 ^ 5 y - 3 h = ^ 5y - 3 h ^ y - 2 h
CONTINUED
62
2. 4y 2 + 4y - 3
Solutionguess and check

For 4y2, both brackets will have 2y or one bracket will have 4y and the other y. Try 2y in each bracket: ^ 2y h ^ 2y h . Now look at the constant: - 3. The two numbers inside the brackets must multiply to give - 3. To get a negative answer, they must have different signs. ^ 2y - h ^ 2y + h To get a product of 3, the numbers must be 1 and 3. Guess and check: ^ 2y - 3 h ^ 2 y + 1 h Checking the middle terms: 2y - 6y = - 4y This is almost correct, as the sign is wrong but the coefcient is right (the number in front of y). Swap the signs around: ^ 2y - 1 h ^ 2 y + 3 h = 4y 2 + 6 y - 2 y - 3 = 4y 2 + 4y - 3 This is correct, so the answer is ^ 2y - 1 h ^ 2y + 3 h .
Solutioncross method
Factors of 4y 2 are 4y and y or 2y and 2y. Factors of 3 are -1 and 3 or - 3 and 1. Trying combinations of these factors gives 3 2y 2y # - 1 = - 2y 2y # 3 = 6y 4y ` 4y 2 + 4y - 3 = ^ 2 y + 3 h ^ 2 y - 1 h 2y -1
SolutionPSF method
P: Product of rst and last terms -12y 2 S: Sum or middle term 4y F: Factors of P that give S + 6y, - 2y 2 + 6y -12y ) -2y + 4y ` 4y 2 + 4y - 3 = 4 y 2 + 6 y - 2 y - 3 = 2y ^ 2y + 3 h - 1 ^ 2 y + 3 h = ^ 2y + 3 h ^ 2y - 1 h
63
2.10
Factorise 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Exercises
2a 2 + 11a + 5 5y 2 + 7y + 2 3x 2 + 10x + 7 3x 2 + 8x + 4 2b 2 - 5b + 3 7x 2 - 9x + 2 3y 2 + 5y - 2 2x 2 + 11x + 12 5p 2 + 13p - 6
16. 4n 2 - 11n + 6 17. 8t 2 + 18t - 5 18. 12q 2 + 23q + 10 19. 8r 2 + 22r - 6 20. 4x 2 - 4x - 15 21. 6y 2 - 13y + 2 22. 6p 2 - 5p - 6 23. 8x 2 + 31x + 21 24. 12b 2 - 43b + 36 25. 6x 2 - 53x - 9 26. 9x 2 + 30x + 25 27. 16y 2 + 24y + 9 28. 25k 2 - 20k + 4 29. 36a 2 - 12a + 1 30. 49m 2 + 84m + 36
10. 6x 2 + 13x + 5 11. 2y 2 - 11y - 6 12. 10x 2 + 3x - 1 13. 8t 2 - 14t + 3 14. 6x 2 - x - 12 15. 6y 2 + 47y - 8
Perfect squares
You have looked at some special binomial products, including ]a + bg2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 and ]a - bg2 = a 2 - 2ab + b 2 . When factorising, use these results the other way around.
a 2 + 2ab + b 2 = ] a + b g2 a 2 - 2ab + b 2 = ] a - b g2
64
EXAMPLES
In a perfect square, the constant term is always a square number.
Factorise 1. x 2 - 8x + 16
Solution
x 2 - 8x + 16 = x 2 - 2 (4) x + 4 2 = ] x - 4 g2 2. 4a 2 + 20a + 25
Solution
4a 2 + 20a + 25 = ] 2a g2 + 2 (2a) (5) + 5 2 = ] 2a + 5 g2
2.11
Factorise 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Exercises
y 2 - 2y + 1 x 2 + 6x + 9 m 2 + 10m + 25 t 2 - 4t + 4 x 2 - 12x + 36 4x 2 + 12x + 9 16b 2 - 8b + 1 9a 2 + 12a + 4 25x 2 - 40x + 16
12. 16k 2 - 24k + 9 13. 25x 2 + 10x + 1 14. 81a 2 - 36a + 4 15. 49m 2 + 84m + 36 16. t 2 + t + 17. x 2 1 4
4x 4 + 3 9 6y 1 18. 9y 2 + + 5 25 19. x 2 + 2 + 1 x2 4 k2
10. 49y 2 + 14y + 1 11. 9y 2 - 30y + 25
20. 25k 2 - 20 +
65
Difference of 2 squares
A special case of binomial products is ] a + b g ] a - b g = a 2 - b 2. a2 - b2 = ] a + b g ] a - b g
EXAMPLES
Factorise 1. d 2 - 36
Solution
d 2 - 36 = d 2 - 6 2 = ]d + 6 g]d - 6 g 2. 9b 2 - 1
Solution
9b 2 - 1 = ] 3b g2 - 1 2 = ( 3 b + 1) ( 3 b - 1 ) 3. (a + 3) 2 - (b - 1) 2
Solution
] a + 3 g2 - ] b - 1 g2 = [(a + 3) + (b - 1)] [(a + 3) - (b - 1)] = (a + 3 + b - 1) ( a + 3 - b + 1)
= ( a + b + 2 ) (a - b + 4 )
2.12
Factorise 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. a2 - 4 x2 - 9 y2 - 1
Exercises
7. 8. 9.
1 - 4z 2 25t 2 - 1 9t 2 - 4
x 2 - 25 4x 2 - 49 16y 2 - 9
10. 9 - 16x 2 11. x 2 - 4y 2 12. 36x 2 - y 2
66
13. 4a 2 - 9b 2 14. x 2 - 100y 2 15. 4a - 81b

2 2
20.
y2 -1 9
21. ] x + 2 g2 - ^ 2y + 1 h2 22. x 4 - 1
2
16. ]x + 2g2 - y 2 17. ] a - 1 g - ] b - 2 g

2
23. 9x 6 - 4y 2 24. x 4 - 16y 4 25. a 8 - 1
18. z - ] 1 + w g
2
19. x 2 -
1 4
Sums and differences of 2 cubes

a 3 + b 3 = ] a + b g ^ a 2 - ab + b 2 h
Proof
(a + b) (a 2 - ab + b 2) = a 3 - a 2 b + ab 2 + a 2 b - ab 2 + b 3 = a3 + b3 a 3 - b 3 = ] a - b g ^ a 2 + ab + b 2 h
Proof
(a - b) (a 2 + ab + b 2) = a 3 + a 2 b + ab 2 - a 2 b - ab 2 - b 3 = a3 - b3
EXAMPLES
Factorise 1. 8x 3 + 1
Solution
8x 3 + 1 = ] 2x g3 + 1 3 = (2x + 1) [] 2x g2 - (2x) (1) + 1 2] = (2x + 1 ) (4 x 2 - 2 x + 1 )
67
2. 27a 3 - 64b 3
Solution
27a 3 - 64b 3 = ] 3a g3 - ] 4b g3 = (3a - 4b) [] 3a g2 + (3a) (4b) + ] 4b g2] = (3a - 4b) (9a 2 + 12ab + 16b 2)
2.13
Factorise 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. b3 - 8
Exercises
12. 13.
x 3 + 27 t3 + 1 a 3 - 64 1 - x3 8 + 27y 3 y 3 + 8z 3 x 3 - 125y 3 8x 3 + 27y 3
x3 - 27 8 1000 1 + 3 3 a b
14. ] x + 1 g3 - y 3 15. 125x 3 y 3 + 216z 3 16. ]a - 2g3 - ]a + 1g3 17. 1 x3 27
18. y 3 + ]3 + xg3 19. ] x + 1 g3 + ^ y - 2 h3 20. 8]a + 3g3 - b 3
10. a 3 b 3 - 1 11. 1000 + 8t 3
Mixed factors
Sometimes more than one method of factorising is needed to completely factorise an expression.
EXAMPLE
Factorise 5x 2 - 45.
Solution
5x 2 - 45 = 5 (x 2 - 9) = 5 (x + 3) (x - 3) (using simple factors) (the difference of two squares)
68
2.14
Factorise 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Exercises
2x 2 - 18 3p 2 - 3p - 36 5y 3 - 5 4a 3 b + 8a 2 b 2 - 4ab 2 - 2a 2 b 5a 2 - 10a + 5 - 2x 2 + 11x - 12 3z 3 + 27z 2 + 60z 9ab - 4a 3 b 3 x3 - x
16. x 3 - 3x 2 - 10x 17. x 3 - 3x 2 - 9x + 27 18. 4x 2 y 3 - y 19. 24 - 3b 3 20. 18x 2 + 33x - 30 21. 3x 2 - 6x + 3 22. x 3 + 2x 2 - 25x - 50 23. z 3 + 6z 2 + 9z 24. 4x 4 - 13x 2 + 9 25. 2x 5 + 2x 2 y 3 - 8x 3 - 8y 3 26. 4a 3 - 36a 27. 40x - 5x 4 28. a 4 - 13a 2 + 36 29. 4k 3 + 40k 2 + 100k 30. 3x 3 + 9x 2 - 3x - 9
10. 6x 2 + 8x - 8 11. 3m - 15 - 5n + mn 12. ] x - 3 g2 - ] x + 4 g2 13. y 2 ^ y + 5 h - 16 ^ y + 5 h 14. x 4 - x 3 + 8x - 8 15. x 6 - 1
DID YOU KNOW?

Long division can be used to find factors of an expression. For example, x - 1 is a factor of x 3 + 4x - 5. We can find the other factor by dividing x 3 + 4x - 5 by x - 1. x2 + x + 5 x - 1 x3 + 4x - 5
x3
x2 x 2 + 4x x2
x 5x - 5 5x - 5
0 So the other factor of x 3 + 4x - 5 is x 2 + x + 5 ` x 3 + 4x - 5 = (x - 1) (x 2 + x + 5)
69
Completing the Square

Factorising a perfect square uses the results a 2 ! 2ab + b 2 = ] a ! b g2
EXAMPLES
1. Complete the square on x 2 + 6x.
Solution
Using a 2 + 2ab + b 2: a=x 2ab = 6x Substituting a = x: 2xb = 6x b=3 To complete the square: a 2 + 2ab + b 2 = ] a + b g2 2 x + 2x ] 3 g + 3 2 = ] x + 3 g2 x 2 + 6x + 9 = ] x + 3 g2 2. Complete the square on n 2 - 10n.
Notice that 3 is half of 6.
Solution
Using a 2 - 2ab + b 2: a=n 2ab = 10x Substituting a = n: 2nb = 10n b=5 To complete the square: a 2 - 2ab + b 2 = ] a - b g2 n 2 - 2n ] 5 g + 5 2 = ] n - 5 g2 n 2 - 10n + 25 = ] n - 5 g2
Notice that 5 is half of 10.
To complete the square on a 2 + pa, divide p by 2 and square it. p 2 p 2 a 2 + pa + d n = d a + n 2 2
70
EXAMPLES
1. Complete the square on x 2 + 12x.
Solution
Divide 12 by 2 and square it: x 2 + 12x + c 12 2 m = x 2 + 12x + 6 2 2 = x 2 + 12x + 36 = ]x + 6g2
2. Complete the square on y 2 - 2y.
Solution
Divide 2 by 2 and square it: 2 2 y 2 - 2y + c m = y 2 - 2 y + 1 2 2 = y 2 - 2y + 1 = ^ y - 1 h2
2.15
Exercises
Complete the square on 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. x 2 + 4x b 2 - 6b x 2 - 10x y 2 + 8y m 2 - 14m q 2 + 18q x 2 + 2x t 2 - 16t x 2 - 20x 17. k 2 12. y 2 + 3y 13. x 2 - 7x 14. a 2 + a 15. x 2 + 9x 16. y 2 5y 2 11k 2
18. x 2 + 6xy 19. a 2 - 4ab 20. p 2 - 8pq
10. w 2 + 44w 11. x 2 - 32x
71
Algebraic Fractions
Simplifying fractions
EXAMPLES
Simplify 1. 4x + 2 2
Solution
2 ] 2x + 1 g 4x + 2 = 2 2 = 2x + 1 2. 2x 2 - 3x - 2 x3 - 8
Factorise first, then cancel.
Solution
] 2x + 1 g ] x - 2 g 2x 2 - 3x - 2 = 3 ] x - 2 g ^ x 2 + 2x + 4 h x -8 2x + 1 = 2 x + 2x + 4
2.16
Simplify 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Exercises
b3 - 1 b2 - 1 2p 2 + 7p - 15 6p - 9 a2 - 1 a + 2a - 3
2
5a + 10 5 6t - 3 3 8y + 2 6 8 4d - 2 x 5x 2 - 2x y-4 y - 8y + 16
2 2
9.
10.
11.
12.
3 ]x - 2g + y ]x - 2g x3 - 8 x 3 + 3x 2 - 9x - 27 x 2 + 6x + 9 2p 2 - 3p - 2 8p 3 + 1 ay - ax + by - bx 2ay - by - 2ax + bx
13.
6.
7. 8.
2ab - 4a 2 a 2 - 3a s2 + s - 2 s 2 + 5s + 6
14.
15.
72
Operations with algebraic fractions
EXAMPLES
Simplify 1. x+3 x-1 5 4
Solution
Do algebraic fractions the same way as ordinary fractions.
4 ]x - 1 g - 5 ]x + 3 g x -1 x +3 = 5 4 20 4x - 4 - 5x - 15 = 20 - x - 19 = 20 2a 2 b + 10ab a 2 - 25 ' 3 4b + 12 b + 27
2.
Solution
2a 2 b + 10ab a 2 - 25 2a 2 b + 10ab 4b + 12 ' = # 2 4b + 12 b 3 + 27 b 3 + 27 a - 25 2ab ] a + 5 g 4 ]b + 3 g = # 2 ] a + 5 g]a - 5 g ] b + 3 g ^ b - 3b + 9 h 8ab = ] a - 5 g ^ b 2 - 3b + 9 h 2 1 + x-5 x+2
3.
Solution
2 ]x + 2g + 1 ]x - 5g 2 1 + = x-5 x+2 ]x - 5g]x + 2g 2x + 4 + x - 5 = ]x - 5g]x + 2g 3x - 1 = ]x - 5g]x + 2g
73
2.17
1.
Exercises
(f) (g) (h) (i) (j) 4. 1 1 + x+1 x-3 3 2 x 2 + x -4
2
Simplify x 3x (a) + 4 2 y + 1 2y (b) + 5 3 a+2 a (c) 4 3 p-3 p+2 (d) + 6 2 x-5 x-1 (e) 2 3 Simplify 3 b 2 + 2b # (a) b + 2 6a - 3 q3 + 1 (b) 2 # q + 2q + 1 p + 2 3ab 2 12ab - 6a (c) ' 2 5xy x y + 2xy 2 (d) ax - ay + bx - by x2 - y2 # x3 + y3 ab 2 + a 2 b p2 - 4
1 1 + a 2 + 2a + 1 a + 1 5 2 1 + y+2 y+3 y-1 2 7 x 2 - 16 x 2 - x - 12 y2 - 9 3x 2 x 2 - 2x - 8 # # 4y - 12 6x - 24 y 3 + 27

2 a 2 - 5a 3a - 15 y - y - 2 ' # 5ay y 2 - 4y + 4 y2 - 4
2.
Simplify (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
3 x 2 + 3x 2x + 8 + 2 # x-3 4x - 16 x -9 5b b2 b ' 2 2b + 6 b 1 + b +b-6 x 2 - 8x + 15 x 2 - 9 x 2 + 5x + 6 ' # 2 2x - 10 5x + 10x 10x 2
x 2 - 6x + 9 x 2 - 5x + 6 (e) ' x 2 - 25 x 2 + 4x - 5 3. Simplify 2 3 (a) x + x (b) 1 2 x-1 x 3 a+b x2 x+2 1 p+q 5.
Simplify (a) (b) (c) (d) 1 2 4 + x 2 - 7x + 10 x 2 - 2x - 15 x 2 + x - 6 3 5 2 + 2 2 x x x -4

2
(c) 1 + (d) x -
3 2 + p 2 + pq pq - q 2 a b 1 + a + b a - b a2 - b2
(e) p - q +
x+y y x (e) x - y + y - x - 2 y - x2
Substitution
Algebra is used in writing general formulae or rules. For example, the formula A = lb is used to find the area of a rectangle with length l and breadth b. We can substitute any values for l and b to find the area of different rectangles.
74
EXAMPLES
1. P = 2l + 2b is the formula for finding the perimeter of a rectangle with length l and breadth b. Find P when l = 1.3 and b = 3.2.
Solution
P = 2 l + 2b = 2 ] 1 . 3 g + 2 ] 3 .2 g = 2 .6 + 6 . 4 =9 2. V = rr 2 h is the formula for finding the volume of a cylinder with radius r and height h. Find V (correct to 1 decimal place) when r = 2.1 and h = 8.7.
Solution
V = rr 2 h = r ] 2.1 g2 (8.7) = 120.5 correct to 1 decimal place
9C + 32 is the formula for changing degrees Celsius ] C g into 5 degrees Fahrenheit ] F g find F when C = 25. 3. If F =
Solution
9C + 32 5 9 ] 25 g = + 32 5 225 = + 32 5 225 + 160 = 5 385 = 5 = 77 This means that 25C is the same as 77F. F=
75
2.18
1.
Exercises
10. Given V = 1 lbh is the volume 3 formula for a rectangular pyramid, find V if l = 4.7, b = 5.1 and h = 6.5. 11. The gradient of a straight line is y2 - y1 given by m = x - x . Find m 2 1 if x 1 = 3, x 2 = -1, y 1 = - 2 and y 2 = 5. 12. If A = 1 h ] a + b g gives the area 2 of a trapezium, find A when h = 7, a = 2.5 and b = 3.9. 13. Find V if V = 4 rr 3 is the volume 3 formula for a sphere with radius r and r = 7.6, to 1 decimal place.
Given a = 3.1 and b = - 2.3 find, correct to 1 decimal place. (a) ab (b) 3b (c) 5a 2 (d) ab 3 (e) ]a + bg2 (f) a-b (g) - b 2
2.
T = a + ] n - 1 g d is the formula for finding the term of an arithmetic series. Find T when a = - 4, n = 18 and d = 3. Given y = mx + b, the equation of a straight line, find y if m = 3, x = - 2 and b = - 1. If h = 100t - 5t 2 is the height of a particle at time t, find h when t = 5. Given vertical velocity v = - gt, find v when g = 9.8 and t = 20. If y = 2 x + 3 is the equation of a function, find y when x = 1.3, correct to 1 decimal place. S = 2r r ] r + h g is the formula for the surface area of a cylinder. Find S when r = 5 and h = 7, correct to the nearest whole number. A = rr 2 is the area of a circle with radius r. Find A when r = 9.5, correct to 3 significant figures. Given u n = ar is the nth term of a geometric series, find u n if a = 5, r = - 2 and n = 4.
n-1
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
14. The velocity of an object at a certain time t is given by the formula v = u + at. Find v when u = 1 , a = 3 and t = 5 . 4 5 6 a 15. Given S = , find S if a = 5 1-r and r = 2 . S is the sum to infinity 3 of a geometric series. 16. c = a 2 + b 2 , according to Pythagoras theorem. Find the value of c if a = 6 and b = 8. 17. Given y = 16 - x 2 is the equation of a semicircle, find the exact value of y when x = 2.
8.
9.
76
18. Find the value of E in the energy equation E = mc 2 if m = 8.3 and c = 1.7. 19. A = P c 1 + r n m is the formula 100
20. If S =
a ^rn - 1h is the sum of r -1
a geometric series, find S if a = 3, r = 2 and n = 5. 21. Find the value of a3 b2 if c2
for finding compound interest. Find A when P = 200, r = 12 and n = 5, correct to 2 decimal places.
2 3 1 4 a = c 3 m , b = c 2 m and c = c m . 4 3 2
Surds
An irrational number is a number that cannot be written as a ratio or fraction (rational). Surds are special types of irrational numbers, such as 2, 3 and 5 . Some surds give rational values: for example, 9 = 3. Others, like 2 , do not have an exact decimal value. If a question involving surds asks for an exact answer, then leave it as a surd rather than giving a decimal approximation.
Simplifying surds
Class Investigations
1. Is there an exact decimal equivalent for 2 ? 2. Can you draw a line of length exactly 2 ? 3. Do these calculations give the same results? (a) 9 # 4 and 9 # 4 (b) (c) (d) 4 9 9 + 4 and and 4 9 9 + 9 4 4
9 - 4 and
Here are some basic properties of surds.
a# b = a' b =
ab a b = a b
^ x h2 =
x2 = x
77
EXAMPLES
1. Express in simplest surd form 45 .
45 also equals 3 # 15 but this will not simplify. We look for a number that is a perfect square.
Solution
45 = 9 # 5 = 9 # 5 =3# 5 =3 5 2. Simplify 3 40 .
Solution
3 40 = 3 4 # 10 = 3 # 4 # 10 = 3 # 2 # 10 = 6 10 3. Write 5 2 as a single surd.
Find a factor of 40 that is a perfect square.
Solution
5 2 = = 25 # 2 50
2.19
1.
Exercises
(k) (l) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) 2. 112 300 243 245 108 99 125
Express these surds in simplest surd form. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) 12 63 24 50 72 200 48 75 32 54
(m) 128
Simplify (a) 2 27 (b) 5 80
78
(c) 4 98 (d) 2 28 (e) 8 20 (f) 4 56 (g) 8 405 (h) 15 8 (i) 7 40 (j) 8 45 3. Write as a single surd. (a) 3 2 (b) 2 5 (c) 4 11 (d) 8 2 (e) 5 3 (f) 4 10 4.
(g) 3 13 (h) 7 2 (i) 11 3 (j) 12 7 Evaluate x if (a) x =3 5 x x x x x x (b) 2 3 = (c) 3 7 = (d) 5 2 = (e) 2 11 = (f) (h) (j) x =7 3 x = 6 23 x = 8 15 (g) 4 19 = (i) 5 31 =
Addition and subtraction

Calculations with surds are similar to calculations in algebra. We can only add or subtract like terms with algebraic expressions. This is the same with surds.
EXAMPLES
1. Simplify 3 2 + 4 2 .
Solution
3 2+4 2 =7 2 2. Simplify 3 - 12 .
Solution
First, change into like surds. 3 - 12 = 3 - 4 # 3 = 3 -2 3 =- 3 3. Simplify 2 2 - 2 + 3 .
Solution
2 2- 2+ 3= 2+ 3
79
2.20
Simplify 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
Exercises
5 +2 5 3 2 -2 2 3 +5 3 7 3 -4 3 5 -4 5 4 6 6
14. 15.
50 28 +
32 63 18
16. 2 8 -
17. 3 54 + 2 24 18. 90 - 5 40 - 2 10
19. 4 48 + 3 147 + 5 12 20. 3 2 + 8 - 12 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 63 - 28 - 50 12 - 45 - 48 - 5 150 + 45 + 24 32 - 243 - 50 + 147 80 - 3 245 + 2 50
2 -8 2 5 +4 5 +3 5 2 -2 2 -3 2 5 + 8 3 + 12 45 2 48 27
Multiplication and division

a # b = ab a b # c d = ac bd a# a = a2 = a
To get a b # c d = ac bd , multiply surds with surds and rationals with rationals.
a b
a b
EXAMPLES
Simplify 1. 2 2 # - 5 7
Solution
2 2 # - 5 7 = -10 14
CONTINUED
80
2. 4 2 # 5 18
Solution
4 2 # 5 18 = 20 36 = 20 # 6 = 120 2 14 4 2
3.
Solution
2 14 4 2 = = 2 2 # 4 2 7 2 7
4.
3 10 15 2
Solution
3 10 15 2 = 3# 5 # 2 15 2
5 = 5 5. d 10 n 3
2
Solution
d
2 ^ 10 h 10 n = 3 ^ 3 h2 10 = 3 =31 3 2
81
2.21
Simplify 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 7 #
Exercises
23.
5 8 10 2 16 2 2 12 10 30 5 10 2 2 6 20 4 2 8 10 3 3 15 2 8 3 15 6 10 5 12 5 8 15 18 10 10 15 2 6 2n 3 5n 7
2
3# 5 2 #3 3 5 7 #2 2 -3 3 #2 2 5 3 #2 3 - 4 5 # 3 11 2 7# 7 2 3 # 5 12 6# 2 8 #2 6 28. 27. 25. 24.
26.
29.
12. 3 2 # 5 14 13. 10 # 2 2 30.
14. 2 6 # -7 6 15. ^ 2 h
2
31.
2 16. ^ 2 7 h
32.
17.
3# 5# 2 33.
18. 2 3 # 7 # - 5 19. 2 # 6 #3 3
34. d 35. d
20. 2 5 # - 3 2 # - 5 5 21. 4 12 2 2 12 18 3 6
22.
Expanding brackets
The same rules for expanding brackets and binomial products that you use in algebra also apply to surds.
82
Simplifying surds by removing grouping symbols uses these general rules. a^ b + ch=
ab + ac
Proof
a^ b + ch = = a# b + ab + ac a# c
Binomial product:
^ a + b h^ c + d h =
ac +
ad +
bc +
bd
Proof
^ a + b h^ c + d h = a # c + a # d + b # c + b # d = ac + ad + bc + bd
Perfect squares:
^ a + b h2 = a + 2 ab + b
Proof
^ a + b h2 = ^ a + b h ^ a + b h = a 2 + ab + ab + b 2 = a + 2 ab + b ^ a - b h2 = a - 2 ab + b
Proof
^ a - b h2 = ^ a - b h ^ a - b h = a 2 - ab - ab + b 2 = a - 2 ab + b
Difference of two squares:
^ a + b h^ a - b h = a - b
Proof
^ a + b h ^ a - b h = a 2 - ab + ab - b 2 =a-b
83
EXAMPLES
Expand and simplify 1. 2 ^ 5 + 2 h
Solution
2( 5 + 2) = = = 2# 5 + 10 + 4 10 + 2 2# 2
2. 3 7 ^ 2 3 - 3 2 h
Solution
3 7 (2 3 - 3 2 ) = 3 7 # 2 3 - 3 7 # 3 2 = 6 21 - 9 14 3. ^ 2 + 3 5 h ^ 3 2h
Solution
( 2 + 3 5)( 3 2) = = 2# 3 - 2# 2 +3 5# 3 -3 5# 2 6 - 2 + 3 15 - 3 10
4. ^ 5 + 2 3 h ^ 5 - 2 3 h
Solution
( 5 + 2 3 ) ( 5 - 2 3 ) = 5 # 5 - 5 #2 3 + 2 3 # 5 - 2 3 #2 3 = 5 - 2 15 + 2 15 - 4#3 = 5 - 12 = -7 Another way to do this question is by using the difference of two squares.
2 2 ( 5 + 2 3)( 5 - 2 3) = ^ 5 h - ^2 3 h = 5 - 4#3 = -7
Notice that using the difference of two squares gives a rational answer.
84
2.22
1.
Exercises
2^ 5 + 3h (n) ^ 5 + 2 h (m)^ 2 11 + 5 2 h^ 2 11 - 5 2 h
2
Expand and simplify (a) (b) 3 ^2 2 - 5 h
(c) 4 3 ^ 3 + 2 5 h (d) (f) (e) - 3 ^ 2 - 4 6 h 7 ^5 2 - 2 3 h
2 (o) ^ 2 2 - 3 h 2 (p) ^ 3 2 + 7 h 2 (q) ^ 2 3 + 3 5 h 2 (s) ^ 2 8 - 3 5 h 2 (t) ^ 3 5 + 2 2 h 2 (r) ^ 7 - 2 5 h
(g) - 3 2 ^ 2 + 4 3 h 3 ^ 12 + 10 h 5^ 5 - 5 3h 3.
3 ^ 5 11 + 3 7 h
(h) (i)
(j) 2 3 ^ 18 + 3 h
(m) 10 3 ^ 2 - 2 12 h (o) 2 3 ^ 2 - 12 h 2. (n) - 2 ^ 5 + 2 h
(l) - 7 5 ^ - 3 20 + 2 3 h 4.
(k) - 4 2 ^ 2 - 3 6 h
If a = 3 2 , simplify (a) a2 (b) 2a3 (c) (2a)3 (d) ]a + 1g2 (e) ] a + 3 g ] a 3 g Evaluate a and b if 2 (a) ^ 2 5 + 1h = a + b (b) ^ 2 2 - 5 h ^ 2 - 3 5 h = a + b 10
(b) ^ 5 - 2 h^ 2 - 7 h
(a) ^ 2 + 3h^ 5 + 3 3 h
Expand and simplify
5.
(d) ^ 3 10 - 2 5 h^ 4 2 + 6 6 h (f) ^ 5 + 6 2 h^ 3 5 - 3 h (h) ^ 2 - 3 h^ 2 + 3 h (g) ^ 7 + 3 h^ 7 - 3 h (e) ^ 2 5 - 7 2 h^ 5 - 3 2 h
(c) ^ 2 + 5 3 h^ 2 5 - 3 2 h
Expand and simplify (a) ^ a + 3 - 2 h ^ a + 3 + 2 h 2 (b) _ p - 1 - p i Evaluate k if ^ 2 7 - 3 h ^ 2 7 + 3 h = k. Simplify _ 2 x + y i _ x - 3 y i . If ^ 2 3 - 5 h = a - b , evaluate a and b.

2
6.
7. 8.
(j) ^ 3 5 + 2 h^ 3 5 - 2 h (k) ^ 8 - 5 h^ 8 + 5 h
(i) ^ 6 + 3 2 h^ 6 - 3 2 h 9.
Evaluate a and b if ^ 7 2 - 3 h2 = a + b 2 .
(l) ^ 2 + 9 3 h^ 2 - 9 3 h
10. A rectangle has sides 5 + 1 and 2 5 - 1. Find its exact area.
Rationalising the denominator

Rationalising the denominator of a fractional surd means writing it with a rational number (not a surd) in the denominator. For example, after 3 5 3 rationalising the denominator, becomes . 5 5
85
DID YOU KNOW?

A major reason for rationalising the denominator used to be to make it easier to evaluate the fraction (before calculators were available). It is easier to divide by a rational number than an irrational one; for example, 3 = 3 ' 2.236 5 3 5 5 = 3 # 2.236 ' 5
This is hard to do without a calculator.
This is easier to calculate.
Squaring a surd in the denominator will rationalise it since ^ x h = x.

2
Multiplying by
b a b a # = b b b
b is the same as multiplying by 1.
Proof
b a b a # = b b b2 a b = b
EXAMPLES
1. Rationalise the denominator of 3 . 5
Solution
5 3 5 3 # = 5 5 5 2. Rationalise the denominator of
2 5 3
.
Dont multiply by
Solution
2 5 3 # 3 3 = 2 3
5 9 2 3 = 5# 3 2 3 = 15
as it takes 5 3 longer to simplify.
86
When there is a binomial denominator, we use the difference of two squares to rationalise it, as the result is always a rational number.
To rationalise the denominator of
a+ b c+ d
, multiply by
c- d c- d
Proof
a+ b c+ d #
^ a + b h^ c - d h c- d ^ c + d h^ c - d h ^ a + b h^ c - d h = ^ c h2 - ^ d h2 ^ a + b h^ c - d h = c-d
c- d =
EXAMPLES
1. Write with a rational denominator 5 2 -3
Multiply by the conjugate surd 2 + 3.
Solution
5 2 -3 # 2 +3 2 +3 = 5 ^ 2 + 3h
^ 2 h2 - 3 2 10 + 3 5 = 2-9 10 + 3 5 = -7 10 + 3 5 =7
2. Write with a rational denominator 2 3+ 5 3+4 2 .
Solution
2 3 + 5 # 3 -4 2 3 -4 2 =
^2 3 + 5 h^ 3 - 4 2 h
3 +4 2
^ 3 h2 - ^ 4 2 h2 2 # 3 - 8 6 + 15 - 4 10 = 3 - 16 # 2
87
6 - 8 6 + 15 - 4 10 - 29 - 6 + 8 6 - 15 + 4 10 = 29 = 3 3 3- 2 = a + b.
3. Evaluate a and b if
Solution
3 3 3- 2 # 3+ 2 3+ 2
^ 3 - 2 h^ 3 + 2 h 3 9+3 6 = ^ 3 h2 - ^ 2 h2
3#3+3 6 3-2 9+3 6 = 1 =9+3 6 = =9+ 9# 6 = 9 + 54
3 3^ 3 + 2h
So a = 9 and b = 54. 4. Evaluate as a fraction with rational denominator 2 + 3+2 5 3-2 .
Solution
2 + 3+2 5 3 -2 = 2^ 3 - 2h + 5 ^ 3 + 2h
^ 3 + 2h ^ 3 - 2h 2 3 - 4 + 15 + 2 5 = ^ 3 h2 - 2 2
2 3 - 4 + 15 + 2 5 3-4 2 3 - 4 + 15 + 2 5 = -1 = - 2 3 + 4 - 15 - 2 5 =
88
2.23
1.
Exercises
3. Express as a single fraction with rational denominator (a) (b) (c) (d) 2 3 6 -5 2 5 +2 2 5 3 2 -4 2 7 8+3 2 4 5 4 3 -2 2 7 5 (k) (l) 2 4. (j) (i) (h) (g) 1 + 2 +1 2 2 1 5 + 2 2 + 3 2 7 3 + # 1 2 -1 3 2 + 3 3 2 2 2 3 + 2 3 5
Express with rational denominator (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) 1 7 3 2 2 2 3 5 6 7 5 2 1+
(e) t +
1 where t = t
3 -2 2 2 6 -1
(f) z 2 -
1 where z = 1 + z2 3 + + 2 2 + 1 3 2 3 2 5 3 2 42+ 3 3 3 +1 2 -1 6 + 3
3 2 +4 6 2 +3 2 3 2 +3 5 6 +2 2 +7 4+ 5 3 3
2.
Express with rational denominator (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 4 3 + 3 2 -7 2 3 5 +2 6 3 -4 3 +4 2 +5 3 3 3 + 2 2
Find a and b if (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 3 2 5 3 4 2 = = a b a 6 b
2 =a+b 5 5 +1 2 7 7 -4 2 +3 2 -1 =a+b 7 =a+ b
2 5 +3 2
89
5.
Show that rational.
2 -1 2 +1
4 is 2
7.
Write 5 +1
2 5 +
1 5 -
6.
If x =
3 + 2, simplify 8.
as a single fraction with 3 rational denominator. Show that rational. 8 2 + is 3+2 2 2
1 (a) x + x (b) x 2 + 1 x2
2
1 (c) b x + x l
9.
1 If 2 + x = 3 , where x ! 0, find x as a surd with rational denominator.
10. Rationalise the denominator of b +2 ]b ! 4 g b -2
90
Test Yourself 2
1. Simplify (a) 5y - 7y 3a + 12 (b) 3 (c) - 2k 3 # 3k 2 y x (d) + 5 3 (e) 4a - 3b - a - 5b (f) 8 + 32 (g) 3 5 - 20 + 45 Factorise (a) x 2 - 36 (b) a 2 + 2a - 3 (c) 4ab 2 - 8ab (d) 5y - 15 + xy - 3x (e) 4n - 2p + 6 (f) 8 - x 3 Expand and simplify (a) b + 3 ] b - 2 g (b) ] 2x - 1 g ] x + 3 g (c) 5 ] m + 3 g - ] m - 2 g (d) ]4x - 3g2 (e) ^ p - 5h^ p + 5h (f) 7 - 2 ] a + 4 g - 5a (g) 3 ^ 2 2 - 5 h (h) ^ 3 + 7 h^ 3 - 2h Simplify 4a - 12 10b (a) # 3 5b 3 a - 27 (b) 5. 5m + 10 m2 - 4 ' 2 m - m - 2 3m + 3 6. (a) Expand and simplify ^ 2 5 + 3 h ^ 2 5 - 3 h. (b) Rationalise the denominator of 3 3 . 2 5+ 3 Simplify 3 1 2 + - 2 . x-2 x+3 x +x-6
7. 8.
2.
If a = 4, b = - 3 and c = - 2, nd the value of (a) ab 2 (b) a - bc (c) a (d) ]bcg3 (e) c ] 2a + 3b g Simplify 3 12 (a) 6 15 (b) 4 32 2 2
9.
3.
10. The formula for the distance an object falls is given by d = 5t 2 . Find d when t = 1.5. 11. Rationalise the denominator of 2 (a) 5 3 (b) 1+ 3 2
4.
The volume of a cube is V = s 3. Evaluate V when s = 5.4.
12. Expand and simplify (a) ^ 3 2 - 4h^ 3 - 2 h 2 (b) ^ 7 + 2h 13. Factorise fully (a) 3x 2 - 27 (b) 6x 2 - 12x - 18 (c) 5y 3 + 40
91
14. Simplify 3x 4 y (a) 9xy 5 (b) 5 15x - 5
15. Simplify 2 (a) ^ 3 11 h 3 (b) ^ 2 3 h 16. Expand and simplify (a) ] a + b g ] a - b g (b) ] a + b g 2 (c) ] a - b g 2 17. Factorise (a) a 2 - 2ab + b 2 (b) a 3 - b 3 1 18. If x = 3 + 1, simplify x + x and give your answer with a rational denominator. 19. Simplify 4 3 (a) a + b (b) x-3 x-2 5 2 2 3 , writing 5+2 2 2-1
22. Expand and simplify (a) 2 2 ^ 3 + 2 h (b) ^ 5 7 - 3 5 h^ 2 2 - 3 h (c) ^ 3 + 2 h^ 3 - 2 h (d) ^ 4 3 - 5 h^ 4 3 + 5 h 2 (e) ^ 3 7 - 2 h 23. Rationalise the denominator of 3 (a) 7 5 3 2 (c) 5 -1 (d) (e) 2 2 3 2+ 3 5+ 2 4 5-3 3 (b) 2
20. Simplify
24. Simplify 3x x-2 (a) 5 2 a+2 2a - 3 (b) + 7 3 1 2 (c) 2 1 x + x -1 4 1 (d) 2 + k + 2k - 3 k + 3 (e) 3 2+ 5 5 3- 2
your answer with a rational denominator. 21. Simplify (a) 3 8 (b) - 2 2 # 4 3 (c) 108 - 48 (d) 8 6 2 18 2m 3 n 6m 2 n 5
25. Evaluate n if (a) 108 - 12 = (b) 112 + 7 = n (c) 2 8 + 200 =
n n
(e) 5a # - 3b # - 2a (f)
(d) 4 147 + 3 75 = n 180 (e) 2 245 + = n 2
(g) 3x - 2y - x - y
92
26. Evaluate x 2 +
1+2 3 1 if x = 2 x 1-2 3 3
31. Simplify (a) (b) (c) (d)
27. Rationalise the denominator of
2 7 (there may be more than one answer). 21 (a) 28 2 21 (b) 28 21 (c) 14 21 (d) 7 x-3 x +1 . 5 4 -]x + 7 g 20 x+7 20 x + 17 20 - ] x + 17 g 20
3 2 1 + . x-2 x+2 x2 - 4 x+5 ]x + 2g]x - 2g x+1 ]x + 2g]x - 2g x+9 ]x + 2g]x - 2g x-3 ]x + 2g]x - 2g
28. Simplify (a) (b) (c) (d)
32. Simplify 5ab - 2a 2 - 7ab - 3a 2 . (a) 2ab + a 2 (b) - 2ab - 5a 2 (c) - 13a 3 b (d) - 2ab + 5a 2 33. Simplify (a) (b) (c) 4 5 3 3 4 5 9 3 8 5 9 3 8 5 3 3 80 . 27
29. Factorise x 3 - 4x 2 - x + 4 (there may be more than one answer). (a) ^ x 2 - 1 h ] x - 4 g (b) ^ x 2 + 1 h ] x - 4 g (c) x 2 ] x - 4 g (d) ] x - 4 g ] x + 1 g ] x - 1 g 30. Simplify 3 2 + 2 98 . (a) 5 2 (b) 5 10 (c) 17 2 (d) 10 2
(d)
34. Expand and simplify ^ 3x - 2y h2 . (a) 3x 2 - 12xy - 2y 2 (b) 9x 2 - 12xy - 4y 2 (c) 3x 2 - 6xy + 2y 2 (d) 9x 2 - 12xy + 4y 2 35. Complete the square on a 2 - 16a. (a) a 2 - 16a + 16 = ^ a - 4 h2 (b) a 2 - 16a + 64 = ^ a - 8 h2 (c) a 2 - 16a + 8 = ^ a - 4 h2 (d) a 2 - 16a + 4 = ^ a - 2 h2
93
1. Expand and simplify (a) 4ab ] a - 2b g - 2a 2 ] b - 3a g (b) _ y 2 - 2 i_ y 2 + 2 i (c) ] 2x - 5 g3 Find the value of x + y with rational denominator if x = 3 + 1 and 1 y= . 2 5-3 Simplify 2 3 7 6 - 54 . 11. Simplify 2x + y x-y 3x + 2y . + - 2 x-3 x+3 x +x-6
2.
12. (a) Expand ^ 2x - 1 h3. 6x 2 + 5x - 4 (b) Simplify . 8x 3 - 12x 2 + 6x - 1 13. Expand and simplify ] x - 1 g ^ x - 3 h2. 14. Simplify and express with rational denominator 2 + 5 3 +4 5 3 2 -1 .
3.
4. 5.
b Complete the square on x 2 + a x. Factorise (a) (x + 4)2 + 5 (x + 4) (b) x 4 - x 2 y - 6y 2 (c) 125x 3 + 343 (d) a 2 b - 2a 2 - 4b + 8 Complete the square on 4x 2 + 12x. Simplify 2xy + 2x - 6 - 6y 4x 2 - 16x + 12 .
15. Complete the square on x 2 + 2 x. 3 16. If x = , find the value of x when k+l k = 3, l = - 2, x 1 = 5 and x 2 = 4. lx 1 + kx 2
6. 7.
17. Find the exact value with rational 1 denominator of 2x 2 - 3x + x if x = 2 5 . 18. Find the exact value of 1+2 3 1 (a) x 2 + 2 if x = x 1-2 3 (b) a and b if 3 -4 2+3 3 =a+b 3
8.
a2 + b2 the perpendicular distance from a point to a line. Find the exact value of d with a rational denominator if a = 2, b = -1, c = 3, x 1 = - 4 and y 1 = 5. Simplify
d=
| ax 1 + by 1 + c |
is the formula for
19. A = 1 r 2 i is the area of a sector of a 2 circle. Find the value of i when A = 12 and r = 4. 20. If V = rr 2 h is the volume of a cylinder, find the exact value of r when V = 9 and h = 16. 21. If s = u + 1 at 2, find the exact value of s 2 when u = 2, a = 3 and t = 2 3 .
9.
â + 1h
a3 + 1
10. Factorise
a2 4 - 2. 2 x b
3
Equations
TERMINOLOGY
Absolute value: the distance of a number from zero on a number line Equation: A mathematical statement that has a pronumeral or unknown number and an equal sign. An equation can be solved to find the value of the unknown number e.g. 2x - 3 = 5 Exponential equation: Equation where the unknown pronumeral is the power or index e.g. 2 x = 8 Inequation: A mathematical statement involving an inequality sign, 1, 2, # or $ that has an unknown pronumeral that is solved to find values that make the statement true e.g. 2x - 3 2 4 Quadratic equation: An equation involving x 2 as the highest power of x that may have two, one or no solutions Simultaneous equations: Two or more independent equations that can be solved together to produce a solution that makes each equation true at the same time. The number of equations required is the same as the number of unknowns
Chapter 3 Equations
95
INTRODUCTION
EQUATIONS ARE FOUND IN most branches of mathematics. They are also
important in many other elds, such as science, economics, statistics and engineering. In this chapter you will revise basic equations and inequations. Equations involving absolute values, exponential equations, quadratic equations and simultaneous equations are also covered here.
DID YOU KNOW?

Algebra was known in ancient civilisations. Many equations were known in Babylonia, although general solutions were difficult because symbols were not used in those times. Diophantus, around 250 AD, first used algebraic notation and symbols (e.g. the minus sign). He wrote a treatise on algebra in his Arithmetica, comprising 13 books. Only six of these books survived. About 400 AD, Hypatia of Alexandria wrote a commentary on them. Hypatia was the daughter of Theon, a mathematician who ensured that she had the best education. She was the first female mathematician on record, and was a philosopher and teacher. She was murdered for her philosophical views by a fanatical Christian sect. In 1799 Carl Friedrich Gauss proved the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: that every algebraic equation has a solution.
PROBLEM
The age of Diophantus at his death can be calculated from this epitaph: Diophantus passed one-sixth of his life in childhood, one-twelfth in youth, and one-seventh as a bachelor; ve years after his marriage a son was born DID YOU more KNOW? who died four years before his father at half his fathers nal age. How old was Diophantus? Box text...
Simple Equations
Here are the four rules for changing numbers or pronumerals from one side of an equation to the other.
Do the opposite operation to take a number to the other side of an equation.
If a number is added, subtract it from both sides If a number is subtracted, add it to both sides If a number is multiplied, divide both sides by the number If a number is divided, multiply both sides by the number
96
EXAMPLES
Solve 1. 3x + 5 = 17
Solution
3x + 5 = 17 3x + 5 - 5 = 17 - 5 3x = 12 3x 12 = 3 3 x=4 You can check the solution by substituting the value into the equation. LHS = 3x + 5 = 3 ( 4) + 5 = 12 + 5 = 17 = RHS Since LHS = RHS, x = 4 is the correct solution. 2. 4y - 3 = 8y + 21
Solution
4y - 3 4 y - 4y - 3 -3 - 3 - 21 - 24 = 8y + 21 = 8y - 4y + 21 = 4y + 21 = 4y + 21 - 21 = 4y 4y - 24 = 4 4 -6 = y y = -6
3. 2 ] 3x + 7 g = 6 - ] x - 1 g
Check these solutions by substituting them into the equation.
Solution
2 (3 x + 7 ) = 6 - ( x - 1 ) 6x + 14 = 6 - x + 1 =7-x 6x + x + 14 = 7 - x + x 7x + 14 = 7
Chapter 3 Equations
97
7x + 14 - 14 7x 7x 7 x
= 7 - 14 = -7 -7 7 = -1 =
3.1 Exercises
Solve 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. t + 4 = -1 z + 1.7 = -3.9 y - 3 = -2 w - 2 .6 = 4 .1 5 = x -7 1.5x = 6 5y = 1 3 b =5 7 -2 = r 2 = 6 3 n 8 17. 16. x -3 =7 2 m + 7 = 11 5
18. 3x + 5 = 17 19. 4a + 7 = - 21 20. 7y - 1 = 20 21. 8b - 4 = - 36 22. 3 (x + 2) = 15 23. -2 (3a + 1) = 8 24. 7t + 4 = 3t - 12 25. x - 3 = 6x - 9 26. 2 (a - 2) = 4 - 3a 27. 5b + 2 = - 3(b - 1) 28. 3 (t + 7) = 2 (2t - 9) 29. 2 + 5( p - 1) = 5p - ( p - 2) 30. 3.7x + 1.2 = 5.4x - 6.3
11. 2y + 1 = 19 12. 33 = 4k + 9 13. 7d - 2 = 12 14. -2 = 5x - 27 y 15. +4=9 3
A S TA R T L I N G FA C T !
Half full = half empty ` full = empty
98
Equations involving fractions

There are different ways to solve this type of equation. One way is to multiply both sides of the equation by the common denominator of the fractions.
EXAMPLES
Solve m 1 1. -4= 3 2
Solution
Multiply by the common denominator, 6.
m 1 -4 = 3 2 m m - 6 (4) = 6 c 1 m 2 3 2m - 24 = 3 2m - 24 + 24 = 3 + 24 2m = 27 6c 2m 27 = 2 2 27 m= 2 = 13 1 2 2. x+1 x + =5 4 3
Solution
The common denominator of 3 and 4 is 12.
x +1 x + =5 4 3 x +1 x m + 12 c m = 12 (5) 12 c 4 3 4 (x + 1) + 3x = 60 4x + 4 + 3x = 60 7x + 4 = 60 7x + 4 - 4 = 60 - 4 7x = 56 7x 56 = 7 7 x=8
Chapter 3 Equations
99
3.
y +1 y-2 5 = 5 3 6
Solution
y +1 y-2 5 = 5 3 6 y +1 y -2 o - 30 e o = 30 c 5 m 30 e 5 3 6 6 (y + 1) - 10 (y - 2) = 25 6y + 6 - 10y + 20 = 25 - 4y + 26 = 25 - 4y + 26 - 26 = 25 - 26 - 4y = -1 - 4y -1 = -4 -4 y=1 4 When there is a fraction on either side of the equation, multiplying by the common denominator is the same as cross multiplying.
The common denominator of 5, 3 and 6 is 30.
EXAMPLES
5 8 1. Solve x = (x ! 0 ) 3
Solution
5 8 x =3 8x = 15 8x 15 = 8 8 7 x=1 8 2. Solve 3 8 ^n ! 0h = 5 2n
Solution
3 8 = 5 2n 16n = 15 16n 15 = 16 16 15 n= 16
100
3.2 Exercises
Solve 1. 2. 3. b 2 = 5 3 7 1 x = 5 (x ! 0 ) 9 4 y = 10 (y ! 0) 5x 11 = 4 7 9 4 = ( k ! 0) 5 2k x -4=8 3 3 5t = 4 4 5+x 2 = 7 7 y 3 =5 2 x 2 - =7 9 3 w-3 =5 2 2t t - =2 5 3 x 1 + =4 4 2 14. 15. 3 x x - = 5 2 10 x+4 x + =1 3 2 p-3 2p + =2 2 3 t +3 t -1 + =4 7 3 x+5 x+2 =1 5 9 q-1 q-2 =2 4 3 x+3 x +7 +2= 5 2 3b 1 b - = 4 5 2 a 3 5 + = 4 3 8 3 5 =x x+2 1 1 = y +1 3y - 1
^ x ! 0, -2 h
16. 17. 18.
4.
5. 6. 7. 8.
19. 20.
21. 22. 23. 24.
9. 10. 11.
c y ! -1,
1 m 3
12.
25.
2 1 + = 0 ^ t ! 3, - 4 h t-3 t+4
13.
Substitution
Sometimes substituting values into a formula involves solving an equation.
Investigation
Body mass index (BMI) is a formula that is used to measure body fatness and is used by health professionals to screen for weight categories that may lead to health problems.
Chapter 3 Equations
101
This is not the only measure that is used when looking for health problems, however. For example, there are other factors in cardiac (heart) disease. Research these to find out what other things doctors look for. The BMI is used in a different way with children and teens, and is taken in relation to the childs age. w The formula for BMI is BMI = 2 where w is weight in kg and h is height h in metres. For adults over 20, a BMI under 18.5 means that the person is underweight and over 25 is overweight. Over 30 is obese. The BMI may not always be reliable in measuring body fat. Can you think of some reasons? Is it important where the body fat is stored? Does it make a difference if it is on the hips or the stomach? Research these questions and find out more about BMI generally.
EXAMPLES
1. The formula for the surface area of a rectangular prism is given by S = 2 (lb + bh + lh) . Find the value of b when S = 180, l = 9 and h = 6.
Solution
S = 2 (lb + bh + lh) 180 = 2 (9b + 6b + 9 # 6) = 2 (15b + 54) = 30b + 108 180 - 108 = 30b + 108 - 108 72 = 30b 30b 72 = 30 30 2. 4 = b
Another way of doing this would be to change the subject of the formula first.
CONTINUED
102
2. The volume of a cylinder is given by V = rr 2 h. Evaluate the radius r, correct to 2 decimal places, when V = 350 and h = 6.5.
Solution
V = rr 2 h 350 = rr 2 (6.5) r r 2 ( 6 .5 ) 350 = 6 .5 r 6.5r 350 = r2 6 .5 r 350 = r2 6 .5 r 350 =r 6 .5 r 4.14 = r
3.3 Exercises
1. Given that v = u + at is the formula for the velocity of a particle at time t, find the value of t when u = 17.3, v = 100.6 and a = 9.8. The sum of an arithmetic series is n given by S = (a + l ) . Find l if 2 a = 3, n = 26 and S = 1625. The formula for finding the area of a triangle is A = 1 bh. Find b 2 when A = 36 and h = 9. The area of a trapezium is given by A = 1 h (a + b) . Find 2 the value of a when A = 120, h = 5 and b = 7. Find the value of y when x = 3, given the straight line equation 5x - 2y - 7 = 0. The area of a circle is given by A = rr 2 . Find r correct to 3 significant figures if A = 140. 7. The area of a rhombus is given by the formula A = 1 xy where x and 2 y are its diagonals. Find the value of x correct to 2 decimal places when y = 7.8 and A = 25.1. The simple interest formula is Pr n . Find n if r = 14.5, I= 100 P = 150 and I = 326.25. The gradient of a straight y2 - y1 line is given by m = x - x . 2 1 Find y 1 when m = - 5 , 6 y 2 = 7, x 2 = - 3 and x 1 = 1. 10. The surface area of a cylinder is given by the formula S = 2rr ] r + h g . Evaluate h correct to 1 decimal place if S = 232 and r = 4.5.
2.
8.
3.
9.
4.
5.
6.
Chapter 3 Equations
103
11. The formula for body mass index w is BMI = 2 . Evaluate h (a) the BMI when w = 65 and h = 1.6 (b) w when BMI = 21.5 and h = 1.8 (c) h when BMI = 19.7 and w = 73.8. 12. A formula for depreciation is D = P ] 1 - r g n . Find r if D = 12 000, P = 15 000 and n = 3. 13. The x-value of the midpoint is x1 + x2 given by x = . Find x1 2 when x = - 2 and x 2 = 5. 14. Given the height of a particle at time t is h = 5t 2, evaluate t when h = 23.
15. If y = x 2 + 1, evaluate x when y = 5. 16. If the surface area of a sphere is S = 4rr 2, evaluate r to 3 significant figures when S = 56.3. 17. The area of a sector of a circle 1 is A = r 2 i. Evaluate r when 2 A = 24.6 and i = 0.45. 18. If y = 2 , find the value of x x3 - 1 when y = 3.
There are two solutions to this question.
19. Given y = 2x + 5 , evaluate x when y = 4. 20. The volume of a sphere is 4 V = rr 3. Evaluate r to 1 decimal 3 place when V = 150.
Inequations
2 means greater than 1 means less than $ means greater than or equal to # means less than or equal to
In order to solve inequations, we need to see what effect one operation applied to both sides has on the inequality sign.
If a 2 b then a + c 2 b + c for all c
For example, 3 2 2 and 3 + 1 2 2 + 1 are both true.
If a 2 b then a - c 2 b - c for all c
For example, 3 2 2 and 3 - 1 2 2 - 1 are both true.
104
If a 2 b then ac 2 bc for all c 2 0
For example, 3 2 2 and 3 # 2 2 2 # 2 are both true.
If a 2 b then ac 1 bc for all c 1 0
For example, 3 2 2 but 3 # -2 1 2 # -2.
If a 2 b then a ' c 2 b ' c for all c 2 0
For example, 6 2 4 and 6 ' 2 2 4 ' 2 are both true.
If a 2 b then a ' c 1 b ' c for all c 1 0
For example, 6 2 4 but 6 ' -2 1 4 ' -2.
1 1 If a 2 b then a 1 for all positive numbers a and b b
For example, 3 2 2 but
1 1 1 . 3 2
The inequality sign reverses when: multiplying by a negative dividing by a negative taking the reciprocal of both sides
On the number plane, we graph inequalities using arrows and circles (open for greater than and less than and closed in for greater than or equal to and less than or equal to) 1 2 # $
Chapter 3 Equations
105
EXAMPLES
Solve and show the solutions on a number line 1. 5x + 7 $ 17
Solution
5x + 7 $ 17 5x + 7 - 7 $ 17 - 7 5x $ 10 5x 10 $ 5 5 x$2
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
2. 3t - 2 2 5t + 4
Solution
3t - 2 2 5t + 3t - 3t - 2 2 5t -2 2 2t + - 2 - 4 2 2t + -6 2 2t 2t -6 2 2 2 -3 2 t or 3t - 2 3t - 5t - 2 -2t - 2 - 2t - 2 + 2 -2t -2t -2 t
-4
4 3t + 4 4 4-4
2 5t + 4 2 5t - 5t + 4 24 24+2 26 6 2 -2 1 -3
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Remember to change the inequality sign when dividing by -2.
CONTINUED
106
3. Solve 1 1 2z + 7 # 11.
Solution
Method 1: Separate into two separate questions. 1 1 2z + 7 (i) 1 - 7 1 2z + 7 - 7 - 6 1 2z -6 2z 1 2 2 -3 1 z (ii) 2z + 7 # 11 2z + 7 - 7 # 11 - 7 2z # 4 2z 4 # 2 2 z #2
Putting these together gives the solution -3 1 z # 2. Method 2: Do as a single question. 1 1 2z + 7 # 11 1 - 7 1 2z + 7 - 7 # 11 - 7 -6 1 2z # 4 -6 2z 4 # 1 2 2 2 -3 1 z # 2

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Solving this inequation as a single question is quicker than splitting it into two parts. Notice that the circle is not filled in for 1 and filled in for #.
3.4 Exercises
1. Solve and plot the solution on a number line (a) x + 4 2 7 (b) y - 3 # 1 Solve (a) 5t 2 35 (b) 3x - 7 $ 2 (c) 2 (p + 5) 2 8 (d) 4 - (x - 1) # 7 (e) 3y + 5 2 2y - 4 (f) 2a - 6 # 5a - 3 (g) 3 + 4y $ - 2 (1 - y) (h) 2x + 9 1 1 - 4 (x + 1) a (i) # - 3 2 2y (j) 8 2 3 b (k) + 5 1 - 4 2 x (l) - 4 2 6 3 x 1 (m) + # 1 4 5 (n) m 2 -3 2 4 3
2.
Chapter 3 Equations
107
2b 1 - $6 5 2 r-3 (p) # -6 2 z+1 (q) +223 9 w 2w + 5 (r) + 14 6 3 (o) (s) (t) (u) x+1 x-2 $7 2 3 t+3 t+2 #2 7 2 q-2 3q 12+ 4 3
(v) (w) 3.
2x x -1 2 2 3 2 9 2b - 5 b+6 +3# 8 12
Solve and plot the solutions on a number line (a) 3 1 x + 2 1 9 (b) -4 # 2p 1 10 (c) 2 1 3x - 1 1 11 (d) -6 # 5y + 9 # 34 (e) -2 1 3 (2y - 1) 1 7
PROBLEM
Find a solution for this sum. Is it a unique solution? CR OS S +RO A DS DANGE R
Equations and Inequations Involving Absolute Values

On a number line, x means the distance of x from zero in either direction.
EXAMPLES
Plot on a number line and evaluate x 1. x = 2
Solution
x = 2 means the distance of x from zero is 2 (in either direction).
2 2
-4
-3
-2
-1
x = !2
CONTINUED
108
2. x # 2
Solution
x # 2 means the distance of x from zero is less than or equal to 2 (in either direction).
-4
The solution of | x | 1 2 would be - 2 1 x 1 2.
-3
-2
-1
Notice that there is one region on the number line. We can write this as the single statement - 2 # x # 2. 3. x 2 2
Solution
x 2 2 means the distance of x from zero is greater than 2 (in either direction).
2 2
-4
The solution of | x | $ 2 would be x # - 2, x $ 2.
-3
-2
-1
There are two regions on the number line, so we write two separate inequalities x 1 - 2, x 2 2.
x = a means x = ! a x 1 a means -a 1 x 1 a x 2 a means x 2 a, x 1 -a
Class Discussion
What does a - b mean as a distance along the number line? Select different values of a and b to help with this discussion.
We use absolute value as a distance on a number line to solve equations and inequations involving absolute values.
Chapter 3 Equations
109
EXAMPLES
Solve 1. x + 4 = 7
Solution
This means that the distance from x + 4 to zero is 7 in either direction. So x + 4 = ! 7. x+4 =7 x+4=7 or x + 4 = -7 x+4-4=7-4 x + 4 - 4 = -7 - 4 x=3 x = -11 2. 2y - 1 1 5
Solution
This means that the distance from 2y - 1 to zero is less than 5 in either direction. So it means - 5 1 2y - 1 1 5. - 5 1 2y - 1 1 5 - 5 + 1 1 2y - 1 + 1 1 5 + 1 2y 6 -4 1 1 2 2 2 -2 1 y 1 3 3. 5b - 7 $ 3
You could solve these as two separate inequations.
Solution
5b - 7 $ 3 means that the distance from 5b - 7 to zero is greater than or equal to 3 in either direction. 5b - 7 # - 3 5b - 7 + 7 # -3 + 7 5b # 4 5b 4 # 5 5 4 b # 5 4 So b # , b $ 2. 5 5b - 7 $ 3 5b - 7 + 7 $ 3 + 7 5b $ 10 5b 10 $ 5 5 b$2
These must be solved and written as two separate inequations.
110
While it is always a good habit to check solutions to equations and inequations by substituting in values, in these next examples it is essential to check, as some of the solutions are impossible!
EXAMPLES
Solve 1. 2x + 1 = 3x - 2
Solution
2x + 1 = ! ] 3x - 2 g This question is impossible if 3x - 2 is negative. Can you see why? If 2x + 1 is equal to a negative number, this is impossible as the absolute value is always positive. Case (i) 2x + 1 = 3x - 2 2x - 2x + 1 = 3x - 2x - 2 1=x-2 1+2=x-2+2 3=x Check solution is possible: Substitute x = 3 into 2x + 1 = 3x - 2. LHS = 2 # 3 + 1 = 7 =7 RHS = 3 # 3 - 2 =9-2 =7 Since LHS = RHS, x = 3 is a solution. Case (ii) 2 x + 1 = - ( 3x - 2 ) = - 3x + 2 2x + 3x + 1 = - 3 x + 3x + 2 5x + 1 = 2 5x + 1 - 1 = 2 - 1 5x = 1 5x 1 = 5 5 1 x= 5 2x + 1 = 3x - 2 means that 2x + 1 is at a distance of 3x - 2 from zero.
Chapter 3 Equations
111
Check: 1 Substitute x = into 2x + 1 = 3x - 2. 5 1 LHS = 2 # + 1 5 2 = 1 5 2 =1 5 1 RHS = 3 # - 2 5 3 = -2 5 2 = -1 5 1 Since LHS ! RHS, x = is not a solution. 5 So the only solution is x = 3. 2. 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9
It is often easier to solve these harder equations graphically. You will do this in Chapter 5.
Solution
In this question it is difficult to use distances on the number line, so we use the definition of absolute value. 2x - 3 2x - 3 = ' - (2 x - 3) x +1 x + 1 = ' - (x + 1) when 2x - 3 $ 0 when 2x - 3 1 0 when x + 1 $ 0 when x + 1 1 0
This gives 4 cases: (i) (2x - 3) + (x + 1) = 9 (ii) (2x - 3) - (x + 1) = 9 (iii) -(2x - 3) + (x + 1) = 9 (iv) -(2x - 3) - (x + 1) = 9 Case (i) ( 2x - 3 ) + ( x + 1 ) = 9 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9 3x - 2 = 9 3x - 2 + 2 = 9 + 2 3x = 11 3x 11 = 3 3 2 x=3 3 Check by substituting x = 3 2 into 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9. 3
CONTINUED
112
2 2 -3 + 3 +1 3 3 1 2 = 4 + 4 3 3 1 2 =4 +4 3 3 =9 = RHS 2 So x = 3 is a solution. 3 Case (ii) ( 2 x - 3 ) - (x + 1 ) = 9 2x - 3 - x - 1 = 9 x-4=9 x-4+4=9+4 x = 13 Check by substituting x = 13 into 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9. LHS = 2 # 13 - 3 + 13 + 1 = 23 + 14 = 23 + 14 = 37 ! RHS So x = 13 is not a solution. Case (iii) -(2x - 3) + (x + 1) = 9 - 2x + 3 + x + 1 = 9 -x + 4 = 9 -x + 4 - 4 = 9 - 4 -x = 5 -x 5 = -1 -1 x = -5 LHS = 2 # 3 Check by substituting x = - 5 into 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9. LHS = 2 # - 5 - 3 + - 5 + 1 = - 13 + - 4 = 13 + 4 = 17 ! RHS So x = - 5 is not a solution. Case (iv) - (2x - 3) - (x + 1) = 9 - 2x + 3 - x - 1 = 9 - 3x + 2 = 9 - 3x + 2 - 2 = 9 - 2 - 3x = 7
Chapter 3 Equations
113
- 3x 7 = -3 -3 1 3 1 Check by substituting x = - 2 into 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9. 3 1 1 LHS = 2 # - 2 - 3 + - 2 + 1 3 3 2 1 = -7 + -1 3 3 2 1 = 7 +1 3 3 =9 = RHS 1 So x = - 2 is a solution. 3 2 1 So solutions are x = 3 , - 2 . 3 3 x = -2 While you should always check solutions, you can see that there are some cases where this is really important.
You will learn how to solve equations involving absolute values graphically in Chapter 5. With graphical solutions it is easy to see how many solutions there are.
3.5 Exercises
1. Solve (a) x = 5 (b) y = 8 (c) a 1 4 (d) k $ 1 (e) x 2 6 (f) p # 10 (g) x = 0 (h) a 2 14 (i) y 1 12 (j) b $ 20 2. Solve (a) x + 2 = 7 (b) n - 1 = 3 (c) 2a 2 4 (d) x - 5 # 1 (e) 9 = 2x + 3 (f) 7x - 1 = 34 (g) 4y + 3 1 11 (h) 2x - 3 $ 15 x (i) =4 3 a (j) -3 #2 2 5. 4. 3. Solve (a) x + 2 = 5x - 3 (b) 2a - 1 = a + 2 (c) b - 3 = 2b - 4 (d) 3k - 2 = k - 4 (e) 6y + 23 = y - 7 (f) 4x + 3 = 5x - 4 (g) 2m - 5 = m (h) 3d + 1 = d + 6 (i) 5 - y = 4y + 1 (j) 2t - 7 = 3 - t Solve (a) x + 3 = 3x - 1 (b) 2y - 5 = y - 2 (c) 3a + 1 = 2a - 9 (d) 2x + 5 + x = 17 (e) 3d - 2 + d + 4 = 18 (a) Solve 4t - 3 + t - 1 = 11. (b) By plotting the solutions on a number line and looking at values in between the solutions, solve 4t - 3 + t - 1 1 11.
Remember to check solutions in questions 3, 4 and 5.
114
Exponential Equations
An exponential equation involves an unknown index or power e.g. 2 x = 8. We can also solve other equations involving indices. In order to solve these, you need to understand their relationship. For example, squares and square roots are the reverse of each other (we call them inverse operations). Similarly cubes and cube roots are inverses, and this extends to all indices. To solve equations, use inverse operations: For squares, take the square root For cubes, take the cube root For square roots, take the square For cube roots, take the cube You have previously used these rules when substituting into formulae involving squares and cubes.
EXAMPLES
Solve 1. x 2 = 9
There are two possible solutions for x one positive and one negative since 3 2 = 9 and (- 3) 2 = 9.
Solution
x2 = 9 x2 = ! 9 ` x= !3 2. 5n 3 = 40
Solution
5n 3 = 40 5n 3 40 = 5 5 3 n =8
3
There is only one answer for this question since 2 3 = 8 but (- 2) 3 = -8.
n3 = 3 8 n=2
Chapter 3 Equations
115
3. a 3 = 4
Solution
We use the fact that ` a j = ` a j = a.
2 3 3 2 3 2 2 3
a3 = 4
à j = 4 2
2 3 3 3
3 2
a= 42 3 a = ^ 4h = 23 =8
Investigation
Investigate equations of the type x n = k where k is a constant, for example, x n = 9. Look at these questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. What is the solution when n = 0? What is the solution when n = 1? How many solutions are there when n = 2? How many solutions are there when n = 3? How many solutions are there when n is even? How many solutions are there when n is odd?
In other types of equations, the pronumeral (or unknown variable) is in the index. We call these exponential equations, and we use the fact that if the base numbers are equal, then the powers (or indices or exponents) must be equal.
EXAMPLES
Solve 1. 3 x = 81
Solution
3 x = 81 Equating indices: 3x = 34 `x=4
CONTINUED
116
2. 5 2k - 1 = 25
Solution
5 2k - 1 = 25 5 2k - 1 = 5 2 ` 2k - 1 = 2 2k - 1 + 1 = 2 + 1 2k = 3 3 2k = 2 2 1 k=1 2 3. 8 n = 4
We can check this solution 1 by substituting k = 1 into 2 the equation 5 2k -1 = 25.
Solution
It is hard to write 8 as a power of 4 or 4 as a power of 8, but both can be written as powers of 2. 8n = 4 (2 ) = 2 2 2 3n = 2 2 ` 3n = 2 3n 2 = 3 3 2 n= 3
3 n
3.6 Exercises
1. Solve (a) x 3 = 27 (b) y 2 = 64 (c) n 4 = 16 (d) x 2 = 20 (give the exact answer) (e) p 3 = 1000 (f) 2x 2 = 50 (g) 6y 4 = 486 (h) w 3 + 7 = 15 (i) 6n 2 - 4 = 92 (j) 3q 3 + 20 = - 4 2. Solve and give the answer correct to 2 decimal places. (a) p 2 = 45 (b) x 3 = 100 (c) n 5 = 240 (d) 2x 2 = 70 (e) 4y 3 + 7 = 34 d4 (f) = 14 3 k2 (g) -3=7 2 x3 - 1 (h) =2 5 (i) 2y 2 - 9 = 20 (j) 7y 3 + 9 = 200
Chapter 3 Equations
117
3.
Solve (a) n = 9 (b) t 4 = 8 (c) x 5 = 4 (d) t 3 = 16 (e) p 5 = 27 (f) 2m 4 = 250 (g) b 3 + 3 = 39 (h) 5y 3 = 405 (i) 3a 7 - 2 = 10 (j) t =9 3
3 4 2 4 2 3 3 4 2 3 2 3
6.
Solve (a) 2 n = 16 (b) 3 y = 243 (c) 2 m = 512 (d) 10 x = 100 000 (e) 6 m = 1 (f) 4 x = 64 (g) 4 x + 3 = 19 (h) 5 (3 x ) = 45 (i) 4 x = 4 6k (j) = 18 2 Solve (a) 3 2x = 81 (b) 2 5x - 1 = 16 (c) 4 x + 3 = 4 (d) 3 n - 2 = 1 (e) 7 2x + 1 = 7 (f) 3 x - 3 = 27 (g) 5 3y + 2 = 125 (h) 7 3x - 4 = 49 (i) 2 4x = 256 (j) 9 3a + 1 = 9 Solve (a) 4 m = 2 (b) 27 x = 3 (c) 125 x = 5 1 k m =7 49 1 k m = 100 (e) c 1000 (f) 16 n = 8 (g) 25 x = 125 (h) 64 n = 16 1 3k (i) c m = 2 4 (j) 8 x - 1 = 4 (d) c
7.
4.
Solve (all pronumerals ! 0) (a) x - 1 = 5 (b) a - 3 = 8 (c) y - 5 = 32 (d) x - 2 + 1 = 50 (e) 2n - 1 = 3 1 (f) a - 3 = 8 1 -2 (g) x = 4 1 (h) b - 1 = 9 1 (i) x - 2 = 2 4 16 (j) b - 4 = 81 Solve (all pronumerals ! 0) (a) x
1 3 3 2
8.
5.
=8 = 8 125
(b) x (c) a
1 4 3 4 -
=3 = 125
2 3
(d) k
(e) 3x (f) x
= 12
9.
1 8 2 1 3 (g) y = 4 2 4 (h) n 5 = 9 = (i) b

5 3
3 2
= =
1 32 36 49
Solve (a) 2 4x + 1 = 8 x (b) 3 5x = 9 x - 2 (c) 7 2k + 3 = 7 k - 1 (d) 4 3n = 8 n + 3 (e) 6 x - 5 = 216 x (f) 16 2x - 1 = 4 x - 4 (g) 27 x + 3 = 3 x 1 x 1 2x + 3 m (h) c m = c 2 64
(j) m
2 3
118
3 x 27 2x - 3 m (i) c m = c 4 64 1 x-9 m (j) ] 5 g- x = c 25 10. Solve (a) 4 m =
(d) 3 k = 3 3 (e) c 3 1 3n + 1 m = 27 81
2 3 5
9 k+3 m (b) c = 25 1 (c) = 4 2x - 5 2
5 -n 2 3n + 1 (f) c m =c m 5 2 1 (g) 32 - x = 16 (h) 9 2b + 5 = 3 b 3 (i) 81 x + 1 = 3x 1 3m - 5 (j) 25 - m = c m 5
PUZZLE
Test your logical thinking and that of your friends. 1. How many months have 28 days? 2. If I have 128 sheep and take away all but 10, how many do I have left? 3. A bottle and its cork cost $1.10 to make. If the bottle costs $1 more than the cork, how much does each cost? 4. What do you get if you add 1 to 15 four times? 5. On what day of the week does Good Friday fall in 2016?
Quadratic Equations
A quadratic equation is an equation involving a square. For example, x 2 - 4 = 0.
Solving by factorisation
When solving quadratic equations by factorising, we use a property of zero.
For any real numbers a and b, if ab = 0 then a = 0 or b = 0
EXAMPLES
Solve 1. x 2 + x - 6 = 0
Solution
x2 + x - 6 = 0 (x + 3) (x - 2) = 0
Chapter 3 Equations
119
x+3=0 or x-2=0 x+3-3=0-3 x-2+2 =0 +2 x = -3 or x= 2
So the solution is x = - 3 or 2. 2. y 2 - 7y = 0
Solution
y 2 - 7y = 0 y ( y - 7) = 0 ` y=0
or
y-7=0
y-7+7=0+7 y=7 So the solution is y = 0 or 7. 3. 3a 2 - 14a = - 8
Solution
3a 2 - 14a = - 8 3a 2 - 14a + 8 = - 8 + 8 3a 2 - 14a + 8 = 0 (3a - 2) (a - 4) = 0 ` 3a - 2 = 0 or 3a - 2 + 2 = 0 or 3a = 2 3a 2 = 3 3 2 a= 3 2 So the solution is a = or 4. 3
a-4 =0 a-4+4 =0+4 a=4
3.7 Exercises
Solve 1. 2. 3. y2 + y = 0 b2 - b - 2 = 0 p 2 + 2p - 15 = 0 4. 5. 6. t 2 - 5t = 0 x 2 + 9x + 14 = 0 q2 - 9 = 0
120
7. 8. 9.
x2 - 1 = 0 a 2 + 3a = 0 2x 2 + 8x = 0
17. 5x - x 2 = 0 18. y 2 = y + 2 19. 8n = n 2 + 15 20. 12 = 7x - x 2 21. m 2 = 6 - 5m 22. x (x + 1) (x + 2) = 0 23. (y - 1) (y + 5) (y + 2) = 0 24. (x + 3) (x - 1) = 32 25. (m - 3) (m - 4) = 20
10. 4x 2 - 1 = 0 11. 3x 2 + 7x + 4 = 0 12. 2y 2 + y - 3 = 0 13. 8b 2 - 10b + 3 = 0 14. x 2 - 3x = 10 15. 3x 2 = 2x 16. 2x 2 = 7x - 5
Application
1 2 at where u is the 2 initial velocity and a is the acceleration. Find the time when the displacement will be zero, given u = - 12 and a = 10. A formula for displacement s at time t is given by s = ut +
2 s = ut + 1 at 2 2 0 = -12t + 1 (10) t 2
= -12t + 5t ` t = 0 or
= t (-12 + 5t ) -12 + 5t = 0 5t = 12 5t 12 = 5 5 t = 2.4 So displacement will be zero when t = 0 or 2.4.
-12 + 12 + 5t = 0 + 12
Solving by completing the square

Not all trinomials will factorise, so other methods need to be used to solve quadratic equations.
Chapter 3 Equations
121
EXAMPLES
Solve 1. x 2 = 7
Solution
x2 = 7 x=! 7 = ! 2.6 2. ] x + 3 g2 = 11
Solution
] x + 3 g2 = 11
x + 3 = ! 11 x + 3 - 3 = ! 11 - 3 x = ! 11 - 3 = 0.3, - 6.3 3. ^ y - 2 h2 = 7
Take the square root of both sides.
Solution
^ y - 2 h2 = 7
y-2=! 7 y-2+2=! 7+2 y=! 7+2 = 4.6, - 0.6
To solve a quadratic equation like x 2 - 6x + 3 = 0, which will not factorise, we can use the method of completing the square.
You learnt how to complete the square in Chapter 2.
EXAMPLES
Solve by completing the square 1. x 2 - 6x + 3 = 0 (give exact answer)
Solution
x 2 - 6x + 3 = 0 x 2 - 6x = - 3
c 6 m = 32 = 9 2
CONTINUED
2
Halve 6, square it and add to both sides of the equation.
122
x 2 - 6x + 9 = - 3 + 9 ] x - 3 g2 = 6 ` x-3=! 6 x-3+3=! 6+3 x=! 6+3
2. y 2 + 2y - 7 = 0 (correct to 3 significant figures)
Solution
y 2 + 2y - 7 = 0 y 2 + 2y = 7 y 2 + 2y + 1 = 7 + 1 ^ y + 1 h2 = 8 ` y+1=! 8 y + 1 - 1 = ! 8 -1 y = ! 8 -1 = !2 2 - 1 y = 1.83 or - 3.83
c 2 m = 12 = 1 2
2
3.8 Exercises
1. Solve by completing the square, giving exact answers in simplest surd form (a) x 2 + 4x - 1 = 0 (b) a 2 - 6a + 2 = 0 (c) y 2 - 8y - 7 = 0 (d) x 2 + 2x - 12 = 0 (e) p 2 + 14p + 5 = 0 (f) x 2 - 10x - 3 = 0 (g) y 2 + 20y + 12 = 0 (h) x 2 - 2x - 1 = 0 (i) n 2 + 24n + 7 = 0 (j) y 2 - 3y + 1 = 0 2. Solve by completing the square and write your answers correct to 3 significant figures (a) x 2 - 2x - 5 = 0 (b) x 2 + 12x + 34 = 0 (c) q 2 + 18q - 1 = 0 (d) x 2 - 4x - 2 = 0 (e) b 2 + 16b + 50 = 0 (f) x 2 - 24x + 112 = 0 (g) r 2 - 22r - 7 = 0 (h) x 2 + 8x + 5 = 0 (i) a 2 + 6a - 1 = 0 (j) y 2 - 40y - 3 = 0
Solving by formula
Completing the square is difficult with harder quadratic equations, for example 2x 2 - x - 5 = 0. Completing the square on a general quadratic equation gives the following formula.
Chapter 3 Equations
123
For the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 x= -b ! b 2 - 4ac 2a
Proof
Solve ax 2 + b + c = 0 by completing the square. ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ax 2 bx c 0 a + a +a=a bx c x2 + a + a = 0 c c bx c x2 + a + a - a = 0 - a bx c x2 + a = - a bx c b2 b2 x2 + a + 2 = - a + 2 4a 4a c b2 b 2 cx + m = -a + 2 2a 4a - 4ac + b 2 = 4a 2 - 4ac + b 2 b x+ =! 2a 4a 2 2 b - 4ac =! 2a b 2 - 4ac b b b x+ =! 2a 2a 2a 2a b 2 - 4ac -b x= ! 2a 2a 2 - b ! b - 4ac = 2a
2 2 2 b b ' 2l = c b m = b 2 a 2a 4a
EXAMPLES
1. Solve x 2 - x - 2 = 0 by using the quadratic formula.
Solution
a = 1, b = -1, c = - 2 x= b 2 - 4ac 2a - (-1) ! (-1) 2 - 4 (1) (-2) = 2 (1 ) 1! 1+8 = 2
CONTINUED
-b !
124
1! 3 gives two 2 1+ 3 separate solutions, 2 1- 3 and . 2 x =
1! 9 2 1!3 = 2 = 2 or - 1 =
2. Solve 2y 2 - 9y + 3 = 0 by formula and give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
Solution
a = 2, b = -9, c = 3 x= -b ! b 2 - 4ac 2a - ] -9 g ! ] -9 g2 - 4 ] 2 g ] 3 g y= 2] 2 g 9 ! 81 - 24 = 4 9 ! 57 = 4 Z 4.14 or 0.36
These solutions are irrational.
3.9
1.
Exercises
2. Solve by formula, leaving the answer in simplest surd form (a) x 2 + x - 4 = 0 (b) 3x 2 - 5x + 1 = 0 (c) q 2 - 4q - 3 = 0 (d) 4h 2 + 12h + 1 = 0 (e) 3s 2 - 8s + 2 = 0 (f) x 2 + 11x - 3 = 0 (g) 6d 2 + 5d - 2 = 0 (h) x 2 - 2x = 7 (i) t 2 = t + 1 (j) 2x 2 + 1 = 7x
Solve by formula, correct to 3 significant figures where necessary (a) y 2 + 6y + 2 = 0 (b) 2x 2 - 5x + 3 = 0 (c) b 2 - b - 9 = 0 (d) 2x 2 - x - 1 = 0 (e) - 8x 2 + x + 3 = 0 (f) n 2 + 8n - 2 = 0 (g) m 2 + 7m + 10 = 0 (h) x 2 - 7x = 0 (i) x 2 + 5x = 6 (j) y 2 = 3y - 1
Class Investigation
Here is a proof that 1 = 2. Can you see the fault in the proof? x2 - x2 = x2 - x2 x(x - x) = (x + x) (x - x) x=x+x x = 2x 1=2 `
Chapter 3 Equations
125
Quadratic Inequations
Solving quadratic inequations is similar to solving quadratic equations, but you need to do this in two stages. The rst is to solve the equation and then the second step is to look at either the number line or the number plane for the inequality.
To solve a quadratic inequation: 1. Factorise and solve the quadratic equation 2. Test values in the inequality
In Chapter 9 you will look at how to use the number plane to solve these quadratic inequations. Here are some examples of solving quadratic inequations using the number line.
EXAMPLES
Solve 1. x 2 + x - 6 2 0
Solution
First solve x + x - 6 = 0 (x - 2 ) (x + 3 ) = 0 ` x = 2 or -3
2
Be careful: x 2 + x - 6 2 0 does not mean x - 2 2 0 and x + 3 2 0.
Now look at the number line.

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Choose a number between - 3 and 2, say x = 0. Substitute x = 0 into the inequation. x2 + x - 6 2 0 02 + 0 - 6 2 0 -6 2 0 So the solution is not between -3 and 2. ` the solution lies either side of -3 and 2. Check by choosing a number on either side of the two numbers. Choose a number on the RHS of 2, say x = 3.
CONTINUED
(false)
126
Substitute x = 3 into the inequation. 32 + 3 - 6 2 0 620 So the solution is on the RHS of 2. Choose a number on the LHS of -3, say x = -4 Substitute x = -4 into the inequation ( - 4) 2 + ( -4) - 6 2 0 620 So the solution is on the LHS of -3.
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
(true)
(true)
This gives the solution x 1 -3, x 2 2. 2. 9 - x 2 $ 0
Solution
First solve 9 - x 2 = 0 (3 - x) (3 + x) = 0 ` x = !3
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Choose a number between -3 and 3, say x = 0. Substitute x = 0 into the inequation.

Check numbers on the RHS and LHS to verify this.
9 - x2 $ 0 9 - 02 $ 0 9$0 So the solution is between -3 and 3, that is -3 # x # 3. On the number line:

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
(true)
Chapter 3 Equations
127
3.10
Solve 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Exercises
14. 6 - 13b - 5b 2 1 0 15. 6x 2 + 11x + 3 # 0 16. y 2 + y # 12 17. x 2 2 16 18. a 2 # 1 19. x 2 1 x + 6 20. x 2 $ 2x + 3 21. x 2 1 2x 22. 2a 2 - 5a + 3 # 0 23. 5y 2 + 6y $ 8 24. 6m 2 2 15 - m 25. 3x 2 # 7x - 4
x 2 + 3x 1 0 y 2 - 4y 1 0 n2 - n $ 0 x2 - 4 $ 0 1 - n2 1 0 n 2 + 2n - 15 # 0 c2 - c - 2 2 0 x 2 + 6x + 8 # 0 x 2 - 9x + 20 1 0
10. 4b 2 + 10b + 4 $ 0 11. 1 - 2a - 3a 2 1 0 12. 2y 2 - y - 6 2 0 13. 3x 2 - 5x + 2 $ 0
Simultaneous Equations
Two equations, each with two unknown pronumerals, can be solved together to nd one solution that satises both equations. There are different ways of solving simultaneous equations. The elimination method adds or subtracts the equations. The substitution method substitutes one equation into the other.
Linear equations
These equations can be solved by either method. Many students prefer the elimination method.
128
EXAMPLES
Solve simultaneously 1. 3a + 2b = 5 and 2a - b = -6
Solution
3a + 2b = 5 2a - b = -6
] 2 g # 2: ] 1 g + (3):
(1 ) (2 ) (3 ) (1 )
4a - 2b = -12 3 a + 2b = 5 7a = - 7 a = -1
Substitute a = -1 in (1) 3 (-1) + 2b = 5 -3 + 2b = 5 2b = 8 b=4 ` solution is a = -1, b = 4 2. 5x - 3y = 19 and 2x - 4y = 16
Solution
5x - 3y = 19 2x - 4y = 16 20x - 12y = 76 6x - 12y = 48 14x = 28 x=2 2 ( 2) - 4 y 4 - 4y - 4y y = 16 = 16 = 12 = -3 ( 1) ( 2) (3 ) (4 )
(1) # 4: ( 2 ) # 3: (3) - (4):
Substitute x = 2 in (2)
Chapter 3 Equations
129
3.11
Exercises
12. 3a - 4b = -16 and 2a + 3b = 12 13. 5p + 2q + 18 = 0 and 2p - 3q + 11 = 0 14. 7x 1 + 3x 2 = 4 and 3x 1 + 5x 2 = - 2 15. 9x - 2y = -1 and 7x - 4y = 9 16. 5s - 3t - 13 = 0 and 3s - 7t - 13 = 0 17. 3a - 2b = - 6 and a - 3b = - 2 18. 3k - 2h = -14 and 2k - 5h = -13 19. 2v 1 + 5v 2 - 16 = 0 and 7v 1 + 2v 2 + 6 = 0 20. 1.5x + 3.4y = 7.8 and 2 . 1 x - 1 . 7y = 1 . 8
Solve simultaneously 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. a - b = -2 and a + b = 4 5x + 2y = 12 and 3x - 2y = 4 4p - 3q = 11 and 5p + 3q = 7 y = 3x - 1 and y = 2x + 5 2x + 3y = -14 and x + 3y = -4 7t + v = 22 and 4t + v = 13 4x + 5y + 2 = 0 and 4x + y + 10 = 0 2x - 4y = 28 and 2x - 3y = -11 5x - y = 19 and 2x + 5y = -14
8. 9.
10. 5m + 4n = 22 and m - 5n = -13 11. 4w 1 + 3w 2 = 11 and 3w 1 + w 2 = 2
PROBLEM
A group of 39 people went to see a play. There were both adults and children in the group. The total cost of the tickets was $939, with children paying $17 each and adults paying $29 each. How many in the group were adults and how many were children? (Hint: let x be the number of adults and y the number of children.)
Non-linear equations
In questions involving non-linear equations there may be more than one set of solutions. In some of these, the elimination method cannot be used. Here are some examples using the substitution method.
130
EXAMPLES
Solve simultaneously 1. xy = 6 and x + y = 5
Solution
xy = 6 x+y=5 From (2): y=5-x Substitute (3) in (1) x (5 - x) = 6 ( 1) (2 ) (3 )
5x - x 2 = 6 0 = x 2 - 5x + 6 0 = (x - 2 ) (x - 3 ) ` x - 2 = 0 or x - 3 = 0 x = 2 or x = 3 Substitute x = 2 in (3) y=5-2=3 Substitute x = 3 in (3) y=5-3=2 ` solutions are x = 2, y = 3 and x = 3, y = 2 2. x 2 + y 2 = 16 and 3x - 4y - 20 = 0
Solution
x 2 + y 2 = 16 3x - 4y - 20 = 0 From ] 2 g: 3x - 20 = 4y 3x - 20 =y 4 Substitute (3) into (1) 3x - 20 2 m = 16 x2 + c 4 9x 2 - 120x + 400 n = 16 x2 + d 16 16x 2 + 9x 2 - 120x + 400 = 256 25x 2 - 120x + 144 = 0 (5x - 12)2 = 0 ` 5x - 12 = 0 5x = 12 x = 2.4 Substitute x = 2.4 into ] 3 g 3 (2.4) - 20 4 = -3.2 So the solution is x = 2.4, y = -3.2. y= (1) (2 )
(3)
Chapter 3 Equations
131
3.12
Exercises
11. y = x - 1 and y = x 2 - 3 12. y = x 2 + 1 and y = 1 - x 2 13. y = x 2 - 3x + 7 and y = 2x + 3 14. xy = 1 and 4x - y + 3 = 0 15. h = t 2 and h = ] t + 1 g2 16. x + y = 2 and 2x 2 + xy - y 2 = 8 17. y = x 3 and y = x 2 + 6x 18. y = | x | and y = x 2 19. y = x 2 - 7x + 6 and 24x + 4y - 23 = 0 20. x 2 + y 2 = 1 and 5x + 12y + 13 = 0
Solve the simultaneous equations. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. y = x 2 and y = x y = x 2 and 2x + y = 0 x 2 + y 2 = 9 and x + y = 3 x - y = 7 and xy = -12 y = x 2 + 4x and 2x - y - 1 = 0 y = x 2 and 6x - y - 9 = 0 x = t 2 and x + t - 2 = 0 m 2 + n 2 = 16 and m + n + 4 = 0 xy = 2 and y = 2x
10. y = x 3 and y = x 2
Equations with 3 unknown variables

Three equations can be solved simultaneously to nd 3 unknown pronumerals.
Four unknowns need 4 equations, and so on.
EXAMPLE
Solve simultaneously a - b + c = 7, a + 2b - c = -4 and 3a - b - c = 3.
Solution
a-b +c=7 a + 2b - c = - 4 3a - b - c = 3 (1) + (2): a-b+c=7 a + 2b - c = - 4 2a + b =3 (1) + (3): a- b+c=7 3a - b - c = 3 4a - 2b = 10 or 2a - b =5 (4) + (5): 2a + b =3 4a =8 a=2 (1 ) (2) (3)
( 4)
(5)
132
You will solve 3 simultaneous equations in later topics (for example, in Chapter 9).
Substitute a = 2 in (4) 2 ( 2) + b = 3 4+b=3 b = -1 Substitute a = 2 and b = -1 in (1) 2 - (-1) + c = 7 2 +1 + c = 7 3+c=7 c=4 ` solution is a = 2, b = -1, c = 4
3.13
Exercises
2p + 5q - r = 25, 2p - 2q - r = -24 and 3p - q + 5r = 4 2x - y + 3 z = 9 , 3x + y - 2z = -2 and 3x - y + 5z = 14 3h + j - k = -3, h + 2j + k = -3 and 5h - 3j - 2k = -13
Solve the simultaneous equations. 1. x = - 2, 2x - y = 4 and x - y + 6z = 0 a = - 2, 2a - 3b = -1 and a - b + 5c = 9 2a + b + c = 1, a + b = - 2 and c = 7 a + b + c = 0, a - b + c = - 4 and 2a - 3b - c = -1 x + y - z = 7, x + y + 2z = 1 and 3x + y - 2z = 19 x - y - z = 1 , 2x + y - z = - 9 and 2x - 3y - 2z = 7 9. 7.
2.
8.
3.
4.
5.
6.
10. 2a - 7b + 3c = 7, a + 3b + 2c = -4 and 4a + 5b - c = 9
Chapter 3 Equations
133
Test Yourself 3
1. Solve (a) 8 = 3b - 22 a a+2 (b) =9 4 3 (c) 4 (3x + 1) = 11x - 3 (d) 3p + 1 # p + 9 2. The compound interest formula is r n m . Find correct to 2 A = P c1 + 100 decimal places. (a) A when P = 1000, r = 6 and n = 4 (b) P when A = 12 450, r = 5.5 and n = 7 Complete the square on (a) x 2 - 8x (b) k 2 + 4k Solve these simultaneous equations. (a) x - y + 7 = 0 and 3x - 4y + 26 = 0 (b) xy = 4 and 2x - y - 7 = 0 Solve (a) 3 x + 2 = 81 (b) 16 y = 2 Solve (a) 3b - 1 = 5 (b) 5g - 3 = 3g + 1 (c) 2x - 7 $ 1 7. The area of a trapezium is given by A = 1 h (a + b). Find 2 (a) A when h = 6, a = 5 and b = 7 (b) b when A = 40, h = 5 and a = 4. Solve 2x 2 - 3x + 1 = 0 by (a) factorisation (b) quadratic formula. 9. Solve -2 1 3y + 1 # 10, and plot your solution on a number line. 10. Solve correct to 3 signicant gures (a) x 2 + 7x + 2 = 0 (b) y 2 - 2y - 9 = 0 (c) 3n 2 + 2n - 4 = 0 11. The surface area of a sphere is given by A = 4rr 2 . Evaluate to 1 decimal place (a) A when r = 7.8 (b) r when A = 102.9 12. Solve x-3 3 - 2 9. 7 4
3.
13. Solve x 2 - 11x + 18 2 0. 14. Solve the simultaneous equations x 2 + y 2 = 16 and 3x + 4y - 20 = 0. 15. The volume of a sphere is V = 4 3 rr . 3 Evaluate to 2 signicant gures (a) V when r = 8 (b) r when V = 250
4.
5.
6.
16. Which of the following equations has (i) 2 solutions (ii) 1 solution (iii) no solutions? (a) x 2 - 6x + 9 = 0 (b) 2x - 3 = 7 (c) x - 2 = 7 - x (d) x 2 - x + 4 = 0 (e) 2x + 1 = x - 2 17. Solve simultaneously a + b = 5, 2 a + b + c = 4, a - b - c = 5. 18. Solve 3n + 5 2 5, and plot the solution on a number line. 19. Solve 3 4 =x x+1
^ x ! 0, -1 h .
8.
134
20. Solve 9 2x + 1 = 27 x . 21. Solve (a) 2 ^ 3y - 5 h 2 y + 5 (b) n 2 + 3n # 0 (c) 3 2x - 1 = 27 (d) 5x 3 - 1 = 39 (e) 5x - 4 = 11 (f) 2t + 1 $ 3 (g) x 2 + 2x - 8 # 0
(h) 8 x + 1 = 4 x (i) y 2 - 4 2 0 (j) 1 - x 2 # 0 (k) 27 2x - 1 = 9 (l) 4b - 3 # 5 (m) 3x + 2 = 2x - 3 (n) 4t - 5 = t + 2 (o) x 2 1 2x + 3 (p) m 2 + m $ 6
1. 2. 3. Find the value of y if a 3y - 5 = Solve x 2 2 a 2 . The solutions of x 2 - 6x - 3 = 0 are in the form a + b 3 . Find the values of a and b. Solve 2 1 = 1 correct to 3 x-1 x+1 1 . a2 9. Solve t + 2 + 3t - 1 1 5. 10. Solve ] x - 4 g ] x - 1 g # 28.
3
11. Solve x 2 =
1 . 8
4.
signicant gures. (x ! ! 1) 5. Factorise x 5 - 9x 3 - 8x 2 + 72. Hence solve x 5 - 9x 3 - 8x 2 + 72 = 0. Solve simultaneous equations y = x + x and y = x + 1.
3 2
12. The volume of a sphere is given by 4 V = rr 3 . Find the value of r when 3 V = 51.8 (correct to three signicant gures). 13. Solve x - 3 + x + 4 = x - 2 . 14. Find the solutions of x 2 - 2ax - b = 0 by completing the square. 15. Given A = P c 1 + r n m , nd P 100 correct to 2 decimal places when A = 3281.69, r = 1.27 and n = 30.
6.
7.
Find the value of b if x - 8x + b is a perfect square. Hence solve x 2 - 8x - 1 = 0 by completing the square.
2 2
8.
Considering the denition of absolute x-3 value, solve = x, where x ! 3. 3-x
16. Solve 3x 2 = 8 (2x - 1) and write the solution in the simplest surd form. 17. Solve 3y - 1 + 2y + 3 2 5.
4
Geometry 1
TERMINOLOGY
Altitude: Height. Any line segment from a vertex to the opposite side of a polygon that is perpendicular to that side Congruent triangles: Identical triangles that are the same shape and size. Corresponding sides and angles are equal. The symbol is / Interval: Part of a line including the endpoints Median: A line segment that joins a vertex to the opposite side of a triangle that bisects that side Perpendicular: A line that is at right angles to another line. The symbol is = Polygon: General term for a many sided plane figure. A closed plane (two dimensional) figure with straight sides Quadrilateral: A four-sided closed figure such as a square, rectangle, trapezium etc. Similar triangles: Triangles that are the same shape but different sizes. The symbol is z y Vertex: The point where three planes meet. The corner of a figure Vertically opposite angles: Angles that are formed opposite each other when two lines intersect
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
137
INTRODUCTION
GEOMETRY IS USED IN many areas, including surveying, building and graphics.
These elds all require a knowledge of angles, parallel lines and so on, and how to measure them. In this chapter, you will study angles, parallel lines, triangles, types of quadrilaterals and general polygons. Many exercises in this chapter on geometry need you to prove something or give reasons for your answers. The solutions to geometry proofs only give one method, but other methods are also acceptable.
DID YOU KNOW?

Geometry means measurement of the earth and comes from Greek. Geometry was used in ancient civilisations such as Babylonia. However, it was the Greeks who formalised the study of geometry, in the period between 500 BC and AD 300.
Notation
In order to show reasons for exercises, you must know how to name gures correctly. B The point is called B.
The interval (part of a line) is called AB or BA.
If AB and CD are parallel lines, we write AB < CD.
This angle is named +BAC or +CAB. It can sometimes be named +A. Angles can also be written as BAC or
^
BAC
This triangle is named 3ABC.
138
To name a quadrilateral, go around it: for example, BCDA is correct, but ACBD is not.
This quadrilateral is called ABCD.
Producing a line is the same as extending it.
Line AB is produced to C.
+ABD and +DBC are equal.
DB bisects +ABC.
AM is a median of D ABC.
AP is an altitude of D ABC.
Types of Angles
Acute angle
0c1 xc1 90c
139
Right angle
A right angle is 90c. Complementary angles are angles whose sum is 90c.
Obtuse angle
90c1 xc1180c
Straight angle
A straight angle is 180c. Supplementary angles are angles whose sum is 180c.
Reex angle
180c1 xc1 360c
Angle of revolution
An angle of revolution is 360c.
Vertically opposite angles
+AEC and +DEB are called vertically opposite angles. +AED and +CEB are also vertically opposite angles.
140
Vertically opposite angles are equal. That is, +AEC = +DEB and +AED = +CEB.
Proof
Let +AEC = xc Then +AED = 180c - xc (+CED straight angle, 180c) Now +DEB = 180c - (180c - xc) (+AEB straight angle, 180c) = xc Also +CEB = 180c - xc (+CED straight angle, 180c) ` +AEC = +DEB and +AED =+CEB
EXAMPLES
Find the values of all pronumerals, giving reasons. 1.
Solution
x + 154 = 180 (+ABC is a straight angle, 180c) x + 154 - 154 = 180 - 154 ` x = 26 2.
Solution
2x + 142 + 90 2x + 232 2x + 232 - 232 2x 2x 2 x = 360 (angle of revolution, 360c ) = 360 = 360 - 232 = 128 128 = 2 = 64
141
3.
Solution
y + 2y + 30 = 90 3y + 30 3y + 30 - 30 3y 3y 3 y 4. (right angle, 90c) = 90 = 90 - 30 = 60 60 3 = 20 =
Solution
x + 50 = 165 x + 50 - 50 = 165 - 50 x = 115 y = 180 - 165 = 15 w = 15 5. (+WZX and +YZV vertically opposite)
(+XZY straight angle, 180c) (+WZY and +XZV vertically opposite)
CONTINUED
142
Solution
a = 90 b + 53 + 90 = 180 b + 143 = 180 b + 143 - 143 = 180 - 143 b = 37 d = 37 c = 53 (vertically opposite angles) (straight angle, 180c)
(vertically opposite angles) (similarly)
6. Find the supplement of 57c 12l.
Solution
Supplementary angles add up to 180c. So the supplement of 57c 12l is 180c - 57c 12l = 122c 48l. 7. Prove that AB and CD are straight lines.
A D
(x + 30)c
C
(2 2x + 10)c E (5x + 30)c

B
(6x + 10)c
Solution
6x + 10 + x + 30 + 5x + 30 + 2x + 10 = 360 ^ angle of revolution h 14x + 80 - 80 = 360 - 80 14x = 280 14x 280 = 14 14 x = 20 +AEC = (20 + 30)c = 50c +DEB = (2 # 20 + 10)c = 50c These are equal vertically opposite angles. ` AB and CD are straight lines
143
4.1 Exercises
1. Find values of all pronumerals, giving reasons. (a)
yc 133c
(i)
(b)
(j)
(c) 2. Find the supplement of (a) 59c l (b) 107c 31 (c) 45c 12l Find the complement of (a) 48c (b) 34c 23l (c) 16c 57l Find the (i) complement and (ii) supplement of (a) 43c (b) 81c (c) 27c (d) 55c (e) 38c (f) 74c 53l (g) 42c 24l (h) 17c 39l (i) 63c 49l (j) 51c 9l (a) Evaluate x. (b) Find the complement of x. (c) Find the supplement of x.
(d) 3.
(e) 4.
(f)
(g) 5.
(h)
(2x + 30)c 142c
144
6.
Find the values of all pronumerals, giving reasons for each step of your working. (a)
8.
Prove that CD bisects +AFE. 9. Prove that AC is a straight line.

D
(b)
(3x + 70)c
(c)
A
(110 - 3x)c B
10. Show that +AED is a right angle. (d)

A B
(e)
(50 - 8y)c (5y - 20)c (3y + 60)c
(f)
7.
Prove that AC and DE are straight lines.
145
Parallel Lines
When a transversal cuts two lines, it forms pairs of angles. When the two lines are parallel, these pairs of angles have special properties.
Alternate angles
Alternate angles form a Z shape. Can you nd another set of alternate angles?
If the lines are parallel, then alternate angles are equal.
Corresponding angles
Corresponding angles form an F shape. There are 4 pairs of corresponding angles. Can you nd them?
If the lines are parallel, then corresponding angles are equal.
146
Cointerior angles
Cointerior angles form a U shape. Can you nd another pair?
If the lines are parallel, cointerior angles are supplementary (i.e. their sum is 180c).
Tests for parallel lines
If alternate angles are equal, then the lines are parallel.
If +AEF = +EFD, then AB < CD.
If corresponding angles are equal, then the lines are parallel.
If +BEF = +DFG, then AB < CD.
If cointerior angles are supplementary, then the lines are parallel.
If +BEF + +DFE = 180c, then AB < CD.
147
If 2 lines are both parallel to a third line, then the 3 lines are parallel to each other. That is, if AB < CD and EF < CD, then AB < EF.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of y, giving reasons for each step of your working.
Solution
+AGF = 180c - 125c = 55c ` y = 55c (+FGH is a straight angle) (+AGF, +CFE corresponding angles, AB < CD)
2. Prove EF < GH.
Solution
+CBF = 180c - 120c (+ABC is a straight angle) = 60c ` +CBF = +HCD = 60c But +CBF and +HCD are corresponding angles ` EF < GH
Can you prove this in a different way?
148
Think about the reasons for each step of your calculations.
4.2 Exercises
1. Find values of all pronumerals. (a) (h)
(i)
(b) (j)
(c)
2.
Prove AB < CD. (a)
(d)
(b) (e)
(c) (f)
(g)
104c
C 76c
149
(d)
A 52c B
(e)
B 138c E 23c F 115c G
A D
C E 128c F D H
Types of Triangles
Names of triangles
A scalene triangle has no two sides or angles equal.
A right (or right-angled) triangle contains a right angle.
The side opposite the right angle (the longest side) is called the hypotenuse. An isosceles triangle has two equal sides. The angles (called the base angles) opposite the equal sides in an isosceles triangle are equal.
An equilateral triangle has three equal sides and angles.
150
All the angles are acute in an acute-angled triangle.
An obtuse-angled triangle contains an obtuse angle.
Angle sum of a triangle
The sum of the interior angles in any triangle is 180c, that is, a + b + c = 180
Proof
Let +YXZ = ac, +XYZ = bc and +YZX = cc Draw line AB < YZ Then +BXZ = cc (+BXZ, +XZY alternate angles, AB < YZ) +AXY = bc (similarly) +YXZ + +AXY + +BXZ = 180c (+AXB is a straight angle) ` a + b + c = 180
151
Class Investigation
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Could you prove the base angles in an isosceles triangle are equal? Can there be more than one obtuse angle in a triangle? Could you prove that each angle in an equilateral triangle is 60c? Can a right-angled triangle be an obtuse-angled triangle? Can you nd an isosceles triangle with a right angle in it?
Exterior angle of a triangle
The exterior angle in any triangle is equal to the sum of the two opposite interior angles. That is, x+y=z
Proof
Let +ABC = xc , +BAC = yc and +ACD = zc Draw line CE < AB zc = +ACE + +ECD +ECD = xc +ACE = yc ` z=x+y (+ECD,+ABC corresponding angles, AB < CE) (+ACE,+BAC alternate angles, AB < CE)
EXAMPLES
Find the values of all pronumerals, giving reasons for each step. 1.
CONTINUED
152
Solution
x + 53 + 82 = 180 (angle sum of D 180c) x + 135 = 180 x + 135 - 135 = 180 - 135 x = 45 2.
Solution
+A = +C = x x + x + 48 = 180 2x + 48 = 180 2x + 48 - 48 = 180 - 48 2x = 132 132 2x = 2 2 x = 66 3. (base angles of isosceles D) (angle sum in a D 180c)
Solution
y + 35 = 141 (exterior angle of D) y + 35 - 35 = 141 - 35 ` y = 106 This example can be done using the interior sum of angles. +BCA = 180c - 141c = 39c y + 39 + 35 = 180 y + 74 = 180 y + 74 - 74 = 180 - 74 ` y = 106 (+BCD is a straight angle 180c) (angle sum of D 180c)
153
4.3 Exercises
1. Find the values of all pronumerals. (a) (h)
Think of the reasons for each step of your calculations.
(b) (i)
(j) (c)
(d)
(k)
(e)
2.
Show that each angle in an equilateral triangle is 60c. Find +ACB in terms of x.
3. (f)
(g)
154
4.
Prove AB < ED.
(d)
8. 5. Show D ABC is isosceles.
Prove D IJL is equilateral and D JKL is isosceles.
9. 6. Line CE bisects +BCD. Find the value of y, giving reasons.

C
In triangle BCD below, BC = BD. Prove AB ED.

A B 46c E D 88c
7.
Evaluate all pronumerals, giving reasons for your working. (a)
10. Prove that MN QP .

32c
(b)
75c
73c
(c)
155
Congruent Triangles
Two triangles are congruent if they are the same shape and size. All pairs of corresponding sides and angles are equal. For example:
We write D ABC / D XYZ.
Tests
To prove that two triangles are congruent, we only need to prove that certain combinations of sides or angles are equal.
Two triangles are congruent if SSS: all three pairs of corresponding sides are equal SAS: two pairs of corresponding sides and their included angles are equal AAS: two pairs of angles and one pair of corresponding sides are equal RHS: both have a right angle, their hypotenuses are equal and one other pair of corresponding sides are equal
The included angle is the angle between the 2 sides.
EXAMPLES
1. Prove that DOTS / DOQP where O is the centre of the circle.
CONTINUED
156
Solution
S: A: S: ` OS = OQ +TOS = +QOP OT = OP by SAS, DOTS / DOQP (equal radii) (vertically opposite angles) (equal radii)
2. Which two triangles are congruent?
Solution
To nd corresponding sides, look at each side in relation to the angles. For example, one set of corresponding sides is AB, DF, GH and JL. D ABC / D JKL (by SAS) 3. Show that triangles ABC and DEC are congruent. Hence prove that AB = ED.
Solution
A: +BAC = +CDE A: +ABC = +CED S: AC = CD ` by AAS, D ABC / D DEC ` AB = ED (alternate angles, AB < ED) (similarly) (given) (corresponding sides in congruent D s)
157
4.4 Exercises
1. Are these triangles congruent? If they are, prove that they are congruent. (a) 2. Prove that these triangles are congruent. (a)
(b)
B Y
4.7 m
110c
2.3
4.7
110 c
C
A
2 .3 m
(b)
(c)
(c)
(d)
(d) (e)
(e)
158
3.
Prove that (a) ABD is congruent to ACD (b) AB bisects BC, given D ABC is isosceles with AB = AC.
B
4.
Prove that triangles ABD and CDB are congruent. Hence prove that AD = BC.
(a) Prove that TABC and TADC are congruent. (b) Show that +ABC = +ADC. 7. The centre of a circle is O and AC is perpendicular to OB.
A
5.
In the circle below, O is the centre of the circle.

A D
O B
(a) Show that TOAB and TOBC are congruent. (b) Prove that +ABC = 90c. 8. ABCF is a trapezium with AF = BC and FE = CD. AE and BD are perpendicular to FC.
A B
(a) Prove that TOAB and TOCD are congruent. (b) Show that AB = CD. 6. In the kite ABCD, AB = AD and BC = DC.
(a) Show that TAFE and TBCD are congruent. (b) Prove that +AFE = +BCD.
159
9.
The circle below has centre O and OB bisects chord AC.
10. ABCD is a rectangle as shown below.

A B
C O B
D C
(a) Prove that TOAB is congruent to TOBC. (b) Prove that OB is perpendicular to AC.
(a) Prove that TADC is congruent to TBCD. (b) Show that diagonals AC and BD are equal.
Investigation
The triangle is used in many structures, for example trestle tables, stepladders and roofs. Find out how many different ways the triangle is used in the building industry. Visit a building site, or interview a carpenter. Write a report on what you nd.
Similar Triangles
Triangles, for example ABC and XYZ, are similar if they are the same shape but different sizes. As in the example, all three pairs of corresponding angles are equal. All three pairs of corresponding sides are in proportion (in the same ratio).
160
This shows that all 3 pairs of sides are in proportion.
We write: D ABC < ; D XYZ D XYZ is three times larger than D ABC. 6 XY = =3 AB 2 XZ 12 = =3 4 AC 15 YZ = =3 5 BC XY XZ YZ ` = = AB AC BC
Application
Similar figures are used in many areas, including maps, scale drawings, models and enlargements.
EXAMPLE
1. Find the values of x and y in similar triangles CBA and XYZ.
Solution
First check which sides correspond to one another (by looking at their relationships to the angles). YZ and BA, XZ and CA, and XY and CB are corresponding sides. ` XZ XY = CA CB y 5.4 = 4.9 3.6 3.6y = 4.9 # 5.4
161
y= YZ BA x 2 .3 3 .6x x
4 . 9 # 5 .4 3 .6 = 7.35 XY = CB 5 .4 = 3.6 = 2 . 3 # 5 .4 2 . 3 # 5 .4 = 3 .6 = 3.45
Tests
There are three tests for similar triangles. Two triangles are similar if: three pairs of corresponding angles are equal three pairs of corresponding sides are in proportion two pairs of sides are in proportion and their included angles are equal
If 2 pairs of angles are equal then the third pair must also be equal.
EXAMPLES
1. (a) Prove that triangles ABC and ADE are similar. (b) Hence nd the value of y, to 1 decimal place.
Solution
(a) +A is common +ABC = +ADE +ACB = +AED ` D ABC < ; D ADE (b) (corresponding angles, BC < DE) (similarly) (3 pairs of angles equal)
CONTINUED
162
AE = 2.4 + 1.9 = 4 .3 DE AE = BC AC y 4 .3 = 3 .7 2.4 2 .4 y = 3 . 7 # 4. 3 3 .7 # 4 .3 y= 2 .4 = 6 .6 2. Prove D XYZ < ; DWVZ.
Solution
XZ ZV YZ ZW XZ ` ZV +XZY 3 15 = 7 35 3 6 = = 7 14 YZ = ZW = +WZV =
(vertically opposite angles)
` since two pairs of sides are in proportion and their included angles are equal the triangles are similar
Ratio of intercepts
The following result comes from similar triangles.
When two (or more) transversals cut a series of parallel lines, the ratios of their intercepts are equal. That is, AB : BC = DE : EF AB DE or = EF BC
163
Proof
Draw DG and EH parallel to AC.
Then Also `
DG = AB EH = BC DG AB = EH BC +GDE = +HEF +DEG = +EFH +DGE = +EHF
(opposite sides of a parallelogram) (similarly) (1) (corresponding +s, DG < EH) (corresponding +s, BE < CF) (angle sum of Ds) (2)
; D EHF So D DGE < DG DE = ` EH EF From (1) and (2): AB DE = EF BC
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of x, to 3 signicant gures.
Solution
x 1.5 = ^ ratios of intercepts on parallel lines h 8.9 9.3 9.3x = 8.9 # 1.5 8.9 # 1.5 x= 9.3 = 1.44
CONTINUED
164
2. Evaluate x and y, to 1 decimal place.
Solution
Why?
Use either similar triangles or ratios of intercepts to nd x. You must use similar triangles to nd y. x 2.7 = 5.8 3. 4 2.7 # 5.8 x= 3.4 = 4.6 y 2.7 + 3.4 = 7.1 3.4 6.1 # 7.1 y= 3.4 = 12.7
These ratios come from intercepts on parallel lines.
These ratios come from similar triangles.
4.5 Exercises
1. Find the value of all pronumerals, to 1 decimal place where appropriate. (a) (c)
(d)
(e) (b)
165
(f)
46 c
9.1
a 14.3
5.
xc
8.9 25.7
Show that D ABC and D DEF are similar. Hence nd the value of y.
1.3
A
11
5 c
4.2 4.9 5.88

yc
46
1.82
E 52c
D 87c
C F
6.86
19
6.
(g)
The diagram shows two concentric circles with centre O. (a) Prove that DOAB < ; D OCD. (b) If radius OC = 5.9 cm and radius OB = 8.3 cm, and the length of CD = 3.7 cm, nd the length of AB, correct to 2 decimal places.
2.
Evaluate a and b to 2 decimal places. 7. (a) Prove that D ABC < ; D ADE. (b) Find the values of x and y, correct to 2 decimal places.
3.
Show that D ABC and DCDE are similar.
8.
ABCD is a parallelogram, with CD produced to E. Prove that D ABF < ; DCEB.
4.
EF bisects +GFD. Show that D DEF and D FGE are similar.
166
9.
Show that D AED < ; D ABC. Find the value of m.
(e)
10. Prove that D ABC and D ACD are similar. Hence evaluate x and y.
12. Show that AB AF (a) = BC FG AB AF (b) = AC AG BD DF (c) = CE EG
11. Find the values of all pronumerals, to 1 decimal place. (a) 13. Evaluate a and b correct to 1 decimal place.
(b)
14. Find the value of y to 2 signicant gures. (c)
(d) 15. Evaluate x and y correct to 2 decimal places.
167
Pythagoras Theorem
DID YOU KNOW?
The triangle with sides in the proportion 3:4:5 was known to be right angled as far back as ancient Egyptian times. Egyptian surveyors used to measure right angles by stretching out a rope with knots tied in it at regular intervals. They used the rope for forming right angles while building and dividing fields into rectangular plots. It was Pythagoras (572495 BC) who actually discovered the relationship between the sides of the right-angled triangle. He was able to generalise the rule to all right-angled triangles. Pythagoras was a Greek mathematician, philosopher and mystic. He founded the Pythagorean School, where mathematics, science and philosophy were studied. The school developed a brotherhood and performed secret rituals. He and his followers believed that the whole universe was based on numbers. Pythagoras was murdered when he was 77, and the brotherhood was disbanded.
The square on the hypotenuse in any right-angled triangle is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides. That is, c2 = a2 + b2 or c= a2 + b2
168
Proof
Draw CD perpendicular to AB Let AD = x, DB = y Then x + y = c In D ADC and D ABC, +A is common +ADC = +ACB = 90c D ADC < ; D ABC (equal corresponding +s) AC AD = AB AC x b c =b b 2 = xc D BDC < ; D ABC Similarly, BC DB = AB BC y a a= c a 2 = yc Now a 2 + b 2 = yc + xc = c ^y + xh = c ]c g = c2 If c 2 = a 2 + b 2, then D ABC must be right angled `
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of x, correct to 2 decimal places.
Solution
c2 = a2 + b2 x2 = 72 + 42 = 49 + 16 = 65
169
x = 65 = 8.06 to 2 decimal places 2. Find the exact value of y.
Solution
c2 = a2 + b2 82 = y2 + 42 64 = y 2 + 16 48 = y 2 ` y = 48 = 16 # 3 =4 3
Leave the answer in surd form for the exact answer.
3. Find the length of the diagonal in a square with sides 6 cm. Answer to 1 decimal place.
Solution
6 cm
6 cm
c =a +b = 62 + 62 = 72
2 2 2
c = 72 = 8 .5 So the length of the diagonal is 8.5 cm.
CONTINUED
170
4. A triangle has sides 5.1 cm, 6.8 cm and 8.5 cm. Prove that the triangle is right angled.
Solution
5.1 cm
8.5 cm
6.8 cm
Let c = 8.5 (largest side) and a and b the other two smaller sides. a 2 + b 2 = 5 . 1 2 + 6. 8 2 = 72.25 c 2 = 8. 5 2 = 72.25 ` c2 = a2 + b2 So the triangle is right angled.
4.6 Exercises
1. Find the value of all pronumerals, correct to 1 decimal place. (a) 2. Find the exact value of all pronumerals. (a)
(b) (b)
(c) (c)
(d) (d)
171
3.
Find the slant height s of a cone with diameter 6.8 m and perpendicular height 5.2 m, to 1 decimal place.
7.
Show that AC = 2 BC.
8. 4. Find the length of CE, correct to 1 decimal place, in this rectangular pyramid. AB = 8.6 cm and CF = 15.9 cm.
(a) Find the length of diagonal AC in the gure. (b) Hence, or otherwise, prove that AC is perpendicular to DC.
5.
Prove that D ABC is a right-angled triangle.
9.
Find the length of side AB in terms of b.
6.
Show that D XYZ is a right-angled isosceles triangle.

X
10. Find the exact ratio of

1 2
XY in YZ terms of x and y in D XYZ.
172
11. Show that the distance squared between A and B is given by d 2 = 13t 2 - 180t + 625.
16. A ramp is 4.5 m long and 1.3 m high. How far along the ground does the ramp go? Answer correct to one decimal place. 12. An 850 mm by 1200 mm gate is to have a diagonal timber brace to give it strength. To what length should the timber be cut, to the nearest mm?
4.5 m
1.3 m
17. The diagonal of a television screen is 72 cm. If the screen is 58 cm high, how wide is it? 18. A property has one side 1.3 km and another 1.1 km as shown with a straight road diagonally through the middle of the property. If the road is 1.5 km long, show that the property is not rectangular.
13. A rectangular park has a length of 620 m and a width of 287 m. If I walk diagonally across the park, how far do I walk? 14. The triangular garden bed below is to have a border around it. How many metres of border are needed, to 1 decimal place?
1.5 km 1.3 km
1.1 km
15. What is the longest length of stick that will t into the box below, to 1 decimal place?
19. Jodie buys a ladder 2 m long and wants to take it home in the boot of her car. If the boot is 1.2 m by 0.7 m, will the ladder t?
173
20. A chord AB in a circle with centre O and radius 6 cm has a perpendicular line OC as shown 4 cm long.
(a) By nding the lengths of AC and BC, show that OC bisects the chord. (b) By proving congruent triangles, show that OC bisects the chord.
O A
4 cm
C
6 cm
Types of Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral is any four-sided gure
In any quadrilateral the sum of the interior angles is 360c
Proof
Draw in diagonal AC +ADC + +DCA + +CAD = 180c (angle sum of D) +ABC + +BCA + +CAB = 180c (similarly) ` +ADC + +DCA + +CAD + +ABC + +BCA + +CAB = 360c That is, +ADC + +DCB + +CBA + +BAD = 360c
174
EXAMPLE
Find the value of i.
Solution
i + 120 + 56 + 90 = 360 ^ angle sum of quadrilateral h i + 266 = 360 i = 94
Parallelogram
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with opposite sides parallel PROPERTIES
These properties can all be proven.
opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal diagonals in a parallelogram bisect each other each diagonal bisects the parallelogram into two congruent triangles
TESTS A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if: both pairs of opposite sides are equal both pairs of opposite angles are equal one pair of sides is both equal and parallel the diagonals bisect each other
175
Rectangle
A rectangle is a parallelogram with one angle a right angle
If one angle is a right angle, then you can prove all angles are right angles.
PROPERTIES the same as for a parallelogram, and also diagonals are equal
TEST A quadrilateral is a rectangle if its diagonals are equal
Application
Builders use the property of equal diagonals to check if a rectangle is accurate. For example, a timber frame may look rectangular, but may be slightly slanting. Checking the diagonals makes sure that a building does not end up like the Leaning Tower of Pisa!
Rhombus
A rhombus is a parallelogram with a pair of adjacent sides equal PROPERTIES the same as for parallelogram, and also diagonals bisect at right angles diagonals bisect the angles of the rhombus
It can be proved that all sides are equal.
176
TESTS
A quadrilateral is a rhombus if: all sides are equal diagonals bisect each other at right angles
Square
A square is a rectangle with a pair of adjacent sides equal PROPERTIES
the same as for rectangle, and also diagonals are perpendicular diagonals make angles of 45c with the sides
Trapezium
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of sides parallel
Kite
A kite is a quadrilateral with two pairs of adjacent sides equal
177
EXAMPLES
1. Find the values of i, x and y, giving reasons.
Solution
i = 83c x = 6.7 cm y = 2.3 cm (opposite +s in < gram) (opposite sides in < gram) (opposite sides in < gram)
2. Find the length of AB in square ABCD as a surd in its simplest form if BD = 6 cm.
Solution
Let AB = x Since ABCD is a square, AB = AD = x (adjacent sides equal) Also, +A = 90c (by definition) By Pythagoras theorem: c2 = a2 + b2 62 = x2 + x2 36 = 2x 2 18 = x 2 ` x = 18 = 3 2 cm
CONTINUED
178
3. (a) Two equal circles have centres O and P respectively. Prove that OAPB is a rhombus. (b) Hence, or otherwise, show that AB is the perpendicular bisector of OP.
Solution
(a) OA = OB (equal radii) PA = PB (similarly) Since the circles are equal, OA = OB = PA = PB ` since all sides are equal, OAPB is a rhombus (b) The diagonals in any rhombus are perpendicular bisectors. Since OAPB is a rhombus, with diagonals AB and OP, AB is the perpendicular bisector of OP.
4.7 Exercises
1. Find the value of all pronumerals, giving reasons. (a) (e)
(f) (b)
(g) (c)
(d)
179
2.
Given AB = AE, prove CD is perpendicular to AD.
(c)
(d)
3.
(a) Show that +C = xc and +B = +D = (180 - x)c. (b) Hence show that the sum of angles of ABCD is 360c.
(e)
(f) 4. Find the value of a and b.

3x
x+
y
6.
In the gure, BD bisects +ADC. Prove BD also bisects +ABC.
5.
Find the values of all pronumerals, giving reasons. (a)
7.
Prove that each gure is a parallelogram. (a)
(b)
(b)
180
(c)
(d)
(e) (d)
8.
Evaluate all pronumerals. (a)
9.
The diagonals of a rhombus are 8 cm and 10 cm long. Find the length of the sides of the rhombus.
10. ABCD is a rectangle with +EBC = 59c . Find +ECB, +EDC and +ADE. (b)
(c)
11. The diagonals of a square are 8 cm long. Find the exact length of the side of the square. 12. In the rhombus, +ECB = 33c. Find the value of x and y.
ABCD is a kite
Polygons
A polygon is a closed plane gure with straight sides
A regular polygon has all sides and all interior angles equal
181
EXAMPLES
3-sided (equilateral triangle)
4-sided (square)
5-sided (pentagon)
6-sided (hexagon)
8-sided (octagon)
10-sided (decagon)
DID YOU KNOW?

Carl Gauss (17771855) was a famous German mathematician, physicist and astronomer. When he was 19 years old, he showed that a 17-sided polygon could be constructed using a ruler and compasses. This was a major achievement in geometry. Gauss made a huge contribution to the study of mathematics and science, including correctly calculating where the magnetic south pole is and designing a lens to correct astigmatism. He was the director of the Gttingen Observatory for 40 years. It is said that he did not become a professor of mathematics because he did not like teaching.
The sum of the interior angles of an n-sided polygon is given by S = 180n - 360 or S = (n - 2) # 180c
Proof
Draw any n-sided polygon and divide it into n triangles as shown. Then the total sum of angles is n # 180c or 180n. But this sum includes all the angles at O. So the sum of interior angles is 180n - 360c . That is, S = 180n - 360 = ] n - 2 g #180c
The sum of the exterior angles of any polygon is 360c
Proof
Draw any n-sided polygon. Then the sum of both the exterior and interior angles is n #180c. Sum of exterior angles = n #180c - sum of interior angles = 180n - ] 180n - 360c g = 180n - 180n + 360c = 360c
182
EXAMPLES
1. Find the sum of the interior angles of a regular polygon with 15 sides. How large is each angle?
Solution
n = 15 S = (n - 2)#180c = (15 - 2)#180c = 13#180c = 2340c Each angle has size 2340c' 15 = 156c. 2. Find the number of sides in a regular polygon whose interior angles are 140c.
Solution
Let n be the number of sides Then the sum of interior angles is 140n But S = (n - 2)#180c So 140n = (n - 2)#180c = 180n - 360 360 = 40n 9=n So the polygon has 9 sides.
There are n sides and so n angles, each 140c.
4.8 Exercises
1. Find the sum of the interior angles of (a) a pentagon (b) a hexagon (c) an octagon (d) a decagon (e) a 12-sided polygon (f) an 18-sided polygon Find the size of each interior angle of a regular (a) pentagon (b) octagon (c) 12-sided polygon (d) 20-sided polygon (e) 15-sided polygon 3. Find the size of each exterior angle of a regular (a) hexagon (b) decagon (c) octagon (d) 15-sided polygon Calculate the size of each interior angle in a regular 7-sided polygon, to the nearest minute. The sum of the interior angles of a regular polygon is 1980c. (a) How many sides has the polygon? (b) Find the size of each interior angle, to the nearest minute.
4.
2.
5.
183
6.
Find the number of sides of a regular polygon whose interior angles are 157c 30l. Find the sum of the interior angles of a regular polygon whose exterior angles are 18c. A regular polygon has interior angles of 156c. Find the sum of its interior angles. Find the size of each interior angle in a regular polygon if the sum of the interior angles is 5220c.
13. A regular octagon has a quadrilateral ACEG inscribed as shown.

B C
7.
8.
9.
10. Show that there is no regular polygon with interior angles of 145c. 11. Find the number of sides of a regular polygon with exterior angles (a) 40c (b) 30c (c) 45c (d) 36c (e) 12c 12. ABCDEF is a regular hexagon.
A B
Show that ACEG is a square. 14. In the regular pentagon below, show that EAC is an isosceles triangle.
A
(a) Show that triangles AFE and BCD are congruent. (b) Show that AE and BD are parallel.
15. (a) Find the size of each exterior angle in a regular polygon with side p. (b) Hence show that each interior 180 (p - 2) . angle is p
184
Areas
Most areas of plane gures come from the area of a rectangle.
Rectangle
A = lb
Square
A square is a special rectangle.
A = x2
Triangle
The area of a triangle is half the area of a rectangle.
A=
1 bh 2
Proof
Draw rectangle ABCD, where b = length and h = breadth.
185
area = bh Area D DEF = 1 1 area AEFD and area DCEF = area EBCF 2 2 1 area DCDE = area ABCD 2 1 That is, A = bh 2
Parallelogram
A = bh
The area of a parallelogram is the same as the area of two triangles.
Proof
In parallelogram ABCD, produce DC to E and draw BE perpendicular to CE. Then ABEF is a rectangle.
Area ABEF = bh In D ADF and D BCE, +AFD = +BEC = 90c AF = BE = h (opposite sides of a rectangle) AD = BC (opposite sides of a parallelogram) ` by RHS, D ADF / D BCE ` area D ADF = area D BCE So area ABCD = area ABEF = bh
Rhombus
1 xy 2 (x and y are lengths of diagonals) A=
186
Proof
Let AC = x and BD = y By properties of a rhombus, 1 1 AE = EC = x and DE = EB = y 2 2 Also +AEB = 90c Area D ABC = = Area D ADC = = ` total area of rhombus = = 1 1 x: y 2 2 1 xy 4 1 1 x: y 2 2 1 xy 4 1 1 xy + xy 4 4 1 xy 2
Trapezium
A=
1 h ( a + b) 2
Proof
Let DE = x Then DF = x + a ` FC = b - ] x + a g =b-x-a
187
Area trapezium = area D ADE + area rectangle ABFE + area D BFC 1 1 = xh + ah + (b - x - a) h 2 2 1 = h ( x + 2 a + b - x - a) 2 1 = h (a + b ) 2
Circle
A = rr 2
EXAMPLES
1. Find the area of this trapezium.
Solution
A= 1 h ( a + b) 2 1 = ( 4) ( 7 + 5) 2 = 2 # 12 = 24 m 2 2. Find the area of the shaded region in this gure.
3.7 cm
4.2 cm
12.1 cm
8.9 cm
CONTINUED
188
Solution
Area large rectangle = lb = 8.9 #12.1 = 107.69 cm 2 Area small rectangle = lb = 3 . 7 # 4 .2 ` = 15.54 cm 2 shaded area = 107.69 - 15.54 = 92.15 cm 2
3. A park with straight sides of length 126 m and width 54 m has semicircular ends as shown. Find its area, correct to 2 decimal places.
126 m
Solution
Area of 2 semi-circles = area of 1 circle 54 r = 2 = 27 A = rr 2 = r (27) 2 = 2290.22 m2 Area rectangle = 126 # 54 = 6804 Total area = 2290.22 + 6804 = 9094.22 m2
4.9 Exercises
1. Find the area of each gure. (a) (b)
54 m
189
(c)
(b)
(d)
(c)
(e) (d)
(f)
(e)
2 cm
(g) 4. Find the area of each gure. (a)
2.
Find the area of a rhombus with diagonals 2.3 m and 4.2 m. Find each shaded area. (a)
(b)
3.
cm
190
(c)
(d)
8. (e)
5.
Find the exact area of the gure.
The dimensions of a battleaxe block of land are shown below. (a) Find its area. (b) A house in the district where this land is can only take up 55% of the land. How large (to the nearest m 2) can the area of the house be? (c) If the house is to be a rectangular shape with width 8.5 m, what will its length be?
6.
Find the area of this gure, correct to 4 signicant gures. The arch is a semicircle.
9.
A rhombus has one diagonal 25 cm long and its area is 600 cm 2 . Find the length of (a) its other diagonal and (b) its side, to the nearest cm.
7.
Jenny buys tiles for the oor of her bathroom (shown top next column) at $45.50 per m 2 . How much do they cost altogether?
10. The width w of a rectangle is a quarter the size of its length. If the width is increased by 3 units while the length remains constant, nd the amount of increase in its area in terms of w.
191
Test Yourself 4
1. Find the values of all pronumerals (a) 2. Prove that AB and CD are parallel lines.
(b)
(c)
3.
Find the area of the gure, to 2 decimal places.
(d)
4.
(a) Prove that triangles ABC and ADE are similar. (b) Evaluate x and y to 1 decimal place.
(e)
(O is the centre of the circle.)
(f)
5.
Find the size of each interior angle in a regular 20-sided polygon. Find the volume of a cylinder with radius 5.7 cm and height 10 cm, correct to 1 decimal place. Find the perimeter of the triangle below.
The perimeter is the distance around the outside of the figure.
6.
(g)
7.
192
8.
(a) Prove triangles ABC and ADC are congruent in the kite below.
12. Triangle ABC is isosceles, and AD bisects BC.
(b) Prove triangle AOB and COD are congruent. (O is the centre of the circle.)
(a) Prove triangles ABD and ACD are congruent. (b) Prove AD and BC are perpendicular. 13. Triangle ABC is isosceles, with AB = AC. Show that triangle ACD is isosceles.
9.
Find the area of the gure below.
14. Prove that opposite sides in any parallelogram are equal. 15. A rhombus has diagonals 6 cm and 8 cm. (a) Find the area of the rhombus. (b) Find the length of its side. 16. The interior angles in a regular polygon are 140c . How many sides has the polygon? 17. Prove AB and CD are parallel. AF AB . = AG AC
10. Prove triangle ABC is right angled.
11. Prove
193
18. Find the area of the gure below.

6 cm 5 cm 8 cm 2 cm
20. (a) Prove triangles ABC and DEF are similar. (b) Evaluate x to 1 decimal place.
10 cm
19. Prove that z = x + y in the triangle below.
1. Find the value of x. 4. Given +BAD =+DBC, show that D ABD and D BCD are similar and hence nd d.
2.
Evaluate x, y and z.
5.
Prove that ABCD is a parallelogram. AB = DC.
3.
Find the sum of the interior angles of a regular 11-sided polygon. How large is each exterior angle?
6.
Find the shaded area.
194
7.
Prove that the diagonals in a square make angles of 45c with the sides. Prove that the diagonals in a kite are perpendicular. Prove that MN is parallel to XY.
12. Find the values of x and y correct to 1 decimal place.
8.
9.
13. Find the values of x and y, correct to 2 decimal places.
10. Evaluate x.
11. The letter Z is painted on a billboard.
14. ABCD is a square and BD is produced to 1 E such that DE = BD. 2 (a) Show that ABCE is a kite. 2x (b) Prove that DE = units when 2 sides of the square are x units long.
(a) Find the area of the letter. (b) Find the exact perimeter of the letter.
5
Functions and Graphs
TERMINOLOGY
Arc of a curve: Part or a section of a curve between two points Asymptote: A line towards which a curve approaches but never touches Cartesian coordinates: Named after Descartes. A system of locating points (x, y) on a number plane. Point (x, y) has Cartesian coordinates x and y Curve: Another word for arc. When a function consists of all values of x on an interval, the graph of y = f ] x g is called a curve y = f ] x g Dependent variable: A variable is a symbol that can represent any value in a set of values. A dependent variable is a variable whose value depends on the value chosen for the independent variable Direct relationship: Occurs when one variable varies directly with another i.e. as one variable increases, so does the other or as one variable decreases so does the other Discrete: Separate values of a variable rather than a continuum. The values are distinct and unrelated Domain: The set of possible values of x in a given domain for which a function is defined Even function: An even function has line symmetry (reflection) about the y-axis, and f ] - x g = - f ] x g Function: For each value of the independent variable x, there is exactly one value of y, the dependent variable. A vertical line test can be used to determine if a relationship is a function Independent variable: A variable is independent if it may be chosen freely within the domain of the function Odd function: An odd function has rotational symmetry about the origin (0, 0) and where f ] - x g = - f ] x g Ordered pair: A pair of variables, one independent and one dependent, that together make up a single point in the number plane, usually written in the form (x, y) Ordinates: The vertical or y coordinates of a point are called ordinates Range: The set of real numbers that the dependent variable y can take over the domain (sometimes called the image of the function) Vertical line test: A vertical line will only cut the graph of a function in at most one point. If the vertical line cuts the graph in more than one point, it is not a function
Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs
201
INTRODUCTION
FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS are used in many areas, such as mathematics, science and economics. In this chapter you will study functions, function notation and how to sketch graphs. Some of these graphs will be studied in more detail in later chapters.
DID YOU KNOW?

The number plane is called the Cartesian plane after Rene Descartes (15961650). He was known as one of the first modern mathematicians along with Pierre de Fermat (16011665). Descartes used the number plane to develop analytical geometry. He discovered that any equation with two unknown variables can be represented by a line. The points in the number plane can be called Cartesian coordinates. Descartes used letters at the beginning of the alphabet to stand for numbers that are known, and letters near the end of the alphabet for unknown numbers. This is why we still use x and y so often! Do a search on Descartes to find out more details of his life and work. Descartes
Functions
Denition of a function
Many examples of functions exist both in mathematics and in real life. These occur when we compare two different quantities. These quantities are called variables since they vary or take on different values according to some pattern. We put these two variables into a grouping called an ordered pair.
202
EXAMPLES
1. Eye colour
Name
Anne
Jacquie Donna Hien Brown Grey Brown
Marco Green
Russell Brown
Trang Brown
Colour Blue
Ordered pairs are (Anne, Blue), (Jacquie, Brown), (Donna, Grey), (Hien, Brown), (Marco, Green), (Russell, Brown) and (Trang, Brown). 2. y = x + 1 x y 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
The ordered pairs are (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4) and (4, 5). 3.
A B C 3 D E 4 1 2
The ordered pairs are (A, 1), (B, 1), (C, 4), (D, 3) and (E, 2).
Notice that in all the examples, there was only one ordered pair for each variable. For example, it would not make sense for Anne to have both blue and brown eyes! (Although in rare cases some people have one eye thats a different colour from the other.) A relation is a set of ordered points (x, y) where the variables x and y are related according to some rule. A function is a special type of relation. It is like a machine where for every INPUT there is only one OUTPUT.
INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT
The rst variable (INPUT) is called the independent variable and the second (OUTPUT) the dependent variable. The process is a rule or pattern.
203
For example, in y = x + 1, we can use any number for x (the independent variable), say x = 3. When x = 3 y=3+1 =4 As this value of y depends on the number we choose for x, y is called the dependent variable.
A function is a relationship between two variables where for every independent variable, there is only one dependent variable. This means that for every x value, there is only one y value.
While we often call the independent variable x and the dependent variable y, there are other pronumerals we could use. You will meet some of these in this course.
Investigation
When we graph functions in mathematics, the independent variable (usually the x-value) is on the horizontal axis while the dependent variable (usually the y-value) is on the vertical axis. In other areas, the dependent variable goes on the horizontal axis. Find out in which subjects this happens at school by surveying teachers or students in different subjects. Research different types of graphs on the Internet to nd some examples.
Here is an example of a relationship that is NOT a function. Can you see the difference between this example and the previous ones?
A B C 3 D E 4
1 2
In this example the ordered pairs are (A, 1), (A, 2), (B, 1), (C, 4), (D, 3) and (E, 2). Notice that A has two dependent variables, 1 and 2. This means that it is NOT a function.
204
Here are two examples of graphs on a number plane. 1.

y
2.
There is a very simple test to see if these graphs are functions. Notice that in the rst example, there are two values of y when x = 0. The y-axis passes through both these points.
y
205
There are also other x values that give two y values around the curve. If we drew a vertical line anywhere along the curve, it would cross the curve in two places everywhere except one point. Can you see where this is? In the second graph, a vertical line would only ever cross the curve in one place. So when a vertical line cuts a graph in more than one place, it shows that it is not a function.
If a vertical line cuts a graph only once anywhere along the graph, the graph is a function.
y
If a vertical line cuts a graph in more than one place anywhere along the graph, the graph is not a function.
y
206
EXAMPLES
1. Is this graph a function?
Solution
You will learn how to sketch these graphs later in this chapter.
A vertical line only cuts the graph once. So the graph is a function. 2. Is this circle a function?
Solution
A vertical line can cut the curve in more than one place. So the circle is not a function.
207
3. Does this set of ordered pairs represent a function? ^ - 2 , 3 h , ^ - 1, 4 h , ^ 0 , 5 h , ^ 1 , 3 h , ^ 2 , 4 h
Solution
For each x value there is only one y value, so this set of ordered pairs is a function. 4. Is this a function?
y
Solution
y
Although it looks like this is not a function, the open circle at x = 3 on the top line means that x = 3 is not included, while the closed circle on the bottom line means that x = 3 is included on this line. So a vertical line only touches the graph once at x = 3. The graph is a function.
208
5.1 Exercises
Which of these curves are functions? 1. 6.
2.
7.
3.
8.
4.
9.
^ 1, 3 h, ^ 2, -1 h, ^ 3, 3 h, ^ 4, 0 h
10. ^ 1, 3 h, ^ 2, -1 h, ^ 2, 7 h, ^ 4, 0 h 11.
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
5. 12.
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
13.
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
209
14. Name Ben Paul Pierre Hamish Jacob Lee Pierre Lien Sport Tennis Football Tennis Football Football Badminton Football Badminton 15. A B C D E F G 3 4 7 3 5 7 4
Function notation
If y depends on what value we give x in a function, then we can say that y is a function of x. We can write this as y = f ] x g.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of y when x = 3 in the equation y = x + 1.
Solution
When x = 3: y = x +1 = 3+1 =4 2. If f ] x g = x + 1, evaluate f (3).
Solution
f ]x g = x + 1 f ]3 g = 3 + 1 =4
Notice that these two examples are asking for the same value and f (3) is the value of the function when x = 3.
If y = f ] x g then f (a) is the value of y at the point on the function where x = a
210
EXAMPLES
1. If f ] x g = x 2 + 3x + 1, nd f ] - 2 g .
Solution
This is the same as finding y when x = - 2.
f ( - 2) = ] - 2 g 2 + 3 (- 2) + 1 =4-6+1 = -1 2. If f ] x g = x 3 - x 2, nd the value of f ] - 1 g .
Solution
f (x) = x 3 - x 2 f (- 1) = ] - 1 g 3 - ] - 1 g 2 = -1 - 1 = -2 3. Find the values of x for which f ] x g = 0, given that f ] x g = x 2 + 3x - 10.
Solution
f (x) = 0
Putting f (x) = 0 is different from finding f (0) . Follow this example carefully.
i.e.
x + 3x - 10 = 0 ( x + 5 ) ( x - 2) = 0 x + 5 = 0, x-2=0 x = -5 x=2
2
4. Find f ] 3 g, f ] 2 g, f ] 0 g and f ] - 4 g if f ] x g is dened as 3x + 4 when x $ 2 f ]x g = ) - 2x when x 1 2.

Use f (x) = 3x + 4 when x is 2 or more, and use f (x) = - 2x when x is less than 2.
Solution
f (3 ) = 3 ( 3) + 4 = 13 f (2 ) = 3 ( 2) + 4 = 10 f (0) = - 2 (0) =0 f (- 4) = - 2 ( - 4) =8 5. Find the value of x2 g ] x g = * 2x - 1 5 since since since 3$2 2$2 012
since -4 1 2
g ] 1 g + g ] - 2 g - g ] 3 g if when x 2 2 when - 1 # x # 2 when x 1 - 1
211
Solution
g (1 ) = 2 ( 1) - 1 =1 g (- 2) = 5
2
since -1 # 1 # 2 since - 2 1 - 1
g (3) = 3 since 3 2 2 =9 So g (1) + g (- 2) - g (3) = 1 + 5 - 9 = -3
DID YOU KNOW?

Leonhard Euler (170783), from Switzerland, studied functions and invented the term f (x) for function notation. He studied theology, astronomy, medicine, physics and oriental languages as well as mathematics, and wrote more than 500 books and articles on mathematics. He found time between books to marry and have 13 children, and even when he went blind he kept on having books published.
5.2 Exercises
1. Given f ] x g = x + 3, nd f ] 1 g and f ]-3 g. If h ] x g = x 2 - 2, nd h ] 0 g, h ] 2 g and h ] - 4 g . If f ] x g = - x 2, nd f ] 5 g, f ] - 1 g, f ] 3 g and f ] - 2 g . Find the value of f ] 0 g + f ] - 2 g if f ] x g = x 4 - x 2 + 1. Find f ] - 3 g if f ] x g = 2x 3 - 5x + 4. If f ] x g = 2x - 5, nd x when f ] x g = 13. Given f ] x g = x + 3, nd any values of x for which f ] x g = 28.
2
10. If f ] x g = 2x - 9, nd f ^ p h and f ]x + h g. 11. Find g ] x - 1 g when g ] x g = x 2 + 2x + 3. 12. If f ] x g = x 3 - 1, nd f ] k g as a product of factors. 13. Given f ] t g = t 2 + 2t + 1, nd t when f ] t g = 0. Also nd any values of t for which f ] t g = 9. 14. Given f ] t g = t 4 + t 2 - 5, nd the value of f ] b g - f ] - b g . 15. f ] x g = ) x3 for x 2 1 x for x # 1 Find f ] 5 g, f ] 1 g and ] - 1 g .
We can use pronumerals other than f for functions.
2.
3.
4.
5. 6.
7.
8.
If f ] x g = 3 x, nd x when 1 f ]x g = . 27 Find values of z for which f ] z g = 5 given f ] z g = 2z + 3 .
9.
Z 2x - 4 if x $ 1 ] 16. f ] x g = [x + 3 if -1 1 x 1 1 ] 2 x if x # -1 \ Find the values of f ] 2 g - f ] - 2 g + f ] -1 g .
212
17. Find g ] 3 g + g ] 0 g + g ] - 2 g if x+1 when x $ 0 g ]x g = ) - 2x + 1 when x 1 0 18. Find the value of f ] 3 g - f ] 2 g + 2f ] - 3 g when x f ]x g = * x 4
2
21. If f ] x g = x 2 5x + 4, nd f ] x + h g - f ] x g in its simplest form. f ]x + h g - f ]x g 22. Simplify where h f ] x g = 2x 2 + x 23. If f ] x g = 5x - 4, nd f ] x g - f ] c g in its simplest form. 24. Find the value of f ^ k 2 h if 3x + 5 for x $ 0 f ]x g = * 2 x for x 1 0 Z 3 25. If when x $ 3 ]x f ] x g = [5 when 0 1 x 1 3 ] 2 x - x + 2 when x # 0 \ evaluate (a) f (0) (b) f ] 2 g - f ] 1 g (c) f ^ - n 2 h
for x 2 2 for -2 # x # 2 for x 1 -2
19. Find the value of f ] - 1 g - f ] 3 g if f (x) = * 20. If f ] x g = x3 - 1 2x 2 + 3x - 1 for x $ 2 for x 1 2
x 2 - 2x - 3 x-3
(a) evaluate f (2) (b) explain why the function does not exist for x = 3 (c) by taking several x values close to 3, nd the value of y that the function is moving towards as x moves towards 3.
Graphing Techniques
You may have previously learned how to draw graphs by completing a table of values and then plotting points. In this course, you will learn some other techniques that will allow you to sketch graphs by showing their important features.
Intercepts
One of the most useful techniques is to nd the x- and y-intercepts.
Everywhere on the x-axis, y = 0 and everywhere on the y-axis x = 0 .
For x-intercept, y = 0 For y-intercept, x = 0
213
EXAMPLE
Find the x- and y-intercepts of the function f ] x g = x 2 + 7x - 8.
Solution
For x-intercept: y = 0 0 = x 2 + 7x - 8 = ]x + 8 g]x - 1 g x + 8 = 0, x-1=0 x = - 8, x=1 For y-intercept: x = 0 y = ] 0 g2 + 7 ] 0 g - 8 = -8
This is the same as y = x 2 + 7x - 8.
You will use the intercepts to draw graphs in the next section in this chapter.
Domain and range

You have already seen that the x-coordinate is called the independent variable and the y-coordinate is the dependent variable.
The set of all real numbers x for which a function is dened is called the domain. The set of real values for y or f (x) as x varies is called the range (or image) of f.
EXAMPLE
Find the domain and range of f ] x g = x 2 .
Solution
You can see the domain and range from the graph, which is the parabola y = x 2 .
y
CONTINUED
214
Notice that the parabola curves outwards gradually, and will take on any real value for x. However, it is always on or above the x-axis. Domain: {all real x} Range: {y: y $ 0} You can also nd the domain and range from the equation y = x 2. Notice that you can substitute any value for x and you will nd a value of y. However, all the y-values are positive or zero since squaring any number will give a positive answer (except zero).
Odd and even functions

When you draw a graph, it can help to know some of its properties, for example, whether it is increasing or decreasing on an interval or arc of the curve (part of the curve lying between two points). If a curve is increasing, as x increases, so does y, and the curve is moving upwards, looking from left to right.
If a curve is decreasing, then as x increases, y decreases and the curve moves downwards from left to right.
215
EXAMPLES
1. State the domain over which each curve is increasing and decreasing.
y
x1
x2
x3
Solution
The left-hand side of the parabola is decreasing and the right side is increasing. So the curve is increasing for x 2 x2 and the curve is decreasing when x 1 x2. 2.
y
The curve isnt increasing or decreasing at x2. We say that it is stationary at that point. You will study stationary points and further curve sketching in the HSC Course.
x1
x2
x3
Solution
The left-hand side of the curve is increasing until it reaches the y-axis (where x = 0). It then turns around and decreases until x3 and then increases again. So the curve is increasing for x 1 0, x 2 x 3 and the curve is decreasing for 0 1 x 1 x 3 .
Notice that the curve is stationary at x = 0 and x = x 3 .
216
As well as looking at where the curve is increasing and decreasing, we can see if the curve is symmetrical in some way. You have already seen that the parabola is symmetrical in earlier stages of mathematics and you have learned how to nd the axis of symmetry. Other types of graphs can also be symmetrical. Functions are even if they are symmetrical about the y-axis. They have line symmetry (reection) about the y-axis. This is an even function:
y
For even functions, f ] x g = f ] - x g for all values of x. Functions are odd if they have point symmetry about the origin. A graph rotated 180 about the origin gives the original graph. This is an odd function:
y
For odd functions, f ] - x g = - f ] x g for all values of x in the domain.
217
EXAMPLES
1. Show that f ] x g = x 2 + 3 is an even function.
Solution
f ] - x g = ] - x g2 + 3 = x2 + 3 = f ]x g ` f ] x g = x 2 + 3 is an even function 2. Show that f ] x g = x 3 - x is an odd function.
Solution
f ] - x g = ] - x g3 - ] - x g = -x3 + x = - ^ x3 - x h = -f ]x g ` f ] x g = x 3 - x is an odd function
Investigation
Explore the family of graphs of f ] x g = x n. For what values of n is the function even? For what values of n is the function odd? Which families of functions are still even or odd given k? Let k take on different values, both positive and negative. 1. f ] x g = kx n 2. f ] x g = x n + k 3. f ] x g = ] x + k gn
k is called a parameter. Some graphics calculators and computer programs use parameters to show how changing values of k change the shape of graphs.
5.3 Exercises
1. Find the x- and y-intercept of each function. (a) y = 3x - 2 (b) 2x - 5y + 20 = 0 (c) x + 3y - 12 = 0 (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) f ] x g = x 2 + 3x f ] x g = x2 - 4 p ] x g = x 2 + 5x + 6 y = x 2 - 8x + 15 p ] x g = x3 + 5
218
x+3 ]x ! 0 g x 2 (j) g ] x g = 9 - x (i) y = 2. Show that f ] x g = f ] - x g where f ] x g = x 2 - 2. What type of function is it? If f ] x g = x 3 + 1, nd (a) f ^ x 2 h (b) 6 f (x) @ 2 (c) f ] - x g (d) Is it an even or odd function? Show that g ] x g = x 8 + 3x 4 - 2x 2 is an even function. Show that f (x) is odd, where f ] x g = x. Show that f ] x g = x 2 - 1 is an even function. Show that f ] x g = 4x - x 3 is an odd function. Prove that f ] x g = x 4 + x 2 is an even function and hence nd f ]x g - f ]-x g. Are these functions even, odd or neither? x3 (a) y = 4 x - x2 1 (b) y = 3 x -1 3 (c) f ] x g = 2 x -4 x-3 (d) y = x+3 x3 (e) f ] x g = 5 x - x2 10. If n is a positive integer, for what values of n is the function f ] x g = xn (a) even? (b) odd? 11. Can the function f ] x g = x n + x ever be (a) even? (b) odd?
3.
12. For the functions below, state (i) the domain over which the graph is increasing (ii) the domain over which the graph is decreasing (iii) whether the graph is odd, even or neither. y (a)
4.
5.
6.
(b)
7.
8.
9.
(c)
-2
219
(d)
4 2
(e)
-2
-1 -2 -4
Investigation
Use a graphics calculator or a computer with graphing software to sketch graphs and explore what effect different constants have on each type of graph. If your calculator or computer does not have the ability to use parameters (this may be called dynamic graphing), simply draw different graphs by choosing several values for k. Make sure you include positive and negative numbers and fractions for k. Alternatively, you may sketch these by hand. 1. Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k. (a) y = kx (b) y = kx 2 (c) y = kx 3 (d) y = kx 4 k (e) y = x What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs? Could you give a general comment about y = k f ] x g? 2. Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k. (a) y = ] x + k g 2 (b) y = x 2 + k (c) y = x 3 + k (d) y = x 4 + k 1 (e) y = x + k What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs? Could you give a general comment about y = f ] x g + k?
CONTINUED
220
3. Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k. (a) y = x + k (b) y = ] x + k g2 (c) y = ] x + k g3 (d) y = ] x + k g4 1 (e) y = x+k What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs? Could you give a general comment about y = f ] x + k g?
When k 2 0 , the graph moves to the left and when k 1 0 , the graph moves to the right.
For the family of functions y = k f ] x g, as k varies, the function changes its slope or steepness. For the family of functions y = f ] x g + k, as k varies, the graph moves up or down (vertical translation). For the family of functions y = f ] x + k g, as k varies, the graph moves left or right (horizontal translation). Notice that the shape of most graphs is generally the same regardless of the parameter k. For example, the parabola still has the same shape even though it may be narrower or wider or upside down. This means that if you know the shape of a graph by looking at its equation, you can sketch it easily by using some of the graphing techniques in this chapter rather than a time-consuming table of values. It also helps you to understand graphs more and makes it easier to nd the domain and range. You have already sketched some of these graphs in previous years.
Linear Function
A linear function is a function whose graph is a straight line.
Gradient form: y = mx + b has gradient m and y-intercept b General form: ax + by + c = 0
Investigation
Are straight line graphs always functions? Can you nd an example of a straight line that is not a function? Are there any odd or even straight lines? What are their equations?
221
Use a graphics calculator or a computer with dynamic graphing capability to explore the effect of a parameter on a linear function, or choose different values of k (both positive and negative). Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k 1. y = kx 2. y = x + k 3. y = mx + b where m and b are both parameters What effect do the parameters m and b have on these graphs?
EXAMPLE
Sketch the function f ] x g = 3x - 5 and state its domain and range.
Solution
This is a linear function. It could be written as y = 3x - 5. Find the intercepts y For x-intercept: y = 0 6 0 = 3x - 5 5 5 = 3x 2 =x 3 For y-intercept: x = 0 1 y = 3 ]0 g - 5 = -5
4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 12 3 1 2 3 4 x
Notice that the line extends over the whole of the number plane, so that it covers all real numbers for both the domain and range. Domain: {all real x} Range: {all real y}
Notice too, that you can substitute any real number into the equation of the function for x, and any real number is possible for y.
The linear function ax + by + c = 0 has domain {all real x} and range {all real y} where a and b are non-zero
Special lines
Horizontal and vertical lines have special equations.
222
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch y = 2 on a number plane. What is its domain and range?
Solution
x can be any value and y is always 2. Some of the points on the line will be (0, 2), (1, 2) and (2, 2). This gives a horizontal line with y-intercept 2.
y 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 x
Domain: " all real x , Range: " y: y = 2 , 2. Sketch x = - 1 on a number plane and state its domain and range.
Solution
y can be any value and x is always - 1. Some of the points on the line will be ^ - 1, 0 h, ^ - 1, 1 h and ^ - 1, 2 h . This gives a vertical line with x-intercept - 1.
y 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 3 4 x
Domain: " x: x = - 1 , Range: " all real y ,
223
x = a is a vertical line with x-intercept a Domain: ! x: x = a + Range: {all real y} y = b is a horizontal line with y-intercept b Domain: {all real x} Range: " y: y = b ,
5.4 Exercises
1. Find the x- and y-intercepts of each function. (a) y = x - 2 (b) f ] x g = 2x + 3 (c) 2x + y - 1 = 0 (d) x - y + 3 = 0 (e) 3x - 6y - 2 = 0 Draw the graph of each straight line. (a) x = 4 (b) x - 3 = 0 (c) y = 5 (d) y + 1 = 0 (e) f ] x g = 2x - 1 (f) y = x + 4 (g) f ] x g = 3x + 2 (h) x + y = 3 (i) x - y - 1 = 0 (j) 2x + y - 3 = 0 3. Find the domain and range of (a) 3x - 2y + 7 = 0 (b) y = 2 (c) x = - 4 (d) x - 2 = 0 (e) 3 - y = 0 Which of these linear functions are even or odd? (a) y = 2x (b) y = 3 (c) x = 4 (d) y = - x (e) y = x By sketching x - y - 4 = 0 and 2x + 3y - 3 = 0 on the same set of axes, nd the point where they meet.
4.
2.
5.
224
Quadratic Function
The quadratic function gives the graph of a parabola.
f ] x g = ax 2 + bx + c is the general equation of a parabola. If a 2 0 the parabola is concave upwards
If a 1 0 the parabola is concave downwards
The pronumeral a is called the coefficient of x 2.
Applications
The parabola shape is used in many different applications as it has special properties that are very useful. For example if a light is placed inside the parabola at a special place (called the focus), then all light rays coming from this light and bouncing off the parabola shape will radiate out parallel to each other, giving a strong light. This is how car headlights work. Satellite dishes also use this property of the parabola, as sound coming in to the dish will bounce back to the focus.
225
The lens in a camera and glasses are also parabola shaped. Some bridges look like they are shaped like a parabola, but they are often based on the catenary. Research the parabola and catenary on the Internet for further information.
Investigation
Is the parabola always a function? Can you nd an example of a parabola that is not a function? Use a graphics calculator or a computer with dynamic graphing capability to explore the effect of a parameter on a quadratic function, or choose different values of k (both positive and negative). Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k. 1. y = kx 2 2. y = x 2 + k 3. y = ] x + k g2 4. y = x 2 + kx What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs? Which of these families are even functions? Are there any odd quadratic functions?
226
EXAMPLES
1. (a) Sketch the graph of y = x 2 - 1, showing intercepts. (b) State the domain and range.
Solution
(a) This is the graph of a parabola. Since a 2 0, it is concave upward For x-intercept: y = 0 0=x -1 1 = x2 !1 = x For y-intercept: x = 0
2
y 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 - 2 - 1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 1 3 4 5 x
y = 02 - 1 = -1
(b) From the graph, the curve is moving outwards and will extend to all real x values. The minimum y value is - 1. Domain: " all real x , Range: " y: y $ -1 , 2. Sketch f ] x g = ] x + 1 g 2.
Solution
This is a quadratic function. We nd the intercepts to see where the parabola will lie. Alternatively, you may know from your work on parameters that f ] x g = ] x + a g 2 will move the function f ] x g = x 2 horizontally a units to the left. So f ] x g = ] x + 1 g 2 moves the parabola f ] x g = x 2 1 unit to the left. For x-intercept: y = 0 0 = ]x + 1 g2 x+1=0 x = -1 For y-intercept: x = 0 y = ]0 + 1 g2 =1
227
y 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 x
3. For the quadratic function f ] x g = x 2 + x - 6 (a) Find the x- and y-intercepts (b) Find the minimum value of the function (c) State the domain and range (d) For what values of x is the curve decreasing?
Solution
(a) For x-intercept: y = 0 This means f ] x g = 0 0 = x2 + x - 6 = ]x + 3 g]x - 2 g x + 3 = 0, x - 2 = 0 x = - 3, x = 2 For y-intercept: x = 0 f ] 0 g = ] 0 g2 + ] 0 g - 6 = -6 (b) Since a 2 0, the quadratic function has a minimum value. Since the parabola is symmetrical, this will lie halfway between the x-intercepts. Halfway between x = - 3 and x = 2: -3 + 2 1 =2 2 1 Minimum value is f c - m 2 1 1 2 1 f c- m = c- m + c- m - 6 2 2 2 1 1 = - -6 4 2 1 = -6 4 1 So the minimum value is - 6 . 4
CONTINUED
You will learn more about this in Chapter 9.
228
(c) Sketching the quadratic function gives a concave upward parabola.

y 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
-1 , -6 1 4
2
From the graph, notice that the parabola is gradually going outwards and will include all real x values. Since the minimum value is - 6 1 , all y values are greater than this. 4 Domain: " all real x , 1 Range: ' y: y $ -6 1 4 (d) The curve decreases down to the minimum point and then 1 increases. So the curve is decreasing for all x 1 - . 2 4. (a) Find the x- and y-intercepts and the maximum value of the quadratic function f ] x g = - x 2 + 4x + 5. (b) Sketch the function and state the domain and range. (c) For what values of x is the curve increasing?
Solution
(a) For x-intercept: y = 0 So f ]x g = 0 0 = - x 2 + 4x + 5 x 2 - 4x - 5 = 0 ]x - 5 g]x + 1 g = 0 x - 5 = 0, x + 1 = 0 x = 5, x = -1 For y-intercept: x = 0 f ] 0 g = - ] 0 g2 + 4 ] 0 g + 5 =5
229
Since a 1 0, the quadratic function is concave downwards and has a maximum value halfway between the x-intercepts x = - 1 and x = 5. -1 + 5 =2 2 f ]2 g = -]2 g 2+ 4 ]2 g + 5 =9 So the maximum value is 9. (b) Sketching the quadratic function gives a concave downward parabola.
y
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 5 6
From the graph, the function can take on all real numbers for x, but the maximum value for y is 9. Domain: " all real x , Range: " y: y # 9 , (c) From the graph, the function is increasing on the left of the maximum point and decreasing on the right. So the function is increasing when x 1 2.
5.5 Exercises
1. Find the x- and y-intercepts of each function. (a) y = x 2 + 2x (b) y = - x 2 + 3x (c) f ] x g = x 2 - 1 (d) y = x 2 - x - 2 (e) y = x 2 - 9x + 8 2. Sketch (a) y = x 2 + 2 (b) y = - x 2 + 1 (c) f ] x g = x 2 - 4 2 (d) y = x + 2x (e) y = - x 2 - x (f) f ] x g = ] x - 3 g 2
230
(g) (h) (i) (j) 3.
f ] x g = ] x + 1 g2 y = x 2 + 3x - 4 y = 2x 2 - 5 x + 3 f ] x g = - x 2 + 3x - 2
6.
For each parabola, nd (i) the x- and y-intercepts (ii) the domain and range (a) y = x 2 7x + 12 (b) f ] x g = x 2 + 4x (c) y = x 2 - 2x - 8 (d) y = x 2 - 6x + 9 (e) f ] t g = 4 - t 2 Find the domain and range of (a) y = x 2 - 5 (b) f ] x g = x 2 - 6x (c) f ] x g = x 2 - x - 2 (d) y = - x 2 (e) f ] x g = ] x - 7 g 2 Find the range of each function over the given domain. (a) y = x 2 for 0 # x # 3 (b) y = - x 2 + 4 for -1 # x # 2 (c) f ] x g = x 2 - 1 for -2 # x # 5 (d) y = x 2 + 2x - 3 for -2 # x # 4 (e) y = - x 2 - x + 2 for 0 # x # 4
Find the domain over which each function is (i) increasing (ii) decreasing (a) y = x 2 (b) y = - x 2 (c) f ] x g = x 2 - 9 (d) y = - x 2 + 4x (e) f ] x g = ] x + 5 g2 Show that f ] x g = - x 2 is an even function. State whether these functions are even or odd or neither. (a) y = x 2 + 1 (b) f ] x g = x 2 - 3 (c) y = -2x 2 (d) f ] x g = x 2 - 3x (e) f ] x g = x 2 + x (f) y = x 2 - 4 (g) y = x 2 - 2x - 3 (h) y = x 2 - 5x + 4 (i) p ] x g = ] x + 1 g 2 (j) y = ] x - 2 g 2
7.
8.
4.
5.
Absolute Value Function

You may not have seen the graphs of absolute functions before. If you are not sure about what they look like, you can use a table of values or look at the denition of absolute value.
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch f ] x g = x - 1 and state its domain and range.
Solution
Method 1: Table of values When sketching any new graph for the rst time, you can use a table of values. A good selection of values is -3 # x # 3 but if these dont give enough information, you can nd other values.
231
e.g. When x = -3: y = | -3 | -1 =3-1 =2

x y -3 2 -2 1 -1 0 0 -1 1 0 2 1 3 2
This gives a v-shaped graph.

y 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 x
Method 2: Use the denition of absolute value when x $ 0 x-1 y = | x | - 1 = &x - 1 when x 1 0 This gives 2 straight line graphs: y = x - 1 ]x $ 0 g
y 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 x y=x-1
CONTINUED
232
y = -x - 1 ] x 1 0 g
y y=-x-1 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 x
Draw these on the same number plane and then disregard the dotted lines to get the graph shown in method 1.
y y = -x - 1 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 x y=x-1
Method 3: If you know the shape of the absolute value functions, nd the intercepts. For x-intercept: y = 0 So f ] x g = 0 0 = | x |- 1 1 =| x | ` x = !1 For y-intercept: x = 0 f (0) = | 0 | - 1 = -1
233
The graph is V-shaped, passing through these intercepts.

y 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 5 x
If you already know how to sketch the graph of y = | x | , translate the graph of y = | x | - 1 down 1 unit, giving it a y-intercept of -1.
From the graph, notice that x values can be any real number while the minimum value of y is - 1. Domain: {all real x} Range: {y: y $ -1} 2. Sketch y = | x + 2 | .
Solution
Method 1: Use the denition of absolute value. +2 when x + 2 $ 0 y = | x + 2 | = 'x - (x + 2) when x + 2 1 0 This gives 2 straight lines: y = x + 2 when x + 2 $ 0 x $ -2
y 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 x y=x+2
CONTINUED
234
y = - ] x + 2 g when x + 2 1 0 i.e. y = - x - 2 when x 1 -2

y 5 y = -x - 2 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 x
Draw these on the same number plane and then disregard the dotted lines.
y 5 y = -x - 2 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 x y=x+2
Method 2: Find intercepts For x-intercept: y = 0 So f ] x g = 0

There is only one solution for the equation | x + 2 | = 0. Can you see why?
0 =| x + 2 | 0=x+2 -2 = x For y-intercept: x = 0 f (0) = | 0 + 2 | =2
235
The graph is V-shaped, passing through these intercepts.

y 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
If you know how to sketch the graph of y = | x | , translate it 2 places to the left for the graph of y = | x + 2 | .
Investigation
Are graphs that involve absolute value always functions? Can you nd an example of one that is not a function? Can you nd any odd or even functions involving absolute values? What are their equations? Use a graphics calculator or a computer with dynamic graphing capability to explore the effect of a parameter on an absolute value function, or choose different values of k (both positive and negative). Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k 1. f ] x g = k | x | 2. f ] x g = | x | + k 3. f ] x g = | x + k | What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs?
The equations and inequations involving absolute values that you studied in Chapter 3 can be solved graphically.
236
EXAMPLES
Solve 1. | 2x - 1 | = 3
Solution
Sketch y = | 2x - 1 | and y = 3 on the same number plane.
The solution of | 2x - 1 | = 3 occurs at the intersection of the graphs, that is, x = -1, 2. 2. | 2x + 1 | = 3x - 2
Solution
Sketch y = | 2x + 1 | and y = 3x - 2 on the same number plane.
The graph shows that there is only one solution. Algebraically, you need to find the 2 possible solutions and then check them.
The solution is x = 3. 3. | x + 1 | 1 2
Solution
Sketch y = | x + 1 | and y = 2 on the same number plane.
237
The solution of | x + 1 | 1 2 is where the graph y = | x + 1 | is below the graph y = 2, that is, - 3 1 x 1 1.
5.6 Exercises
1. Find the x- and y-intercepts of each function. (a) y = | x | (b) f ] x g = | x | + 7 (c) f ] x g = | x | - 2 (d) y = 5 | x | (e) f ] x g = - | x | + 3 (f) y = | x + 6 | (g) f ] x g = | 3x - 2 | (h) y = | 5x + 4 | (i) y = | 7x - 1 | (j) f ] x g = | 2x | + 9 Sketch each graph on a number plane. (a) y = | x | (b) f ] x g = | x | + 1 (c) f ] x g = | x | - 3 (d) y = 2 | x | (e) f ] x g = -| x | (f) y = | x + 1 | (g) f ] x g = -| x - 1 | (h) y = | 2x - 3 | (i) y = | 4x + 2 | (j) f ] x g = | 3x | + 1 Find the domain and range of each function. (a) y = | x - 1 | (b) f ] x g = | x | - 8 (c) (d) (e) 4. f ] x g = | 2x + 5 | y = 2 | x |- 3 f ] x g = -| x - 3 |
Find the domain over which each function is (i) increasing (ii) decreasing (a) y = | x - 2 | (b) f ] x g = | x | + 2 (c) f ] x g = | 2x - 3 | (d) y = 4 | x | - 1 (e) f ] x g = - | x | For each domain, nd the range of each function. (a) y = | x | for - 2 # x # 2 (b) f ] x g = - | x | - 4 for -4 # x # 3 (c) f ] x g = | x + 4 | for -7 # x # 2 (d) y = | 2x - 5 | for -3 # x # 3 (e) f ] x g = -| x | for - 1 # x # 1 For what values of x is each function increasing? (a) y = | x + 3 | (b) f ] x g = - | x | + 4 (c) f ] x g = | x - 9 | (d) y = | x - 2 | - 1 (e) f ] x g = - | x + 2 |
2.
5.
6.
3.
238
7.
Solve graphically (a) | x | = 3 (b) | x | 2 1 (c) | x | # 2 (d) | x + 2 | = 1 (e) | x - 3 | = 0 (f) | 2x - 3 | = 1 (g) | x - 1 | 1 4 (h) | x + 1 | # 3 (i) | x - 2 | 2 2 (j) | x - 3 | $ 1
(k) | 2x + 3 | # 5 (l) | 2x - 1 | $ 1 (m) | 3x - 1 | = x + 3 (n) | 3x - 2 | = x - 4 (o) | x - 1 | = x + 1 (p) | x + 3 | = 2x + 2 (q) | 2x + 1 | = 1 - x (r) | 2x - 5 | = x - 3 (s) | x - 1 | = 2x (t) | 2x - 3 | = x + 3
The Hyperbola
a A hyperbola is a function with its equation in the form xy = a or y = x .
EXAMPLE
1 Sketch y = x .
Solution
1 y = x is a discontinuous curve since the function is undened at x = 0. Drawing up a table of values gives:
x -3 1 3 -2 1 2 -1 -1 1 2 1 4 0 1 4 4 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 3
-2
-4
Class Discussion
What happens to the graph as x becomes closer to 0? What happens as x becomes very large in both positive and negative directions? The value of y is never 0. Why?
239
To sketch the graph of a more general hyperbola, we can use the domain and range to help nd the asymptotes (lines towards which the curve approaches but never touches). The hyperbola is an example of a discontinuous graph, since it has a gap in it and is in two separate parts.
Investigation
Is the hyperbola always a function? Can you nd an example of a hyperbola that is not a function? Are there any families of odd or even hyperbolas? What are their equations? Use a graphics calculator or a computer with dynamic graphing capability to explore the effect of a parameter on a hyperbola, or choose different values of k (both positive and negative). Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k k 1. y = x 1 2. y = x + k 3. y = 1 x+k
What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs?
EXAMPLES
1. (a) Find the domain and range of f ] x g = 3 . x-3 (b) Hence sketch the graph of the function.
Solution
This is the equation of a hyperbola. To nd the domain, we notice that x - 3 ! 0. So x ! 3 Also y cannot be zero (see example on page 238). Domain: {all real x: x ! 3} Range: {all real y: y ! 0} The lines x = 3 and y = 0 (the x-axis) are called asymptotes.
CONTINUED The denominator cannot be zero.
240
To make the graph more accurate we can nd another point or two. The easiest one to nd is the y-intercept. For y-intercept, x = 0 3 y= 0-3 = -1
y 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2
Notice that this graph is 3 a translation of y = x three units to the right.
y=0 Asymptotes
-3 -4 -5
x=3
2. Sketch y = -
1 . 2x + 4
Solution
This is the equation of a hyperbola. The negative sign turns the hyperbola around so that it will be in the opposite quadrants. If you are not sure where it will be, you can nd two or three points on the curve. To nd the domain, we notice that 2x + 4 ! 0. 2x ! - 4 x ! -2 For the range, y can never be zero. Domain: {all real x: x ! -2} Range: {all real y: y ! 0} So there are asymptotes at x = -2 and y = 0 (the x-axis). To make the graph more accurate we can nd the y-intercept. For y-intercept, x = 0 y=1 2 ( 0) + 4 1 =4
241
-2 -1 4
The function f ] x g =
a is a hyperbola with bx + c c domain & all real x: x ! - 0 and b range {all real y: y ! 0}
5.7 Exercises
1. For each graph (i) State the domain and range. (ii) Find the y-intercept if it exists. (iii) Sketch the graph. 2 (a) y = x 1 (b) y = - x 1 (c) f ] x g = x+1 3 (d) f ] x g = x-2 1 (e) y = 3x + 6 2 (f) f ] x g = x-3 4 (g) f ] x g = x-1 (h) y = 2 x+1 2 (i) f ] x g = 6x - 3 6 (j) y = x+2
2.
2 Show that f ] x g = x is an odd function. Find the range of each function over the given domain. 1 (a) f ] x g = for -2 # x # 2 2x + 5 1 (b) y = for -2 # x # 0 x+3 5 (c) f ] x g = for - 3 # x # 1 2x - 4
3.
242
3 for - 3 # x # 3 x-4 2 for 0 # x # 5 (e) y = 3x + 1 (d) f ] x g = 4. Find the domain of each function over the given range. 3 (a) y = x for 1 # y # 3 2 1 (b) y = - x for - 2 # y # 2
1 1 for -1 # y # 7 x-1 3 for (d) f ] x g = 2x + 1 1 -1 # y # 3 6 1 (e) y = for 1 # y # 6 3x - 2 2 (c) f ] x g =
Circles and Semi-circles

The circle is used in many applications, including building and design.
Circle gate
A graph whose equation is in the form x 2 + ax + y 2 + by + c = 0 has the shape of a circle. There is a special case of this formula:
The graph of x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is a circle, centre ^ 0, 0 h and radius r
Proof
y
(x, y) r x
y x
243
Given the circle with centre (0, 0) and radius r: Let (x, y) be a general point on the circle, with distances from the origin x on the x-axis and y on the y-axis as shown. By Pythagoras theorem: c2 = a2 + b2 ` r2 = x2 + y2
EXAMPLE
(a) Sketch the graph of x 2 + y 2 = 4. Is it a function? (b) State its domain and range.
Solution
The radius is 4.
(a) This is a circle with radius 2 and centre (0, 0).

y
-2
-2
The circle is not a function since a vertical line will cut it in more than one place.
y
-2
-2
CONTINUED
244
(b) Notice that the x-values for this graph lie between - 2 and 2 and the y-values also lie between - 2 and 2. Domain: {x: -2 # x # 2} Range: {y: -2 # y # 2}
The circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 has domain: ! x: -r # x # r + and range: " y: -r # y # r ,
We can use Pythagoras theorem to nd the equation of a more general circle.
The equation of a circle, centre (a, b) and radius r is ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2 = r 2
Proof
Take a general point on the circle, (x, y) and draw a right-angled triangle as shown.
y
y r b (a, b) a x-a x
(x, y) y-b
Notice that the small sides of the triangle are x a and y b and the hypotenuse is r, the radius. By Pythagoras theorem: c2 = a2 + b2 r 2 = ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2
245
EXAMPLES
1. (a) Sketch the graph of x 2 + y 2 = 81. (b) State its domain and range.
Solution
(a) The equation is in the form x 2 + y 2 = r 2. This is a circle, centre (0, 0) and radius 9.
y
-9
-9
(b) From the graph, we can see all the values that are possible for x and y for the circle. Domain: {x: -9 # x # 9} Range: {y: -9 # y # 9} 2. (a) Sketch the circle ] x 1 g2 + ^ y + 2 h2 = 4. (b) State its domain and range.
Solution
(a) The equation is in the form ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2 = r 2.
] x 1 g 2 + ^ y + 2 h2 = 4 ] x 1 g 2 + _ y ] - 2 g i2 = 2 2
So a = 1, b = - 2 and r = 2
CONTINUED
246
This is a circle with centre ^ 1, - 2 h and radius 2. To draw the circle, plot the centre point ^ 1, - 2 h and count 2 units up, down, left and right to nd points on the circle.
y 5 4 3 2 1 x
-4 -3 -2
-1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
(1, -2)
(b) From the graph, we can see all the values that are possible for x and y for the circle. Domain: {x: -1 # x # 3} Range: {y: -4 # y # 0} 3. Find the equation of a circle with radius 3 and centre ^ -2, 1 h in expanded form.
Solution
This is a general circle with equation ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2 = r 2 where a = - 2, b = 1 and r = 3. Substituting: ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2 = r 2
You may need to revise this in Chapter 2.
] x - ] - 2 g g2 + ^ y 1 h2 = 3 2 ] x + 2 g2 + ^ y 1 h2 = 9
Remove the grouping symbols. ] a + b g2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 So ] x + 2 g2 = x 2 + 2 ] x g ] 2 g + 2 2 = x 2 + 4x + 4 2 ] a b g = a 2 - 2ab + b 2 So ^ y 1 h2 = y 2 - 2 ^ y h ] 1 g + 1 2 = y 2 - 2y + 1 The equation of the circle is: x 2 + 4x + 4 + y - 2y + 1 = 9 x 2 + 4 x + y - 2y + 5 = 9 x 2 + 4 x + y 2y + 5 - 9 = 9 - 9 x 2 + 4x + y - 2y - 4 = 0
247
Investigation
The circle is not a function. Could you break the circle up into two functions? Change the subject of this equation to y. What do you notice when you change the subject to y? Do you get two functions? What are their domains and ranges? If you have a graphics calculator, how could you draw the graph of a circle?
By rearranging the equation of a circle, we can also nd the equations of semi-circles. The equation of the semi-circle above the x-axis with centre (0, 0) and radius r is y = r 2 - x 2 The equation of the semi-circle below the x-axis with centre (0, 0) and radius r is y = - r 2 - x 2
Proof
x2 + y2 = r2 y2 = r2 x2 y = ! r2 - x2 This gives two functions:
y = r 2 - x 2 is the semi-circle above the x-axis since its range is y $ 0 for all values.
y
-r
The domain is {x: -r # x # r } and the range is {y: 0 # y # r }
248
y = - r 2 - x 2 is the semi-circle above the x-axis since its range is y # 0 for all values.
y
-r
-r
The domain is {x: - r # x # r } and the range is {y: -r # y # 0}
EXAMPLES
Sketch each function and state the domain and range. 1. f ] x g = 9 - x2
Solution
This is in the form f ] x g = r 2 - x 2 where r = 3. It is a semi-circle above the x-axis with centre (0, 0) and radius 3.
y
-3
Domain: {x: -3 # x # 3} Range: {y: 0 # y # 3}
249
2. y = - 4 - x 2
Solution
This is in the form y = - r 2 - x 2 where r = 2. It is a semi-circle below the x-axis with centre (0, 0) and radius 2.
y
-2
-2
Domain: {x: -2 # x # 2} Range: {y: -2 # y # 0}
5.8 Exercises
1. For each of the following (i) sketch each graph (ii) state the domain and range. (a) x 2 + y 2 = 9 (b) x 2 + y 2 - 16 = 0 (c) ] x 2 g2 + ^ y 1 h2 = 4 (d) ] x + 1 g2 + y 2 = 9 (e) ] x + 2 g2 + ^ y 1 h2 = 1 For each semi-circle (i) state whether it is above or below the x-axis (ii) sketch the function (iii) state the domain and range. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 3. y = - 25 - x 2 y = 1 - x2 y = 36 - x 2 y = - 64 - x 2 y = - 7 - x2
2.
Find the length of the radius and the coordinates of the centre of each circle. (a) x 2 + y 2 = 100 (b) x 2 + y 2 = 5 (c) ] x 4 g2 + ^ y 5 h2 = 16 (d) ] x 5 g2 + ^ y + 6 h2 = 49 (e) x 2 + ^ y 3 h2 = 81
250
4.
Find the equation of each circle in expanded form (without grouping symbols). (a) Centre (0, 0) and radius 4 (b) Centre (3, 2) and radius 5 (c) Centre ^ -1, 5 h and radius 3 (d) Centre (2, 3) and radius 6
(e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)
Centre ^ -4, 2 h and radius 5 Centre ^ 0, -2 h and radius 1 Centre (4, 2) and radius 7 Centre ^ -3, -4 h and radius 9 Centre ^ -2, 0 h and radius 5 Centre ^ -4, -7 h and radius 3
Other Graphs
There are many other different types of graphs. We will look at some of these graphs and explore their domain and range.
You will meet these graphs again in the HSC Course.
Exponential and logarithmic functions

EXAMPLES
1. Sketch the graph of f ] x g = 3 x and state its domain and range.
Solution
If you do not know what this graph looks like, draw up a table of values. You may need to revise the indices that you studied in Chapter 1. e.g. When x = 0: y = 3c =1 When x = -1: y = 3-1 1 = 1 3 1 = 3 x y -3 1 27 -2 1 9 -1 1 3 0 1 1 3 2 9 3 27
If you already know what the shape of the graph is, you can draw it just using 2 or 3 points to make it more accurate.
251
This is an exponential function with y-intercept 1. We can nd one other point. When x = 1 y = 31 =3
y
You learned about exponential graphs in earlier stages of maths.
3 2 1 1 x
From the graph, x can be any real value (the equation shows this as well since any x value substituted into the equation will give a value for y). From the graph, y is always positive, which can be conrmed by substituting different values of x into the equation. Domain: " all real x , Range: " y: y 2 0 , 2. Sketch f ] x g = log x and state the domain and range.
Solution
Use the LOG key on your calculator to complete the table of values. Notice that you cant nd the log of 0 or a negative number. x y 2 # 1 #
y
0 #
0.5 0.3
1 0
2 0.3
3 0.5
4 0.6
2 1 1 2 3 4 x
-1
From the graph and by trying different values on the calculator, y can be any real number while x is always positive. Domain: ! x: x 2 0 + Range: " all real y ,
252
The exponential function y = a x has domain {all real x} and range {y: y 2 0} The logarithmic function y = log a x has domain ! x: x 2 0 + and range {all real y}
Cubic function
A cubic function has an equation where the highest power of x is x 3 .
EXAMPLE
1. Sketch the function f ] x g = x 3 + 2 and state its domain and range.
Solution
Draw up a table of values. x y 3 25 2 6 1 1
y 5 4 3 2 1
0 2
1 3
2 10
3 29
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1 -2
If you already know the shape of y = x 3, f (x) = x 3 + 2 has the same shape as f (x) = x 3 but it is translated 2 units up (this gives a y-intercept of 2).
-3 -4 -5
The function can have any real x or y value: Domain: " all real x , Range: " all real y ,
253
Domain and range

Sometimes there is a restricted domain that affects the range of a function.
EXAMPLE
1. Find the range of f ] x g = x 3 + 2 over the given domain of -1 # x # 4.
Solution
The graph of f ] x g = x 3 + 2 is the cubic function in the previous example. From the graph, the range is {all real y}. However, with a restricted domain of -1 # x # 4 we need to see where the endpoints of this function are. f ] -1 g = ] -1 g3 + 2 = -1 + 2 =1 f ] 4 g = ] 4 g3 + 2 = 64 + 2 = 66 Sketching the graph, we can see that the values of y all lie between these points.
y (4, 66)
(-1, 1) x
Range: " y: 1 # y # 66 ,
254
You may not know what a function looks like on a graph, but you can still nd its domain and range by looking at its equation. When nding the domain, we look for values of x that are impossible. For example, with the hyperbola you have already seen that the denominator of a fraction cannot be zero. For the range, we look for the results when different values of x are substituted into the equation. For example, x2 will always give zero or a positive number.
EXAMPLE
Find the domain and range of f ] x g = x - 4.
Solution
We can only nd the square root of a positive number or zero. So x 4 $ 0 x$4 When you take the square root of a number, the answer is always positive (or zero). So y $ 0 Domain: ! x: x $ 4 + Range: " y: y $ 0 ,
5.9 Exercises
1. Find the domain and range of (a) y = 4x + 3 (b) f ] x g = -4 (c) x = 3 (d) f ] x g = 4x 2 1 (e) p ] x g = x 3 2 (f) f ] x g = 12 - x - x 2 (g) x 2 + y 2 = 64 (h) f ] t g = 3 t-4 2 (i) g (z) = + 5 z (j) f ] x g = | x | Find the domain and range of (a) y = x (b) y = x-2 (c) f ] x g = | 2x - 3 | (d) y = | x | - 2 (e) f ] x g = - 2x + 5 (f) y = 5 - | x | (g) y = 2 x (h) y = -5 x x+1 (i) f ] x g = x 4x - 3 (j) y = 2x 3. Find the x-intercepts of (a) y = x ] x - 5 g2 (b) f ] x g = ] x 1 g ] x 2 g ] x + 3 g (c) y = x 3 - 6x 2 + 8x (d) g ] x g = x 4 - 16x 2 (e) x 2 + y 2 = 49
You may like to simplify the function by dividing by x.
2.
255
4.
(a) Solve 1 - x 2 $ 0. (b) Find the domain of f ] x g = 1 - x2 . Find the domain of (a) y = x 2 - x - 2 (b) g ] t g = t 2 + 6t Each of the graphs has a restricted domain. Find the range in each case. (a) y = 2x - 3 in the domain -3 # x # 3 (b) y = x 2 in the domain -2 # x # 3 (c) f ] x g = x 3 in the domain -2 # x # 1 1 (d) y = x in the domain 1# x #5 (e) y = | x | in the domain 0#x#4 (f) y = x 2 - 2x in the domain -3 # x # 3 (g) y = - x 2 in the domain -1 # x # 1 (h) y = x 2 - 1 in the domain -2 # x # 3 (i) y = x 2 - 2x - 3 in the domain -4 # x # 4 (j) y = - x 2 + 7x - 6 in the domain 0 # x # 7
8.
5.
x Given the function f ] x g = x (a) nd the domain of the function (b) nd its range. Draw each graph on a number plane (a) f ] x g = x 4 (b) y = - x 3 (c) y = x 4 - 3 (d) p ] x g = 2x 3 (e) g ] x g = x 3 + 1 (f) x 2 + y 2 = 100 (g) y = 2 x + 1
9.
6.
10. (a) Find the domain and range of y = x - 1. (b) Sketch the graph of y = x - 1 . 11. Sketch the graph of y = 5 x . 12. For each function, state (i) its domain and range (ii) the domain over which the function is increasing (iii) the domain over which the function is decreasing. (a) y = 2x - 9 (b) f ] x g = x 2 - 2 1 (c) y = x (d) f ] x g = x 3 (e) f ] x g = 3 x 13. (a) Solve 4 - x 2 $ 0. (b) Find the domain and range of (i) y = 4 - x 2 (ii) y = - 4 - x 2 .
7.
(a) Find the domain for the 3 function y = . x+1 (b) Explain why there is no x- intercept for the function. (c) State the range of the function.
256
DID YOU KNOW?

A lampshade can produce a hyperbola where the light meets the flat wall. Can you find any other shapes made by a light?
Lamp casting its light
Limits and Continuity

Limits
The exponential function and the hyperbola are examples of functions that approach a limit. The curve y = a x approaches the x-axis when x approaches very large negative numbers, but never touches it. That is, when x " - 3, a x " 0. Putting a - 3 into index form gives 1 a-3 = 3 a 1 =3 Z0 We say that the limit of a x as x approaches -3 is 0. In symbols, we write lim a x = 0.
x " -3
A line that a graph approaches but never touches is called an asymptote.
EXAMPLES
1. Find lim
x "0
x 2 + 5x . x
Solution
0 , which is undened. 0 Factorising and cancelling help us nd the limit. x 1 ]x + 5 g x 2 + 5x lim lim = x x "0 x "0 x1 = lim (x + 5) Substituting x = 0 into the function gives =5
x "0
257
2. Find lim
x "2
x-2 . x2 - 4
Solution
Substituting x = 2 into the function gives lim
x "2
0 , which is undened. 0
x-2 x-2 = lim 2 1 x " 2 x -4 ^x + 2h _x - 2i 1 = lim x "2 x + 2 1 = 4

1
3. Find lim
h "0
2h 2 x + hx 2 - 7h . h
Solution
lim
h "0
h ^ 2hx + x 2 - 7 h 2h 2 x + hx 2 - 7h = lim h "0 h h = lim 2hx + x 2 - 7

h "0
= x2 - 7
Continuity
Many functions are continuous. That is, they have a smooth, unbroken curve (or line). However, there are some discontinuous functions that have gaps in their graphs. The hyperbola is an example. If a curve is discontinuous at a certain point, we can use limits to nd the value that the curve approaches at that point.
EXAMPLES
1. Find lim
x "1
x2 - 1 and hence describe the domain and range of the curve x-1
y=
x -1 . Sketch the curve. x-1

2
Solution
Substituting x = 1 into x2 - 1 0 gives x-1 0
CONTINUED
258
lim
x "1
]x + 1 g]x - 1 g x2 - 1 = lim x-1 x-1 x-1 = lim (x + 1)
=2 y=
x "1
x2 - 1 is discontinuous at x = 1 since y is undened at that point. x-1
This leaves a gap in the curve. The limit tells us that y " 2 as x " 1, so the gap is at ^ 1, 2 h . Domain: " x: all real x, x ! 1 , Range: " y: all real y, y ! 2 , y= = x2 - 1 x-1 ^x + 1h ^x - 1h
Remember that x ! 1.
x-1 =x+1 the graph is y = x + 1 where x ! 1
2. Find lim
x " -2
x2 + x - 2 x2 + x - 2 and hence sketch the curve y = . x+2 x+2
Solution
Substituting x = -2 into lim x2 + x - 2 0 gives x+2 0
x " -2
^x - 1h ^x + 2h x2 + x - 2 = lim x " 2 x+2 ^x + 2h = lim ^ x - 1 h x " -2

= -3
y= y=
x2 + x - 2 is discontinuous at x = - 2 x+2 ^x + 2h ^x - 1h
x+2 =x-1 So the function is y = x - 1 where x ! -2. It is discontinuous at ^ -2, -3 h .
259
5.10 Exercises
1. Find (a) lim x 2 + 5
x "4
2.
(b) lim t - 7
t " -3 x "2
(c) lim x 3 + 2x - 4 (d) lim

x "0
x 2 + 3x x h2 - h - 2 h-2 y 3 - 125 y-5 x 2 + 2x + 1 x+1 x 2 + 2x - 8 x+4 3.
Determine which of these functions are discontinuous and nd x values for which they are discontinuous. (a) y = x 2 - 3 1 (b) y = x+1 x-1 1 (d) y = 2 x +4 1 (e) y = 2 x -4 Sketch these functions, showing any points of discontinuity. (a) y = (b) y = (c) y = x 2 + 3x x x 2 + 3x x+3 x 2 + 5x + 4 x+1 (c) f ] x g =
(e) lim
h "2
(f) lim
y "5
(g) lim
x "-1
(h) lim (i) lim

c "2
x " -4
c-2 c2 - 4 x-1 x2 - x h 3 + 2h 2 - 7h h hx 2 - 3hx + h 2 h 2hx 3 - h 2 x 2 + 3hx - 5h h
(j) lim
x "1
(k) lim
h "0
(l) lim
h "0
(m) lim
h "0
x3 - c3 (n) lim x "c x - c
260
Regions
Class Investigation
How many solutions are there for y $ x + 2? How would you record them all?
Inequalities can be shown as regions in the Cartesian plane. You can shade regions on a number plane that involve either linear or non-linear graphs. This means that we can have regions bounded by a circle or a parabola, or any of the other graphs you have drawn in this chapter. Regions can be bounded or unbounded. A bounded region means that the line or curve is included in the region.
EXAMPLE
Sketch the region x # 3.
Solution
Remember that x = 3 is a vertical line with x-intercept 3.
x # 3 includes both x = 3 and x 1 3 in the region. Sketch x = 3 as an unbroken or lled in line, as it will be included in the region. Shade in all points where x 1 3 as shown.
y 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 x=3 1 2 3 4 x
261
An unbounded region means that the line or curve is not included in the region.
EXAMPLE
Sketch the region y 2 -1.
Solution
y 2 -1 doesnt include y = -1. When this happens, it is an unbounded region and we draw the line y = -1 as a broken line to show it is not included. Sketch y = -1 as a broken line and shade in all points where y 2 -1 as shown.
y 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 y = -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 x
Remember that y = -1 is a horizontal line with y-intercept -1.
For lines that are not horizontal or vertical, or for curves, we need to check a point to see if it lies in the region.
262
EXAMPLES
Find the region dened by 1. y $ x + 2
Solution
First sketch y = x + 2 as an unbroken line. On one side of the line, y 2 x + 2 and on the other side, y 1 x + 2. To nd which side gives y 2 x + 2, test a point on one side of the line (not on the line). For example, choose ^ 0, 0 h and substitute into y$x+2 0$0+2 0$2 (false) This means that ^ 0, 0 h does not lie in the region y $ x + 2. The region is on the other side of the line.
Any point in the region will make the inequality true. Test one to see this.
2. 2x - 3y 1 6
Solution
First sketch 2x - 3y = 6 as a broken line, as it is not included in the region. To nd which side of the line gives 2x - 3y 1 6, test a point on one side of the line. For example, choose ^ 0, 1 h and substitute into 2x - 3y 1 6 2 ] 0 g - 3 (1 ) 1 6 -3 1 6 (true)
263
This means that ^ 0, 1 h lies in the region 2x - 3y 1 6.
2x - 3y = 6
3. x 2 + y 2 2 1
Solution
The equation x 2 + y 2 = 1 is a circle, radius 1 and centre ^ 0, 0 h . Draw x 2 + y 2 = 1 as a broken line, since the region does not include the curve. Choose a point inside the circle, say ^ 0, 0 h x2 + y2 2 1 02 + 02 2 1 0 2 1 (false) So the region lies outside the circle.
4. y $ x 2
Solution
The equation y = x 2 is a parabola. Sketch this as an unbroken line, as it is included in the region.
CONTINUED
264
Choose a point inside the parabola, say ^ 1, 3 h. y $ x2 3 2 12 3 2 1 (true) So ^ 1, 3 h lies in the region.
y = x2
Sometimes a region includes two or more inequalities. When this happens, sketch each region on the number plane, and the nal region is where they overlap (intersect).
EXAMPLE
Sketch the region x # 4, y 2 -2 and y # x 2 .
Solution
Draw the three regions, either separately or on the same set of axes, and see where they overlap.
265
Put the three regions together.
If you are given a region, you should also be able to describe it algebraically.
EXAMPLES
Describe each region. 1.
6 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 1 2 3 4 x
Solution
The shaded area is below and including y = 6 so can be described as y # 6. It is also to the left of, but not including the line x = 4, which can be described as x 1 4. The region is the intersection of these two regions: y # 6 and x 1 4
CONTINUED
266
2.
2
-2
-2
Solution
The shaded area is the interior of the circle, centre (0, 0) and radius 2 but it does not include the circle. The equation of the circle is x 2 + y 2 = 2 2 or x 2 + y 2 = 4. You may know (or guess) the inequality for the inside of the circle. If you are unsure, choose a point inside the circle and substitute into the equation e.g. (0, 0). LHS = x 2 + y 2 = 02 + 02 =0 1 4 ] RHS g So the region is x 2 + y 2 1 4.
5.11 Exercises
1. Shade the region dened by (a) x # 2 (b) x 2 1 (c) y $ 0 (d) y 1 5 (e) y # x + 1 (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) y $ 2x - 3 x+y21 3x - y - 6 1 0 x + 2y - 2 $ 0 2x - 1 1 0
267
2.
Write an inequation to describe each region. (a)

y
(d)
5 4 3 2 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1
y y = x2 - 4
6 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 1 2 3 4 x
-2 -3 -4 -5
(e)
y y = 2x
(b)
y 6 5 4 3 2 1 x
3 2 1 1 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4
3.
(c)
Shade each region described. (a) y 2 x 2 1 (b) x 2 + y 2 # 9 (c) x 2 + y 2 $ 1 (d) y # x 2 (e) y 1 x 3 Describe as an inequality (a) the set of points that lie below the line y = 3x - 2 (b) the set of points that lie inside the parabola y = x 2 + 2 (c) the interior of a circle with radius 7 and centre (0, 0) (d) the exterior of a circle with radius 9 and centre (0, 0) (e) the set of points that lie to the left of the line x = 5 and above the line y = 2
6 5 4 3 2 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1
4.
y=x+1
-2 -3 -4
268
5.
The first quadrant is where x and y values are both positive.
Shade the region (a) ] x - 2 g2 + y 2 # 4 (b) ] x - 1 g2 + ^ y - 2 h2 # 1 (c) ] x + 2 g2 + ^ y - 1 h2 2 9 Shade the intersection of these regions. (a) x # 3, y $ -1 (b) x $ -3, y 2 x -3 (c) y # 1, y $ 3x - 5 (d) y 2 x + 1, y # 3 - x (e) y # 1, x 2 + y 2 # 9 (f) x 2 -1, x 2 + y 2 1 4 (g) y # 4, y $ x 2 (h) x 1 -2, y # 3, y 2 x 3 (i) y # 0, x 2 + y 2 $ 1 (j) -1 1 x - y # 2 Shade the region bounded by (a) the curve y = x 2, the x-axis and the lines x = 1 and x = 3 (b) the curve y = x 3, the y-axis and the lines y = 0 and y = 1
6.
(c) the curve x 2 + y 2 = 4, the x-axis and the lines x = 0 and x = 1 in the rst quadrant 2 (d) the curve y = x , the x-axis and the lines x = 1 and x = 4 (e) the curve y = x=2 8. Shade the regions bounded by the intersection of (a) x 1 2, y 1 5 and y # x 2 (b) x 1 3, y $ -1, y # x - 2 (c) y # 1 - x, y # 2x + 1, 2x - 3y # 6 (d) x $ -3, y # 2, x 2 + y 2 $ 9 (e) x 1 2, y # 3, y $ | x | 1 , the x+2 x-axis and the lines x = 0 and
7.
Application
Regions are used in business applications to find optimum profit. Two (or more) equations are graphed together, and the region where a profit is made is shaded. The optimum profit occurs at the endpoints (or vertices) of the region.
EXAMPLE
A company makes both roller skates (X ) and ice skates (Y ). Roller skates make a $25 profit, while ice skates make a profit of $21. Each pair of roller skates spends 2 hours on machine A (available 12 hours per day) and 2 hours on machine B (available 8 hours per day). Each pair of ice skates spends 3 hours on machine A and 1 hour on machine B. How many skates of each type should be made each day to give the greatest profit while making the most efficient use of the machines?
269
SOLUTION
Profit P = $25 X + $21Y Machine A: 2X + 3Y # 12 Machine B: 2X + Y # 8 Sketch the regions and find the point of intersection of the lines.
The shaded area shows all possible ways of making a profit. Optimum profit occurs at one of the endpoints of the regions. (0, 4): P = $25 ] 0 g + $21 ] 4 g = $84 (4, 0): P = $25 ] 4 g + $21 ] 0 g = $100 (3, 2): P = $25 ] 3 g + $21 ] 2 g = $117
^ 3, 2 h gives the greatest profit, so 3 pairs of roller skates and 2 pairs of ice
skates each day gives optimum profit.
270
Test Yourself 5
1. If f ] x g = x 2 - 3x - 4, nd (a) f ] -2 g (b) f ] a g (c) x when f ] x g = 0 Sketch each graph (a) y = x 2 - 3x - 4 (b) f ] x g = x 3 (c) x 2 + y 2 = 1 (d) y = 1 - x 2 (e) y = - 1 - x 2 2 (f) y = x (g) 2x - 5y + 10 = 0 (h) y = | x + 2 | Find the domain and range of each graph in question 2. If f ] x g = * 2x x -3
2
11. Describe each region (a)
2.
(b)
3.
4.
if x $ 1 if x 1 1
nd f ] 5 g - f ] 0 g + f ] 1 g 3 5.
2
Given f ] x g = * x if 1 # x # 3 2 - x if x 1 1 nd (a) f ] 2 g (b) f ] -3 g (c) f ] 3 g (d) f ] 5 g (e) f ] 0 g Shade the region y $ 2x + 1. Shade the region where x 1 3 and y $ -1. Shade the region given by x 2 + y 2 $ 1. Shade the region given by 2x + 3y - 6 # 0 and x $ -2.
if x 2 3
(c)
6. 7. 8. 9.
12. (a) Write down the domain and range of 2 the curve y = . x-3 2 (b) Sketch the graph of y = . x-3
10. Shade the region y 2 x + 1 and x + y # 2.
271
13. (a) Sketch the graph y = | x + 1 |. (b) From the graph, solve (i) | x + 1 | = 3 (ii) | x + 1 | 1 3 (iii) | x + 1 | 2 3 14. If f ] x g = 3x - 4, nd (a) f ] 2 g (b) x when f ] x g = 7 (c) x when f ] x g = 0 15. Find the x- and y-intercepts of (a) 2x - 5y + 20 = 0 (b) y = x 2 - 5x - 14 16. State which functions are (i) even (ii) odd (iii) neither even nor odd. (a) y = x 2 - 1 (b) y = x + 1 (c) y = x 3 (d) y = x 4 (e) y = 2 x
17. Find (a) lim

x "3
x 2 - 2x - 3 x-3 2x x + 5x
2
(b) lim
x "0
(c) lim (d) lim

h "0
x " -1
x3 + 1 x2 - 1
2xh 2 + 3h h
18. Sketch y = 10 x, y = log x and y = x on the same number plane. 19. (a) State the domain and range of y = 2x - 4 . (b) Sketch the graph of y = 2x - 4 . 20. Show that (a) f ] x g = x 4 + 3x 2 - 1 is even (b) f ] x g = x 3 - x is odd.
1. Find the values of b if f ] x g = 3x 2 - 7x + 1 and f ] b g = 7. Sketch y = ] x + 2 g2 - 1 in the domain -3 # x # 0. Sketch the region y 2 quadrant. 4 - x 2 in the rst 6. Find the domain and range of 1 y= 2 . x -1 Sketch the region x 1 y, x + 2y 1 6, x + 2y - 4 $ 0. Find the domain and range of x 2 = y in the rst quadrant. If f ] x g = 2x 3 - 2x 2 - 12x, nd x when f ] x g = 0.
2.
7.
3.
8.
4.
Draw the graph of y = | x | + 3x - 4. Z 2x + 3 when x 2 2 ] f ] x g = [1 when -2 # x # 2 ] 2 x when x 1 -2 \ Find f ] 3 g, f ] -4 g, f ] 0 g and sketch the curve.
9.
5.
1 10. Sketch the region dened by y 2 x+2 in the rst quadrant.
272
11. If h ] t g = )
1 - t2 t2 - 1
if t 2 1 if t # 1
(b) Find the domain and range of y= 2x + 7 . x+3 2x + 7 . x+3 |x |
nd the value of h ] 2 g + h ] -1 g - h ] 0 g and sketch the curve. 12. Sketch y = 1 - x in the rst quadrant.
2 2
(c) Hence sketch the graph of y=
13. Sketch the region y $ x - 5, y 1 x + x. 14. If f ] x g = 2x - 1, show that f ^ a 2 h = f _ (-a)2 i for all real a. 15. Find the values of x for which f ] x g = 0 when f ] x g = 2x 2 - x - 5 (give exact answers). 16. (a) Show that 2x + 7 1 =2+ . x+3 x+3
17. Sketch y = 2 x - 1 . . x2 19. Find the domain and range of f ] x g = 2x - 6 . 20. What is the domain of y = 21. Sketch f ] x g = 1 1 . x2 1 4 - x2 ? 18. Sketch y =
6
Trigonometry
TERMINOLOGY
Angle of depression: The angle between the horizontal and the line of sight when looking down to an object below Angle of elevation: The angle between the horizontal and the line of sight when looking up to an object above Angles of any magnitude: Angles can be measured around a circle at the centre to find the trigonometric ratios of angles of any size from 0c to 360c and beyond Bearing: The direction relative to north. Bearings may be written as true bearings (clockwise from North) or as compass bearings (using N, S, E and W) Complementary angles: Two or more angles that add up to 90c Cosecant: The reciprocal ratio of sine (sin). It is the hypotenuse over the opposite side in a right triangle Cotangent: The reciprocal ratio of tangent (tan). It is the adjacent over the opposite side in a right triangle Secant: The reciprocal ratio of cosine (cos). It is the hypotenuse over the adjacent side in a right triangle Trigonometric identities: A statement that is true for all trigonometric values in the domain. Relationships between trigonometric ratios
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
275
INTRODUCTION
TRIGONOMETRY IS USED IN many elds, such as building, surveying and navigating. Wave theory also uses trigonometry. This chapter revises basic right-angled triangle problems and applies them to real-life situations. Some properties of trigonometric ratios, angles greater than 90c and trigonometric equations are introduced. You will also study trigonometry in non-right-angled triangles.
DID YOU KNOW?

Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus), in the second century, wrote He mathe matike syntaxis (or Almagest as it is now known) on astronomy. This is considered to be the first treatise on trigonometry, but was based on circles and spheres rather than on triangles. The notation chord of an angle was used rather than sin, cos or tan. Ptolemy constructed a table of sines from 0c to 90c in steps of a quarter of a degree. He also calculated a value of r to 5 decimal places, and established the relationship for sin (X ! Y ) and cos (X ! Y ) .
Trigonometric Ratios
In similar triangles, pairs of corresponding angles are equal and sides are in proportion. For example:
You studied similar triangles in Geometry 1 in Chapter 4.
In any triangle containing an angle of 30c, the ratio of AB:AC = 1:2. Similarly, the ratios of other corresponding sides will be equal. These ratios of sides form the basis of the trigonometric ratios. In order to refer to these ratios, we name the sides in relation to the angle being studied:
the hypotenuse is the longest side, and is always opposite the right angle the opposite side is opposite the angle marked in the triangle the adjacent side is next to the angle marked
276
The opposite and adjacent sides vary according to where the angle is marked. For example:
The trigonometric ratios are
You can learn these by their initials SOH, CAH, TOA.
Sine Cosine
sin i = cos i =
opposite hypotenuse adjacent hypotenuse opposite adjacent
What about Some Old Hags Cant Always Hide Their Old Age?
Tangent tan i =
As well as these ratios, there are three inverse ratios,
Cosecant cosec i = Secant sec i =
1 sin i 1 cos i 1 tan i
Cotangent cot i =
hypotenuse p opposite hypotenuse f= p adjacent adjacent f= p opposite

f=
DID YOU KNOW?

Trigonometry, or triangle measurement, progressed from the study of geometry in ancient Greece. Trigonometry was seen as applied mathematics. It gave a tool for the measurement of planets and their motion. It was also used extensively in navigation, surveying and mapping, and it is still used in these fields today. Trigonometry was crucial in the setting up of an accurate calendar, since this involved measuring the distances between the Earth, sun and moon.
277
EXAMPLES
1. Find sin a, tan a and sec a.
Solution
AB = hypotenuse = 5 BC = opposite side = 3 AC = adjacent side = 4 opposite sin a = hypotenuse 3 = 5 opposite tan a = adjacent 3 = 4 1 sec a = cos a hypotenuse = adjacent 5 = 4 2. If sin i = 2 , nd the exact ratios of cos i, tan i and cot i. 7
Solution
To find the other ratios you need to find the adjacent side.
By Pythagoras theorem: c2 = a2 + b2 72 = a2 + 22 49 = a 2 + 4 45 = a 2 à= 45

CONTINUED
278
cos i = = tan i =
adjacent hypotenuse 45 7 opposite
adjacent 2 = 45 1 cot i = tan i 45 = 2
Complementary angles
In D ABC, if+B = i, then +A = 90c - i b i= c a cos i = c b tan i = a c sec i = a c cosec i = b a cot i = b sin From these ratios come the results.
(angle sum of a ) a (90c - i) = c b cos (90c - i) = c a tan (90c - i) = b c sec (90c - i) = b c cosec (90c - i) = a b cot (90c - i) = a sin
sin i = cos (90 - i) cos i = sin (90 - i) sec i = cosec (90 - i) cosec i = sec (90 - i) tan i = cot (90 - i) cot i = tan (90 - i)
279
EXAMPLES
1. Simplify tan 50c - cot 40c.
Solution
tan 50c = cot ] 90c - 50c g = cot 40c ` tan 50c - cot 40c = tan 50c - tan 50c =0 2. Find the value of m if sec 55c = cosec ] 2m - 15 g c.
Check this answer on your calculator.
Solution
sec 55c = cosec ] 90c - 55c g = cosec 35c ` 2m - 15 = 35 2m = 50 m = 25
Check this by substituting m into the equation.
6.1 Exercises
1. Write down the ratios of cos i, sin i and tan i. 3. Find the exact ratios of sin b, tan b and cos b.
2.
Find sin b, cot b and sec b. 4. Find exact values for cos x, tan x and cosec x.
280
5. 6.
4 , nd cos i and sin i. 3 2 If cos i = , nd exact values for 3 tan i, sec i and sin i. If tan i = 1 If sin i = , nd the exact ratios 6 of cos i and tan i. If cos i = 0.7, nd exact values for tan i and sin i. D ABC is a right-angled isosceles triangle with +ABC = 90c and AB = BC = 1. (a) Find the exact length of AC. (b) Find +BAC. (c) From the triangle, write down the exact ratios of sin 45c, cos 45c and tan 45c.
(c) Write down the exact ratios of sin 60c, cos 60c and tan 60c. 11. Show sin 67c = cos 23c. 12. Show sec 82c = cosec 8c. 13. Show tan 48c = cot 42c. 14. Simplify (a) cos 61c + sin 29c (b) sec i - cosec ] 90c - i g (c) tan 70c + cot 20c - 2 tan 70c (d) (e) sin 55c cos 35c cot 25c + tan 65c cot 25c
7.
Hint: Change 0.7 to a fraction.
8.
9.
15. Find the value of x if sin 80c = cos ] 90 - x g c. 16. Find the value of y if tan 22c = cot ^ 90 - y h c. 17. Find the value of p if cos 49c = sin ^ p + 10 h c. 18. Find the value of b if sin 35c = cos ] b + 30 g c. 19. Find the value of t if cot ] 2t + 5 g c = tan ] 3t - 15 g c.
10.
(a) Using Pythagoras theorem, nd the exact length of AC. (b) Write down the exact ratios of sin 30c, cos 30c and tan 30c.
20. Find the value of k if tan ] 15 - k g c = cot ] 2k + 60 g c.
Trigonometric ratios and the calculator

Angles are usually given in degrees and minutes. In this section you will practise rounding off angles and nding trigonometric ratios on the calculator. Angles are usually given in degrees and minutes in this course. The calculator uses degrees, minutes and seconds, so you need to round off. 60 minutes = 1 deg ree (60l = 1c) l) 60 sec onds = 1 min ute (60m = 1 In normal rounding off, you round up to the next number if the number to the right is 5 or more. Angles are rounded off to the nearest degree by rounding up if there are 30 minutes or more. Similarly, angles are rounded off to the nearest minute by rounding up if there are 30 seconds or more.
281
EXAMPLES
Round off to the nearest minute. 1. 23c 12l 22m
Solution
23c 12l 22m = 23c 12l 2. 59c 34l 41m
Solution
59c 34l 41m = 59c 35l 3. 16c 54l 30m
Solution
16c 54l 30m = 16c 55l
Because 30 seconds is half a minute, we round up to the next minute.
% , ,,
KEY
Some calculators have deg or dms keys.
This key changes decimal angles into degrees, minutes and seconds and vice versa.
EXAMPLES
1. Change 58c 19l into a decimal.
Solution
Press 58 % , ,, 19 % , ,, = % , ,, So 58c 19l = 58.31666667 2. Change 45.236c into degrees and minutes.
If your calculator does not give these answers, check the instructions for its use.
Solution
Press 45.236 = SHIFT % , ,, So 45.236c = 45c14l
282
In order to use trigonometry in right-angled triangle problems, you need to nd the ratios of angles on your calculator.
EXAMPLES
1. Find cos 58c 19l, correct to 3 decimal places.
If your calculator doesn't give this answer, check that it is in degree mode.
Solution
Press COS 58 % , ,, 19 % , ,, = So cos 58c19l = 0.525 2. Find sin 38c14l, correct to 3 decimal places.
Solution
Press SIN 38 % , ,, 14 % , ,, = So sin 38c 14l = 0.619 3. If tan i = 0.348, nd i in degrees and minutes.
Solution
This is the reverse of nding trigonometric ratios. To nd the angle, given the ratio, use the inverse key ^ tan - 1 h . Press SHIFT TAN - 1 0.348 = SHIFT % , ,, tan i = 0.348 i = tan - 1 (0.348) l = 19c11 4. Find i in degrees and minutes if cos i = 0.675.
Solution
Press SHIFT COS - 1 0.675 = SHIFT % , ,, cos i = 0.675 i = cos - 1 (0.675) = 47c 33l
6.2 Exercises
1. Round off to the nearest degree. (a) 47 13l 12m (b) 81 45l 43m (c) 19 25l 34m (d) 76 37l 19m (e) 52 29l 54m 2. Round off to the nearest minute. (a) 47 13l 12m (b) 81 45l 43m (c) 19 25l 34m (d) 76 37l 19m (e) 52 29l 54m
283
3.
Change to a decimal. l (a) 77c45 (b) 65c30l l (c) 24c51 l (d) 68c21 l (e) 82c31 Change into degrees and minutes. (a) 59.53c (b) 72.231c (c) 85.887c (d) 46.9c (e) 73.213c
5.
Find correct to 3 decimal places. l (a) sin 39c25 l (b) cos 45c 51 l (c) tan18c43 (d) sin 68c06l (e) tan 54c20l Find i in degrees and minutes if (a) sin i = 0.298 (b) tan i = 0.683 (c) cos i = 0.827 (d) tan i = 1.056 (e) cos i = 0.188
4.
6.
Right-angled Triangle Problems

Trigonometry is used to nd an unknown side or angle of a triangle.
Finding a side
We can use trigonometry to nd a side of a right-angled triangle.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of x, correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution
hypotenuse x cos 23 49l = 11.8 x 11.8 # cos 23 49l = 11.8 # 11.8 11.8 cos 23 49l = x ` 10.8 cm = x ^ to 1 decimal point h cos i = adjacent
CONTINUED
284
2. Find the value of y, correct to 3 signicant gures.
Solution
hypotenuse 9.7 sin 41c 15l = y 9.7 y # sin 41c 15l = y # y y sin 41c 15l = 9.7 y sin 41c 15l 9.7 = c 15l c 15l sin 41 sin 41 9.7 y= sin 41c 15l = 14.7 m ^ to 3 significant figures h sin i = opposite
6.3 Exercises
1. Find the values of all pronumerals, correct to 1 decimal place. (a) (c)
(b) (d)
285
(e) (l)
x 4.7 cm
(f)
37c22l
(m)
x
72c18l 6.3 cm
(g) (n)
63c14l 23 mm
(o) (h)
3.7 m
y 39c47l
(i) (p)
k
(j)
46c5l
14.3 cm
(q)
(k)
5.4 cm
31c12l
4.8 m
74c29l
286
(r)
0.45 m
68c41l
6.2 cm 73c
(s)
19c17l
4.
5.75 cm
(t)
17.3 m
Hamish is standing at an angle of 67c from a goalpost and 12.8 m away as shown. How far does he need to kick a football for it to reach the goal?
12.8 m
67c
b
5.
6c3l
Square ABCD with side 6 cm has line CD produced to E as shown so that +EAD = 64c 12l. Evaluate the length, correct to 1 decimal place, of (a) CE (b) AE
E
2.
A roof is pitched at 60c. A room built inside the roof space is to have a 2.7 m high ceiling. How far in from the side of the roof will the wall for the room go?
D 64c12l A
2.7 m 60c
6 cm
3.
A diagonal in a rectangle with breadth 6.2 cm makes an angle of 73c with the vertex as shown. Find the length of the rectangle correct to 1 decimal place.
6.
A right-angled triangle with hypotenuse 14.5 cm long has one interior angle of 43c 36l. Find the lengths of the other two sides of the triangle.
287
7.
A right-angled triangle ABC with the right angle at A has +B = 56c44l and AB = 26 mm. Find the length of the hypotenuse. A triangular fence is made for a garden inside a park. Three holes A, B and C for fence posts are made at the corners so that A and B are 10.2 m apart, AB and CB are perpendicular, and angle CAB is 59c 54l. How far apart are A and C? Triangle ABC has +BAC = 46c and +ABC = 54c. An altitude is drawn from C to meet AB at point D. If the altitude is 5.3 cm long, nd, correct to 1 decimal place, the length of sides (a) AC (b) BC (c) AB
(a) Find the length of the side of the rhombus. (b) Find the length of the other diagonal. 11. Kite ABCD has diagonal BD = 15.8 cm as shown. If +ABD =57c29l and l, nd the length +DBC = 72c51 of the other diagonal AC.
A
8.
9.
72c51l
57c29l 15.8 cm
10. A rhombus has one diagonal 12 cm long and the diagonal makes an angle of 28c 23l with the side of the rhombus.
Finding an angle
Trigonometry can also be used to nd one of the angles in a right-angled triangle.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of i, in degrees and minutes.
CONTINUED
288
Solution
cos i = adjacent hypotenuse 5.8 = 7.3 5.8 ` i = cos - 1 c m 7.3 = 37c 23l
2. Find the value of a, in degrees and minutes.
Solution
tan a = opposite adjacent 4 = .9 2 .1 4 .9 ` a = tan - 1 c m 2 .1 = 66c 48l
6.4 Exercises
1. Find the value of each pronumeral, in degrees and minutes. (a) (b)
289
(c)
(i)
(j) (d)
(e) (k)
3.8 cm
2.4 cm
(l) (f)
8.3 cm
5.7 cm
(m) (g)
6.9 mm 11.3 mm
(n)
3m
(h)
7m
290
(o)
5.1 cm
b 20 m 12.3 m
11.6 cm
(p)
15 m
3.
A eld is 13.7 m wide and Andre is on one side. There is a gate on the opposite side and 5.6 m along from where Andre is. At what angle will he walk to get to the gate?
Andre i
a 13 m
(q)
4.4 cm
7.6 cm 13.7 m
(r)
8.4 cm
14.3 cm
5.6 m
Gate
4.
(s)
i 3m
A 60 m long bridge has an opening in the middle and both sides open up to let boats pass underneath. The two parts of the bridge oor rise up to a height of 18 m. Through what angle do they move?
5m
18 m i
(t)
c 10.3 cm
18.9 cm
60 m
5.
2.
A kite is ying at an angle of i above the ground as shown. If the kite is 12.3 m above the ground and has 20 m of string, nd angle i.
An equilateral triangle ABC with side 7 cm has an altitude AD that is 4.5 cm long. Evaluate the angle the altitude makes with vertex A ]+DAB g.
291
6.
Rectangle ABCD has dimensions 18 cm # 7 cm. A line AE is drawn so that E bisects DC. (a) How long is line AE? (Answer to 1 decimal place). (b) Evaluate +DEA. A 52 m tall tower has wire stays on either side to minimise wind movement. One stay is 61.3 m long and the other is 74.5 m long as shown. Find the angles that the tower makes with each stay.
a b 61.3 m 52 m 74.5 m
5 cm
D 1 cm
7.
(a) Find +BEC. (b) Find the length of the rectangle. 10. A diagonal of a rhombus with side 9 cm makes an angle of 16c with the side as shown. Find the lengths of the diagonals.
16c
9 cm
8.
(a) The angle from the ground up to the top of a pole is 41c when standing 15 m on one side of it. Find the height h of the pole, to the nearest metre. (b) If Seb stands 6 m away on the other side, nd angle i.
h 41c
11. (a) Kate is standing at the side of a road at point A, 15.9 m away from an intersection. She is at an angle of 39c from point B on the other side of the road. What is the width w of the road? (b) Kate walks 7.4 m to point C. At what angle is she from point B?
B
i 6m 15 m
w A 39c 7.4 m C i 15.9 m
9.
Rectangle ABCD has a line BE drawn so that +AEB = 90c and DE = 1 cm. The width of the rectangle is 5 cm.
292
Applications
DID YOU KNOW?

The Leaning Tower of Pisa was built as a belfry for the cathedral nearby. Work started on the tower in 1174, but when it was only half completed the soil underneath one side of it subsided. This made the tower lean to one side. Work stopped, and it wasnt until 100 years later that architects found a way of completing the tower. The third and fifth storeys were built close to the vertical to compensate for the lean. Later a vertical top storey was added.
The tower is about 55 m tall and 16 m in diameter. It is tilted about 5 m from the vertical, and tilts by an extra 0.6 cm each year.
Class Investigation
Discuss some of the problems with the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Find the angle at which it is tilted from the vertical. Work out how far it will be tilted in 10 years. Use research to nd out if the tower will fall over, and if so, when.
Angle of elevation
The angle of elevation is used to measure the height of tall objects that cannot be measured directly, for example a tree, cliff, tower or building.
293
Class Exercise
Stand outside the school building and look up to the top of the building. Think about which angle your eyes pass through to look up to the top of the building.
The angle of elevation, i, is the angle measured when looking from the ground up to the top of the object. We assume that the ground is horizontal.
EXAMPLE
The angle of elevation of a tree from a point 50 m out from its base is 38c 14l. Find the height of the tree, to the nearest metre.
Solution
We assume that the tree is vertical!
A clinometer is used to measure the angle of elevation or depression.
tan 38c 14l =
h 50 h 50
50 # tan 38c 14l = 50 #
50 tan 38c 14l = h 39 Z h So the tree is 39 m tall, to the nearest metre.
294
Angle of depression
The angle of depression is the angle formed when looking down from a high place to an object below.
Class Exercise
If your classroom is high enough, stand at the window and look down to something below the window. If the classroom is not high enough, nd a hill or other high place. Through which angle do your eyes pass as you look down?
The angle of depression, i, is the angle measured when looking down from the horizontal to an object below.
EXAMPLES
1. The angle of depression from the top of a 20 m building to a boy below is 61c 39l. How far is the boy from the building, to 1 decimal place?
Solution
295
+DAC = +ACB = 61c 39l 20 tan 61c 39l = x 20 x # tan 61c 39l = x # x x tan 61c 39l = 20 x tan 61c 39l 20 = tan 61c 39l tan 61c 39l 20 x= tan 61c 39l Z 10.8 (alternate angles, AD < BC)
So the boy is 10.8 m from the building. 2. A bird sitting on top of an 8 m tall tree looks down at a possum 3.5 m out from the base of the tree. Find the angle of elevation to the nearest minute.
Solution
B i A
8m
3.5 m
The angle of depression is i Since AB < DC +BDC = i tan i = 8 3.5

] horizontal lines g ^ alternate angles h
` i = tan - 1 c
8 m 3 .5 = 66c 22l
296
Bearings
Bearings can be described in different ways: For example, N70c W:
Start at north and measure 70o around towards the west.
True bearings measure angles clockwise from north
EXAMPLES
We could write 315o T for true bearings.
1. Sketch the diagram when M is on a bearing of 315c from P.
Solution
Measure clockwise, starting at north.
2. X is on a bearing of 030c from Y. Sketch this diagram.
Solution
All bearings have 3 digits so 30 becomes 030 for a bearing.
3. A house is on a bearing of 305c from a school. What is the bearing of the school from the house?
297
Solution
The diagram below shows the bearing of the house from the school.
North House
School 305c
To nd the bearing of the school from the house, draw in North from the house and use geometry to nd the bearing as follows:
N2
N1 H
S 305c
The bearing of the school from the house is +N 2 HS. +N 1 SH = 360c - 305c = 55c +N 2 HS = 180c - 55c = 125c
^ angle of revolution h
(cointerior angles, N 2 H < N 1 S)
So the bearing of the school from the house is 125c.
4. A plane leaves Sydney and ies 100 km due east, then 125 km due north. Find the bearing of the plane from Sydney, to the nearest degree.
CONTINUED
298
Solution
tan x =
125 100 = 1.25
x = tan - 1 (1.25) (to the nearest degree) = 51c i = 90c - xc = 90c - 51c = 39c So the bearing of the plane from Sydney is 039. 5. A ship sails on a bearing of 140 from Sydney for 250 km. How far east of Sydney is the ship now, to the nearest km?
Solution
A navigator on a ship uses a sextant to measure angles.
Could you use a different triangle for this question?
i = 140c - 90c = 50c x cos 50c = 250 x 250 # cos 50c = 250 # 250 250 cos 50c = x 161 Z x So the ship is 161 km east of Sydney, to the nearest kilometre.
299
6.5 Exercises
1. Draw a diagram to show the bearing in each question. (a) A boat is on a bearing of 100c from a beach house. (b) Jamie is on a bearing of 320c from a campsite. (c) A seagull is on a bearing of 200c from a jetty. (d) Alistair is on a bearing of 050c from the bus stop. (e) A plane is on a bearing of 285c from Broken Hill. (f) A farmhouse is on a bearing of 012c from a dam. (g) Mohammed is on a bearing of 160c from his house. (h) A mine shaft is on a bearing of 080c from a town. (i) Yvonne is on a bearing of 349c from her school. (j) A boat ramp is on a bearing of 280c from an island. Find the bearing of X from Y in each question in 3 gure (true) bearings. North (a) (b)
North
West
Y 35c X South
East
(c)
North
X West Y 10c East
South
(d)
X
North
2.
23c West Y East
South
(e)
112c Y
North
West
X
East
X South
300
3.
Jack is on a bearing of 260c from Jill. What is Jills bearing from Jack? A tower is on a bearing of 030c from a house. What is the bearing of the house from the tower? Tamworth is on a bearing of 340c from Newcastle. What is the bearing of Newcastle from Tamworth? The angle of elevation from a point 11.5 m away from the base of a tree up to the top of the tree is 42c 12l. Find the height of the tree to one decimal point. Geoff stands 25.8 m away from the base of a tower and measures the angle of elevation as 39c 20l . Find the height of the tower to the nearest metre. A wire is suspended from the top of a 100 m tall bridge tower down to the bridge at an angle of elevation of 52c. How long is the wire, to 1 decimal place?
4.
5.
10. A plane leaves Melbourne and ies on a bearing of 065c for 2500 km. (a) How far north of Melbourne is the plane? (b) How far east of Melbourne is it? (c) What is the bearing of Melbourne from the plane? 11. The angle of elevation of a tower is 39c 44l when measured at a point 100 m from its base. Find the height of the tower, to 1 decimal place. 12. Kim leaves his house and walks for 2 km on a bearing of 155c . How far south is Kim from his house now, to 1 decimal place? 13. The angle of depression from the top of an 8 m tree down to a rabbit is 43c 52l . If an eagle is perched in the top of the tree, how far does it need to y to reach the rabbit, to the nearest metre? 14. A girl rides a motorbike through her property, starting at her house. If she rides south for 1.3 km, then rides west for 2.4 km, what is her bearing from the house, to the nearest degree? 15. A plane ies north from Sydney for 560 km, then turns and ies east for 390 km. What is its bearing from Sydney, to the nearest degree?
6.
7.
8.
9.
A cat crouches at the top of a 4.2 m high cliff and looks down at a mouse 1.3 m out from the foot (base) of the cliff. What is the angle of depression, to the nearest minute?
16. Find the height of a pole, correct to 1 decimal place, if a 10 m rope tied to it at the top and stretched out straight to reach the ground makes an angle of elevation of 67c13l.
301
17. The angle of depression from the top of a cliff down to a boat 100 m out from the foot of the cliff is 59c42l. How high is the cliff, to the nearest metre? 18. A group of students are bushwalking. They walk north from their camp for 7.5 km, then walk west until their bearing from camp is 320c. How far are they from camp, to 1 decimal place? 19. A 20 m tall tower casts a shadow 15.8 m long at a certain time of day. What is the angle of elevation from the edge of the shadow up to the top of the tower at this time?
21. Find the angle of elevation of a 15.9 m cliff from a point 100 m out from its base. 22. A plane leaves Sydney and ies for 2000 km on a bearing of 195c. How far due south of Sydney is it? 23. The angle of depression from the top of a 15 m tree down to a pond l is 25c41 . If a bird is perched in the top of the tree, how far does it need to y to reach the pond, to the nearest metre? 24. A girl starting at her house, walks south for 2.7 km then walks east for 1.6 km. What is her bearing from the house, to the nearest degree? 25. The angle of depression from the top of a tower down to a car 250 m out from the foot of the tower is 38c19l. How high is the tower, to the nearest metre? 26. A hot air balloon ies south for 3.6 km then turns and ies east until it is on a bearing of 127c from where it started. How far east does it y? 27. A 24 m wire is attached to the top of a pole and runs down to the ground where the angle of elevation is 22c 32l. Find the height of the pole.
20 m
15.8 m
20. A at verandah roof 1.8 m deep is 2.6 m up from the ground. At a certain time of day, the sun makes l an angle of elevation of 72c 25 . How much shade is provided on the ground by the verandah roof at that time, to 1 decimal place?
302
28. A train depot has train tracks running north for 7.8 km where they meet another set of tracks going east for 5.8 km into a station. What is the bearing of the depot from the station, to the nearest degree? 29. Jessica leaves home and walks for 4.7 km on a bearing of 075c. She then turns and walks for 2.9 km on a bearing of 115c and she is then due east of her home. (a) How far north does Jessica walk? (b) How far is she from home?
30. Builder Jo stands 4.5 m out from the foot of a building and looks up at to the top of the building where the angle of elevation is 71c . Builder Ben stands at the top of the building looking down at his wheelbarrow that is 10.8 m out from the foot of the building on the opposite side from where Jo is standing. (a) Find the height of the building. (b) Find the angle of depression from Ben down to his wheelbarrow.
Exact Ratios
A right-angled triangle with one angle of 45 is isosceles. The exact length of its hypotenuse can be found.
Pythagoras theorem is used to find the length of the hypotenuse.
c2 = a2 + b2 AC 2 = 1 2 + 1 2 =2 AC = 2 This means that the trigonometric ratios of 45c can be written as exact ratios.
1 2 1 cos 45c = 2 tan 45c = 1 sin 45c =
303
This angle is commonly used; for example, 45 is often used for the pitch of a roof. The triangle with angles of 60 and 30 can also be written with exact sides.
Halve the equilateral triangle to get TABD.
AD 2 = 2 2 - 1 2 =3 AD = 3
3 2 1 cos 60 = 2 tan 60 = 3 sin 60 =
sin 30c = cos 30c =
1 2
It may be easier to remember the triangle rather than all these ratios.
3 2 1 tan 30c = 3
DID YOU KNOW?

The ratios of all multiples of these angles follow a pattern: A sin A cos A 0c 0 2 4 2 30c 1 2 3 2 45c 2 2 2 2 60c 3 2 1 2 90c 4 2 0 2 120c 3 2 - 1 2 135c 2 2 - 2 2 150c 1 2 - 3 2
The rules of the pattern are: for sin A, when you reach 4, reverse the numbers for cos A, when you reach 0, change signs and reverse
304
EXAMPLES
1. Find the exact value of sec 45.
Solution
sec 45 = 1 cos 45 1 = 1 2 = 2
2. A boat ramp is to be made with an angle of 30c and base length 5 m. What is the exact length of the surface of the ramp?
Solution
5 cos 30c = x x cos 30c = 5 x= 5 cos 30c 5 = 3 2 2 =5# 3 10 = 3 10 3 = 3 10 3 m. 3
So the exact length of the ramp is
305
6.6 Exercises
Find the exact value in all questions, with rational denominator where relevant. 1. Evaluate (a) sin 60c + cos 60c (b) (c) (d) (e) cos 2 45c + sin 2 45c cosec 45c 2 sec 60c cot 30c + cot 60c (c) (b)
cos 2 45c = (cos 45c) 2
(f) tan 60c - tan 30c (g) sin 2 60c + sin 2 45c (h) sin 45c cos 30c + cos 45c sin 30c (i) 3 tan 30c tan 45c + tan 60c (j) 1 - tan 45c tan 60c 3. A 2.4 m ladder reaches 1.2 m up a wall. At what angle is it resting against the wall? A 2-person tent is pitched at an angle of 45c. Each side of the tent is 2 m long. A pole of what height is needed for the centre of the tent?
(k) cos 30c cos 60c - sin 30c sin 60c 4. (l) cos 2 30c + sin 2 30c (m) 2 sec 45c - cosec 30c 2 sin 60c sin 45c (o) 1 + tan 2 30c (n) (p) (q) 1 - cos 45c 1 + cos 45c cot 30c sec 60c 5.
(r) sin 2 45c - 1 (s) 5 cosec 2 60c (t) 2. 2 - tan 60c sec 2 45c
If the tent in the previous question was pitched at an angle of 60c, how high would the pole need to be? The angle of elevation from a point 10 m out from the base of a tower to the top of the tower is 30c. Find the exact height of the tower, with rational denominator.
Find the exact value of all pronumerals (a)
6.
306
7.
The pitch of a roof is 45c and spans a length of 12 m. 9.
the oor. How far out from the wall is it? Find the exact length of AC.
(a) What is the length l of the roof? (b) If a wall is placed inside the roof one third of the way along from the corner, what height will the wall be? 8. A 1.8 m ladder is placed so that it makes a 60c angle where it meets
10. The angle of depression from the top of a 100 m cliff down to a boat at the foot of the cliff is 30c. How far out from the cliff is the boat?
Angles of Any Magnitude

The angles in a right-angled triangle are always acute. However, angles greater than 90c are used in many situations, such as in bearings. Negative angles are also used in areas such as engineering and science. We can use a circle to nd trigonometric ratios of angles of any magnitude (size) up to and beyond 360c.
Investigation
1. (a) Copy and complete the table for these acute angles (between 0c and 90c). x sin x cos x tan x (b) Copy and complete the table for these obtuse angles (between 90c and 180c). x sin x cos x tan x 100c 110c 120c 130c 140c 150c 160c 170c 180c 0c 10c 20c 30c 40c 50c 60c 70c 80c 90c
307
(c) Copy and complete the table for these reex angles (between 180c and 270c ). x sin x cos x tan x (d) Copy and complete the table for these reex angles (between 270c and 360c ). x sin x cos x tan x 2. What do you notice about their signs? Can you see any patterns? Could you write down any rules for the sign of sin, cos and tan for different angle sizes? 3. Draw the graphs of y = sin x, y = cos x and y = tan x for 0c # x # 360c. For y = tan x, you may need to nd the ratios of angle close to and either side of 90c and 270c. 280c 290c 300c 310c 320c 330c 340c 350c 360c 190c 200c 210c 220c 230c 240c 250c 260c 270c
Drawing the graphs of the trigonometric ratios can help us to see the change in signs as angles increase. We divide the domain 0c to 360c into 4 quadrants: 1st quadrant: 0c to 90c 2nd quadrant: 90c to 180c 3rd quadrant: 180c to 270c 4th quadrant: 270c to 360c
EXAMPLES
1. Describe the sign of sin x in each section (quadrant) of the graph y = sin x.
Solution
We can sketch the graph using the table below or using the values from the tables in the investigation above for more accuracy. x y 0c 0 90c 1 180c 0 270c -1 360c 0
CONTINUED
308
1 y = sin x x
90c
180c
270c
360c
-1
The graph is above the x-axis for the rst 2 quadrants, then below for the 3rd and 4th quadrants. This means that sin x is positive in the 1st and 2nd quadrants and negative in the 3rd and 4th quadrants. 2. Describe the sign of cos x in each section (quadrant) of the graph of y = cos x.
Solution
We can sketch the graph using the table below or using the values from the tables in the investigation above for more accuracy. x y 0c 1
y
90c 0
180c -1
270c 0
360c 1
y = cos x
90c
180c
270c
360c
-1
The graph is above the x-axis in the 1st quadrant, then below for the 2nd and 3rd quadrants and above again for the 4th quadrant.
309
This means that cos x is positive in the 1st and 4th quadrants and negative in the 2nd and 3rd quadrants. 3. Describe the sign of tan x in each section (quadrant) of the graph y = tan x.
Solution
We can sketch the graph using the table below or using the values from the tables in the investigation above for more accuracy. x y 0c 0 90c No result 180c 0 270c No result 360c 0
Neither tan 90c nor tan 270c exists (we say that they are undened). Find the tan of angles close to these angles, for example tan 89c 59l and l, tan 279c 59l and tan 270c 01 l. tan 90c 01 There are asymptotes at 90c and 270c. On the left of 90c and 270c, tan x is positive and on the right, the ratio is negative.
y
You will see why these ratios are undefined later on in this chapter.
90c
180c
270c
360c
y = tan x
The graph is above the x-axis in the 1st quadrant, below for the 2nd, above for the 3rd and below for the 4th quadrant. This means that tan x is positive in the 1st and 3rd quadrants and negative in the 2nd and 4th quadrants.
To show why these ratios have different signs in different quadrants, we look at angles around a unit circle (a circle with radius 1 unit). We use congruent triangles when nding angles of any magnitude. Page 310 shows an example of congruent triangles all with angles of 20c inside a circle with radius 1 unit.
310
1 unit 20c 20c 1 unit
1 unit 20c 20c 1 unit

x
If we divide the circle into 4 quadrants, we notice that the x- and y-values have different signs in different quadrants. This is crucial to notice when looking at angles of any magnitude and explains the different signs you get when nding sin, cos and tan for angles greater than 90c.
Quadrant 1
Looking at the rst quadrant (see diagram below), notice that x and y are both positive and that angle i is turning anticlockwise from the x-axis.
y First quadrant
The angle at the x-axis is 0 and the angle at the y-axis is 90c, with all other angles in this quadrant between these two angles.
(x, y) 1 unit
y x
i
x
Point (x, y) forms a triangle with sides 1, x and y, so we can nd the trigonometric ratios for angle i.
311
sin i =
y 1 =y x 1 =x
cos i =
y tan i = x
Investigation
Since cos i = x and sin i = y, we can write the point (x, y) as (cos i, sin i). The polar coordinates (cos i, sin i) give a circle. The polar coordinates 6 A sin ] ai + c g, B sin ] bi g @ form a shape called a Lissajous gure. These are sometimes called a Bowditch curve and they are often used as logos, for example the ABC logo. Use the Internet to research these and other similar shapes. Use a graphics calculator or a computer program such as Autograph to draw other graphs with polar coordinates using variations of sin i and cos i.
These are called polar coordinates.
Quadrant 2
In the second quadrant, angles are between 90c and 180c. If we take the 1st quadrant coordinates (x, y), where x 2 0 and y 2 0 and put them in the 2nd quadrant, we notice that all x values are negative in the second quadrant and y values are positive. So the point in the 2nd quadrant will be (-x, y)
y 90c Second quadrant (-x, y) y 180c 1 unit i 180c- i 0c x
312
Since cos i = x, cos i will negative in the 2nd quadrant. Since sin i = y , sin i will be positive in the 2nd quadrant. y tan i = x so it will be negative (a positive number divided by a negative number). To have an angle of i in the triangle, the angle around the circle is 180c - i.
Quadrant 3
In the third quadrant, angles are between 180c and 270c.
y
90c
180c y
180c + i
0c
1 unit
(-x, -y) Third quadrant
270c
Notice that x and y are both negative in the third quadrant, so cos i and sin i will be both negative. y tan i = x so will be positive (a negative divided by a negative number). To have an angle of i in the triangle, the angle around the circle is 180c + i.
Quadrant 4
In the fourth quadrant, angles are between 270c and 360c.
y 90c
180c
i 360c - i
x y
360c
0c
1 unit
(x, -y) Fourth quadrant
270c
313
While y remains negative in the fourth quadrant, x is positive again, so sin i is negative and cos i is positive. y tan i = x so will be negative (a negative divided by a positive number) For an angle i in the triangle, the angle around the circle is 360c - i.
ASTC rule
Putting all of these results together gives a rule for all four quadrants that we usually call the ASTC rule.
y 90c
2nd quadrant 180c - i
1st quadrant i
You could remember this rule as All Stations To Central or A Silly Trigonometry Concept, or you could make up your own!
S
180c
A
360c 0c x
180c + i 3rd quadrant
360c - i 4th quadrant
270c
A: ALL ratios are positive in the 1st quadrant S: Sin is positive in the 2nd quadrant (cos and tan are negative) T: Tan is positive in the 3rd quadrant (sin and cos are negative) C: Cos is positive in the 4th quadrant (sin and tan are negative) This rule also works for the reciprocal trigonometric ratios. For example, where cos is positive, sec is also positive, where sin is positive, so is cosec and where tan is positive, so is cot. We can summarise the ASTC rules for all 4 quadrants:
First quadrant: Angle i: sin i is positive cos i is positive tan i is positive
314
Second quadrant: Angle 180c - i: sin ] 180c - i g = sin i cos ] 180c - i g = - cos i tan ] 180c - i g = - tan i Third quadrant: Angle 180c + i: sin ] 180c + i g = - sin i cos ] 180c + i g = - cos i tan ] 180c + i g = tan i Fourth quadrant: Angle 360c - i: sin ] 360c - i g = - sin i cos ] 360c - i g = cos i tan ] 360c - i g = - tan i
EXAMPLES
1. Find all quadrants where (a) sin i 2 0 (b) cos i 1 0 (c) tan i 1 0 and cos i 2 0
Solution
(a) sin i 2 0 means sin i is positive. Using the ASTC rule, sin i is positive in the 1st and 2nd quadrants. (b) cos i is positive in the 1st and 4th quadrants, so cos i is negative in the 2nd and 3rd quadrants. (c) tan i is positive in the 1st and 3rd quadrants so tan i is negative in the 2nd and 4th quadrants. Also cos i is positive in the 1st and 4th quadrants. So tan i 1 0 and cos i 2 0 in the 4th quadrant.
315
2. Find the exact ratio of tan 330c.
Solution
First we nd the quadrant that 330c is in. It is in the 4th quadrant.
y
330c
30c
The angle inside the triangle in the 4th quadrant is 30c and tan is negative in the 4th quadrant. tan 330c = - tan 30c 1 =3
Notice that 360c - 30c = 330c.
30c 2
: 3
60c
3. Find the exact value of sin 225c.
Solution
The angle in the triangle in the 3rd quadrant is 45c and sin is negative in the 3rd quadrant.
CONTINUED Notice that 180c + 45c = 225c.
316
225c 45c
sin 225c = - sin 45c 1 =2
45c
: 2
45c
4. Find the exact value of cos 510c.
Solution
To nd cos 510c, we move around the circle more than once.
y
30c
150c 510c
510c - 360c = 150c So 510c = 360c + 150c
317
The angle is in the 2nd quadrant where cos is negative. The triangle has 30c in it. cos 510c = - cos 30c =3 2
2
30c
: 3
Notice that 180c - 30c = 150c.
60c
5. Simplify cos (180c + x).
Solution
180c + x is an angle in the 3rd quadrant where cos is negative. So cos ] 180c + x g = - cos x 6. If sin x = 3 and cos x 2 0, nd the value of tan x and sec x. 5
Solution
sin x 1 0 in the 3rd and 4th quadrants and cos x 2 0 in the 1st and 4th quadrants. So sin x 1 0 and cos x 2 0 in the 4th quadrant. This means that tan x 1 0 and sec x 2 0. sin x = opposite hypotenuse
y
sec x is the reciprocal of cos x so is positive in the 4th quadrant.
So the opposite side is 3 and the hypotenuse is 5.
x 5 3
By Pythagoras theorem, the adjacent side is 4.

CONTINUED
This is a 3-4-5 triangle.
318
So tan x = -
3 4 1 sec x = cos x 5 = 4
The ASTC rule also works for negative angles. These are measured in the opposite way (clockwise) from positive angles as shown.
y -270c
2nd quadrant -(180c+ i )
1st quadrant -(360c- i ) -360c 0
-180c
-(180c- i ) 3rd quadrant
-i 4th quadrant
-90c
The only difference with this rule is that the angles are labelled differently.
EXAMPLE
Find the exact value of tan (-120c).
Solution
Notice that - (180c - 60c) = -120c.
Moving around the circle the opposite way, the angle is in the 3rd quadrant, with 60c in the triangle.
y
60c
120c
319
Tan is positive in the 3rd quadrant. tan ] -120c g = tan 60c = 3

30c 2
: 3
60c
6.7 Exercises
1. Find all quadrants where (a) cos i 2 0 (b) tan i 2 0 (c) sin i 2 0 (d) tan i 1 0 (e) sin i 1 0 (f) cos i 1 0 (g) sin i 1 0 and tan i 2 0 (h) cos i 1 0 and tan i 2 0 (i) sin i 2 0 and tan i 1 0 (j) sin i 1 0 and tan i 1 0 (a) Which quadrant is the angle 240c in? (b) Find the exact value of cos 240c. (a) Which quadrant is the angle 315c in? (b) Find the exact value of sin 315c. (a) Which quadrant is the angle 120c in? (b) Find the exact value of tan 120c . (a) Which quadrant is the angle -225c in? (b) Find the exact value of sin (-225c). 8. 6. (a) Which quadrant is the angle -330c in? (b) Find the exact value of cos (-330c). Find the exact value of each ratio. (a) tan 225c (b) cos 315c (c) tan 300c (d) sin 150c (e) cos 120c (f) sin 210c (g) cos 330c (h) tan 150c (i) sin 300c (j) cos 135c Find the exact value of each ratio. (a) cos (-225c) (b) cos (-210c) (c) tan (-300c) (d) cos (-150c) (e) sin (-60c) (f) tan (-240c) (g) cos (-300c) (h) tan (-30c) (i) cos (-45c) (j) sin (-135c)
7.
2.
3.
4.
5.
320
9.
Find the exact value of (a) cos 570c (b) tan 420c (c) sin 480c (d) cos 660c (e) sin 690c (f) tan 600c (g) sin 495c (h) cos 405c (i) tan 675c (j) sin 390c 3 and cos i 1 0, nd 4 sin i and cos i as fractions.
15. If sin i = -
4 and 9 270c 1 i 1 360c, nd the exact
value of tan i and sec i. 16. If cos i = 3 and 8 180 1 i 1 270, nd the exact value of tan x, sec x and cosec x.
10. If tan i =
17. Given sin x = 0.3 and tan x 1 0, (a) express sin x as a fraction (b) nd the exact value of cos x and tan x. 18. If tan a = - 1.2 and 270 1 i 1 360, nd the exact values of cot a, sec a and cosec a. 19. Given that cos i = - 0.7 and 90c 1 i 1 180c , nd the exact value of sin i and cot i. 20. Simplify (a) sin ] 180c - i g (b) cos ] 360c - x g (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) tan ^ 180c + b h sin ] 180c + a g tan ] 360c - i g sin ] - i g cos ] - a g tan ] - x g
Use Pythagoras theorem to find the third side.
4 11. Given sin i = and tan i 1 0, 7 nd the exact value of cos i and tan i. 5 12. If sin x 1 0 and tan x = - , nd 8 the exact value of cos x and cosec x. 13. Given cos x = 2 and tan x 1 0, 5 nd the exact value of cosec x, cot x and tan x.
14. If cos x 1 0 and sin x 1 0, nd cos x and sin x in surd form with 5 rational denominator if tan x = . 7
Trigonometric Equations
This is called the principle solution.
Whenever you nd an unknown angle in a triangle, you solve a trigonometric equation e.g. cos x = 0.34. You can nd this on your calculator. Now that we know how to nd the trigonometric ratios of angles of any magnitude, there can be more than one solution to a trigonometric equation if we look at a larger domain.
321
EXAMPLES
1. Solve cos x = 3 in the domain 0 # x # 360. 2
Solution
3 is a positive ratio and cos is positive in the 1st and 4th quadrants. 2 So there are two possible answers. In the 1st quadrant, angles are in the form of i and in the 4th quadrant angles are in the form of 360c - i. cos 30c = 3 2
30c 2
This is called the principle solution.
But there is also a solution in the 4th quadrant where the angle is 360c - i. For cos x = 3 2 x = 30c , 360c - 30c = 30c , 330c
: 3
60c
2. Solve 2 sin 2 x - 1 = 0 for 0c # x # 360c.
Solution
2 sin 2 x - 1 = 0 2 sin 2 x = 1 1 sin 2 x = 2 2 1 =! 2 Since the ratio could be positive or negative, there are solutions in all 4 quadrants. 1st quadrant: angle i 2nd quadrant: angle 180c - i 3rd quadrant: angle 180c + i 4th quadrant: angle 360c - i
CONTINUED
sin x = !
322
sin 45c =
1 2 x = 45c , 180c - 45c , 180c + 45c , 360c - 45c = 45c , 135c , 225c , 315c
45c
45c
: 2
3. Solve tan x =
3 for - 180c # x # 180c.
Solution
3 is a positive ratio and tan is positive in the 1st and 3rd quadrants. So there are two possible answers. In the domain - 180c # x # 180c, we use positive angles for 0c # x # 180c and negative angles for - 180c # x # 0c.
y 90c
2nd quadrant 180c - i
1st quadrant i
S
-180c -(180c - i) 3rd quadrant -90c 180c
A
0c 0c x
-i 4th quadrant
In the 1st quadrant, angles are in the form of i and in the 3rd quadrant angles are in the form of - ^ 180c - i h . tan 60c = 3 But there is also a solution in the 3rd quadrant where the angle is - ^ 180c - i h . For tan x = 3 x = 60c , - ] 180c - 60c g = 30c , -120 c
30c 2
: 3
60c
323
4. Solve 2 sin 2x - 1 = 0 for 0c # x # 360c.
Solution
Notice that the angle is 2x but the domain is for x. If 0c # x # 360c then we multiply each part by 2 to get the domain for 2x. 0c # 2x # 720c This means that we can nd the solutions by going around the circle twice! 2 sin 2x - 1 = 0 2 sin 2x = 1 1 2 1 sin 30c = 2 sin 2x =
30c 2
: 3
60c
Sin is positive in the 1st and 2nd quadrants. First time around the circle, 1st quadrant is i and the 2nd quadrant is 180c - i. Second time around the circle, we add 360c to the angles. So 1st quadrant answer is 360c + i and the 2nd quadrant answer is 360c + ] 180c - i g or 540c - i. So 2x = 30c , 180c - 30c, 360c + 30c , 540c - 30c = 30c , 150c , 390c , 510c ` x = 15c , 75c , 195c , 255c
Notice that these solutions lie inside the original domain of 0c # x # 360c.
The trigonometric graphs can also help solve some trigonometric equations.
EXAMPLE
Solve cos x = 0 for 0c # x # 360c. cos 90c = 0 However, looking at the graph of y = cos x shows that there is another solution in the domain 0c # x # 360c.
y
1 x
90c -1
180c
270c 360c
For cos x = 0 x = 90c, 270c
324
Investigation
Here are the 3 trigonometric graphs that you explored earlier in the chapter. y = sin x
y = cos x
y = tan x
Use the values in the sin, cos and tan graphs to nd values for the inverse trigonometric functions in the tables below and then sketch the inverse trigonometric functions. For example sin 270 = -1 1 So cosec 270c = -1 = -1 Some values will be undened, so you will need to nd values near them in order to see where the graph goes. y = cosec x x sin x cosec x 0c 90c 180c 270c 360c
325
y = sec x x cos x sec x y = cot x x tan x cot x 0c 90c 180c 270c 360c 0c 90c 180c 270c 360c
Here are the graphs of the inverse trigonometric functions. y = cosec x
y = sec x
y = cot x
y y = cotx 1 x 360c
0 -1
90c
180c 270c
360c
326
6.8 Exercises
1. Solve for 0c # i # 360c. (a) sin i = 0.35 1 (b) cos i = 2 (c) tan i = - 1 3 (d) sin i = 2 1 (e) tan i = 3 (f) 2 cos i = 3 (g) tan 2i = 3 (h) 2 sin 3i = - 1 (i) 2 cos 2i - 1 = 0 (j) tan 2 3i = 1 2. Solve for -180c # i # 180c. (a) cos i = 0.187 1 (b) sin i = 2 (c) tan i = 1 3 (d) sin i = 2 1 (e) tan i = 3 (f) 3 tan 2 i = 1 (g) tan 2i = 1 (h) 2 sin 2 3i = 1 (i) tan i + 1 = 0 (j) tan 2 2i = 3 3. Sketch y = cos x for 0c # x # 360c . Evaluate sin 270c . 5. Sketch y = tan x for 0c # x # 360c . Solve tan x = 0 for 0c # x # 360c . Evaluate cos 180c . Find the value of sin 90c . Solve cos x = 1 for 0c # x # 360c .
6.
7. 8. 9.
10. Sketch y = sin x for -180c # x # 180c . 11. Evaluate cos 270c. 12. Solve sin x + 1 = 0 for 0c # x # 360c . 13. Solve cos 2 x = 1 for 0c # x # 360c . 14. Solve sin x = 0 for 0c # x # 360c . 15. Solve sin x = 1 for - 360c # x # 360c . 16. Sketch y = sec x for 0c # x # 360c . 17. Sketch y = cot x for 0c # x # 360c .
4.
Trigonometric Identities
Trigonometric identities are statements about the relationships of trigonometric ratios. You have already met some of thesethe reciprocal ratios, complementary angles and the rules for the angle of any magnitude.
327
Reciprocal ratios
cosec i =
1 sin i 1 sec i = cos i 1 cot i = tan i
Complementary angles
sin i = cos ] 90c - i g cosec i = sec ] 90c - i g tan i = cot ] 90c - i g
Angles of any magnitude
sin ] 180c - i g = sin i cos ] 180c - i g = - cos i tan ] 180c - i g = - tan i sin (180c + i) = - sin i cos (180c + i) = - cos i tan (180c + i) = tan i sin (360c - i) = - sin i cos (360c - i) = cos i tan (360c - i) = - tan i sin (- i) = - sin i cos (- i) = cos i tan (- i) = - tan i
In this section you will learn some other identities, based on the unit circle. In the work on angles of any magnitude, we dened sin i as the y-coordinate of P and cos i as the x-coordinate of P.
328
y tan i = x sin i = cos i sin i cos i
tan i =
cot i =
1 tan i cos i = sin i cos i sin i
cot i =
Pythagorean identities
The circle has equation x 2 + y 2 = 1. Substituting x = cos i and y = sin i into x 2 + y 2 = 1 gives
Remeber that cos 2 i means (cos i) 2.
cos 2 i + sin 2 i = 1
This is an equation so can be rearranged to give sin 2 i = 1 - cos 2 i cos 2 i = 1 - sin 2 i There are two other identities that can be derived from this identity.
1 + tan 2 i = sec 2 i
329
Proof
cos 2 i + sin 2 i = 1 cos 2 i sin 2 i 1 + = cos 2 i cos 2 i cos 2 i 1 + tan 2 i = sec 2 i This identity can be rearranged to give tan 2 i = sec 2 i - 1 1 = sec 2 i - tan 2 i cot 2 i + 1 = cosec 2 i
Proof
cos 2 i + sin 2 i = 1 cos 2 i sin 2 i 1 + = 2 2 sin i sin i sin 2 i 2 cot i + 1 = cosec 2 i This identity can be rearranged to give cot 2 i = cosec 2 i - 1 1 = cosec 2 i - cot 2 i
These are called Pythagorean identities since the equation of the circle comes from Pythagoras rule (see Chapter 5).
EXAMPLES
1. Simplify sin i cot i.
Solution
sin i cot i = sin i # = cos i cos i sin i
2. Simplify sin ^ 90c - b h sec b where b is an acute angle.
Solution
sin ^ 90c - b h sec b = cos b # =1 1 cos b
CONTINUED
330
3. Simplify
sin 4 i + sin 2 i cos 2 i .
Solution
sin 4 i + sin 2 i cos 2 i = sin 2 i ^ sin 2 i + cos 2 i h = sin 2 i ] 1 g = sin 2 i = sin i 4. Prove cot x + tan x = cosec x sec x.
Solution
LHS = cot x + tan x cos x sin x = + sin x cos x cos 2 x + sin 2 x sin x cos x 1 = sin x cos x 1 1 = # cos x sin x = cosec x sec x = RHS = ` cot x + tan x = cosec x sec x 5. Prove that 1 - cos x 1 = . 1 + cos x sin 2 x
Solution
LHS = 1 - cos x sin 2 x 1 - cos x = 1 - cos 2 x 1 - cos x = ] 1 + cos x g ] 1 - cos x g 1 = 1 + cos x = RHS
1 - cos x 1 = 2 1 cos x + sin x
331
6.9 Exercises
1. Simplify (a) sin ] 90c - i g (b) tan ] 360c - i g (c) cos ] - i g (d) cot ] 90c - i g (e) sec ] 180c + a g Simplify (a) tan i cos i (b) tan i cosec i (c) sec x cot x (d) 1 - sin 2 x 1 - cos a cot 2 x + 1 1 + tan 2 x sec 2 i - 1 5 cot 2 i + 5 1 (j) cosec 2 x (k) sin 2 a cosec 2 a (l) cot i - cot i cos 2 i (e) (f) (g) (h) (i)
2
(d) sec 2 x - tan 2 x = cosec 2 x - cot 2 x (e) ] sin x - cos x g3 = sin x - cos x - 2 sin 2 x cos x + 2 sin x cos 2 x (f) cot i + 2 sec i 1 - sin 2 i + 2 sin i sin i cos i (g) cos 2 ] 90c - i g cot i = = sin i cos i (h) (cosec x + cot x) (cosec x - cot x) = 1 1 - sin 2 i cos 2 i cos 2 i 2 = tan i + cos 2 i 1 + cot b (j) - cos b cosec b sec b = tan b + cot b (i) 4. If x = 2 cos i and y = 2 sin i, show that x 2 + y 2 = 4. Show that x 2 + y 2 = 81 if x = 9 cos i and y = 9 sin i.
2.
3.
Prove that (a) cos 2 x - 1 = - sin 2 x 1 + sin i (b) sec i + tan i = cos i 3 2 (c) 3 + 3 tan a = 1 - sin 2 a
5.
Non-right-angled Triangle Results

A non-right-angled triangle is named so that its angles and opposite sides have the same pronumeral. There are two rules in trigonometry that refer to nonright-angled triangles. These are the sine rule and the cosine rule.
332
Sine rule
Use this rule for finding an angle.
sin A sin B sin C a = b = c
Use this rule for finding a side.
or
a c b = = sin A sin B sin C
Proof
In TABC, draw perpendicular AD and call it h. From TABD, h sin B = c ` h = c sin B From TACD, sin C = ` h b h = b sin C
(1)
(2)
From (1) and (2), c sin B = b sin C sin B sin C = c b Similarly, drawing a perpendicular from C it can be proven that sin A sin B a = b .
333
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of x, correct to 1 decimal place.
The sine rule uses 2 sides and 2 angles, with 1 unknown.
Solution
Name the sides a and b, and angles A and B. a b = sin A sin B 10.7 x = sin 43c 21l sin 79c 12l 10.7 x sin 43c 21l # = sin 43c 21l # sin 43c 21l sin 79c 12l 10.7 sin 43c 21l x= sin 79c 12l Z 7.5 cm 2. Find the value of y, to the nearest whole number.
You can rename the triangle ABC or just make sure you put sides with their opposite angles together.
Solution
+Y = 180c - (53c + 24c ) = 103c a b = sin A sin B y 8 = sin 103c sin 53c y 8 = sin 103c # sin 103c # sin 103c sin 53c 8 sin 103c y= sin 53c Z 10
You need to find +Y first, as it is opposite y.
CONTINUED
334
3. Find the value of i, in degrees and minutes.
Solution
sin A sin B a = b sin i sin 86c 11l = 6.7 8.3 sin i sin 86c 11l = 6.7 # 6.7 # 6 .7 8 .3 6.7 sin 86c 11l sin i = 8 .3 - 1 6.7 sin 86c 11l i = sin c m 8.3 Z 53c39l
Since sin x is positive in the rst 2 quadrants, both acute angles (between 0c and 90c ) and obtuse angles (between 90c and 180c ) give positive sin ratios. e.g. sin 50c = 0.766 and sin 130c = 0.766 This affects the sine rule, since there is no way of distinguishing between an acute angle and an obtuse angle. When doing a question involving an obtuse angle, we need to use the 2nd quadrant angle of 180c - i rather than relying on the calculator to give the correct answer.
EXAMPLE
Angle i is obtuse. Find the value of i, in degrees and minutes.
335
Solution
sin A sin B a = b sin i sin 15c 49l = 5.4 11.9 sin i sin 15c 49l = 11.9 # 11.9 # 5.4 11.9 11.9 sin 15c 49l sin i = 5.4 - 1 11.9 sin 15c 49l m i = sin c 5.4 = 36c 55l ^ acute angle h But i is obtuse ` i = 180c - 36c 55l = 143c 05l
6.10
1.
Exercises
(c)
Evaluate all pronumerals, correct to 1 decimal place. (a)
(d)
(b)
(e)
336
2.
Find the value of all pronumerals, in degrees and minutes. (a) 4.
BC = 4.6 cm and +ACB = 33c 47l. Triangle EFG has +FEG = 48c , +EGF = 32c and FG = 18.9 mm. Find the length of (a) the shortest side (b) the longest side.. Triangle XYZ has +XYZ = 51c , +YXZ = 86c and XZ = 2.1 m. Find the length of (a) the shortest side (b) the longest side. Triangle XYZ has XY = 5.4 cm, +ZXY = 48c and +XZY = 63c. Find the length of XZ. Triangle ABC has BC = 12.7 m, +ABC = 47c and +ACB = 53c as shown. Find the lengths of (a) AB (b) AC.
A
The shortest side is opposite the smallest angle and the longest side is opposite the largest angle.
(b) 5.
(c)
6.
7.
(d)
47c
12.7 m
53c
(e) (i is obtuse)
4.9 3.7 21c31l i
8.
Triangle PQR has sides PQ = 15 mm, QR = 14.7 mm and +PRQ = 62c 29l. Find to the nearest minute (a) +QPR (b) +PQR. Triangle ABC is isosceles with AB = AC. BC is produced to D as shown. If AB = 8.3 cm, +BAC = 52c and +ADC = 32c nd the length of
3.
Triangle ABC has an obtuse angle at A. Evaluate this angle to the nearest minute if AB = 3.2 cm,
9.
337
(a) AD (b) BD.

A 8.3 cm 52c
32c
10. Triangle ABC is equilateral with side 63 mm. A line is drawn from A to BC where it meets BC at D l and +DAB = 26c 15 . Find the length of (a) AD (b) DC. D
Cosine rule
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C
Similarly a 2 = b 2 + c 2 - 2bc cos A b 2 = a 2 + c 2 - 2ac cos B
Proof
A
c p
a-x
In triangle ABC, draw perpendicular CD with length p and let CD = x. Since BC = a, BD = a - x From triangle ACD b2 = x2 + p2 x cos C = b ` b cos C = x From triangle DAB c2 = p2 + ] a - x g 2 = p 2 + a 2 - 2ax + x 2 = p 2 + x 2 + a 2 - 2ax (1)
(2)
(3)
338
Substitute (1) into (3): c 2 = b 2 + a 2 - 2ax Substituting (2) into (4): c 2 = b 2 + a 2 - 2a ] b cos C g = b 2 + a 2 - 2ab cos C (4)
DID YOU KNOW?

Pythagoras theorem is a special case of the cosine rule when the triangle is right angled. c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C When C = 90c c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos 90c = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab ] 0 g = a2 + b2
EXAMPLE
Find the value of x, correct to the nearest whole number.
The cosine rule uses 3 sides and 1 angle, with 1 unknown.
Solution
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C x 2 = 5.6 2 + 6.4 2 - 2 (5.6) (6.4) cos 112c 32l Z 99.79 x = 99.79 Z 10
Press 5.6 x 2 + 6.4 x 2 - 2 # 5.6 # 6.4 # cos 112 % , ,, 32 % , ,, = =
339
When nding an unknown angle, it is easier to change the subject of this formula to cos C. c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C c 2 + 2ab cos C = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C + 2ab cos C c 2 + 2ab cos C = a 2 + b 2 c 2 - c 2 + 2ab cos C = a 2 + b 2 - c 2 2ab cos C = a 2 + b 2 - c 2 2ab cos C a2 + b2 - c2 = 2ab 2ab a2 + b2 - c2 2ab
cos C = Similarly cos A = cos B = b2 + c2 - a2 2bc a +c -b 2ac

2 2 2
Subtract the square of the side opposite the unknown angle.
EXAMPLES
1. Find i, in degrees and minutes.
Solution
cos C = a2 + b2 - c2 2ab 52 + 62 - 32 cos i = 2 ]5 g]6 g 52 = 60 52 m i = cos - 1 c 60 Z 29c 56l 2. Evaluate +BAC in degrees and minutes.
A 4.5 cm B 6.1 cm C
8.4 cm
CONTINUED
340
Solution
a2 + b2 - c2 2ab 4.5 2 + 6.1 2 - 8.4 2 cos +BAC = 2 ] 4. 5 g ] 6 .1 g = - 0.2386 cos C = +BAC = cos- 1 ] - 0.2386 g = 103c 48l
Notice that the negative sign tells us that the angle will be obtuse.
6.11
1.
Exercises
(e)
Find the value of all pronumerals, correct to 1 decimal place. (a) 2.
Evaluate all pronumerals correct to the nearest minute (a)
(b)
(b) (c)
(c) (d)
341
(d)
YZ = 5.9 cm. Find the value of all angles, to the nearest minute. 7. Isosceles trapezium MNOP has MP = NO = 12 mm, MN = 8.9 mm, OP = 15.6 mm and +NMP = 119c 15l. (a) Find the length of diagonal NP. (b) Find +NOP. Given the gure below, nd the length of (a) AC (b) AD.
B
(e)
8.
3.
Kite ABCD has AB = 12.9 mm, CD = 23.8 mm and +ABC = 125c as shown. Find the length of diagonal AC.
B 12.9 mm A 23.8 mm D 125 c C
42 c8 l 8.4 cm
3.7 cm
101 c38 l A
9.9 cm
4.
Parallelogram ABCD has sides 11 cm and 5 cm, and one interior l angle 79c 25 . Find the length of the diagonals. Quadrilateral ABCD has sides AB = 12 cm, BC = 10.4 cm, CD = 8.4 cm and AD = 9.7 cm with +ABC = 63c 57l . (a) Find the length of diagonal AC (b) Find +DAC (c) Find +ADC. Triangle XYZ is isosceles with XY = XZ = 7.3 cm and
9.
5.
In a regular pentagon ABCDE with sides 8 cm, nd the length of diagonal AD.
10. A regular hexagon ABCDEF has sides 5.5 cm. (a) Find the length of AD. (b) Find +ADF.
6.
342
Applications
The sine and cosine rules can be used in solving problems.
Use the sine rule to nd: 1. a side, given one side and two angles 2. an angle, given two sides and one angle Use the cosine rule to nd: 1. a side, given two sides and one angle 2. an angle, given three sides
EXAMPLES
1. The angle of elevation of a tower from point A is 72c. From point B, 50 m further away from the tower than A, the angle of elevation is 47c. (a) Find the exact length of AT. (b) Hence, or otherwise, nd the height h of the tower to 1 decimal place.
Solution
Use TBTA to find AT.
(a) +BAT = 180c - 72c = 108c +BTA = 180c - ] 47c + 108c g = 25c a b = sin A sin B 50 AT = sin 47c sin 25c 50 sin 47c AT = ` sin 25c
^ straight angle h
(angle sum of T)
343
(b) sin 72c = `
h AT h = AT sin 72c 50 sin 47c = # sin 72c sin 25c Z 82.3 m
Use right-angled TATO to find h. Do not use the sine rule.
2. A ship sails from Sydney for 200 km on a bearing of 040c , then sails on a bearing of 157c for 345 km. (a) How far from Sydney is the ship, to the nearest km? (b) What is the bearing of the ship from Sydney, to the nearest degree?
Solution
(a) +SAN = 180c - 40c = 140c ` +SAB = 360c - (140c + 157c) = 63c
^ cointerior angles h ^ angle of revolution h
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C x 2 = 200 2 + 345 2 - 2 (200) (345) cos 63c Z 96374.3 x = 96374.3 Z 310 So the ship is 310 km from Sydney. sin A sin B a = b sin i sin 63c = 345 310 345 sin 63c ` sin i = 310 Z 0.99 i Z 82c ( b) The bearing from Sydney = 40c + 82c = 122c
To find the bearing, measure +TSB.
344
6.12
1.
Exercises
from one post and 11 m from the other, nd the angle within which the ball must be kicked to score a goal, to the nearest degree. 7. A boat is sinking 1.3 km out to sea from a marina. Its bearing is 041c from the marina and 324c from a rescue boat. The rescue boat is due east of the marina. (a) How far, correct to 2 decimal places, is the rescue boat from the sinking boat? (b) How long will it take the rescue boat, to the nearest minute, to reach the other boat if it travels at 80 km/h? The angle of elevation of the top of a agpole from a point a certain distance away from its base is 20c. After walking 80 m towards the agpole, the angle of elevation is 75c. Find the height of the agpole, to the nearest metre. A triangular eld ABC has sides AB = 85 m and AC = 50 m. If B is on a bearing of 065c from A and C is on a bearing of 166c from A, nd the length of BC, correct to the nearest metre.
Find the lengths of the diagonals of a parallelogram with adjacent sides 5 cm and 8 cm and one of its angles 32c 42l. A car is broken down to the north of 2 towns. The car is 39 km from town A and 52 km from town B. If A is due west of B and the 2 towns are 68 km apart, what is the bearing of the car from (a) town A (b) town B, to the nearest degree? The angle of elevation to the top of a tower is 54c 37l from a point 12.8 m out from its base. The tower is leaning at an angle of 85c 58l as shown. Find the height of the tower. 8.
2.
3.
9.
54 c37 l 12.8 m 85c58 l
4.
A triangular park has sides 145.6 m, 210.3 m and 122.5 m. Find the size of the largest interior angle of the park. A 1.5 m high fence leans outwards from a house at an angle of 102c. A boy sits on top of the fence and the angle of depression from him down to the house is 32c 44l . How far from the fence is the house? Football posts are 3.5 m apart. If a footballer is standing 8 m
5.
10. (a) Find the exact value of AC in the diagram. (b) Hence, or otherwise, nd the angle i, correct to the nearest minute.
6.
345
11. Find the value of h, correct to 1 decimal place.
16. Rhombus ABCD with side 8 cm has diagonal BD 11.3 cm long. Find +DAB. 17. Zeke leaves school and runs for 8.7 km on a bearing of 338c, then turns and runs on a bearing of 061c until he is due north of school. How far north of school is he? 18. A car drives due east for 83.7 km then turns and travels for 105.6 km on a bearing of 029c. How far is the car from its starting point? 19. The gure below shows the diagram that a surveyor makes to measure a triangular piece of land. Find its perimeter.
12. A motorbike and a car leave a service station at the same time. The motorbike travels on a bearing of 080c and the car travels for 15.7 km on a bearing of 108c until the bearing of the motorbike from the car is 310c. How far, correct to 1 decimal place, has the motorbike travelled? 13. A submarine is being followed by two ships, A and B, 3.8 km apart, with A due east of B. If A is on a bearing of 165c from the submarine and B is on a bearing of 205c from the submarine, nd the distance from the submarine to both ships. 14. A plane ies from Dubbo on a bearing of 139c for 852 km, then turns and ies on a bearing of 285cuntil it is due west of Dubbo. How far from Dubbo is the plane, to the nearest km? 15. A triangular roof is 16.8 m up to its peak, then 23.4 m on the other side with a 125c angle at the peak as shown. Find the length of the roof.
13.9 m 58 c1 l 11.4 m 14.3 m 132 c31 l
20. A light plane leaves Sydney and ies for 1280 km on a bearing of 050c. It then turns and ies for 3215 km on a bearing of 149c. How far is the plane from Sydney, to the nearest km? 21. Trapezium ABCD has AD ; BC, with AB = 4.6 cm, BC = 11.3 cm, CD = 6.4 cm, +DAC = 23c 30l and +ABC = 78c . (a) Find the length of AC. (b) Find +ADC to the nearest minute. 22. A plane leaves Adelaide and ies for 875 km on a bearing of 056c. It then turns and ies on a bearing of i for 630 km until it is due east of Adelaide. Evaluate i to the nearest degree.
125 c 16.8 m 23.4 m
346
23. Quadrilateral ABCD has AB = AD = 7.2 cm, BC = 8.9 cm and CD = 10.4 cm, with +DAB = 107c (a) Find the length of diagonal BD. (b) Find +BCD. 24. Stig leaves home and travels on a bearing of 248c for 109.8 km. He then turns and travels for 271.8 km on a bearing of 143c . Stig then turns and travels home on a bearing of a. (a) How far does he travel on the nal part of his journey? (b) Evaluate a.
25. A wall leans inwards and makes an angle of 88c with the oor. (a) A 4 m long ladder leans against the wall with its base 2.3 m out from the wall. Find the angle that the top of the ladder makes with the wall. (b) A longer ladder is placed the same distance out from the wall and its top makes an angle of 31c with the wall. (i) How long is this ladder? (ii) How much further does it reach up the wall than the rst ladder?
Area
To nd the area of a triangle, you need to know its perpendicular height. Trigonometry allows us to nd this height in terms of one of the angles in the triangle.
A=
1 ab sin C 2
Similarly, 1 ac sin B 2 1 A = bc sin A 2 A=
Proof
From D BCD, h sin C = a ` h = a sin C A= 1 bh 2 1 = ba sin C 2
347
EXAMPLE
Find the area of D ABC correct to 2 decimal places.
To find the area, use 2 sides and their included angle.
Solution
A= 1 ab sin C 2 1 = (4.3) (5.8) sin 112c 34l 2 Z 11.52 units 2
6.13
1.
Exercises
(c)
Find the area of each triangle correct to 1 decimal place. (a)
(d)
(b)
(e)
348
2.
Calculate the exact area of D ABC.
7. 3. Find the area of DOAB correct to 1 decimal place (O is the centre of the circle).
Find the area of a regular hexagon with sides 4 cm, to the nearest cm 2 . Calculate the area of a regular pentagon with sides 12 mm. The gure below is made from a rectangle and isosceles triangle with AE = AB as shown.
A 84c
8.
9.
4.
Find the area of a parallelogram with sides 3.5 cm and 4.8 cm, and one of its internal angles 67c 13l, correct to 1 decimal place. Find the area of kite ABCD, correct to 3 signicant gures.
14.3 cm
10.5 cm
5.
(a) Find the length of AE. (b) Find the area of the gure. 10. Given the following gure,
A 58c 9.4 cm
44c
36c 6.7 cm
6.
Find the area of the sail, correct to 1 decimal place.
(a) Find the length of AC (b) Find the area of triangle ACD (c) Find the area of triangle ABC.
349
Test Yourself 6
1. Find the exact value of cos i and sin i if 3 tan i = . 5 Simplify (a) sin x cot x cos 40c + sin 50c (b) cos 40c (c) 3. 1 + cot 2 A (b) 12. Evaluate x, correct to 2 signicant gures. (a)
2.
Evaluate to 2 decimal places. (a) sin 39c 54l (b) tan 61c 30l (c) cos 19c 2l Find i to the nearest minute if (a) sin i = 0.72 (b) cos i = 0.286 5 (c) tan i = 7 Prove that 2 cos 2 i = 2 + 2 sin i. 1 - sin i 13. Evaluate i to the nearest minute. (a)
4.
5. 6. 7.
Find the value of b if sin b = cos ] 2b - 30 g c . Find the exact value of (a) cos 315c (b) sin ] - 60c g (c) tan 120c
(b)
(c)
8. 9.
Solve 2 cos x = -1 for 0c # x # 360c. Sketch the graph of y = cos x, and hence solve cos x = 0 for 0c # x # 360c . 14. Find the area of triangle MNO.
10. A ship sails on a bearing of 215c from port until it is 100 km due south of port. How far does it sail, to the nearest km? 11. Find the length of AB as a surd.
350
15. Solve for -180c # x # 180c . 3 (a) sin 2 x = 4 1 (b) tan 2x = 3 2 (c) 3 tan x = tan x 5 16. If sec i = - and tan i 2 0, nd sin i 4 and cot i. 17. Jacquie walks south from home for 3.2 km, then turns and walks west for 1.8 km. What is the bearing, to the nearest degree, of (a) Jacquie from her home? (b) her home from where Jacquie is now? 18. The angle of elevation from point B to the top of a pole is 39c , and the angle of elevation from D, on the other side of the pole, is 42c. B and D are 20 m apart. (a) Find an expression for the length of AD. (b) Find the height of the pole, to 1 decimal place. 19. A plane ies from Orange for 1800 km on a bearing of 300c . It then turns and ies for 2500 km on a bearing of 205c . How far is the plane from Orange, to the nearest km?
1. Two cars leave an intersection at the same time, one travelling at 70 km/h along one road and the other car travelling at 80 km/h along the other road. After 2 hours they are 218 km apart. At what angle, to the nearest minute, do the roads meet at the intersection? A ship sails from port on a bearing of 055c , then turns and sails on a bearing of 153c for 29.1 km, when it is due east of port. How far, to 1 decimal place, is the ship from its starting point? Evaluate x correct to 3 signicant gures. 5. A man walks 3.8 km on a bearing of 134c from a house. He then walks 2.9 km on a bearing of 029c . How far is he from the house, to 1 decimal place? 4. (a) Find an exact expression for the length of AC. (b) Hence, or otherwise, nd the value of h correct to 1 decimal place.
2.
3.
351
6. 7.
Simplify sin ] 360c - x g $ tan ] 90c- x g . Find the exact area of D ABC.
12. Solve 2 cos (i + 10c ) = - 1 for 0c # i # 360c. 13. Two roads meet at an angle of 74c . Find the distance, correct to 3 signicant gures, between two cars, one 6.3 km from the intersection along one road and the other 3.9 km along the other road. 14. Find the exact value of cos i, given 5 sin i = and cos i 1 0. 9
8. 9.
Find the exact value of cos (-315c) . Solve tan 2x - 1 = 0 for 0c # x # 360c .
10. Find i to the nearest minute.
15. From the top of a vertical pole the angle of depression to a man standing at the foot of the pole is 43c . On the other side of the pole is another man, and the angle of depression from the top of the pole to this man is 52c . The men are standing 58 m apart. Find the height of the pole, to the nearest metre. 16. Show that cos i ] sin i + cos i g = 1 + tan i. ] 1 + sin i g ] 1 - sin i g 17. If x = 3 sin i and y = 3 cos i - 2, eliminate i to nd an equation relating x and y.
11. The angle of depression from the top of a 4.5 m mast of a boat down to a sh is 56c 28l . How far down, to 1 decimal place, does a pelican sitting at the top of the mast need to y to catch the sh?
7
Linear Functions
TERMINOLOGY
Collinear points: Two or more points that lie on the same straight line Concurrent lines: Two or more lines that intersect at a single point Gradient: The slope of a line measured by comparing the vertical rise over the horizontal run. The symbol for gradient is m Interval: A section of a straight line including the end points Midpoint: A point lying exactly halfway between two points Perpendicular distance: The shortest distance between a point and a line. The distance will be at right angles to the line
Chapter 7 Linear Functions
353
INTRODUCTION
IN CHAPTER 5, YOU STUDIED functions and their graphs. This chapter looks at the linear function, or straight-line graph, in more detail. Here you will study the gradient and equation of a straight line, the intersection of two or more lines, parallel and perpendicular lines, the midpoint, distance and the perpendicular distance from a point to a line.
DID YOU KNOW?

Pierre de Fermat (160165) was a lawyer who dabbled in mathematics. He was a contemporary of Descartes, and showed the relationship between an equation in the form Dx = By, where D and B are constants, and a straight-line graph. Both de Fermat and Descartes only used positive values of x, but de Fermat used the x-axis and y-axis as perpendicular lines as we do today. De Fermats notes Introduction to Loci, Method of Finding Maxima and Minima and Varia opera mathematica were only published after his death. This means that in his lifetime de Fermat was not considered a great mathematician. However, now he is said to have contributed as much as Descartes towards the discovery of coordinate geometry. De Fermat also made a great contribution in his discovery of differential calculus.
Class Assignment
Find as many examples as you can of straight-line graphs in newspapers and magazines.
Distance
The distance between two points (or the length of the interval between two points) is easy to nd when the points form a vertical or horizontal line.
354
EXAMPLES
Find the distance between 1. ^ -1, 4 h and ^ -1, -2 h
Solution
Counting along the y-axis, the distance is 6 units. 2. ^ 3, 2 h and ^ -4, 2 h
Solution
Counting along the x-axis, the distance is 7 units.
When the two points are not lined up horizontally or vertically, we use Pythagoras theorem to nd the distance.
355
EXAMPLE
Find the distance between points ^ 3, -1 h and ^ -2, 5 h.
Solution
BC = 5 and AC = 6 By Pythagoras theorem, c =a +b AB 2 = 5 2 + 6 2 = 25 + 36 = 61

2 2 2
You studied Pythagoras theorem in Chapter 4.
` AB = 61 Z 7.81
DID YOU KNOW?

Pythagoras made many discoveries about music as well as about mathematics. He found that changing the length of a vibrating string causes the tone of the music to change. For example, when a string is halved, the tone is one octave higher.
The distance between two points _ x 1, y 1 i and _ x 2, y 2 i is given by d=

2 2 _ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
356
Proof
If points A and B were changed around, the formula would be d = (x 1 - x 2 ) + (y 1 - y 2 ) ,

2 2
Let A = _ x 1, y 1 i and B = _ x 2, y 2 i Length AC = x 2 - x 1 and length BC = y 2 - y 1 By Pythagoras theorem AB 2 = AC 2 + BC 2 d 2 = _ x 2 - x 1 i2 + _ y 2 - y 1 i2 `d=

2 2 _ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
which would give the same answer.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the distance between the points ^ 1, 3 h and ^ -3, 0 h.
Solution
Let ^ 1, 3 h be _ x 1, y 1 i and ^ -3, 0 h be _ x 2, y 2 i d=
2 2 _ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
= ] -3 - 1 g2 + ] 0 - 3 g2 = ] -4 g2 + ] -3 g2 = 16 + 9 = 25 =5 So the distance is 5 units. 2. Find the exact length of AB given that A = ^ -2, -4 h and B = ^ -1, 5 h .
Solution
Let ^ -2, -4 h be _ x 1, y 1 i and ^ -1, 5 h be _ x 2, y 2 i d= =
You would still get 82 if you used (- 2, - 4) as (x 2 , y 2 ) and (-1, 5) as (x 1 , y 1 ).
2 2 _ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
6 -1 - ^ -2 h @ 2 + 6 5 - ^ -4 h @ 2
12 + 92 1 + 81 82
= = =
357
7.1 Exercises
1. Find the distance between points (a) ^ 0, 2 h and ^ 3, 6 h (b) ^ -2, 3 h and ^ 4, -5 h (c) ^ 2, -5 h and ^ -3, 7 h Find the exact length of the interval between points (a) ^ 2, 3 h and ^ -1, 1 h (b) ^ -5, 1 h and ^ 3, 0 h (c) ^ - 2, -3 h and ^ - 4, 6 h (d) ^ -1, 3 h and ^ -7, 7 h Find the distance, correct to 2 decimal places, between points (a) ^ 1, -4 h and ^ 5, 5 h (b) ^ 0, 4 h and ^ 3, -2 h (c) ^ 8, -1 h and ^ -7, 6 h Find the perimeter of D ABC with vertices A ^ 3, 1 h, B ^ -1, 1 h and C ^ -1, -2 h . Prove that the triangle with vertices ^ 3, 4 h, ^ -2, 7 h and ^ 6, -1 h is isosceles. Show that AB = BC, where A = ^ -2, 5 h, B = ^ 4, -2 h and C = ^ -3, -8 h . Show that points ^ 3, -4 h and ^ 8,1 h are equidistant from point ^ 7, -3 h . A circle with centre at the origin O passes through the point _ 2 , 7 i . Find the radius of the circle, and hence its equation. Prove that the points X _ 2 , -3 i, Y _ -1, 10 i and Z _ - 6 , 5 i all lie on a circle with centre at the origin. Find its equation. 12. Prove that A ^ 1, 4 h, B ^ 1, 2 h and C _ 1 + 3 , 3 i are the vertices of an equilateral triangle. 13. If the distance between ^ a, 3 h and ^ 4, 2 h is 37 , nd the values of a. 14. The points M ^ -1, -2 h, N (3, 0), P ^ 4, 6 h and Q ^ 0, 4 h form a quadrilateral. Prove that MQ = NP and QP = MN. What type of quadrilateral is MNPQ? 15. Show that the diagonals of a square with vertices A ^ -2, 4 h, B ^ 5, 4 h, C ^ 5, -3 h and D ^ -2, -3 h are equal. 16. (a) Show that the triangle with vertices A ^ 0, 6 h, B ^ 2, 0 h and C ^ -2, 0 h is isosceles. (b) Show that perpendicular OA, where O is the origin, bisects BC. 17. Find the exact length of the diameter of a circle with centre ^ -3, 4 h if the circle passes through the point ^ 7, 5 h . 18. Find the exact length of the radius of the circle with centre (1, 3) if the circle passes through the point ^ -5, -2 h . 19. Show that the triangle with vertices A ^ -2, 1 h, B ^ 3, 3 h and C ^ 7, -7 h is right angled. 20. Show that the points X ^ 3, -3 h, Y ^ 7, 4 h and Z ^ - 4, 1 h form the vertices of an isosceles right-angled triangle.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10. If the distance between ^ a, -1 h and ^ 3, 4 h is 5, nd the value of a. 11. If the distance between ^ 3, -2 h and ^ 4, a h is 7 , nd the exact value of a.
358
Midpoint
The midpoint is the point halfway between two other points.
The midpoint of two points _ x 1, y 1 i and _ x 2, y 2 i is given by M=e x1 + x2 y1 + y2 o , 2 2
Proof
Can you see why these triangles are similar?
Find the midpoint of points A _ x 1, y 1 i and B _ x 2, y 2 i. Let M = ^ x, y h Then D APQ < ; D ABR AQ AP = AR AB x - x1 1 ` x -x = 2 2 1 2 _ x - x1 i = x2 - x1 2x - 2x 1 = x 2 - x 1 2x = x 1 + x 2 x1 + x2 ` x= 2 y1 + y2 Similarly, y = 2 `
EXAMPLES
1. Find the midpoint of ^ -1, 4 h and ^ 5, 2 h.
Solution
x= x1 + x2 2
359
-1 + 5 2 4 = 2 =2 y1 + y2 y= 2 4+2 = 2 6 = 2 =3 So M = (2, 3) . = 2. Find the values of a and b if ^ 2, -3 h is the midpoint between ^ -7, -8 h and ^ a, b h.
Solution
2 -7 + a 2= 2 4 = -7 + a 11 = a y1 + y2 y= 2 -8 + b -3 = 2 -6 = -8 + b 2=b So a = 11 and b = 2. x= x1 + x2
Note that the x-coordinate of the midpoint is the average of x 1 and x 2 . The same applies to the y-coordinate.
PROBLEM
A timekeeper worked out the average time for 8 nalists in a race. The average was 30.55, but the timekeeper lost one of the nalists times. The other 7 times were 30.3, 31.1, 30.9, 30.7, 29.9, 31.0 and 30.3. Can you nd out the missing time?
360
7.2 Exercises
1. Find the midpoint of (a) ^ 0, 2 h and ^ 4, 6 h (b) ^ -2, 3 h and ^ 4, -5 h (c) ^ 2, -5 h and ^ -6, 7 h (d) ^ 2, 3 h and ^ -8, 1 h (e) ^ -5, 2 h and ^ 3, 0 h (f) ^ -2, -2 h and ^ -4, 6 h (g) ^ 1, -4 h and ^ 5, 5 h (h) ^ 0, 4 h and ^ 3, -2 h (i) ^ 8, -1 h and ^ -7, 6 h (j) ^ 3, 7 h and ^ -3, 4 h Find the values of a and b if (a) ^ 4, 1 h is the midpoint of ^ a, b h and ^ -1, 5 h (b) ^ -1, 0 h is the midpoint of ^ a, b h and ^ 3, -6 h (c) ^ a, 2 h is the midpoint of (3, b h and ^ -5, 6 h (d) ^ -2, 1 h is the midpoint of ^ a, 4 h and ^ -3, b h (e) ^ 3, b h is the midpoint of ^ a, 2 h and ^ 0, 0 h Prove that the origin is the midpoint of ^ 3, -4 h and ^ -3, 4 h . Show that P = Q where P is the midpoint of ^ -2, 3 h and ^ 6, -5 h and Q is the midpoint of ^ -7, -5 h and ^ 11, 3 h . Find the point that divides the interval between ^ 3, -2 h and ^ 5, 8 h in the ratio of 1:1. Show that the line x = 3 is the perpendicular bisector of the interval between the points ^ -1, 2 h and ^ 7, 2 h . 7. The points A ^ -1, 2 h, B ^ 1, 5 h, C ^ 6, 5 h and D ^ 4, 2 h form a parallelogram. Find the midpoints of the diagonals AC and BD. What property of a parallelogram does this show? The points A ^ 3, 5 h, B ^ 9, -3 h, C ^ 5, -6 h and D ^ -1, 2 h form a quadrilateral. Prove that the diagonals are equal and bisect one another. What type of quadrilateral is ABCD? A circle with centre ^ -2, 5 h has one end of a diameter at ^ 4, -3 h . Find the coordinates of the other end of the diameter.
8.
2.
9.
3.
4.
10. A triangle has vertices at A ^ -1, 3 h, B ^ 0, 4 h and C ^ 2, -2 h . (a) Find the midpoints X, Y and Z of sides AB, AC and BC respectively. 1 (b) Show that XY = BC, 2 1 1 XZ = AC and YZ = AB. 2 2 11. Point P ^ x, y h moves so that the midpoint between P and the origin is always a point on the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1. Find the equation of the locus of P. 12. Find the equation of the locus of the point P ^ x, y h that is the midpoint between all points on the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4 and the origin.
5.
The locus is the path that P (x, y) follows.
6.
Gradient
The gradient of a straight line measures its slope. The gradient compares the vertical rise with the horizontal run.
361
rise Gradient = run
On the number plane, this is a measure of the rate of change of y with respect to x.
The rate of change of y with respect to x is a very important measure of their relationship. In later chapters you will use the gradient for many purposes, including sketching curves, nding the velocity and acceleration of objects, and nding maximum and minimum values of formulae.
EXAMPLES
Find the gradient of each interval. 1.
You will study the gradient at different points on a curve in the next chapter.
Solution
rise Gradient = run 2 = 3
CONTINUED
362
2.
Solution
In this case, x is - 3 (the run is measured towards the left). rise Gradient = run 2 = -3 2 =3
Positive gradient leans to the right.
Negative gradient leans to the left.
Gradient given 2 points

The gradient of the line between _ x 1, y 1 i and _ x 2, y 2 i is given by y2 - y1 m= x -x 2 1
Proof
363
BC = y 2 - y 1 and AC = x 2 - x 1 rise Gradient = run y2 - y1 = x -x 2 1

This formula could also be y1 - y2 written m = x1 - x2
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the line between points ^ 2, 3 h and ^ -3, 4 h .
Solution
y2 - y1 Gradient: m = x - x 2 1 4-3 = -3 - 2 1 = -5 1 =5 2. Prove that points ^ 2, 3 h, ^ -2, -5 h and ^ 0, -1 h are collinear.
Collinear points lie on the same line, so they have the same gradients.
Solution
To prove points are collinear, we show that they have the same gradient (slope).
CONTINUED
364
Gradient of the interval between ^ -2, -5 h and ^ 0, -1 h : y2 - y1 m= x -x 2 1 -1 - ] -5 g = 0 - ] -2 g -1 + 5 = 2 4 = 2 =2 Gradient of the interval between ^ 0, -1 h and ^ 2, 3 h : y2 - y1 m= x -x 2 1 3 - ] -1 g = 2-0 3+1 = 2 4 = 2 =2 Since the gradient of both intervals is the same, the points are collinear.
Gradient given the angle at the x-axis

The gradient of a straight line is given by m = tan i where i is the angle the line makes with the x-axis in the positive direction
Proof
rise m = run opposite = adjacent = tan i
365
For an acute angle tan i 2 0.
For an obtuse angle tan i 1 0.
Class Discussion
1. Which angles give a positive gradient? 2. Which angles give a negative gradient? Why? 3. What is the gradient of a horizontal line? What angle does it make with the x-axis? 4. What angle does a vertical line make with the x-axis? Can you nd its gradient?
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the line that makes an angle of 135c with the x-axis in the positive direction.
Solution
m = tan i = tan 135c = -1
Can you see why the gradient is negative?
2. Find the angle, in degrees and minutes, that a straight line makes with the x-axis in the positive direction if its gradient is 0.5.
Solution
m = tan i ` tan i = 0.5 i = 26c34l
366
7.3 Exercises
1. Find the gradient of the line between (a) ^ 3, 2 h and ^ 1, -2 h (b) ^ 0, 2 h and ^ 3, 6 h (c) ^ -2, 3 h and ^ 4, -5 h (d) ^ 2, -5 h and ^ -3, 7 h (e) ^ 2, 3 h and ^ -1, 1 h (f) ^ - 5, 1 h and ^ 3, 0 h (g) ^ -2, -3 h and ^ -4, 6 h (h) ^ -1, 3 h and ^ -7, 7 h (i) ^ 1, -4 h and ^ 5, 5 h (j) ^ 0, 4 h and ^ 3, -2 h If the gradient of _ 8, y 1 i and ^ -1, 3 h is 2, nd the value of y 1 . The gradient of ^ 2, -1 h and ^ x, 0 h is 5. Find the value of x. 9. A triangle has vertices A ^ 3, 1 h, B ^ -1, -4 h and C ^ -11, 4 h . (a) By nding the lengths of all sides, prove that it is a rightangled triangle. (b) Find the gradients of sides AB and BC.
2.
10. (a) Find the midpoints F and G of sides AB and AC where ABC is a triangle with vertices A ^ 0, 3 h, B ^ 2, -7 h and C ^ 8, -2 h . (b) Find the gradients of FG and BC. 11. The gradient of the line between a moving point P ^ x, y h and the point A ^ 5, 3 h is equal to the gradient of line PB where B has coordinates ^ 2, -1 h . Find the equation of the locus of P. 12. Prove that the points ^ 3, -1 h, ^ 5, 5 h and ^ 2, -4 h are collinear. 13. Find the gradient of the straight line that makes an angle of 45c with the x-axis in the positive direction. 14. Find the gradient, to 2 signicant gures, of the straight line that l with makes an angle of 42c51 the x-axis. 15. Find the gradient of the line that makes an angle of 87c14l with the x-axis, to 2 signicant gures. 16. Find the angle, in degrees and minutes, that a line with gradient 1.2 makes with the x-axis. 17. What angle, in degrees and minutes does the line with gradient 3 make with the x-axis in the positive direction?
3.
4.
The gradient of a line is 1 and the line passes through the points ^ 4, 2 h and ^ x, -3 h . Find the value of x. 5. (a) Show that the gradient of the line through ^ -2, 1 h and ^ 3, 4 h is equal to the gradient of the line between the points ^ 2, -1 h and ^ 7,2 h . (b) Draw the two lines on the number plane. What can you say about the lines? 6. Show that the points A ^ -1, 2 h, B ^ 1, 5 h, C ^ 6, 5 h and D ^ 4, 2 h form a parallelogram. Find the gradients of all sides. The points A ^ 3, 5 h, B ^ 9, -3 h, C ^ 5, -6 h and D ^ -1, 2 h form a rectangle. Find the gradients of all the sides and the diagonals. Find the gradients of the diagonals of the square with vertices A ^ -2, 1 h, B ^ 3, 1 h, C ^ 3, 6 h and D ^ -2, 6 h .
7.
8.
367
18. Find the exact gradient of the line that makes an angle with the x-axis in the positive direction of (a) 60c (b) 30c (c) 120c. 19. Show that the line passing through ^ 4, -2 h and ^ 7, -5 h
makes an angle of 135c with the x-axis in the positive direction. 20. Find the exact value of x with rational denominator if the line passing through ^ x, 3 h and ^ 2, 1 h makes an angle of 60c with the x-axis.
Gradient given an equation

In Chapter 5 you explored and graphed linear functions. You may have noticed a relationship between the graph and the gradient and y-intercept of a straight line.
Investigation
1. (i) Draw the graph of each linear function. (ii) By selecting two points on the line, nd its gradient. (a) y = x (b) y = 2x (c) y = 3x (d) y = - x (e) y = - 2x Can you nd a pattern for the gradient of each line? Can you predict what the gradient of y = 5x and y = - 9x would be? 2. (i) Draw the graph of each linear function. (ii) Find the y-intercept. (a) y = x (b) y = x + 1 (c) y = x + 2 (d) y = x - 2 (e) y = x - 3 Can you nd a pattern for the y-intercept of each line? Can you predict what the y-intercept of y = x + 11 and y = x - 6 would be?
y = mx + b has m = gradient b = y-intercept
368
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient and y-intercept of the linear function y = 7x - 5.
Solution
The equation is in the form y = mx + b where m = 7 and b = - 5. Gradient = 7 y-intercept = - 5 2. Find the gradient of the straight line with equation 2x + 3y - 6 = 0.
Solution
First, we change the equation into the form y = mx + b. 2x + 3y - 6 = 0 2x + 3y - 6 + 6 = 0 + 6 2x + 3y = 6 2x - 2x + 3y = 6 - 2x 3y = 6 - 2x = - 2x + 6 3y - 2x + 6 = 3 3 - 2x 6 y= + 3 3 2 = - x +2 3 2 m=3 2 So the gradient is - . 3
There is a general formula for nding the gradient of a straight line.
The gradient of the line ax + by + c = 0 is given by m=a b
Proof
ax + by + c = 0 by = - ax - c ax c y=b b a ` m=b
369
EXAMPLE
Find the gradient of 3x - y = 2.
Solution
3x - y = 2 3x - y - 2 = 0 a = 3, b = - 1 a m=b 3 =-1 =3 ` gradient is 3
7.4 Exercises
1. Find (i) the gradient and (ii) the y-intercept of each linear function. (a) y = 3x + 5 (b) f ] x g = 2x + 1 (c) y = 6x - 7 (d) y = - x (e) y = - 4x + 3 (f) y = x - 2 (g) f ] x g = 6 - 2x (h) y = 1 - x (i) y = 9x (j) y = 5x - 2 Find (i) the gradient and (ii) the y-intercept of each linear function. (a) 2x + y - 3 = 0 (b) 5x + y + 6 = 0 (c) 6x - y - 1 = 0 (d) x - y + 4 = 0 (e) 4x + 2y - 1 = 0 (f) 6x - 2y + 3 = 0 (g) x + 3y + 6 = 0 (h) 4x + 5y - 10 = 0 (i) 7x - 2y - 1 = 0 (j) 5x - 3y + 2 = 0 3. Find the gradient of the straight line. (a) y = 4x (b) y = - 2x - 1 (c) y = 2 (d) 2x + y - 5 = 0 (e) x + y + 1 = 0 (f) 3x + y = 8 (g) 2x - y + 5 = 0 (h) x + 4y - 12 = 0 (i) 3x - 2y + 4 = 0 (j) 5x - 4y = 15 2 (k) y = x + 3 3 x (l) y = 2 x (m) y = - 1 5 2x (n) y = +5 7 3x -2 (o) y = 5 x 1 (p) 2y = - + 7 3 y (q) 3x - = 8 5 x y (r) + =1 2 3 2x (s) - 4y - 3 = 0 3 x 2y + +7=0 (t) 4 3
2.
370
Equation of a Straight Line

There are several different ways to write the equation of a straight line.
General form
ax + by + c = 0
Gradient form
y = mx + b where m = gradient and b = y-intercept
Intercept form
x y a+b =1 where a and b are the x-intercept and y-intercept respectively
Proof
b m = - a, b = b ` b y = -ax + b y ` b y x = -a + 1
x a+b =1
Point-gradient formula
There are two formulae for nding the equation of a straight line. One of these uses a point and the gradient of the line.
The equation of a straight line is given by y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i

This is a very useful formula as it is used in many topics in this course.
where _ x 1, y 1 i lies on the line with gradient m
371
Proof
Given point _ x 1, y 1 i on the line with gradient m Let P = ^ x, y h Then line AP has gradient y2 - y1 m= x -x 2 1 y - y1 ` m= x-x 1 m _ x - x1 i = y - y1
Two-point formula
The equation of a straight line is given by y - y1 y2 - y1 = x - x1 x2 - x1 where _ x 1, y 1 i and _ x 2, y 2 i are points on the line
This formula is optional as you can use the pointgradient formula for any question.
Proof
The gradient is the same anywhere along a straight line.
Let P = ^ x, y h D APQ < ; D ABR PQ BR So = AR AQ y - y1 y2 - y1 i.e. x - x = x - x 1 2 1 The two-point formula is not essential. The right-hand side of it is the gradient of the line. Replacing this by m gives the pointgradient formula.
372
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the straight line with gradient -4 and passing through the point ^ -2, 3 h .
Solution
m = -4, x 1 = -2 and y 1 = 3 Equation: y - y 1 = m (x - x 1) y - 3 = - 4 [x - (-2)] = - 4 (x + 2) = - 4x - 8 ` y = - 4x - 5 or 4x + y + 5 = 0
(gradient form) (general form)
2. Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the points ^ 2, -3 h and ^ -4, -7 h .
Solution
By two-point formula: y - y1 y2 - y1 = x - x1 x2 - x1 y - ] -7 g -3 - ] -7 g = x - ] -4 g 2 - ] -4 g y+7 -3 + 7 = x+4 2+4 y+7 2 = x+4 3 3 ^ y + 7 h = 2 ]x + 4 g 3y + 21 = 2x + 8 -2x + 3y + 13 = 0 or 2x - 3y - 13 = 0 By point-gradient method: y2 - y1 m= x -x 2 1 -3 - ] -7 g = 2 - ] -4 g -3 + 7 = 2+4 2 = 3 Use one of the points, say ^ -4, -7 h . 2 m = , x 1 = -4 and y 1 = -7 3 Equation: y - y 1 = m ( x - x 1) y - (-7) = 2 6 x - ( - 4) @ 3
373
y+7= 3^ y + 7h 3y + 21 ` -2x + 3y + 13 or 2x - 3y - 13
2 ( x + 4) 3 = 2 ]x + 4 g = 2x + 8 =0 =0
3. Find the equation of the line with x-intercept 3 and y-intercept 2.
Solution
x y Intercept form is a + = 1, where a and b are the x-intercept and b y-intercept respectively. x y ` + =1 3 2 2x + 3y = 6 ` 2x + 3y - 6 = 0 Again, the point-gradient formula can be used. The x-intercept and y-intercept are the points ^ 3, 0 h and ^ 0, 2 h .
7.5 Exercises
1. Find the equation of the straight line (a) with gradient 4 and y-intercept -1 (b) with gradient -3 and passing through ^ 0, 4 h (c) passing through the origin with gradient 5 (d) with gradient 4 and x-intercept -5 (e) with x-intercept 1 and y-intercept 3 (f) with x-intercept 3, y-intercept -4 (g) with y-intercept -1 and making an angle of 45c with the x-axis in the positive direction (h) with y-intercept 5 and making an angle of 45c with the x-axis in the positive direction. 2. Find the equation of the straight line that makes an angle of 135c with the x-axis and passes through the point ^ 2, 6 h . Find the equation of the straight line passing through (a) ^ 2, 5 h and ^ -1, 1 h (b) ^ 0, 1 h and ^ -4, -2 h (c) ^ - 2, 1 h and ^ 3, 5 h (d) ^ 3, 4 h and ^ -1, 7 h (e) ^ -4, -1 h and ^ - 2, 0 h . What is the equation of the line with x-intercept 2 and passing through ^ 3, -4 h ? Find the equation of the line (a) parallel to the x-axis and passing through ^ 2, 3 h (b) parallel to the y-axis and passing through ^ -1, 2 h .
3.
4.
5.
374
6.
A straight line passing through the origin has a gradient of - 2. Find its equation. A straight line has x-intercept 4 and passes through ^ 0, -3 h . Find its equation. Find the equation of the straight line with gradient -2 that passes through the midpoint of ^ 5, -2 h and ^ -3, 4 h .
9.
7.
What is the equation of the straight line through the point ^ -4, 5 h and the midpoint of ^ 1, 2 h and ^ -9, 4 h ?
8.
10. What is the equation of the straight line through the midpoint of ^ 0, 1 h and ^ -6, 5 h and the midpoint of ^ 2, 3 h and ^ 8, -3 h ?
Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Parallel lines
Class Investigation
Sketch the following straight lines on the same number plane. 1. y = 2x 2. y = 2x + 1 3. y = 2x - 3 4. y = 2x + 5 What do you notice about these lines?
If two lines are parallel, then they have the same gradient. That is, m1 = m2
Two lines that are parallel have equations ax + by + c 1 = 0 and ax + by + c 2 = 0
375
Proof
a b a ax + by + c 2 = 0 has gradient m 2 = b Since m 1 = m 2, the two lines are parallel. ax + by + c 1 = 0 has gradient m 1 = -
EXAMPLES
1. Prove that the straight lines 5x - 2y - 1 = 0 and 5x - 2y + 7 = 0 are parallel.
Solution
5x - 2y - 1 = 0 5x - 1 = 2y 5 1 x- =y 2 2 5 ` m1 = 2 5x - 2y + 7 = 0 5x + 7 = 2y 5 7 x+ =y 2 2 5 ` m2 = 2 5 m1 = m2 = 2 ` the lines are parallel. 2. Find the equation of a straight line parallel to the line 2x - y - 3 = 0 and passing through ^ 1, -5 h .
Notice that the equations are both in the form 5x - 2y + k = 0.
Solution
2x - y - 3 = 0 2x - 3 = y ` m1 = 2 For parallel lines m 1 = m 2 ` m2 = 2 Equation: y - y 1 = m (x - x 1) y - (-5) = 2 (x - 1) y + 5 = 2x - 2 0 = 2x - y - 7
376
DID YOU KNOW?

Parallel lines are usually thought of as lines that never meet. However, there is a whole branch of geometry based on the theory that parallel lines meet at infinity. This is called affine geometry. In this geometry there are no perpendicular lines.
Perpendicular lines
Class Investigation
Sketch the following pairs of straight lines on the same number plane. 1. (a) 3x - 4y + 12 = 0 2. (a) 2x + y + 4 = 0 (b) 4x + 3y - 8 = 0 (b) x - 2y + 2 = 0
What do you notice about these pairs of lines?
Gradients of perpendicular lines are negative reciprocals of each other.
If two lines with gradients m 1 and m 2 respectively are perpendicular, then m 1 m 2 = -1 1 i.e. m 2 = - m 1
Proof
Let line AB have gradient m 1 = tan a . Let line CD have gradient m 2 = tan b. EB EC +CBE = 180c - a EC tan ] 180c - a g = EB EB ` cot ] 180c - a g = EC tan b =
^ straight angle h
377
So or
tan b = cot ] 180c - a g = - cot a 1 =tan a 1 m2 = - m 1 m 1 m 2 = -1
Perpendicular lines have equations in the form ax + by + c 1 = 0 and bx - ay + c 2 = 0
Proof
a b b bx - ay + c 2 = 0 has gradient m 2 = - - a b =a a b m1 m2 = - # a b = -1 ax + by + c 1 = 0 has gradient m 1 = Since m 1 m 2 = -1, the two lines are perpendicular.
EXAMPLES
1. Show that the lines 3x + y - 11 = 0 and x - 3y + 1 = 0 are perpendicular.
Solution
3x + y - 11 = 0 y = -3x + 11 m 1 = -3 ` x - 3y + 1 = 0 x + 1 = 3y 1 1 x+ =y 3 3 1 ` m2 = 3 1 m 1 m 2 = - 3# 3 = -1 ` the lines are perpendicular.
Notice that the equations are in the form 3x + y + c 1 = 0 and x - 3y + c 2 = 0.
CONTINUED
378
2. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ 2, 3 h perpendicular to the line that passes through ^ -1, 7 h and ^ 3, 3 h .
Solution
Line through ^ -1, 7 h and ^ 3, 3 h: y2 - y1 m= x -x 2 1 7-3 m1 = -1 - 3 4 = -4 = -1 For perpendicular lines, m 1 m 2 = - 1 i.e. -1m 2 = - 1 m2 = 1 Equation through ^ 2, 3 h: y - y 1 = m (x - x 1) y - 3 = 1 (x - 2 ) =x-2 0=x-y+1
7.6 Exercises
1. Find the gradient of the straight line (a) parallel to the line 3x + y - 4 = 0 (b) perpendicular to the line 3x + y - 4 = 0 (c) parallel to the line joining ^ 3, 5 h and ^ -1, 2 h (d) perpendicular to the line with x-intercept 3 and y-intercept 2 (e) perpendicular to the line making an angle of 135c with the x-axis in the positive direction (f) perpendicular to the line 6x - 5y - 4 = 0 (g) parallel to the line making an angle of 30c with the x-axis (h) parallel to the line x - 3y - 7 = 0 (i) perpendicular to the line making an angle of 120c with the x-axis in the positive direction (j) perpendicular to the line passing through ^ 4, -2 h and ^ 3, 3 h . 2. Find the equation of each straight line (a) passing through ^ 2, 3 h and parallel to the line y = x + 6 (b) through ^ -1, 5 h and parallel to the line x - 3y - 7 = 0 (c) with x-intercept 5 and parallel to the line y = 4 - x (d) through ^ 3, -4 h and perpendicular to the line y = 2x (e) through ^ -2, 1 h and perpendicular to the line 2x + y + 3 = 0
379
(f) through ^ 7, -2 h and perpendicular to the line 3x - y - 5 = 0 (g) through ^ -3, -1 h and perpendicular to the line 4x - 3y + 2 = 0 . 3. Show that the straight lines y = 3x - 2 and 6x - 2y - 9 = 0 are parallel. Show that lines x + 5y = 0 and y = 5x + 3 are perpendicular. Show that lines 6x - 5y + 1 = 0 and 6x - 5y - 3 = 0 are parallel. Show that lines 7x + 3y + 2 = 0 and 3x - 7y = 0 are perpendicular. If the lines 3x - 2y + 5 = 0 and y = kx - 1 are perpendicular, nd the value of k. Show that the line joining ^ 3, -1 h and ^ 2, -5 h is parallel to the line 8x - 2y - 3 = 0. Show that the points A ^ -3, -2 h, B ^ -1, 4 h, C ^ 7, -1 h, and D ^ 5, -7 h are the vertices of a parallelogram.
4.
11. Find the equation of the straight line (a) passing through the origin and parallel to the line x+y+3=0 (b) through ^ 3, 7 h and parallel to the line 5x - y - 2 = 0 (c) through ^ 0, - 2 h and perpendicular to the line x - 2y = 9 (d) perpendicular to the line 3x + 2y - 1 = 0 and passing through the point ^ -2, 4 h . 12. Find the equation of the straight line passing through ^ 6, -3 h that is perpendicular to the line joining ^ 2, -1 h and ^ -5, -7 h . 13. Find the equation of the line through ^ 2, 1 h that is parallel to the line that makes an angle of 135c with the x-axis in the positive direction. 14. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line passing through ^ 6, -3 h and ^ -2, 1 h . 15. Find the equation of the straight line parallel to the line 2x - 3y - 1 = 0 and through the midpoint of ^ 1, 3 h and ^ -1, 9 h .
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10. The points A ^ -2, 0 h, B ^ 1, 4 h, C ^ 6, 4 h and D ^ 3, 0 h form a rhombus. Show that the diagonals are perpendicular.
Intersection of Lines
Two straight lines intersect at a single point ^ x, y h . The point satises the equations of both lines. We nd this point by solving simultaneous equations.
You may need to revise simultaneous equations from Chapter 3.
380
Concurrent lines meet at a single point. To show that lines are concurrent, solve two simultaneous equations to nd the point of intersection. Then substitute this point of intersection into the third and subsequent lines to show that these lines also pass through the point.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the point of intersection between lines 2x - 3y - 3 = 0 and 5x - 2y - 13 = 0.
Solution
Solve simultaneous equations: 2x - 3y - 3 = 0 5x - 2y - 13 = 0 4x - 6y - 6 = 0 ^ 1 h # 2: 15x - 6y - 39 = 0 ^ 2 h # 3: + 33 = 0 ^ 3 h - ^ 4 h: -11x 33 = 11x 3=x Substitute x = 3 into ^ 1 h:
You could use a computer spreadsheet to solve these simultaneous equations.
^1h ^2h ^3h ^4h
2 ^ 3 h - 3y - 3 = 0 - 3y + 3 = 0 3 = 3y 1=y So the point of intersection is ^ 3, 1 h . 2. Show that the lines 3x - y + 1 = 0, x + 2y + 12 = 0 and 4x - 3y - 7 = 0 are concurrent.
Solution
Solve any two simultaneous equations: 3x - y + 1 = 0 x + 2y + 12 = 0 4x - 3y - 7 = 0 6x - 2y + 2 = 0 ^ 1 h # 2: 2 + 4 : 7 x + 14 = 0 ^ h ^ h
^1h ^2h ^3h ^4h
381
7x = -14 x = -2 Substitute x = -2 into ^ 1 h: 3 ^ -2 h - y + 1 = 0 -y - 5 = 0 -5 = y So the point of intersection of (1) and (2) is ^ -2, -5 h . Substitute ^ -2, -5 h into (3): 4x - 3y - 7 = 0 LHS = 4 ^ -2 h - 3 ^ - 5 h - 7 = -8 + 15 - 7 =0 = RHS So the point lies on line (3) ` all three lines are concurrent.
Equation of a line through the intersection of 2 other lines

To nd the equation of a line through the intersection of 2 other lines, nd the point of intersection, then use it with the other information to nd the equation. Another method uses a formula to nd the equation.
If a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1 = 0 and a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0 are 2 given lines then the equation of a line through their intersection is given by the formula (a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1) + k (a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2) = 0 where k is a constant
Proof
Let l 1 have equation a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1 = 0. Let l 2 have equation a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0. Let the point of intersection of l 1 and l 2 be P ^ x 1, y 1 h . Then P satises l 1 i.e. a 1 x 1 + b 1 y 1 + c 1 = 0 P also satises l2 i.e. a 2 x 1 + b 2 y 1 + c 2 = 0 Substitute P into (a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1) + k (a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2) = 0 (a 1 x 1 + b 1 y 1 + c 1) + k (a 2 x 1 + b 2 y 1 + c 2) = 0 0 + k ^0h = 0 0=0 ` if point P satises both equations l 1 and l 2 then it satises l 1 + kl 2 = 0.
382
EXAMPLE
Find the equation of the line through ^ -1, 2 h that passes through the intersection of lines 2x + y - 5 = 0 and x - 3y + 1 = 0.
Solution
Using the formula: a 1 = 2, b 1 = 1, c 1 = -5 a 2 = 1, b 2 = -3, c 2 = 1
Substitute the value of k back into the equation.
^ a1 x + b1 y + c1 h + k ^ a2 x + b2 y + c2 h = 0 ^ 2x + y - 5 h + k ^ x - 3y + 1 h = 0 Since this line passes through ^ -1, 2 h, substitute the point into the equation: ^ -2 + 2 - 5 h + k ^ -1 - 6 + 1 h = 0 -5 - 6k = 0 -5 = 6k 5 - =k 6 So the equation becomes: 5 ^ 2x + y - 5 h - ^ x - 3y + 1 h = 0 6 6 ^ 2x + y - 5 h - 5 ^ x - 3 y + 1 h = 0 12x + 6y - 30 - 5x + 15y - 5 = 0 7x + 21y - 35 = 0 x + 3y - 5 = 0 Another way to do this example is to nd the point of intersection, then use both points to nd the equation.
7.7 Exercises
1. Find the point of intersection of straight lines (a) 3x + 4y + 10 = 0 and 2x - 3y - 16 = 0 (b) 5x + 2y + 11 = 0 and 3x + y + 6 = 0 (c) 7x - 3y = 16 and 5x - 2y = 12 (d) 2x - 3y = 6 and 4x - 5y = 10 (e) x - 3y - 8 = 0 and 4x + 7y - 13 = 0 (f) y = 5x + 6 and y = - 4x - 3 (g) y = 2x + 1 and 5x - 3y + 6 = 0 (h) 3x + 7y = 12 and 4x - y - 1 6 = 0 (i) 3x - 5y = - 7 and 2x - 3y = 4 (j) 8x - 7y - 3 = 0 and 5x - 2y - 1 = 0 2. Show that the lines x - 2y - 11 = 0 and 2x - y - 10 = 0 intersect at the point ^ 3, -4 h . A triangle is formed by 3 straight lines with equations 2 x - y + 1 = 0, 2 x + y - 9 = 0
3.
383
and 2x - 5y - 3 = 0. Find the coordinates of its vertices. 4. Show that the lines x - 5y - 17 = 0, 3x - 2y - 12 = 0 and 5x + y - 7 = 0 are concurrent. Show that the lines x + 4y + 5 = 0, 3x - 7y + 15 = 0, 2x - y + 10 = 0 and 6x + 5y + 30 = 0 are concurrent. Find the equation of the straight line through the origin that passes through the intersection of the lines 5x - 2y + 14 = 0 and 3x + 4y - 7 = 0 . Find the equation of the straight line through ^ 3, 2 h that passes through the intersection of the lines 5x + 2y + 1 = 0 and 3x - y + 16 = 0. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ -4, -1 h that passes through the intersection of the lines 2x + y - 1 = 0 and 3x + 5y + 16 = 0. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ -3, 4 h that passes through the intersection of the lines 2x + y - 3 = 0 and 3x - 2y - 8 = 0 .
12. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ -1, -2 h that passes through the intersection of the lines 2x + y - 6 = 0 and 3 x + 7 y - 9 = 0. 13. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ 1, 2 h that passes through the intersection of the lines x + 2y + 10 = 0 and 2x - y + 5 = 0. 14. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ -2, 0 h that passes through the intersection of the lines 3x + 4y - 7 = 0 and 3 x - 2 y - 1 = 0. 15. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ 3, -2 h that passes through the intersection of the lines 5x + 2y - 13 = 0 and x - 3y + 11 = 0. 16. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ -3, -2 h that passes through the intersection of the lines x + y + 1 = 0 and 3x + 2y = 0 . 17. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ 3, 1 h that passes through the intersection of the lines 3x - y + 4 = 0 and 2x - y + 12 = 0. 18. Find the equation of the straight line with gradient 3 that passes through the intersection of the lines 2x + y - 1 = 0 and 3x + 5y + 16 = 0. 19. Find the equation of the straight line with gradient 2 that passes through the intersection of the lines 5x - 2y - 3 = 0 and 7x - 3y - 4 = 0 .
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ 2, -2 h that passes through the intersection of the lines 2x + 3y - 6 = 0 and 3x + 5y - 10 = 0. 11. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ 3, 0 h that passes through the intersection of the lines x - y + 1 = 0 and 4x - y - 2 = 0 .
384
20. Find the equation of the straight line parallel to the line 3x - y - 7 = 0 that passes through the intersection of the lines 3x - 2y - 10 = 0 and 4x + y - 17 = 0.
21. Find the equation of the straight line perpendicular to the line x + 5y - 1 = 0 that passes through the intersection of lines 3x - 5y - 3 = 0 and 2x + 3y + 17 = 0.
Perpendicular Distance
The distance formula d = _ x 2 - x 1 i2 + _ y 2 - y 1 i2 is used to nd the distance between two points. Perpendicular distance is used to nd the distance between a point and a line. If we look at the distance between a point and a line, there could be many distances.
So we choose the shortest distance, which is the perpendicular distance.
The perpendicular distance from _ x 1, y 1 i to the line ax + by + c = 0 is

A distance is always positive, so take the absolute value.
given by d =
| ax 1 + by 1 + c | a2 + b2
Proof
385
Let d be the perpendicular distance of _ x 1, y 1 i from the line ax + by + c = 0. - ax 1 - c c c o C = c 0, - m R = e x 1, A = b- a , 0 l b b In D ACO, AC = = = PR = y 1 - e = c2 c2 + a2 b2 c2 b2 + c2 a2 a2 b2 c a2 + b2 ab

o
To find A and C, substitute y = 0 and x = 0 into ax + by + c = 0.
- ax 1 - c
b ax 1 + by 1 + c b
D ACO is similar to D PRQ ` PQ PR = AO AC AO . PR PQ = AC ax 1 + by 1 + c c a2 + b2 c d=a# ' b ab c _ ax 1 + by 1 + c i ab = # ab c a2 + b2 ax 1 + by 1 + c = a2 + b2
Why?
All points on one side of the line ax + by + c = 0 make the numerator of this formula positive. Points on the other side make the numerator negative. Usually we take the absolute value of d. However, if we want to know if points are on the same side of a line or not, we look at the sign of d.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the perpendicular distance of ^ 4, - 3 h from the line 3x - 4y - 1 = 0.
Solution
x 1 = 4, y 1 = - 3, a = 3, b = - 4, c = - 1 | ax 1 + by 1 + c | d= a2 + b2 | 3 ] 4 g + ] - 4 g ] -3 g + ] -1 g | = 3 2 + ] -4 g2
CONTINUED
386
25 23 = 5 = 4 .6 So the perpendicular distance is 4.6 units. 2. Prove that the line 6x + 8y + 20 = 0 is a tangent to the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4.
| 12 + 12 - 1 |
Solution
There are three possibilities for the intersection of a circle and a straight line.
The centre of the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4 is ^ 0, 0 h and its radius is 2 units. A tangent is perpendicular to the centre of the circle. So we prove that the perpendicular distance from the line to the point ^ 0, 0 h is 2 units (the radius). | ax 1 + by 1 + c | d= a2 + b2 | 6 (0) + 8 (0) + 20 | = 62 + 82 | 20 | = 100 20 = 10 =2 ` the line is a tangent to the circle. 3. Show that the points ^ -1, 3 h and ^ 2, 7 h lie on the same side of the line 2 x - 3 y + 4 = 0.
387
Solution
To show that points lie on the same side of a line, their perpendicular distance must have the same sign. We use the formula without the absolute value sign. d= ax 1 + by 1 + c a2 + b2
^ - 1, 3 h : 2 ]-1 g - 3 ]3 g + 4 d= 22 + ] - 3 g 2 -2 - 9 + 4 = 4+9 -7 = 13 ^ 2, 7 h : 2 ]2 g - 3 ]7 g + 4 d= 2 2 + ] -3 g 2 4 - 21 + 4 = 4+9 - 13 = 13
Since the perpendicular distance for both points has the same sign, the points lie on the same side of the line.
7.8 Exercises
1. Find the perpendicular distance between (a) ^ 1, 2 h and 3x + 4y + 2 = 0 (b) ^ - 3, 2 h and 5x + 12y + 7 = 0 (c) ^ 0, 4 h and 8x - 6y - 1 = 0 (d) ^ - 3, - 2 h and 4x - 3y - 6 = 0 (e) the origin and 12x - 5y + 8 = 0. Find, correct to 3 signicant gures, the perpendicular distance between (a) ^ 1, 3 h and x + 3y + 1 = 0 (b) ^ -1, 1 h and 2x + 5y + 4 = 0 (c) ^ 3, 0 h and 5x - 6y - 12 = 0 (d) ^ 5, - 3 h and 4x - y - 2 = 0 (e) ^ - 6, - 3 h and 2x - 3y + 9 = 0. 3. Find as a surd with rational denominator the perpendicular distance between (a) the origin and the line 3x - 2y + 7 = 0 (b) ^ -1, 4 h and 2x + y + 3 = 0 (c) ^ 3, -1 h and 3x + 14y + 1 = 0 (d) ^ 2, - 6 h and 5x - y - 6 = 0 (e) ^ - 4, - 1 h and 3 x - 2 y - 4 = 0. Show that the origin is equidistant from the lines 7x + 24y + 25 = 0, 4x + 3y - 5 = 0 and 12x + 5y - 13 = 0.
2.
4.
388
5.
Show that points A ^ 3, - 5 h and B ^ -1, 4 h lie on opposite sides of 2x - y + 3 = 0. Show that the points ^ 2, - 3 h and ^ 9, 2 h lie on the same side of the line x - 3y + 2 = 0. Show that ^ - 3, 2 h and ^ 4, 1 h lie on opposite sides of the line 4 x - 3 y - 2 = 0. Show that ^ 0, - 2 h is equidistant from the lines 3x + 4y - 2 = 0 and 12x - 5y + 16 = 0. Show that the points ^ 8, - 3 h and ^ 1, 1 h lie on the same side of the line 6x - y + 4 = 0.
6.
14. Find the perpendicular distance between ^ 0, 5 h and the line through ^ - 3, 8 h parallel to 4x - 3y - 1 = 0. 15. The perpendicular distance between the point ^ x, -1 h and the line 3x - 4y + 7 = 0 is 8 units. Find two possible values of x. 16. The perpendicular distance between the point ^ 3, b h and the line 5x - 12y - 2 = 0 is 2 units. Find the values of b. 17. Find m if the perpendicular distance between ^ m, 7 h and the line 9x + 12y + 6 = 0 is 5 units. 18. Prove that the line 3x - 4y + 25 = 0 is a tangent to the circle with centre the origin and radius 5 units. 19. Show that the line 3x - 4y + 12 = 0 does not cut the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1. 20. The sides of a triangle are formed by the lines with equations 2x - y - 7 = 0, 3x + 5y - 4 = 0 and x + 3y - 4 = 0. (a) Find the vertices of the triangle. (b) Find the exact length of all the altitudes of the triangle.
7.
Equidistant means that two or more objects are the same distance away from another object.
8.
9.
10. Show that ^ - 3, 2 h and ^ 4, 1 h lie on opposite sides of the line 2x + y - 2 = 0. 11. Show that the point ^ 3, - 2 h is the same distance from the line 6x - 8y + 6 = 0 as the point ^ - 4, -1 h is from the line 5x + 12y - 20 = 0. 12. Find the exact perpendicular distance with rational denominator from the point ^ 4, 5 h to the line with x-intercept 2 and y-intercept -1. 13. Find the perpendicular distance from ^ - 2, 2 h to the line passing through ^ 3, 7 h and ^ -1, 4 h .
389
Test Yourself 7
1. Find the distance between points ^ - 1, 2 h and ^ 3, 7 h . What is the midpoint of the origin and the point ^ 5, - 4 h ? Find the gradient of the straight line (a) passing through ^ 3, -1 h and ^ - 2, 5 h (b) with equation 2x - y + 1 = 0 (c) making an angle of 30c with the x-axis in the positive direction (d) perpendicular to the line 5 x + 3 y - 8 = 0. Find the equation of the linear function (a) passing through ^ 2, 3 h and with gradient 7 (b) parallel to the line 5x + y - 3 = 0 and passing through ^ 1, 1 h (c) through the origin, and perpendicular to the line 2x - 3y + 6 = 0 (d) through ^ 3, 1 h and ^ - 2, 4 h (e) with x-intercept 3 and y-intercept 1. Find the perpendicular distance between ^ 2, 5 h and the line 2x - y + 7 = 0 in surd form with rational denominator. Prove that the line between ^ -1, 4 h and ^ 3, 3 h is perpendicular to the line 4x - y - 6 = 0. Find the x- and y-intercepts of 2x - 5y - 10 = 0. (a) Find the equation of the straight line l that is perpendicular to the line 1 y = x - 3 and passes through ^ 1, -1 h . 2 (b) Find the x-intercept of l. (c) Find the exact distance from ^ 1, -1 h to the x-intercept of l. Prove that lines y = 5x - 7 and 10x - 2y + 1 = 0 are parallel. 2. 10. Find the equation of the straight line passing through the origin and parallel to the line with equation 3x - 4y + 5 = 0. 11. Find the point of intersection between lines y = 2x + 3 and x - 5y + 6 = 0. 12. The midpoint of ^ a, 3 h and ^ - 4, b h is ^ 1, 2 h . Find the values of a and b. 13. Show that the lines x - y - 4 = 0, 2x + y + 1 = 0, 5x - 3y - 14 = 0 and 3x - 2y - 9 = 0 are concurrent. 14. A straight line makes an angle of 153c 29l with the x-axis in the positive direction. What is its gradient, to 3 signicant gures? 15. The perpendicular distance from ^ 3, - 2 h to the line 5x - 12y + c = 0 is 2. Find 2 possible values of c. 16. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ 1, 3 h that passes through the intersection of the lines 2x - y + 5 = 0 and x + 2y - 5 = 0. 17. The gradient of the line through ^ 3, - 4 h and ^ x, 2 h is 5. Evaluate x. 18. Show that the points ^ - 2, 1 h and ^ 6, 3 h are on opposite sides of the line 2 x - 3 y - 1 = 0. 19. Find the equation of the line with x-intercept 4 that makes an angle of 45c with the x-axis. 20. Find the equation of the line with y-intercept - 2 and perpendicular to the line passing through ^ 3, -2 h and ^ 0, 5 h .
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
390
1. If points ^ - 3k, 1 h, ^ k - 1, k - 3 h and ^ k - 4, k - 5 h are collinear, nd the value of k. Find the equation, in exact form, of the line passing through _ 3 , -2 i that makes an angle of 30c with the positive x-axis. Find the equation of the circle whose centre is at the origin and with tangent x - 3y + 9 = 0. ABCD is a rhombus where A = ^ - 3, 0 h, B = ^ 0, 4 h, C = ^ 5, 4 h and D = ^ 2, 0 h . Prove that the diagonals are perpendicular bisectors of one another. Prove that the points _ -1, 2 2 i, _ 3 , - 6 i and _ - 5 , 2 i all lie on a circle with centre the origin. What are the radius and equation of the circle? Find the exact distance between the parallel lines 3x + 2y - 5 = 0 and 3x + 2y = 1. A straight line has x-intercept A ^ a, 0 h and y-intercept B ^ 0, b h, where a and b are positive integers. The gradient of line AB is -1. Find +OBA where O is the origin and hence prove that a = b. Find the exact perpendicular distance between the line 2x + 3y + 1 = 0 and the point of intersection of lines 3x - 7y = 15 and 4x - y = - 5. Find the magnitude of the angle, in degrees and minutes, that the line joining ^ -1, 3 h and ^ 2, - 4 h makes with the x-axis in the positive direction. 10. Find the equation of the line that passes through the point of intersection of lines 2x + 5y + 19 = 0 and 4x - 3y - 1 = 0 that is perpendicular to the line 3x - 2y + 1 = 0. 11. Prove A ^ 2, 5 h, B ^ - 4, 5 h and C ^ -1, 2 h are the vertices of a right-angled isosceles triangle. 12. Find the coordinates of the centre of a circle that passes through points ^ 7, 2 h, ^ 2, 3 h and ^ -4, -1 h . 13. If ax - y - 2 = 0 and bx - 5y + 11 = 0 intersect at the point ^ 3, 4 h, nd the values of a and b. 14. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ 3, -4 h that is perpendicular to the line with x-intercept and y-intercept 2 and 5 respectively. 15. Find the exact equation of the straight line through the midpoint of ^ 0, - 5 h, and ^ 4, -1 h that is perpendicular to the line that makes an angle of 30c with the x-axis. 16. Point P ^ x, y h moves so that it is equidistant from points A ^ 1, 4 h and B ^ - 2, 7 h . By nding the distances AP and BP, nd the equation of the locus of P.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
8
Introduction to Calculus
TERMINOLOGY
Composite function: A function of a function. One function, f (x), is a composite of one function to another function, for example g(x) Continuity: Describing a line or curve that is unbroken over its domain Continuous function: A function is continuous over an interval if it has no break in its graph. For every x value on the graph the limit exists and equals the function value Derivative at a point: This is the gradient of a curve at a particular point Derivative function: The gradient function of a curve obtained through differentiation Differentiable function: A function which is continuous and where the gradient exists at all points on the function Differentiation: The process of finding the gradient of a tangent to a curve which is called the derivative Differentiation from rst principles: The process of finding the gradient of a tangent to a curve by finding the gradient of the secant between two points and finding the limit as the secant becomes a tangent Gradient of a secant: The gradient (slope) of the line between two points that lie close together on a function Gradient of a tangent: The gradient (slope) of a line that is a tangent to the curve at a point on a function. It is the derivative of the function Rate of change: The rate at which the dependent variable changes as the independent variable changes
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus
393
INTRODUCTION
CALCULUS IS A VERY IMPORTANT part of mathematics and involves the
measurement of change. It can be applied to many areas such as science, economics, engineering, astronomy, Crude Oil Production (Mbbl/d) sociology and medicine. We also see articles Iran 7,000 in newspapers every day that involve change: the spread of infectious diseases, population 6,000 growth, ination, unemployment, lling of 5,000 our water reservoirs. For example, this graph shows the 4,000 change in crude oil production in Iran over 3,000 the years. Notice that while the graph shows that production is increasing over recent 2,000 years, the rate at which it is being produced 1,000 seems to be slowing down. Calculus is used to look at these trends and predict what will 0 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 01 03 05 07 happen in the future. 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 There are two main branches of January 1973May 2007 calculus. Differentiation is used to calculate the rate at which two variables change in relation to one another. You will learn about Anti-differentiation, or integration, is the inverse of differentiation and integration in the uses information about rates of change to go back and examine the original HSC Course. variables. Integration can also be used to nd areas of curved objects.
Thousand Barrels per Day
DID YOU KNOW?

Calculus comes from the Latin meaning pebble or small stone. In ancient civilisations, stones were used for counting. However, the mathematics practised by these early people was quite sophisticated. For example, the ancient Greeks used sums of rectangles to estimate areas of curved figures. However, it wasnt until the 17th century that there was a breakthrough in calculus when scientists were searching for ways of measuring motion of objects such as planets, pendulums and projectiles. Isaac Newton, an Englishman, discovered the main principles of calculus when he was 23 years old. At this time an epidemic of bubonic plague closed Cambridge University where he was studying, so many of his discoveries were made at home. He first wrote about his calculus methods, which he called fluxions, in 1671, but his Method of fluxions was not published until 1704. Gottfried Leibniz (16461716), in Germany, was also studying the same methods and there was intense rivalry between the two countries over who was first! Search the Internet for further details on these two famous mathematicians. You can find out about the history of calculus and why it was necessary for mathematicians all those years ago to invent it.
Isaac Newton
394
In this chapter you will learn about differentiation, which measures the rate of change of one variable with respect to another.
Gradient
Gradient of a straight line
The gradient of a straight line measures its slope. You studied gradient in the last chapter. rise m = run
Class Discussion
Remember that an increasing line has a positive gradient and a decreasing line has a negative gradient.
positive
negative
Notice also that a horizontal line has zero gradient. Can you see why?
Can you nd the gradient of a vertical line? Why?
Gradient plays an important part, not just in mathematics, but in many areas including science, business, medicine and engineering. It is used everywhere we want to nd rates. On a graph, the gradient measures the rate of change of the dependent variable with respect to the change in the independent variable.
395
EXAMPLES
1. The graph shows the average distance travelled by a car over time. Find the gradient and describe it as a rate.
d
400
km
5 Hours
Solution
The line is increasing so it will have a positive gradient. rise m = run 400 = 5 80 = 1 = 80 This means that the car is travelling at the rate of 80 km/hour. 2. The graph shows the number of cases of u reported in a town over several weeks.
N
15 Number of cases (100s)
Weeks
10
Find the gradient and describe it as a rate.

CONTINUED
396
Solution
The line is decreasing so it will have a negative gradient. rise m = run 1500 =10 150 =1 = - 150 This means that the rate is -150 cases/week, or the number of cases reported is decreasing by 150 cases/week.
When nding the gradient of a straight line in the number plane, we think of a change in y values as x changes. The gradients in the examples above show rates of change. However, in most examples in real life, the rate of change will vary. For example, a car would speed up and slow down depending on where it is in relation to other cars, trafc light signals and changing speed limits.
Gradient of a curve
Class Discussion
The two graphs show the distance that a bicycle travels over time. One is a straight line and the other is a curve.
d d
20 15 km 10 5 t km
20 15 10 5 t 1 2 3 Hours 4
3 Hours
Is the average speed of the bicycle the same in both cases? What is different about the speed in the two graphs? How could you measure the speed in the second graph at any one time? Does it change? If so, how does it change?
397
Here is a more general curve. What could you say about its gradient? How does it change along the curve?
y
Copy the graph and mark on it where the gradient is positive, negative and zero.
Using what we know about the gradient of a straight line, we can see where the gradient of a curve is positive, negative or zero by drawing tangents to the curve in different places around the curve.
y
+ x
Notice that when the curve increases it has a positive gradient, when it decreases it has a negative gradient and when it turns around the gradient is zero.
Investigation
There are some excellent computer programs that will draw tangents to a curve and then sketch the gradient curve. One of these is Geometer Sketchpad. Explore how to sketch gradient functions using this or a similar program as you look at the examples below.
398
EXAMPLES
Describe the gradient of each curve. 1.
Solution
Where the curve increases, the gradient is positive. Where it decreases, it is negative. Where it turns around, it has a zero gradient.
2.
Solution
399
Since we have a formula for nding the gradient of a straight line, we nd the gradient of a curve by measuring the gradient of a tangent to the curve.
EXAMPLE
(a) Make an accurate sketch of y = x 2 on graph paper. (b) Draw tangents to this curve at the points where x = - 3, x = - 2, x = - 1, x = 0, x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3. (c) Find the gradient of each of these tangents. (d) Draw the graph of the gradients (the gradient function) on a number plane.
Solution
(a) and (b)
y
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 -3 -2 1 2 3 x
There are computer programs that will draw these tangents.
(c) At x = - 3, m = - 6 At x = - 2, m = - 4 At x = - 1, m = - 2 At x = 0, m = 0 At x = 1, m = 2 At x = 2, m = 4 At x = 3, m = 6 (d)
Use the m values as the y values on this graph.
400
Drawing tangents to a curve is difcult. We can do a rough sketch of the gradient function of a curve without knowing the actual values of the gradients of the tangents. To do this, notice in the example above that where m is positive, the gradient function is above the x-axis, where m = 0, the gradient function is on the x-axis and where m is negative, the gradient function is below the x-axis.
EXAMPLES
Sketch the gradient function of each curve. 1.
Solution
First we mark in where the gradient is positive, negative and zero.
Now on the gradient graph, place the points where m = 0 on the x-axis. These are at x 1, x 2 and x 3 .
401
To the left of x 1, the gradient is negative, so this part of the graph will be below the x-axis. Between x 1 and x 2, the gradient is positive, so the graph will be above the x-axis. Between x 2 and x 3, the gradient is negative, so the graph will be below the x-axis. To the right of x 3, the gradient is positive, so this part of the graph will be above the x-axis.
2.
Solution
First mark in where the gradient is positive, negative and zero.
CONTINUED
402
The gradient is zero at x 1 and x 2 . These points will be on the x-axis. To the left of x 1, the gradient is positive, so this part of the graph will be above the x-axis. Between x 1 and x 2, the gradient is negative, so the graph will be below the x-axis. To the right of x 2, the gradient is positive, so this part of the graph will be above the x-axis.
8.1 Exercises
Sketch the gradient function for each graph. 1. 4.
2.
5.
3.
6.
403
7.
9.
8.
10.
Differentiation from First Principles

Seeing where the gradient of a curve is positive, negative or zero is a good rst step, but there are methods to nd a formula for the gradient of a tangent to a curve. The process of nding the gradient of a tangent is called differentiation. The resulting function is called the derivative.
Differentiability
A function is called a differentiable function if the gradient of the tangent can be found. There are some graphs that are not differentiable in places. Most functions are continuous, which means that they have a smooth unbroken line or curve. However, some have a gap, or discontinuity, in the graph (e.g. hyperbola). This can be shown by an asymptote or a hole in the graph. We cannot nd the gradient of a tangent to the curve at a point that doesnt exist! So the function is not differentiable at the point of discontinuity.
y
This function is not differentiable at a since the curve is discontinuous at this point.
404
This function is not differentiable at b as the curve is discontinuous at this point.
A function may be continuous but not smooth. It may have a sharp corner. Can you see why curves are not differentiable at the point where there is a corner?
y
The curve is not differentiable at point c since it is not smooth at that point.
A function y = f (x) is differentiable at the point x = a if the derivative exists at that point. This can only happen if the function is continuous and smooth at x = a.
405
EXAMPLES
1. Find all points where the function below is not differentiable.
y
x C
Solution
The function is not differentiable at points A and B since there are sharp corners and the curve is not smooth at these points. It is not differentiable at point C since the function is discontinuous at this point. x2 3x - 2 for x $ 1 differentiable at all points? for x 1 1
2. Is the function f (x) = )
Solution
The functions f (x) = x 2 and f (x) = 3x - 2 are both differentiable at all points. However, we need to look at where one nishes and the other starts, at f (1). For f (x) = x 2 f ] 1 g = 12 =1 For f (x) = 3x - 2 f ]1 g = 3 ]1 g - 2 =1 This means that both pieces of this function join up (the function is continuous). However, to be differentiable, the curve must be smooth at this point.
CONTINUED
406
Sketching this function shows that it is not smooth (it has a sharp corner) so it is not differentiable at x = 1.
y
y = x2
1 1 -2 y = 3x - 2 x
8.2 Exercises
For each function, state whether it has any points at which it is not differentiable. 1.
y
3.
x1
2.
4.
x1
407
5.
10.
5 4 3 2
x1
x2
1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 x
6. 7. 8.
4 f (x) = x y=1 x+3
11. y = tan x for 0c # x # 360c x 12. f (x) = x 13. f (i) = -3 cos 2i 14. g (z) = sin 2 z 15. y = x-3 x2 - 9
9.
x3 if x 2 2 f (x) = ) x + 1 if x # 2 Z 2x for x 2 3 ] f (x) = [3 for - 2 # x # 3 ] 2 \1 - x for x 1 - 2
Limits
To differentiate from rst principles, we need to look more closely at the concept of a limit. A limit is used when we want to move as close as we can to something. Often this is to nd out where a function is near a gap or discontinuous point. You saw this in Chapter 5 when looking at discontinuous graphs. In this topic, it is used when we want to move from a gradient of a line between two points to a gradient of a tangent.
EXAMPLES
1. Find lim
x "2
x2 - x - 2 . x-2
Solution
lim (x + 1) (x - 2) x2 - x - 2 = lim x "2 x "2 x-2 (x - 2 ) = lim (x + 1) =2+1 =3
x "2
You did this in Chapter 5.
CONTINUED
408
2. Find an expression in terms of x for lim

h "0
2xh - h 2 - 3h . h
Solution
lim h (2 x - h - 3) 2xh - h 2 - 3h = lim h "0 h "0 h h = lim (2x - h - 3) = 2x - 3 3. Find an expression in terms of x for lim 3x 2 dx + dx 2 - 5dx . dx
h "0
dx " 0
Solution
d x ( 3x 2 + d x - 5 ) 3x 2 d x + d x 2 - 5 d x = lim dx " 0 dx " 0 dx dx 2 = lim (3x + dx - 5) lim = 3x - 5
dx " 0 2
8.3 Exercises
1. Evaluate (a) lim (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) x + 3x x x "0 5x 3 - 2x 2 - 7x lim x x "0 x 2 - 3x lim x "3 x - 3 t 2 - 16 lim t "4 t-4 g2 - 1 lim g "1 g - 1 x2 + x - 2 lim x " -2 x+2 h 5 + 2h lim h "0 h 2 x - 7x + 12 lim x "3 x-3 n 2 - 25 lim n "5 n - 5 x 2 + 4x + 3 lim x " -1 x2 - 1
2
2.
Find as an expression in terms of x (a) lim (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) x 2 h - 2xh - 4h h "0 h 2x 3 h + xh - h lim h "0 h 3x 2 h 2 - 7xh + 4h 2 - h lim h "0 h 4x 4 h - x 2 h - 4xh 2 lim h "0 h x 2 h 2 + 3xh 2 - 4xh + 3h lim h "0 h 2x 2 h + 5xh 2 + 6h lim h "0 h x 2 dx 2 - 2xdx lim dx " 0 dx 4 x 2 dx - 2 dx 2 lim dx " 0 dx x 3 dx 2 + 3xdx - dx lim dx " 0 dx x 2 dx - 2xdx + 9dx lim dx " 0 dx
409
Differentiation as a limit
y2 - y1 The formula m = x - x is used to nd the gradient of a straight line when we 2 1 know two points on the line. However, when the line is a tangent to a curve, we only know one point on the linethe point of contact with the curve. To differentiate from rst principles, we rst use the point of contact and another point close to it on the curve (this line is called a secant) and then we move the second point closer and closer to the point of contact until they overlap and the line is at single point (the tangent). To do this, we use a limit. If you look at a close up of a graph, you can get some idea of this concept. When the curve is magnied, two points appear to be joined by a straight line. We say the curve is locally straight.
Investigation
Use a graphics calculator or a computer program to sketch a curve and then zoom in on a section of the curve to see that it is locally straight. For example, here is a parabola.
10 y
2 -20
f 1(x) = x2 2
x 20
-10
Notice how it looks straight when we zoom in on a point on the parabola?

7.99 y
2.99
f 1(x) = x2
Use technology to sketch other curves and zoom in to show that they are locally straight.
410
Before using limits to nd different formulae for differentiating from rst principles, here are some examples of how we can calculate an approximate value for the gradient of the tangent to a curve. By taking two points close together, as in the example below, we nd the gradient of the secant and then estimate the gradient of the tangent.
y
(3.01, f (3.01)) (3, f (3))

x
EXAMPLES
1. For the function f ] x g = x 3, nd the gradient of the secant PQ where P is the point on the function where x = 2 and Q is another point on the curve close to P. Choose different values for Q and use these results to estimate the gradient of the curve at P.
y Q P
(2.1, f (2.1)) (2, f (2))
411
Solution
P = ^ 2, f (2) h Take different values of x for point Q, for example x = 2.1 Using different values of x for point Q gives the results in the table. Point Q
_ 2 .1 , f ] 2 .1 g i
Gradient of secant PQ f ( 2 . 1 ) - f (2 ) m= 2 .1 - 2 2 .1 3 - 2 3 = 2 .1 - 2 = 12.61 m= f (2.01) - f (2) 2.01 - 2 2.01 3 - 2 3 = 2.01 - 2 = 12.0601 f (2.001) - f (2) 2.001 - 2 2.001 3 - 2 3 = 2.001 - 2 = 12.006001 f ( 1 . 9 ) - f (2 ) 1 .9 - 2 1 .9 3 - 2 3 = 1 .9 - 2 = 11.41 f (1.99) - f (2) 1.99 - 2 1.99 3 - 2 3 = 1.99 - 2 = 11.9401 f (1.999) - f (2) 1.999 - 2 1.999 3 - 2 3 = 1.999 - 2 = 11.994001
y2 - y1 to find x2 - x1 the gradient of the secant. Use m =
_ 2.01, f ] 2.01 g i
_ 2.001, f ] 2.001 g i
m=
_ 1 .9 , f ] 1 .9 g i
m=
_ 1.99, f ] 1.99 g i
m=
_ 1.999, f ] 1.999 g i
m=
From these results, a good estimate for the gradient at P is 12. We can say that as x approaches 2, the gradient approaches 12. f (x) - f (2) We can write lim = 12. x "2 x-2
CONTINUED
412
2. For the curve y = x 2, nd the gradient of the secant AB where A is the point on the curve where x = 5 and point B is close to A. Find an estimate of the gradient of the curve at A by using three different values for B.
Solution
A = ^ 5, f (5) h Take three different values of x for point B, for example x = 4.9, x = 5.1 and x = 5.01. (a) B = ^ 4.9, f (4.9) h y2 - y1 m= x -x 2 1 f ( 4 . 9 ) - f (5 ) = 4 .9 - 5 4 .9 2 - 5 2 = 4 .9 - 5 = 9 .9 (b) B = ^ 5.1, f (5.1) h y2 - y1 m= x -x 2 1 f ( 5 . 1 ) - f (5 ) = 5 .1 - 5 5 .1 2 - 5 2 = 5 .1 - 5 = 10.1 (c) B = ^ 5.01, f (5.01) h y2 - y1 m= x -x 2 1 f (5.01) - f (5) = 5.01 - 5 5.01 2 - 5 2 = 5.01 - 5 = 10.01 From these results, a good estimate for the gradient at A is 10. We can say that as x approaches 5, the gradient approaches 10. We can write lim
x "5
f (x) - f (5) = 10. x-5
We can nd a general formula for differentiating from rst principles by using c rather than any particular number. We use general points P ^ c, f (c) h and Q ^ x, f (x) h where x is close to c. The gradient of the secant PQ is given by y2 - y1 m= x -x 2 1 f (x) - f (c) = x-c
413
The gradient of the tangent at P is found when x approaches c. We call this f l (c) . f (x) - f (c) x-c
f l(c) = lim x "c
There are other versions of this formula. We can call the points P ^ x, f (x) h and Q ^ x + h, f (x + h) h where h is small.
y
Q
(x + h, f (x + h ))
(x , f (x ))
x
Secant PQ has gradient y2 - y1 m= x -x 2 1 f (x + h) - f (x) = x+h-x f (x + h) - f (x) = h To nd the gradient of the secant, we make h smaller as shown, so that Q becomes closer and closer to P.
y
Q Q Q P Q
(x + h, f (x + h ))
(x, f (x))
x
Search the Internet using keywords differentiation from first principles, gradient of secant and tangent to find mathematical websites that show this working.
414
As h approaches 0, the gradient of the tangent becomes lim h "0 We call this f l (x).
f (x + h) - f (x) h
fl (x) = lim
h "0
f (x + h) - f (x) h
The symbol d is a Greek letter called delta.
If we use P ^ x, y h and Q ^ x + dx, y + dy h close to P where dx and dy are small: Gradient of secant PQ y2 - y1 m= x -x 2 1 y + dy - y = x + dx - x dy = dx dy . We As dx approaches 0, the gradient of the tangent becomes lim dx " 0 d x dy call this . dx
dy dx
= lim
dy dx
dx " 0
All of these different notations stand for the derivative, or the gradient of the tangent: d d , (y), ^ f (x) h, f l(x), yl dx dx dx These occur because Newton, Leibniz and other mathematicians over the years have used different notation. dy
Investigation
Leibniz used dy dx where d stood for difference. Can you see why he would
have used this? Use the Internet to explore the different notations used in calculus and where they came from.
415
The three formulae for differentiating from rst principles all work in a similar way.
EXAMPLE
Differentiate from rst principles to nd the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = x 2 + 3 at the point where x = 1.
Solution
Method 1: f (x) - f (c) x-c 2 f ]x g = x + 3 f ] 1 g = 12 + 3 =4 f (x) - f (c) f l(c) = lim x "c x-c f (x) - f (1) f l(1) = lim x "1 x-1 (x 2 + 3) - 4 = lim x "1 x-1 x2 - 1 = lim x "1 x - 1 (x + 1) (x - 1) = lim x "1 x-1 = lim (x + 1) f l(c) = lim x "c =1+1 =2 Method 2: f l(x) = lim
h "0 x "1
Remember that y = x 2 - 3 is the same as f (x) = x 2 - 3.
f (x + h ) - f ( x ) h
f ] x g = x2 + 3 f ] 1 g = 12 + 3 =4 f ] x + h g = ] x + h g2 + 3 When x = 1 f ] 1 + h g = ] 1 + h g2 + 3 = 1 + 2h + h 2 + 3 = 2h + h 2 + 4
CONTINUED
416
f l(x) = lim
h "0
f (x + h) - f (x) h f (1 + h) - f (1)
f l(1) = lim
h "0
h (2h + h 2 + 4) - 4 = lim h "0 h 2h + h 2 = lim h "0 h h (2 + h) = lim h "0 h = lim (2 + h) =2+0 =2

h "0
Method 3: dy = lim dy
dx dx y = x2 + 3
dx " 0
When x = 1 y = 12 + 3 =4 So point ^ 1, 4 h lies on the curve. Substitute point (1 + dx, 4 + dy): 4 + dy = (1 + dx) 2 + 3 = 1 + 2d x + d x 2 + 3 = 2d x + d x 2 + 4 d y = 2d x + d x 2 dy 2d x + d x 2 = dx dx dx(2 + dx) = dx = 2 + dx dy dy = lim d x " 0 dx dx = lim (2 + dx) =2+0 =2
dx " 0
We can also use these formulae to nd the derivative function generally.
417
EXAMPLE
Differentiate f ] x g = 2x 2 + 7x - 3 from rst principles.
Solution
f ] x g = 2x + 7x - 3 f ] x + h g = 2 ] x + h g2 + 7 ] x + h g - 3
2
Try this example using the other two formulae.
= 2 ^ x 2 + 2xh + h 2 h + 7x + 7h - 3 = 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 + 7x + 7h - 3 f ] x + h g - f ] x g = ^ 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 + 7x + 7h - 3 h - ^ 2x 2 + 7x - 3 h = 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 + 7x + 7h - 3 - 2x 2 - 7x + 3 = 4xh + 2h 2 + 7h f l(x) = lim

h "0
f (x + h) - f (x)
h 4xh + 2h 2 + 7h = lim h "0 h h ( 4 x + 2h + 7 ) = lim h "0 h = lim (4x + 2h + 7) = 4x + 0 + 7 = 4x + 7

h "0
8.4 Exercises
1. (a) Find the gradient of the secant between the point ^ 1, 2 h and the point where x = 1.01, on the curve y = x 4 + 1. (b) Find the gradient of the secant between ^ 1, 2 h and the point where x = 0.999 on the curve. (c) Use these results to nd the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = x 4 + 1 at the point ^ 1, 2 h . A function f ] x g = x 3 + x has a tangent at the point ^ 2, 10 h . f (x) - f (2) (a) Find the value of x-2 when x = 2.1. (b) Find the value of f (x) - f (2) x-2
when x = 2.01. f (x) - f (2) (c) Evaluate when x-2 x = 1.99. (d) Hence nd the gradient of the tangent at the point ^ 2, 10 h . 3. For the function f ] x g = x 2 - 4, nd the derivative at point P where x = 3 by selecting points near P and nding the gradient of the secant. If f (x) = x 2, (a) nd f (x + h) (b) show that f (x + h) - f (x) = 2xh + h 2
2.
4.
418
(c) show that f (x + h) - f (x) h
= 2x + h
by substituting the point ^ x + dx, y + dy h (b) show that (c) nd dy dx . dy dx = 2x + dx + 2
(d) show that f l (x) = 2x . 5. A function is given by f (x) = 2x 2 - 7x + 3. (a) Show that f (x + h) = 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 - 7x - 7h + 3. (b) Show that f (x + h) - f (x) = 4xh + 2h 2 - 7h. (c) Show that f (x + h) - f (x) = 4x + 2h - 7 . h (d) Find f l (x) . A function is given by f (x) = x 2 + x + 5. (a) Find f ] 2 g. (b) Find f ] 2 + h g. (c) Find f ] 2 + h g - f ] 2 g. (d) Show that f (2 + h) - f ( 2) = 5 + h. h (e) Find f l(2). Given the curve f (x) = 4x 3 - 3 (a) nd f ] -1 g (b) nd f ] -1 + h g - f ] -1 g (c) nd the gradient of the tangent to the curve at the point where x = -1. For the parabola y = x - 1 (a) nd f ] 3 g (b) nd f ] 3 + h g - f ] 3 g (c) nd f l(3).
2
6.
11. Differentiate from rst principles to nd the gradient of the tangent to the curve (a) f ] x g = x 2 at the point where x=1 (b) y = x 2 + x at the point ^ 2, 6 h (c) f ] x g = 2x 2 - 5 at the point where x = -3 (d) y = 3x 2 + 3x + 1 at the point where x = 2 (e) f ] x g = x 2 - 7x - 4 at the point ^ -1, 6 h . 12. Find the derivative function for each curve by differentiating from rst principles (a) f ] x g = x 2 (b) y = x 2 + 5x (c) f ] x g = 4x 2 - 4x - 3 (d) y = 5x 2 - x - 1 (e) y = x 3 (f) f ] x g = 2x 3 + 5x (g) y = x 3 - 2x 2 + 3x - 1 (h) f (x) = -2x 3. 13. The curve y = x has a tangent drawn at the point ^ 4, 2 h . (a) Evaluate f (x) - f (4) when x-4
7.
8.
9.
Remember that 1 -1 = x
For the function f (x) = 4 - 3x - 5x 2 (a) nd f l(1) (b) similarly, nd the gradient of the tangent at the point ^ -2, -10 h .
x = 3 .9 . f (x) - f (4) (b) Evaluate when x-4 x = 3.999. f (x) - f (4) when (c) Evaluate x-4 x = 4.01. 14. For the function f (x) = x - 1, f (x) - f (5) (a) evaluate when x-5 x = 4.99.
10. For the parabola y = x 2 + 2x (a) show that dy = 2xdx + dx 2 + 2dx
419
f (x) - f (5) (b) evaluate when x-5 x = 5.01. (c) Use these results to nd the derivative of the function at the point where x = 5.
15. Find the gradient of the tangent 4 to the curve y = 2 at point x P ^ 2, 1 h by nding the gradient of the secant between P and a point close to P.
Short Methods of Differentiation

The basic rule
Remember that the gradient of a straight line y = mx + b is m. The tangent to the line is the line itself, so the gradient of the tangent is m everywhere along the line.
y
y = mx + b
So if y = mx,
dy dx
=m
d ] g kx = k dx
For a horizontal line in the form y = k, the gradient is zero.

y
y=k
So if y = k,
dy dx
=0 d ] g k =0 dx
420
Investigation
Differentiate from rst principles: y = x2 y = x3 y = x4 Can you nd a pattern? Could you predict what the result would be for xn? Alternatively, you could nd an approximation to the derivative of a f (x + 0.01) - f (x) function at any point by drawing the graph of y = . 0.01 Use a graphics calculator or graphing computer software to sketch the derivative for these functions and nd the equation of the derivative.
Mathematicians working with differentiation from rst principles discovered this pattern that enabled them to shorten differentiation considerably! For example: When y = x 2, yl = 2x When y = x 3, yl = 3x 2 When y = x 4, yl = 4x 3
d ^ nh x = nx n - 1 dx
Proof
You do not need to know this proof.
f (x) = x n f (x + h) = (x + h) n f (x + h) - f (x) = (x + h) n - x n = ^ (x + h) - x h [(x + h) n - 1 + (x + h) n - 2 x + (x + h) n - 3 x 2 + (x + h) n - 4 x 3 + . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1] = h [(x + h) n - 1 + (x + h) n - 2 x + (x + h) n - 3 x 2 + (x + h) n - 4 x 3 + . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1] f (x + h) - f (x) h h [(x + h) n - 1 + (x + h) n - 2 x + (x + h) n - 3 x 2 + (x + h) n - 4 x 3 + . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1] = lim h "0 h n-1 n-2 n-3 2 = lim [(x + h) + (x + h ) x + (x + h) x + (x + h) n - 4 x 3 + . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1]
h "0 h "0
f l(x) = lim
= (x) n - 1 + (x) n - 2 x + (x) n - 3 x 2 + (x) n - 4 x 3 + . . . + (x) x n - 2 + x n - 1 = nx n - 1
421
EXAMPLE
Differentiate f (x) = x 7.
Solution
f l(x) = 7x 6
There are some more rules that give us short ways to differentiate functions. The rst one says that if there is a constant in front of the x (we call this a coefcient), then it is just multiplied with the derivative.
d ^ nh kx = knx n - 1 dx
A more general way of writing this rule is:
d ^ kf (x) h = kf l(x) dx
Proof
kf (x + h) - kf (x) d ^ kf (x) h = lim 0 h " dx h k [f (x + h) - f (x)] = lim h "0 h f (x + h) - f (x) = k lim h "0 h = kf l(x)
EXAMPLE
Find the derivative of 3x8.
Solution
If y = 3x 8 dy = 3 # 8x 7 dx = 24x 7
422
Also, if there are several terms in an expression, we differentiate each one separately. We can write this as a rule:
d ^ f (x) + g (x) h = f l(x) + g (x) dx
Proof
[f (x + h) + g (x + h)] - [f (x) + g (x)] d ^ f (x) + g (x) h = lim h "0 dx h f (x + h) + g (x + h) - f (x) - g (x) = lim h "0 h f (x + h) - f (x) + g (x + h) - g (x) = lim h "0 h f (x + h ) - f ( x ) g ( x + h ) - g ( x) G = lim = + h "0 h h f (x + h ) - f ( x ) g ( x + h ) - g ( x) = lim + lim 0 h "0 h " h h = f l(x) + gl(x)
EXAMPLE
Differentiate x 3 + x 4.
Solution
d 3 (x + x 4) = 3x 2 + 4x 3 dx
Many functions use a combination of these rules.
EXAMPLES
Differentiate 1. 7x
Solution
d ] g 7x = 7 dx
423
2. f (x) = x 4 - x 3 + 5
Solution
f l(x) = 4x 3 - 3x 2 + 0 = 4x 3 - 3x 2 3. y = 4x 7
Solution
dy dx = 4 # 7x 6 = 28x 6 4. If f (x) = 2x 5 - 7x 3 + 5x - 4, evaluate f l(-1)
Solution
f l(x) = 10x 4 - 21x 2 + 5 f l(-1) = 10(-1) 4 - 21(-1) 2 + 5 = -6 5. Differentiate 3x 2 + 5x 2x
Solution
Divide by 2x before differentiating. 3x 2 + 5x 3x 2 5x = + 2x 2x 2x 3 5 = x+ 2 2 dy 3 = 2 dx 1 =1 2 6. Differentiate S = 2rr 2 + 2rrh with respect to r.
Solution
We are differentiating with respect to r, so r is the variable and r and h are constants. dS = 2r(2r) + 2rh dr = 4r r + 2r h
424
8.5 Exercises
1. Differentiate (a) x + 2 (b) 5x - 9 (c) x 2 + 3x + 4 (d) 5x 2 - x - 8 (e) x 3 + 2x 2 - 7x - 3 (f) 2x 3 - 7x 2 + 7x - 1 (g) 3x 4 - 2x 2 + 5x (h) x 6 - 5x 5 - 2x 4 (i) 2x 5 - 4x 3 + x 2 - 2x + 4 (j) 4x 10 - 7x 9 Find the derivative of (a) x ] 2x + 1 g (b) ] 2x - 3 g2 (c) ] x + 4 g ] x - 4 g 2 (d) ^ 2x 2 - 3 h (e) ] 2x + 5 g ^ x 2 - x + 1 h Differentiate (a) (b) (c)
Simplify by dividing before differentiating.
4.
Find f l(x) when f (x) = 8x 2 -7x + 4. dy If y = x 4 - 2x 3 + 5, nd when dx x = - 2. dy Find if dx y = 6x 10 - 5x 8 + 7x 5 - 3x + 8. ds . dt
5.
6.
7. 8. 9.
If s = 5t 2 - 20t , nd
Find gl(x) given g (x) = 5x - 4. Find
Expand brackets before differentiating.
2.
dv when v = 15t 2 - 9. dt dh 10. If h = 40t - 2t 2, nd . dt 11. Given V = dV 4 3 rr , nd . 3 dr
3.
12. If f (x) = 2x 3 - 3x + 4, evaluate f l(1). 13. Given f (x) = x 2 - x + 5, evaluate (a) f l(3) (b) f l(-2) (c) x when f l(x) = 7 14. If y = x 3 - 7, evaluate dy (a) when x = 2 dx dy (b) x when = 12 dx 15. Evaluate gl(2) when g (t) = 3t 3 - 4t 2 - 2t + 1.
x2 -x 6 x4 x3 +4 2 3 1 6 2 x ( x - 3) 3 2x 3 + 5x x x 2 + 2x 4x 2x 5 - 3x 4 + 6x 3 - 2x 2 3x 2
(d) (e) (f)
425
Tangents and Normals
DID YOU KNOW?

The word tangent comes from the Latin tangens, meaning touching. A tangent to a circle intersects it only once.
However, a tangent to a curve could intersect the curve more than once.
This line is a tangent to the curve at point P.
A line may only intersect a curve once but not be a tangent.
So a tangent to a curve is best described as the limiting position of the secant PQ as Q approaches P.
Remember from earlier in the chapter that the derivative is the gradient of the tangent to a curve.
dy dx
is the gradient of the tangent to a curve
426
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the tangent to the parabola y = x 2 + 1 at the point ^ 1, 2 h .
Solution
dy dx At ^ 1, 2 h dy dx = 2x + 0 = 2x = 2 (1 ) =2 So the gradient of the tangent at ^ 1, 2 h is 2. 2. Find values of x for which the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = 2x 3 - 6x 2 + 1 is equal to 18.
Solution
dy dx dy dx = 6x 2 - 12x is the gradient of the tangent, so substitute dy dx = 18.
18 = 6x 2 - 12x 0 = 6x 2 - 12x - 18 = x 2 - 2x - 3 = ]x - 3 g]x + 1 g x - 3 = 0, x + 1 = 0 ` x = 3, x = -1 3. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x 4 - 3x 3 + 7x - 2 at the point ^ 2, 4 h .
Solution
dy At ^ 2, 4 h dx dy dx = 4x 3 - 9x 2 + 7 = 4 ] 2 g3 - 9 ] 2 g2 + 7
=3 So the gradient of the tangent at ^ 2, 4 h is 3. Equation of the tangent: y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i y - 4 = 3 ]x - 2 g
427
= 3x - 6 y = 3x - 2 or 0 = 3x - y - 2
The normal is a straight line perpendicular to the tangent at the same point of contact with the curve.
y
Tangent
Normal
If lines with gradients m1 and m2 are perpendicular, then m 1 m 2 = -1
You used this rule in the previous chapter.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the normal to the curve y = 2x 2 - 3x + 5 at the point where x = 4.
Solution
dy dx is the gradient of the tangent. dy
= 4x - 3 dx When x = 4 dy =4#4-3 dx = 13 So m 1 = 13 The normal is perpendicular to the tangent. So m 1 m 2 = -1

CONTINUED
428
13m 2 = -1 1 m2 = 13 1 So the gradient of the normal is - . 13
2. Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = x 3 + 3x 2 - 2x - 1 at the point ^ -1, 3 h .
Solution
dy dx is the gradient of the tangent. dy
= 3x 2 + 6x - 2 dx When x = -1 dy = 3 ] -1 g2 + 6 ] -1 g - 2 dx = -5 So m 1 = - 5 The normal is perpendicular to the tangent. So m 1 m 2 = -1 -5m 2 = -1 1 m2 = 5 1 So the gradient of the normal is . 5 Equation of the normal: y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i 1 y - 3 = ] x - ] -1 g g 5 5y - 15 = x + 1 0 = x - 5y + 16
8.6 Exercises
1. Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve (a) y = x 3 - 3x at the point where x=5 (b) f ] x g = x 2 + x - 4 at the point ^ -7, 38 h (c) f ] x g = 5x 3 - 4x - 1 at the point where x = -1 (d) y = 5x 2 + 2x + 3 at the point ^ -2, 19 h (e) y = 2x 9 at the point where x=1 (f) f ] x g = x 3 - 7 at the point where x = 3 (g) v = 2t 2 + 3t - 5 at the point where t = 2 (h) Q = 3r 3 - 2r 2 + 8r - 4 at the point where r = 4 (i) h = t 4 - 4t where t = 0 (j) f ] t g = 3t 5 - 8t 3 + 5t at the point where t = 2.
429
2.
Find the gradient of the normal to the curve (a) f ] x g = 2x 3 + 2x - 1 at the point where x = -2 (b) y = 3x 2 + 5x - 2 at the point ^ -5, 48 h (c) f ] x g = x 2 - 2x - 7 at the point where x = - 9 (d) y = x 3 + x 2 + 3x - 2 at the point ^ -4, - 62 h (e) f ] x g = x 10 at the point where x = -1 (f) y = x 2 + 7x - 5 at the point ^ - 7, - 5 h (g) A = 2x 3 + 3x 2 - x + 1 at the point where x = 3 (h) f ] a g = 3a 2 - 2a - 6 at the point where a = - 3 (i) V = h 3 - 4h + 9 at the point ^ 2, 9 h (j) g ] x g = x 4 - 2x 2 + 5x - 3 at the point where x = -1. Find the gradient of the (i) tangent and (ii) normal to the curve (a) y = x 2 + 1 at the point ^ 3, 10 h (b) f ] x g = 5 - x 2 at the point where x = -4 (c) y = 2x 5 - 7x 2 + 4 at the point where x = -1 (d) p ] x g = x 6 - 3x 4 - 2x + 8 where x = 1 (e) f ] x g = 4 - x - x 2 at the point ^ -6, 26 h . Find the equation of the tangent to the curve (a) y = x 4 - 5x + 1 at the point ^ 2, 7 h (b) f (x) = 5x 3 - 3x 2 - 2x + 6 at the point ^ 1, 6 h (c) y = x 2 + 2x - 8 at the point ^ -3, -5 h (d) y = 3x 3 + 1 at the point where x = 2 (e) v = 4t 4 - 7t 3 - 2 at the point where t = 2
5.
Find the equation of the normal to the curve (a) f ] x g = x 3 - 3x + 5 at the point ^ 3, 23 h (b) y = x 2 - 4x - 5 at the point ^ -2, 7 h (c) f ] x g = 7x - 2x 2 at the point where x = 6 (d) y = 7x 2 - 3x - 2 at the point ^ -3, 70 h (e) y = x 4 - 2x 3 + 4x + 1 at the point where x = 1. Find the equation of the (i) tangent and (ii) normal to the curve (a) f ] x g = 4x 2 - x + 8 at the point ^ 1, 11 h (b) y = x 3 + 2x 2 - 5x at the point ^ -3, 6 h (c) F ] x g = x 5 - 5x 3 at the point where x = 1 (d) y = x 2 - 8x + 7 at the point ^ 3, - 8 h (e) y = x 4 - 2x 3 + 4x + 1 at the point where x = 1. For the curve y = x 3 - 27x - 5, dy nd values of x for which = 0. dx Find the coordinates of the point at which the curve y = x 3 + 1 has a tangent with a gradient of 3. A function f (x) = x 2 + 4x - 12 has a tangent with a gradient of -6 at point P on the curve. Find the coordinates of the point P.
6.
3.
7.
8.
9.
4.
10. The tangent at point P on the curve y = 4x 2 + 1 is parallel to the x-axis. Find the coordinates of P. 11. Find the coordinates of point Q where the tangent to the curve y = 5x 2 - 3x is parallel to the line 7x - y + 3 = 0 .
430
12. Find the coordinates of point S where the tangent to the curve y = x 2 + 4x - 1 is perpendicular to the line 4x + 2y + 7 = 0. 13. The curve y = 3x - 4 has a gradient of 6 at point A. (a) Find the coordinates of A. (b) Find the equation of the tangent to the curve at A.
2
14. A function h = 3t 2 - 2t + 5 has a tangent at the point where t = 2. Find the equation of the tangent. 15. A function f ] x g = 2x 2 - 8x + 3 has a tangent parallel to the line 4x - 2y + 1 = 0 at point P. Find the equation of the tangent at P.
Further Differentiation and Indices

The basic rule for differentiating xn works for any rational number n.
Investigation
1. (a) Show that -h 1 1 - = . x+h x x (x + h)
1 (b) Hence differentiate y = x from rst principles. (c) Differentiate y = x - 1 using a short method. Do you get the same answer as 1(b)? 2. (a) Show that ( x + h - x ) ( x + h + x ) = h. (b) Hence differentiate y =
1 2
x from rst principles.
(c) Differentiate y = x and show that this gives the same answer as 2(b).
We sometimes need to change a function into index form before differentiating.
EXAMPLES
1. Differentiate 7 3 x .
Solution
7 3 x = 7x 3 dy 1 1-1 = 7$ x 3 3 dx 2 7 -3 = x 3 7 1 = # 2 3 x3
1
431
= =
7 1 # 3 3 x2 7 3 3 x2
4 2. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 2 at the point x where x = 2.
Solution
y= dy dx 4 x2 = 4x - 2 = - 8x - 3 =8 x3
When x = 2 4 y= 2 2 =1 Gradient of the tangent at ^ 2, 1 h: dy 8 =- 3 dx 2 = -1 Equation of the tangent: y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i y - 1 = -1 ] x - 2 g = -x + 2 y = -x + 3 or x + y - 3 = 0
8.7 Exercises
1. Differentiate (a) x - 3 (b) x 1.4 (c) 6x 0.2
1
2.
Find the derivative function, writing the answer without negative or fractional indices. 1 (a) x (b) 5 x (c) 6 x 2 (d) 5 x 5 (e) - 3 x 1 (f) x
(d) x 2 (e) 2x 2 - 3x - 1
1 1
(f) 3x 3
3
(g) 8x 4 (h) - 2x
1 2
432
Note that
1 2x 6
1 1 # . 2 x6
(g)
Use index laws to simplify first.
1 2x 6
(h) x x 2 (i) 3x 3 1 (j) + 4x 2 x 4 3. Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = 3 x at the point where x = 27. If x = dx 12 , nd when t = 2. t dt
10. Find the equation of the tangent to f (x) = 6 x at the point where x = 9. x 11. (a) Differentiate x . (b) Hence nd the gradient of the x tangent to the curve y = x at the point where x = 4. 12. Find the equation of the tangent 4 to the curve y = x at the point 1 c 8, m. 2 13. If the gradient of the tangent to 1 y = x is at point A, nd the 6 coordinates of A. 14. The function f (x) = 3 x has 3 f l(x) = . Evaluate x. 4 2 15. The hyperbola y = x has two 2 tangents with gradient - . Find 25 the coordinates of the points of contact of these tangents.
4. 5.
A function is given by f (x) = 4 x . Evaluate f l(16) . Find the gradient of the tangent 3 to the curve y = at the point 2x 2 1 c 1, 1 m. 2 Find dy dx if y = ^ x + x h .
2
6.
Expand brackets first.
7.
8.
A function f (x) =
x has a 2 tangent at ^ 4, 1 h . Find the gradient of the tangent.
9.
Find the equation of the tangent 1 to the curve y = 3 at the point x 1 c 2, m. 8
This rule is also called the function of a function rule or chain rule.
Composite Function Rule

A composite function is a function composed of two or more other functions. 5 For example, ^ 3x 2 - 4 h is made up of a function u5 where u = 3x 2 - 4. To differentiate a composite function, we need to use the result..
dy dx
dy du
du dx
433
Proof
Let dx, dy and du be small changes in x, y and u where dx " 0, dy " 0, du " 0. dy dy du = # Then dx du dx As dx " 0, du " 0 dy dy du = lim # lim So lim dx " 0 d x du " 0 d u dx " 0 d x Using the denition of the derivative from rst principles, this gives dy dx = dy du # du . dx
You do not need to learn this proof.
EXAMPLES
Differentiate 1. (5x + 4) 7
Solution
u = 5x + 4 du Then =5 dx y = u7 dy ` = 7u 6 du dy dy du = # dx du dx = 7u 6 # 5 = 35 (5x + 4) 6 Let 2. (3x 2 + 2x - 1) 9
Can you see a quick way of doing this question?
Solution
u = 3x 2 + 2x - 1 du Then = 6x + 2 dx y = u9 dy ` = 9u 8 du dy dy du = # dx du dx 8 = 9u (6x + 2) = 9(6x + 2) (3x 2 + 2x - 1) 8 Let
CONTINUED
434
3.
3-x
Solution
3 - x = (3 - x) 2 Let u = 3 - x du = -1 dx y = u2 dy 1 -1 = u 2 2 du dy dy du = # dx du dx 1 -1 2 = u (-1) 2 1 1 = - (3 - x) 2 2 1 =2 3-x
1 1
The derivative of a composite function is the product of two derivatives. One is the derivative of the function inside the brackets. The other is the derivative of the whole function.
d [ f (x)] n = f l(x) n [ f (x)] n - 1 dx
Proof
u = f (x) du = f l(x) Then dx y = un dy ` = nu n - 1 du dy dy du = # dx du dx = nu n - 1 # f l(x) = f l(x) n [ f (x)] n - 1 Let
435
EXAMPLES
Differentiate 1. (8x 3 - 1) 5
Solution
dy dx = f l(x) $ n [ f (x)] n - 1 = 24x 2 $ 5 (8x 3 - 1) 4 = 120x 2 (8x 3 - 1) 4
2. (3x + 8) 11
Solution
yl = f l(x) . n [ f (x)] n - 1 = 3 # 11 (3x + 8) 10 = 33 (3x + 8) 10
3.
1 (6x + 1) 2
Solution
1 = (6x + 1) - 2 (6x + 1) 2 y l = f l(x) $ n [ f (x)] n - 1 = 6 # -2 (6x + 1) - 3 = -12 (6x + 1) - 3 12 =(6x + 1) 3
8.8 Exercises
1. Differentiate (a) (x + 3) 4 (b) (2x - 1) 3 (c) (5x 2 - 4) 7 (d) (8x + 3) 6 (e) (1 - x) 5 (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) 3 (5x + 9) 9 2 (x - 4) 2 (2x 3 + 3x) 4 (x 2 + 5x - 1) 8 (x 6 - 2x 2 + 3) 6
1
(k) (3x - 1) 2
436
(l) (4 - x) - 2 (m) (x 2 - 9) - 3 (n) (5x + 4) 3 3x + 4 1 (q) 5x - 2 1 (r) (x 2 + 1) 4 (p) (s) (t) (u) (v) (w) (x) (y)
3 1 3
2.
Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = ] 3x - 2 g3 at the point ^ 1, 1 h . If f (x) = 2 (x 2 - 3) 5, evaluate f l(2). The curve y = x - 3 has a 1 tangent with gradient at point 2 N. Find the coordinates of N. For what values of x does the 1 function f (x) = have 4x - 1 4 f l(x) = ? 49 Find the equation of the tangent to y = (2x + 1) 4 at the point where x = - 1.
(o) (x 3 - 7x 2 + x) 4
3. 4.
(7 - 3x) 2 5 4+x 1 2 3x - 1 3 4 (2x + 7) 9 1 x 4 - 3x 3 + 3x (4x + 1) 4 1 ( 7 - x) 5
5.
6.
Product Rule
Differentiating the product of two functions y = uv gives the result
dy dx
=u
dv du +v dx dx
Proof
y = uv Given that dy, du and dv are small changes in y, u and v. y + dy = (u + du) (v + dv) = uv + udv + vdu + dudv ` dy = udv + vdu + dudv ^ since y = uv h dy dv du dv =u +v + du dx dx dx dx
437
As dx " 0, du " 0 dy dv du dv F lim = lim < u +v + du dx " 0 d x dx " 0 dx dx dx dv du dv F + lim < v F + lim < du F = lim < u dx " 0 d x " 0 d x " 0 dx dx dx dy dv du =u +v dx dx dx It is easier to remember this rule as y l = uv l + vu l. We can also write this the other way around which helps when learning the quotient rule in the next section. If y = uv, y l = u lv + v lu
EXAMPLES
Differentiate 1. ] 3x + 1 g ] x - 5 g
Solution
You could expand the brackets and then differentiate: ] 3x + 1 g ] x - 5 g = 3x 2 - 15x + x - 5 = 3x 2 - 14x - 5 dy = 6x - 14 dx Using the product rule: y = uv where u = 3x + 1 and v = x - 5 ul = 3 vl = 1 y l = u lv + v l u = 3 ] x - 5 g + 1 ] 3x + 1 g = 3x - 15 + 3x + 1 = 6x - 14 2. 2x 5 ] 5x + 3 g3
Solution
y = uv where u = 2x 5 and v = ] 5x + 3 g 3 u l = 10x 4 v l = 5.3 ] 5x + 3 g 2
CONTINUED
438
y l = u lv + v l u
We can simplify this further by factorising.
= 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g3 + 5.3 ] 5x + 3 g2 $ 2x 5 = 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g3 + 30x 5 ] 5x + 3 g2 = 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g2 6 ] 5x + 3 g + 3x @ = 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g2 ] 8x + 3 g 3. (3x - 4) 5 - 2x
Solution
Remember 5 - 2x = ] 5 - 2x g 2
1
y = uv where u = 3x - 4 and v = ] 5 - 2x g 2 1 1 ul = 3 v l = - 2 $ (5 - 2 x ) 2 2 y l = u lv + v lu = 3 ] 5 - 2x g 2 +- 2 $ =3 =3 =3 = = 3
1 1] 5 - 2x g 2 ] 3x - 4 g 2 1 5 - 2x - (3x - 4) ] 5 - 2x g 2 3x - 4 5 - 2x 1 (5 - 2x) 2 3x - 4 5 - 2x 5 - 2x 5 - 2x $ 5 - 2x - (3x - 4) 1
5 - 2x 3(5 - 2x) - (3x - 4)
5 - 2x 15 - 6x - 3x + 4 = 5 - 2x 19 - 9x = 5 - 2x
8.9 Exercises
1. Differentiate (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) x 3 ] 2x + 3 g ] 3x - 2 g ] 2x + 1 g 3x ] 5x + 7 g 4x ] 3x - 2 g5 3x 4 ] 4 - x g3 ] x + 1 g ] 2x + 5 g4 ^ x 3 + 5x 2 - 3 h ^ x 2 + 1 h 5 x 2-x 5x + 3 (l) 2x - 1 (g) (h) (i) (j) (k)
Change this into a product before differentiating.
4x 4 ^ 3x 2 - 1 h 2x ^ 3x 4 - x h x 2 ] x + 1 g3
439
2.
Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = 2x ] 3x - 2 g4 at the point ^ 1, 2 h . If f (x) = (2x + 3) (3x - 1) 5, evaluate f l (1) . Find the exact gradient of the tangent to the curve y = x 2x + 5 at the point where x = 1. Find the gradient of the tangent where t = 3, given x = ] 2t - 5 g ] t + 1 g3. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x 2 ] 2x - 1 g4 at the point ^ 1, 1 h .
7.
Find the equation of the tangent to h = (t + 1) 2 (t - 1) 7at the point ^ 2, 9 h . Find exact values of x for which the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = 2x ] x + 3 g2 is 14. Given f (x) = (4x - 1) (3x + 2) 2, nd the equation of the tangent at the point where x = -1.
3.
8.
4.
9.
5.
6.
Quotient Rule
u Differentiating the quotient of two functions y = v gives the result.
dy dx
v =
du dv -u dx dx v2
Proof
u y= v Given that dy, du and dv are small changes in y, u and v. u + du y + dy = v + dv u + du u u ` dy = - v a since y = v k v + dv v (u + du) u (v + dv) = v (v + dv) v (v + dv) v (u + du) - u (v + dv) = v (v + dv) vu + vdu - uv - udv = v (v + dv) vdu - udv = v (v + dv) du dv -u v dy dx dx = v (v + dv) dx As dx " 0, dv " 0
440
dx " 0
lim
dy dx dy dx
R S v du - u dv S dx dx = lim S dx " 0 v ( v + d v) T du dv v -u dx dx = v2
V W W W X
It is easier to remember this rule as y l =
u lv - v lu . v2
u u lv - v lu If y = v , y l = v2
EXAMPLES
Differentiate 1. 3x - 5 5x + 2
Solution
u y = v where u = 3x - 5 and v = 5x + 2 ul = 3 vl = 5 yl = = u lv - v lu v2 3 (5x + 2) - 5 (3x - 5)
(5x + 2) 2 15x + 6 - 15x + 25 = (5x + 2) 2 31 = (5x + 2) 2 2. 4x 3 - 5x + 2 x3 - 1
Solution
u y = v where u = 4x 3 - 5x + 2 and v = x 3 - 1 u l = 12x 2 - 5 v l = 3x 2 u l v - v lu yl = v2 (12x 2 - 5) (x 3 - 1) - 3x 2 (4x 3 - 5x + 2) = (x 3 - 1 ) 2 5 2 12x - 12x - 5x 3 + 5 - 12x 5 + 15x 3 - 6x 2 = (x 3 - 1 ) 2 10x 3 - 18x 2 + 5 = (x 3 - 1) 2
441
8.10
1.
Exercises
3 (s) (2x - 9) 5x + 1 x-1 (t) (7x + 2) 4 5 (u) (3x + 4)
Differentiate 1 2x - 1 (b) 3x x+5 x3 (c) 2 x -4 (d) x - 3 5x + 1 (e) x - 7 x2 (f) 5x + 4 x+3 x (g) 2 2x - x (h) x + 4 x-2 (i) 2x + 7 4x - 3 (j) x + 5 3x + 1 (k) x + 1 3x 2 - 7 2x 2 (l) 2x - 3 2 (m) x + 4 x2 - 5 3 (n) x x+4 3 (o) x + 2x - 1 x+3 2 (p) x - 2x - 1 3x + 4 3 x +x (q) 2 x -x-1 2x (r) 1 (x + 5) 2 (a)
(2x - 5) 3 (v) 3x + 1 x+1 (w) (x) 2. x-1 2x - 3 x2 + 1 (x - 9) 2
Find the gradient of the tangent to 2x the curve y = at the point 3x + 1 1 c 1, m. 2 If f (x) = 4x + 5 evaluate f l(2). 2x - 1
3. 4.
Find any values of x for which the gradient of the tangent to the 4x - 1 curve y = is equal to - 2. 2x - 1 Given f (x) = f l(x) = 1 . 6 2x nd x if x+3
5.
6.
Find the equation of the tangent x to the curve y = at the x+2 2 point c 4, m. 3 Find the equation of the tangent x2 - 1 to the curve y = at the x+3 point where x = 2.
7.
442
Test Yourself 8
1. Sketch the derivative function of each graph (a) 6. Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = x 3 - 3x 2 + x - 5 at the point (-1, -10) . dh If h = 60t - 3t 2, nd when t = 3. dt Find all x-values that are not differentiable on the following curves. (a)
7. 8.
(b)
(b)
5 4 3 2 1
2.
Differentiate y = 5x 2 - 3x + 2 from rst principles. Differentiate (a) 7x 6 - 3x 3 + x 2 - 8x - 4 (b) 3x - 4 2x + 1 (c) (x 2 + 4x - 2) 9 (d) 5x(2x - 1) 4 (e) x 2 x 5 (f) 2 x
3.
(c)
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 y 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -11
1 2 3 4
4. 5.
Find
dv if v = 2t 2 - 3t - 4. dt 9.
-2 -3 -4 -5
Given f (x) = (4x - 3) 5, nd the value of (a) f (1) (b) f 1 (1).
Differentiate (a) f ] x g = 2 ] 4x + 9 g4 5 (b) y = x-3 (c) y = x ] 3x - 1 g2 4 (d) y = x (e) f (x) = 5 x
443
10. Sketch the derivative function of the following curve.

y
14. At which points on the curve y = 2x 3 - 9x 2 - 60x + 3 are the tangents horizontal? 15. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x 2 + 2x - 5 that is parallel to the line y = 4x - 1. 16. Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = ] 3x - 1 g3 ] 2x - 1 g2 at the point where x = 2. 17. Find f l(4) when f ] x g = ] x - 3 g9 . 18. Find the equation of the tangent to the 1 1 curve y = at the point where x = . 3x 6 19. Differentiate s = ut + 1 2 at with respect 2 to t and nd the value of t for which ds = 5, u = 7 and a = - 10. dt
11. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x 2 + 5x - 3 at the point ^ 2, 11 h . 12. Find the point on the curve y = x 2 - x + 1 at which the tangent has a gradient of 3. 13. Find dS if S = 4rr 2. dr
20. Find the x-intercept of the tangent to 4x - 3 the curve y = at the point where 2x + 1 x = 1.
1. If f (x) = 3x 2 (1 - 2x) 5, nd the value of f (1) and f l(1) . If A = dA 5h + 3 , nd when h = 1. 7h - 1 dh 6. 7. 8. 9. 5. Find the points on the curve y = x 3 - 6 where the tangents are parallel to the line y = 12x - 1. Hence nd the equations of the normals to the curve at those points. Find f l(2) if f (x) = 3x - 2 .
2. 3.
dx Given x = 2t 4 + 100t 3, nd and nd dt dx values of t when = 0. dt Find the equations of the tangents to the curve y = x (x - 1) (x + 2) at the points where the curve cuts the x-axis.
Differentiate (5x + 1) 3 (x - 9) 5 . Find the derivative of y = 2x + 1 . (4x - 9) 4
4.
If f (x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 + 4, for what exact values of x is f l (x) = 7?
444
10. Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = 3 x + 1 at the point where x = 8. 11. The tangent to the curve y = ax + 2 at the point where x = 3 is inclined at 135c to the x-axis. Find the value of a.
3
(b) Sketch the derivative function for the graph.

y
12. The normal to the curve y = x 2 + 1 at the point where x = 2, cuts the curve again at point P. Find the coordinates of P. 13. Find the exact values of the x- coordinates of the points on the curve y = (3x 2 - 2x - 4) 3 where the tangent is horizontal. 14. Find the gradient of the normal to the curve y = 2x 5 - x at the point (4, 8) . 15. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x 3 - x 2 + 2x + 6 at point P (1, 8) . Find the coordinates of point Q where this tangent meets the y-axis and calculate the exact length of PQ. 16. The equation of the tangent to the curve y = x 4 - nx 2 + 3x - 2 at the point where x = - 2 is given by 3x - y - 2 = 0. Evaluate n. 17. The function f (x) = 3x + 1 has a tangent that makes an angle of 30c with the x-axis. Find the coordinates of the point of contact for this tangent and nd its equation in exact form. 18. Find all x values of the function f (x) = (x 2 - 3) (2x - 1) 8 for which f l(x) = 0. 19. (a) Find any points at which the graph below is not differentiable.
90c
180c 270c
360c
20. Find the point of intersection between the tangents to the curve y = x 3 - 2x 2 - 5x + 3 at the points where x = 2 and x = - 1. 21. Find the equation of the tangent to the x2 - 3 parabola y = at the point where 2 the tangent is perpendicular to the line 3x + y - 3 = 0. 22. Differentiate 3x - 2 . 2x 3
23. (a) Find the equations of the tangents to the parabola y = 2x 2 at the points where the line 6x - 8y + 1 = 0 intersects with the parabola. (b) Show that the tangents are perpendicular. 24. Find any x values of the function 2 f (x) = 3 where it is not x - 8x 2 + 12x differentiable. 25. The equation of the tangent to the curve y = x 3 + 7x 2 - 6x - 9 is y = ax + b at the point where x = -4. Evaluate a and b.
445
26. Find the exact gradient with rational denominator of the tangent to the curve y = x 2 - 3 at the point where x = 5. p 27. The tangent to the curve y = x has a 1 gradient of - at the point where x = 3. 6 Evaluate p. 28. Find 2r dV when r = and h = 6 given 3 dr 1 V = rr 3 h. 3
33. For the function f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c, f (2) = 4, fl (1) = 0 and f l (x) = 8 when x = -3. Evaluate a, b and c. 34. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve S = 2rr 2 + 2rrh at the point where r = 2 (h is a constant). 35. Differentiate (a) 2x 3 - x ] 3x - 5 g4 2x + 1 (b) (x - 3) 3 36. The tangents to the curve y = x 3 - 2x 2 + 3 at points A and B are perpendicular to the tangent at ^ 2, 3 h . Find the exact values of x at A and B. 37. (a) Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = x 2 + x - 1 at the point P where x = 3. (b) Find the coordinates of Q , the point where the normal intersects the parabola again.
29. Evaluate k if the function f (x) = 2x 3 - kx 2 + 1 has f l(2) = 8. 30. Find the equation of the chord joining the points of contact of the tangents to the curve y = x 2 - x - 4 with gradients 3 and -1. 31. Find the equation of the straight line passing through ^ 4, 3 h and parallel to the tangent to the curve y = x 4 at the point ^ 1, 1 h . 32. Find f l (7) as a fraction, given 1 . f (x) = 3 x+1
9
The Quadratic Function
TERMINOLOGY
Axis of symmetry: A line about which two parts of a graph are symmetrical. One half of the graph is a reflection of the other Coefcient: A constant multiplied by a pronumeral in an algebraic term e.g. in ax3 the a is the coefficient Discriminant: Part of the quadratic formula, the algebraic expression b 2 - 4ac is called the discriminant as its value determines the number and nature of the roots of a quadratic equation Equations reducible to quadratics: Equations that can be reduced to the form: ax 2 + bx + c = 0 Indenite: A quadratic function where f(x) can be both positive and negative for varying values of x Maximum value: The maximum or greatest y-value of a graph for a given domain Minimum value: The minimum or smallest y-value of a graph for a given domain Negative denite: A quadratic function where f(x) is always negative for all values of x Positive denite: A quadratic function where f(x) is always positive for all values of x Root of an equation: The solution of an equation
Chapter 9 The Quadratic Function
451
INTRODUCTION
THE SOLUTION OF QUADRATIC equations is important in many elds,
such as engineering, architecture and astronomy. In this chapter you will study quadratic equations in detail, and look at the relationship between quadratic equations and the graphs of quadratic functions (the parabola). You will study the axis of symmetry and maximum and minimum values of the quadratic function. You will also look at the quadratic formula in detail, and at the relationships between the roots (solutions) of quadratic equations, the formula and the quadratic function.
DID YOU KNOW?

Thousands of clay tablets from ancient Babylonia have been discovered by archaeologists. These tablets are from as far back as 2000 BC. They show that the Babylonians had mastered many mathematical skills. Geometry, including Pythagoras theorem, was well developed, and geometric problems were often worked out by using algebra. Quadratic equations were used in solving geometry problems. The word quadratic comes from the Latin quadratum, meaning four-sided figure. Completing the square and the quadratic formula were both used to solve quadratic equations. The Babylonians also had some interesting approximations for square roots. For example, 17 2 = . An approximation for 2 that is very accurate was found on a tablet dating back to 1600 BC: 12 51 10 24 2 =1+ + + = 1.414213 60 60 2 60 3
Graph of a Quadratic Function

Axis of symmetry
EXAMPLE
(a ) Sketch the parabola y = x 2 - 4x on the number plane. (b) Find the equation of the axis of symmetry of the parabola. (c ) Find the minimum value of the parabola.
Solution
(a) For the y-intercept, x = 0 i.e. y = 0 2 - 4 (0) =0 For the x-intercept, y = 0 i.e. 0 = x 2 - 4x = x (x - 4) ` x = 0 or x - 4 = 0 x=4
CONTINUED
The axis of symmetry lies halfway between x = 0 and x = 4.
452
(b) The axis of symmetry has equation x = 2. (c) Since the parabola is symmetrical about the line x = 2, the minimum value is on this line. Substitute x = 2 into the equation of the parabola i.e. y = 2 2 - 4 (2) = -4 So the minimum value is - 4.
Class Investigation
1. How would you nd the axis of symmetry for a graph with no x-intercepts?
2. How would you nd the axis of symmetry of a graph where the x-intercepts are irrational numbers?
The axis of symmetry of the quadratic function y = ax 2 + bx + c has the equation b x=2a
453
Proof
The axis of symmetry lies midway between the x-intercepts. For the x-intercepts, y = 0 i.e. ax 2 + bx + c = 0 x= - b ! b 2 - 4ac 2a
The x-coordinate of the axis of symmetry is the average of the x-intercepts. - b - b 2 - 4ac - b + b 2 - 4ac + 2a 2a x= 2 - 2b 2a = 2 - 2b = 4a b =2a
i.e.
The parabola has a minimum value if a 2 0. The shape of the parabola is concave upwards.
Minimum value
The parabola has a maximum value if a 1 0. The shape of the parabola is concave downwards.
Maximum value
454
The minimum or maximum value is f c -
b m 2a
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the minimum value of the quadratic function y = x 2 - 5x + 1.
Solution
The equation of the axis of symmetry is given by b 2a (- 5 ) x=i.e. 2 ( 1) 5 = 2 1 ` Equation is x = 2 2 5 2 5 Minimum value: y = c m - 5 c m + 1 2 2 25 25 = +1 4 2 1 = -5 4 x=1 So minimum value is - 5 . 4 2. Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the maximum value of the quadratic function y = - 3x 2 + x - 5.
a 2 0 gives a minimum value.
Solution
The equation of the axis of symmetry is given by b 2a 1 x=i.e. 2 (- 3 ) 1 = 6 1 ` Equation is x = 6 1 2 1 Maximum value: y = - 3 c m + c m - 5 6 6 1 1 =+ -5 12 6 11 = -4 12 x=So maximum value is - 4 11 . 12
a 1 0 gives a maximum value.
455
Class Investigation
Examine the graph of y = - 3x 2 + x - 5 from the above example. Are there any solutions for the quadratic equation - 3x 2 + x - 5 = 0?
The minimum or maximum point of the parabola is called the vertex.
EXAMPLE
(a) Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the coordinates of the vertex of the parabola y = 2x 2 - 12x + 7. (b) Find the y-intercept and sketch the graph.
Solution
(a) Axis of symmetry: b x=2a - 12 =2#2 =3 When x = 3 y = 2 ] 3 g 2 - 12 ] 3 g + 7 = - 11 So the vertex is (3, -11) . (b) For y-intercept, x = 0 y = 2 ] 0 g 2 - 12 ] 0 g + 7 =7
- 11 (3, - 11) 3 x y
The vertex is the minimum point of the parabola since a 2 0.
9.1 Exercises
1. By nding the intercepts on the axes, sketch the parabola y = x 2 + 2x. Find the equation of its axis of symmetry, and the minimum value. Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the minimum value of the parabola y = 2x 2 + 6x - 3. 3. Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the minimum value of the parabola y = x 2 + 3x + 2. Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the minimum value of the parabola y = x 2 - 4.
4.
2.
456
5.
Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the minimum point of the parabola y = 4x 2 - 3x + 1. Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the maximum value of the parabola y = - x 2 + 2x - 7. Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the maximum point of the parabola y = - 2x 2 - 4x + 5. Find the minimum value of y = x 2 + 4x + 3. How many solutions does the equation x 2 + 4x + 3 = 0 have? Find the minimum value of y = x 2 + x + 4. How many solutions does the equation x 2 + x + 4 = 0 have?
6.
(c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)
f ] x g = x 2 + 4x - 3 y = x 2 - 2x f ] x g = x 2 - 4x - 7 f ] x g = 2x 2 + x - 3 y = - x 2 - 2x + 5 y = - 2x 2 + 8x + 3 f ] x g = - 3x 2 + 3x + 7 f ] x g = - x 2 + 2x - 4
7.
8.
9.
10. Find the minimum value of y = x 2 + 4x + 4. How many solutions does the equation x 2 + 4x + 4 = 0 have? 11. Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the coordinates of the vertex for each parabola. (a) y = x 2 + 6x - 3 (b) y = - x 2 - 8x + 1 (c) y = - 2x 2 + 5x (d) y = 4x 2 + 10x - 7 (e) y = 3x 2 + 18x + 4 12. Find (i) the equation of the axis of symmetry (ii) the minimum or maximum value and (iii) the vertex of the parabola. (a) y = x 2 + 2x - 2 (b) y = - 2x 2 + 4x - 1 13. Find the maximum or minimum point for each function. (a) y = x 2 + 2x + 1 (b) y = x 2 - 8x - 7
14. For each quadratic function (i) nd any x-intercepts using the quadratic formula. (ii) state whether the function has a maximum or minimum value and nd this value. (iii) sketch the function on a number plane. (a) f ] x g = x 2 + 4x + 4 (b) f ] x g = x 2 - 2x - 3 (c) y = x 2 - 6x + 1 (d) f ] x g = x 2 + 2x (e) y = 2x 2 - 18 (f) y = 3x 2 + x - 2 (g) f ] x g = - x 2 - 2x + 6 (h) f ] x g = - x 2 - x + 3 (i) y = - x 2 - 3x + 2 (j) y = - 2x 2 + 4x + 5 15. (a) Find the minimum value of the parabola y = x 2 - 2x + 5. (b) How many solutions does the quadratic equation x 2 - 2x + 5 = 0 have? (c) Sketch the parabola. 16. (a) How many x-intercepts has the quadratic function f ] x g = x 2 - 3x + 9 ? (b) Find the minimum point of the function. (c) Sketch the function. 17. (a) Find the maximum value of the quadratic function f ] x g = - 2x 2 + x - 4 . (b) How many solutions has the quadratic equation - 2x 2 + x - 4 = 0 ? (c) Sketch the graph of the quadratic function.
457
18. (a) Sketch the parabola y = x 2 - 5x + 6. (b) From the graph, nd values of x for which x 2 - 5x + 6 2 0. (c) Find the domain over which x 2 - 5x + 6 # 0 . 19. Sketch y = 3x 2 - 2x + 4 and hence show that 3x 2 - 2x + 4 2 0 for all x.
20. By sketching f ] x g = x 2 + x + 2, show that x 2 + x + 2 2 0 for all x. 21. Show by a sketch that - x 2 + 2x - 7 1 0 for all x. 22. Sketch y = - 5x 2 + 4x - 1 and show that -5x 2 + 4x - 1 1 0 for all x.
Investigation
Could you tell without sketching the function y = x 2 - x + 5 if x 2 - x + 5 2 0 for all x? How could you do this? How could you know that - x 2 + 2x - 7 1 0 for all x without sketching the graph of f ] x g = - x 2 + 2x - 7?
You will look at this later on in the chapter.
Quadratic Inequalities
You looked at solving quadratic inequations in Chapter 3 using the number line. You can also solve them using the graph of a parabola.
For any curve on a number plane y = 0 is on the x-axis (all values of y are zero on the x-axis) y 2 0 is above the x-axis (all positive values of y lie above the x-axis) y 1 0 is below the x-axis (all negative values of y lie below the x-axis)
Substituting ax 2 + bx + c for y in the general parabola y = ax 2 + bx + c gives the following results:
For the parabola y = ax 2 + bx + c ax 2 + bx + c = 0 on the x-axis ax 2 + bx + c 2 0 above the x-axis ax 2 + bx + c 1 0 below the x-axis
458
y
a20
ax2 + bx + c 2 0
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
ax 2 + bx + c 1 0
y
a10
ax 2 + bx + c 2 0
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
ax 2 + bx + c 1 0
EXAMPLES
1. Solve x 2 - 3x + 2 $ 0.
Solution
First sketch y = x 2 - 3x + 2 showing x-intercepts (a 2 0 so it is concave upwards). For x-intercepts, y = 0 0 = x 2 - 3x + 2 = ]x - 2g]x - 1g x - 2 = 0, x - 1 = 0 x = 2, x=1
459
y $ 0 on and above the x-axis So x 2 - 3x + 2 $ 0 on and above the x-axis. ` x # 1, x $ 2 2. Solve 4x - x 2 2 0.
Solution
First sketch y = 4x - x 2 showing x-intercepts (a 1 0 so it is concave downwards). For x-intercepts, y = 0 0 = 4x - x 2 = x ]4 - x g x = 0, 4-x=0 x = 0, 4=x
y
y 2 0 above the x-axis So 4x - x 2 2 0 above the x-axis. ` 0 1 x 1 4.
CONTINUED
460
3. Solve x 2 - 25 1 0.
Solution
First sketch y = x 2 - 25 showing x-intercepts (a 2 0 so it is concave upwards). For x-intercepts, y = 0 0 = x 2 - 25 = ]x + 5 g]x - 5 g x + 5 = 0, x - 5 = 0 x = - 5, x=5
y
-5
y 1 0 below the x-axis So x 2 - 25 1 0 below the x-axis. ` -5 1 x 1 5
9.2 Exercises
Solve 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. x2 - 9 2 0 n2 + n # 0 a 2 - 2a $ 0 4 - x2 1 0 y 2 - 6y # 0 6. 7. 8. 9. 2t - t 2 2 0 x 2 + 2x - 8 2 0 p 2 + 4p + 3 $ 0 m 2 - 6m + 8 2 0
10. 6 - x - x 2 # 0
461
11. 2h 2 - 7h + 6 1 0 12. x 2 - x - 20 # 0 13. 35 + 9k - 2k 2 $ 0 14. q 2 - 9q + 18 2 0 15. ] x + 2 g2 $ 0
16. 12 - n - n 2 # 0 17. x 2 - 2x 1 15 18. - t 2 $ 4t - 12 19. 3y 2 2 14y + 5 20. ] x - 3 g ] x + 1 g $ 5
The Discriminant
The values of x that satisfy a quadratic equation are called the roots of the equation. The roots of ax 2 + bx + c = 0 are the x-intercepts of the graph y = ax 2 + bx + c
1. If y = ax 2 + bx + c has 2 x-intercepts, then the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has 2 real roots.

y y
a20 x
a10 x
Since the graph can be both positive and negative, it is called an indenite function. 2. If y = ax 2 + bx + c has 1 x-intercept, then the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has 1 real root
y y
a20 x
a10 x
462
3. If y = ax 2 + bx + c has no x-intercepts, then the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has no real roots

y y
a20 x
a10 x
Since this graph is always positive, it is called a positive denite function.
Since this graph is always negative, it is called a negative denite function.
This information can be found without sketching the graph.
Investigation
1. Solve the following quadratic equations using the quadratic formula (a) x 2 - 3x + 2 = 0 (b) x 2 + 4x - 7 = 0 (c) x 2 + x + 5 = 0 (d) x 2 - 6x + 9 = 0 2. Without solving a quadratic equation, can you predict how many roots it has by looking at the quadratic formula?
b 2 - 4ac , the expression b 2 - 4ac is called 2a the discriminant. It gives us information about the roots of the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + x = 0. In the quadratic formula x =
-b !
463
EXAMPLES
Use the quadratic formula to nd how many real roots each quadratic equation has. 1. x 2 + 5x - 3 = 0
Solution
- b ! b 2 - 4ac 2a - 5 ! 5 2 - 4 #1# - 3 = 2 #1 - 5 ! 25 + 12 = 2 - 5 ! 37 = 2 There are 2 real roots: x= x= - 5 + 37 - 5 - 37 , 2 2
2. x 2 - x + 4 = 0
Solution
x= - b ! b 2 - 4ac 2a - (-1) ! (-1) 2 - 4 #1# 4 = 2 #1 1 ! -15 = 2 -15 has no real value.
There are no real roots since 3. x 2 - 2x + 1 = 0
Solution
x= - b ! b 2 - 4ac 2a - (- 2) ! (- 2) 2 - 4 #1#1 = 2 #1 2! 0 = 2
CONTINUED
464
There are 2 real roots: x= 2+ 0 2- 0 , 2 2 = 1, 1
However, these are equal roots.
Tis the Greek letter 'delta'.
Notice that when there are 2 real roots, the discriminant b 2 - 4ac 2 0. When there are 2 equal roots (or just 1 real root), b 2 - 4ac = 0. When there are no real roots, b 2 - 4ac 1 0. We often use D = b 2 - 4ac.
1. If T2 0, then the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has 2 real unequal (different) roots.

y y
a20 x
a10 x
If T is a perfect square, the roots are rational. If T is not a perfect square, the roots are irrational. 2. If T = 0, then the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has 1 real root or 2 equal roots.
y y
a20 x
a10 x
465
3. If T1 0, then the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has no real roots.

y y
a20 x
a10 x
If T1 0 and a 2 0, it is positive denite and ax 2 + bx + c 2 0 for all x.
If T1 0 and a 1 0, it is negative denite and ax 2 + bx + c 1 0 for all x.
We can examine the roots of the quadratic equation by using the discriminant rather than the whole quadratic formula.
EXAMPLES
1. Show that the equation 2x 2 + x + 4 = 0 has no real roots.
Solution
T = b 2 - 4ac = 12 - 4 ] 2 g ] 4 g = 1 - 32 = - 31 10 So the equation has no real roots. 2. Find the values of k for which the quadratic equation 5x 2 - 2x + k = 0 has real roots.
Solution
For real unequal roots, T 2 0. For real equal roots, T = 0. So for real roots, T $ 0.
CONTINUED
466
T $0 b - 4ac $ 0
2
] -2 g 2 - 4 ] 5 g ] k g $ 0
4 - 20k $ 0 4 $ 20k 1 $k 5 3. Show that x 2 - 2x + 4 2 0 for all x.
Solution
If a 2 0 and T1 0, then ax 2 + bx + c 2 0 for all x.
y
a20 x
a =1 20 T = b 2 - 4ac = ] -2 g 2 - 4 ] 1 g ] 4 g = 4 - 16 = -12 10 Since a 2 0 and T1 0, x 2 - 2x + 4 2 0 for all x. 4. Show that the line 4x + y + 4 = 0 is a tangent to the parabola y = x 2.
Solution
For the line to be a tangent, it must intersect with the curve in only 1 point.
467
y 5 4 3 2 1 x -4 -3 -2 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 1 2 3 4 5
It is too hard to tell from the graph if the line is a tangent, so we solve simultaneous equations to nd any points of intersection. y = x2 4x + y + 4 = 0 Substitute (1) into (2): 4x + x 2 + 4 = 0 x 2 + 4x + 4 = 0 We dont need to nd the roots of the equation as the question only asks how many roots there are. We nd the discriminant. D = b 2 - 4ac = 42 - 4 ] 1 g ] 4 g = 16 - 16 =0 ` the equation has 1 real root (equal roots) so there is only one point of intersection. So the line is a tangent to the parabola.
]1 g ]2 g
9.3 Exercises
1. Find the discriminant of each quadratic equation. (a) x 2 - 4x - 1 = 0 (b) 2x 2 + 3x + 7 = 0 (c) - 4x 2 + 2x - 1 = 0 (d) 6x 2 - x - 2 = 0 (e) - x 2 - 3x = 0 (f) x 2 + 4 = 0 (g) x 2 - 2x + 1 = 0 (h) -3x 2 - 2x + 5 = 0 (i) - 2x 2 + x + 2 = 0 (j) - x 2 + 4x - 4 = 0 2. Find the discriminant and state whether the roots of the quadratic equation are real or imaginary (not real), and if they are real, whether they are equal or unequal, rational or irrational.
468
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) 3.
x2 - x - 4 = 0 2x 2 + 3x + 6 = 0 x 2 - 9x + 20 = 0 x 2 + 6x + 9 = 0 2x 2 - 5x - 1 = 0 - x 2 + 2x - 5 = 0 - 2x 2 - 5x + 3 = 0 - 5x 2 + 2x - 6 = 0 -x2 + x = 0 - 2x 2 + 8x - 2 = 0
12. If x 2 - 2kx + 1 = 0 has real roots, evaluate k. 13. Find exact values of p if px 2 - 2x + 3p = 0 is negative denite. 14. Evaluate b if ] b - 2 g x 2 - 2bx + 5b = 0 has real roots. 15. Find values of p for which the quadratic equation x 2 + px + p + 3 = 0 has real roots. 16. Show that the line y = 2x + 6 cuts the parabola y = x 2 + 3 in 2 points. 17. Show that the line 3x + y - 4 = 0 cuts the parabola y = x 2 + 5x + 3 in 2 points. 18. Show that the line y = - x - 4 does not touch the parabola y = x 2. 19. Show that the line y = 5x - 2 is a tangent to the parabola y = x 2 + 3x - 1 . 20. The line y = 3x - p + 1 is a tangent to the parabola y = x 2. Evaluate p. 21. Which of these lines is a tangent to the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4? (a) 3x - y - 1 = 0 (b) 5x + y - 3 = 0 (c) 4x + 3y - 10 = 0 (d) 5x - 12y + 26 = 0 (e) 2x + y - 7 = 0
Find the value of p for which the quadratic equation x 2 + 2x + p = 0 has equal roots. Find any values of k for which the quadratic equation x 2 + kx + 1 = 0 has equal roots. Find all the values of b for which 2x 2 + x + b + 1 = 0 has real roots. Evaluate p if px 2 + 4x + 2 = 0 has no real roots. Find all values of k for which ] k + 2 g x 2 + x - 3 = 0 has 2 real unequal roots. Prove that 3x 2 - x + 7 2 0 for all real x. Find the values of k for which x 2 + ] k + 1 g x + 4 = 0 has real roots.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10. Find values of k for which the expression kx 2 + 3kx + 9 is positive denite. 11. Find the values of m for which the quadratic equation x 2 - 2mx + 9 = 0 has real and different roots.
Quadratic Identities
When you use the quadratic formula to solve an equation, you compare a quadratic, say, 3x 2 - 2x + 5 = 0 with the general quadratic ax 2 + bx + c = 0.
469
You are assuming when you do this that 3x 2 - 2x + 5 and ax 2 + bx + c are equivalent expressions. We can state this as a general rule: If two quadratic expressions are equivalent to each other then the corresponding coefcients must be equal.
If a 1 x 2 + b 1 x + c 1 / a 2 x 2 + b 2 x + c 2 for all real x then a 1 = a 2, b 1 = b 2 and c 1 = c 2
Proof
If a 1 x 2 + b 1 x + c 1 = a 2 x 2 + b 2 x + c 2 for more than two values of x, then (a 1 - a 2) x 2 + (b 1 - b 2) x + (c 1 - c 2) = 0. That is, a 1 = a 2, b 1 = b 2 and c 1 = c 2 .
EXAMPLES
1. Write 2x 2 - 3x + 5 in the form A (x - 1)2 + B (x - 1) + C.
Solution
A ] x - 1 g2 + B (x - 1) + C = A (x 2 - 2x + 1) + Bx - B + C = Ax 2 - 2Ax + A + Bx - B + C = Ax 2 + (- 2A + B) x + A - B + C 2 For 2x - 3x + 5 / Ax 2 + (- 2A + B) x + A - B + C A=2 - 2A + B = - 3 A-B+C=5 Substitute (1) into (2): - 2 ( 2) + B = - 3 - 4 + B = -3 B=1 Substitute A = 2 and B = 1 into (3): 2-1+C=5 1+C=5 C=4 ` 2x 2 - 3x + 5 / 2 (x - 1) 2 + (x - 1) + 4
( 1) (2) ( 3)
You learnt how to solve simultaneous equations with 3 unknowns in Chapter 3.
CONTINUED
470
2. Find values for a, b and c if x 2 - x / a (x + 3)2 + bx + c - 1.
Solution
a ] x + 3 g2 + bx + c - 1 = a (x 2 + 6x + 9) + bx + c - 1 = ax 2 + 6ax + 9a + bx + c - 1 = ax 2 + (6a + b) x + 9a + c - 1 2 For x - x / ax 2 + (6a + b) x + 9a + c - 1 a =1 6a + b = -1 9a + c - 1 = 0 Substitute (1) into (2): 6 (1) + b = -1 6 + b = -1 b = -7 Substitute (1) into (3): 9 (1) + c - 1 = 0 8+c=0 c = -8 ` a = 1, b = -7, c = - 8
( 1) ( 2) ( 3)
3. Find the equation of the parabola that passes through the points (-1, -3), (0, 3) and (2, 21) .
Solution
The parabola has equation in the form y = ax 2 + bx + c. Substitute the points into the equation: ^ -1, -3 h: -3 = a ] -1 g 2 + b ] -1 g + c =a-b+c ` a - b + c = -3 ^ 0, 3 h : 3 = a ]0 g2 + b ]0 g + c =c `
^ 2, 21 h:
]1 g
c =3 21 = a ] 2 g 2 + b ] 2 g + c = 4a + 2b + c
]2 g
` 4a + 2b + c = 21 Solve simultaneous equations to nd a, b and c. Substitute (2) into (1): a - b + 3 = -3 a - b = -6
]3 g
( 4)
471
Substitute (2) into (3): 4a + 2b + 3 = 21 4a + 2b = 18 (4) # 2: 2a - 2b = -12 (6) + (5): 2a - 2b = -12 4a + 2b = 18 6a =6 a=1 Substitute a = 1 into (5): 4 (1) + 2b = 18 4 + 2b = 18 2b = 14 b=7 ` a = 1, b = 7, c = 3 Thus the parabola has equation y = x 2 + 7x + 3.
(5 ) (6 )
9.4 Exercises
1. Find values of a, b and c for which (a) x 2 + 4x - 3 / a ]x + 1 g 2 + b ]x + 1 g + c (b) 2x 2 - 3x + 1 / a ]x + 2 g2 + b ]x + 2 g + c (c) x 2 - x - 2 / a ]x - 1 g2 + b ]x - 1 g + c (d) x 2 + x + 6 / a ]x - 3 g2 + b ]x - 3 g + c (e) 3x 2 - 5x - 2 / a ]x + 1 g2 + b ]x - 1 g + c (f) 4x 2 + x - 7 / a ]x - 2 g2 + b ]x - 2 g + c (g) 2x 2 + 4x - 1 / a ]x + 4 g2 + b ]x + 2 g + c (h) 3x 2 - 2x + 5 / a ] x + 1 g 2 + bx + c (i) - x 2 + 4x - 3 / a ]x + 3 g2 + b ]x + 3 g + c (j) - 2x 2 + 4x - 3 / a ]x - 1 g2 + b ]x + 1 g + c 2. Find values of m, p and q for which 2x 2 - x - 1 / m ] x + 1 g 2 + p ] x + 1 g + q. Express x 2 - 4x + 5 in the form Ax ] x - 2 g + B ] x + 1 g + C + 4. Show that x 2 + 2x + 9 can be written in the form a ]x - 2g]x + 3g + b ]x - 2g + c where a = 1, b = 1 and c = 17. Find values of A, B and C if x 2 + x - 2 / A ] x - 2 g 2 + Bx + C. Find values of a, b and c for which 3x 2 + 5x - 1 / ax ] x + 3 g + bx 2 + c ] x + 1 g . Evaluate K, L and M if x 2 / K ] x - 3 g 2 + L ] x + 1 g - 2M.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
472
8.
Express 4x 2 + 2 in the form a ] x + 5 g + b ] 2x - 3 g 2 + c - 2 .
9.
10. Find the equation of the parabola that passes through the points (a) (0, -5), (2, -3) and (-3, 7) Find the values of a, b and c if (b) (1, -2), (3, 0) and (-2, 10) 20x - 17 / a ] x - 4 g 2 - b ] 5x + 1 g + c. (c) (-2, 21), (1, 6) and (-1, 12) (d) (2, 3), (1, -4) and (-1, -12) (e) (0, 1), (-2, 1) and (2, -7)
Sum and Product of Roots

When you solve a quadratic equation, you may notice a relationship between the roots. You also used this to factorise trinomials in Chapter 2.
EXAMPLE
(a) Solve x 2 - 9x + 20 = 0. (b) Find the sum of the roots. (c) Find the product of the roots.
Solution
(a) x 2 - 9x + 20 = 0 (x - 4) (x - 5) = 0 x - 4 = 0, x - 5 = 0 ` x = 4, x=5
Notice -9 is the coefficient of x and 20 is the constant term in the equation.
(b) Sum = 4 + 5 =9 (c) Product = 4 # 5 = 20
This relationship with the sum and product of the roots works for any quadratic equation.
The general quadratic equation can be written in the form x 2 - (a + b) x + ab = 0 where a and b are the roots of the equation.
Proof
Suppose the general quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has roots a and b. Then this equation can be written in the form
473
(x - a ) (x - b) = 0 i.e. x - bx - a x + ab = 0 x 2 - (a + b) x + ab = 0
2
EXAMPLES
1. Find the quadratic equation that has roots 6 and - 1.
Solution
Method 1: Using the general formula x 2 - (a + b) x + ab = 0 where a = 6 and b = -1 a + b = 6 + -1 =5 ab = 6 # -1 = -6 Substituting into x 2 - (a + b ) x + ab = 0 gives x 2 - 5x - 6 = 0 Method 2: If 6 and -1 are the roots of the equation then it can be written as ]x - 6 g]x + 1 g = 0 x 2 + x - 6x - 6 = 0 x 2 - 5x - 6 = 0 2. Find the quadratic equation that has roots 3 + 2 and 3 - 2 .
It doesnt matter which way around we name these roots.
Solution
Method 1: Using the general formula a+b=3+ 2+3- 2 =6 ab = (3 + 2 ) # (3 - 2 ) = 3 2 - ( 2 )2 =9-2 =7 Substituting into x 2 - (a + b ) x + ab = 0 gives x 2 - 6x + 7 = 0 Method 2: If 3 + 2 and 3 - 2 are the roots of the equation then it can be written as _x - "3 + 2 ,i_x - "3 - 2 ,i = 0 ^x - 3 - 2 h^x - 3 + 2 h = 0 x 2 - 3x + 2 x - 3x + 9 - 3 2 - 2 x + 3 2 - 2 = 0 x 2 - 6x + 7 = 0
474
We can nd a more general relationship between the sum and product of roots of a quadratic equation.
If a and b are the roots of the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0: b Sum of roots: a + b = - a c Product of roots: ab = a
Proof
If an equation has roots a and b, it can be written as x 2 - (a + b )x + ab = 0. But we know that a and b are the roots of the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0. Using quadratic identities, we can compare the two forms of the equation. ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ax 2 bx c 0 a + a +a=a c b x2 + a x + a = 0 c b For x 2 - (a + b ) x + ab / x 2 + a x + a b - (a + b ) = a b ` a + b = -a c Also ab = a
EXAMPLES
1. Find (a) a + b (b) ab (c) a2 + b2 if a and b are the roots of 2x 2 - 6x + 1 = 0.
Solution
b (a) a + b = - a ==3 (-6) 2
475
c (b) ab = a 1 = 2 (c) a 2 + b 2 ! (a + b ) 2
^ a + b h2 = a 2 + 2ab + b2 ^ a + b h2 - 2ab = a 2 + b2
] 3 g 2 - 2 c 1 m = a2 + b2 2 9 - 1 = a 2 + b2
8 = a 2 + b2 2. Find the value of k if one root of kx 2 -7x + k + 1 = 0 is - 2.
Solution
If - 2 is a root of the equation then x = -2 satises the equation. Substitute x = - 2 into the equation: k ] -2 g 2 - 7 ] -2 g + k + 1 = 0 4k + 14 + k + 1 = 0 5k + 15 = 0 5k = - 15 k = -3 3. Evaluate p if one root of x 2 + 2x - 5p = 0 is double the other root.
Solution
If one root is a then the other root is 2a . Sum of roots: b a + b = -a a + 2a = 2 1 3a = - 2 2 a=3
CONTINUED
You could use b and 2b instead.
476
Product of roots: c ab = a - 5p a # 2a = 1 2 2a = - 5p 2 2 2 c - m = - 5p 3 4 2 c m = - 5p 9 8 = - 5p 9 8 =p 45
9.5 Exercises
1. Find a + b and ab if a and b are the roots of (a) x 2 + 2x + 1 = 0 (b) 2x 2 - 3x - 6 = 0 (c) 5x 2 - x - 9 = 0 (d) x 2 + 7x + 1 = 0 (e) 3y 2 - 8y + 3 = 0 If a and b are the roots of the quadratic equation x 2 - 3x - 6 = 0, nd the value of (a) a + b (b) ab 1 1 + (c) a b (d) a2 + b2 3. Find the quadratic equation whose roots are (a) 2 and - 5 (b) - 3 and 7 (c) - 1 and - 4 (d) 4 + 5 and 4 - 5 (e) 1 + 2 7 and 1 - 2 7 8. 4. Find the value of m in x 2 + 2mx - 6 = 0 if one of the roots is 2. If one of the roots of the quadratic equation 2x 2 - 5x + k - 1 = 0 is - 3, nd the value of k. One root of 3x 2 - 2 (3b + 1) x + 4b = 0 is 8. Find the value of b. In the quadratic equation 2x 2 - 3x + k = 0, one root is double the other. Find the value of k. In the quadratic equation x 2 - 8x + p - 1 = 0, one root is triple the other. Find the value of p. In the quadratic equation (k - 2) x 2 + 50x + 2k + 3 = 0, the roots are reciprocals of each other. Find the value of k.
5.
2.
6.
7.
9.
Reciprocals are n and
1 . n
477
10. In the quadratic equation x 2 + mx + 2 = 0, the roots are consecutive. Find the values of m. 11. In the quadratic equation - 3x 2 - (k + 1) x + 5 = 0, the roots are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. Find the value of k. 12. Find values of n in the equation 2x 2 - 5(n - 1) x + 12 = 0 if the two roots are consecutive. 13. If the sum of the roots of x 2 + px + r = 0 is - 2 and the product of roots is - 7, nd the values of p and r. 14. One root of the quadratic equation x 2 + bx + c = 0 is 4 and the product of the roots is 8. Find the values of b and c. 15. The roots of the quadratic equation x 2 + 4x - a = 0 are b + 1 and b - 3. Find the values of a and b. 16. Show that the roots of the quadratic equation 3mx 2 + 2x + 3m = 0 are always reciprocals of one another.
17. Find values of k in the equation k +1 m = 0 if: x 2 + (k + 1 ) x + c 4 (a) roots are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign (b) roots are equal (c) one root is 1 (d) roots are reciprocals of one another (e) roots are real. 18. Find exact values of p in the equation x 2 + px + 3 = 0 if (a) the roots are equal (b) it has real roots (c) one root is double the other. 19. Find values of k in the equation x 2 + kx + k - 1 = 0 if (a) the roots are equal (b) one root is 4 (c) the roots are reciprocals of one another. 20. Find values of m in the equation mx 2 + x + m - 3 = 0 if (a) one root is -2 (b) it has no real roots (c) the product of the roots is 2.
Consecutive numbers are numbers that follow each other in order, such as 3 and 4.
Equations Reducible to Quadratics

To solve a quadratic equation such as ] x - 3 g 2 - ] x - 3 g - 2 = 0, you could expand the brackets and then solve the equation. However, in this section you will learn a different way to solve this. There are other equations that do not look like quadratic equations that can also be solved this way.
478
EXAMPLES
1. Solve ] x + 2 g 2 - 3 ] x + 2 g - 4 = 0.
Solution
Let
2
u=x+2 =0 =0 =0 = -1
Then u - 3u - 4 ]u - 4 g]u + 1 g u - 4 = 0, u + 1 u = 4, u But u=x+2 So x + 2 = 4, x = 2,
x + 2 = -1 x = -3
2 2. Solve x + x = 3 where x ! 0.
Solution
2 x+ x =3 2 x#x+x#x =3#x x 2 + 2 = 3x x 2 - 3x + 2 = 0 ]x - 2 g]x - 1 g = 0 x - 2 = 0, x - 1 = 0 x = 2, x=1 3. Solve 9 x - 4.3 x + 3 = 0.
Solution
x 2 9x = ^ 32 h = ^ 3x h So 9 x - 4.3 x + 3 = 0 can be written as ^ 3 x h2 - 4.3 x + 3 = 0 Let k = 3x
k 2 - 4k + 3 = 0 ]k - 3 g]k - 1 g = 0 k - 3 = 0, k - 1 = 0 k = 1, k=3 But k = 3 x So 3 x = 1, x = 0, 3x = 3 x=1
479
4. Solve 2 sin 2 x + sin x - 1 = 0 for 0c # x # 360c.
Solution
Let
2
sin x = u
Then 2u + u - 1 = 0 ] 2u - 1 g ] u + 1 g = 0 2u - 1 = 0 or u + 1 = 0 u = -1 2u = 1 u= 1 2
30c 2 3
But u = sin x 1 So sin x = or sin x = -1 2 1 sin x = has solutions in the 1st and 2nd quadrants 2 1 sin 30c = 2 So x = 30c, 180c - 30c = 30c, 150c For sin x = - 1, we use the graph of y = sin x
y
60 0 c
See Chapter 6 if you have forgotten how to solve a trigonometric equation.
90c -1
180c
270c
360c
From the graph: x = 270c So solutions to 2 sin 2 x + sin x - 1 = 0 are x = 30c, 150c, 270c
480
9.6 Exercises
1. Solve (a) ] x - 1 g 2 + 7 ] x - 1 g + 10 = 0 (b) ^ y - 3 h 2 - ^ y - 3 h - 2 = 0 (c) ] x + 2 g 2 - 2 ] x + 2 g - 8 = 0 (d) ] n - 5 g 2 + 7 ] n - 5 g + 6 = 0 (e) ] a - 4 g 2 + 6 ] a - 4 g - 7 = 0 (f) ^ p + 1 h 2 - 9 ^ p + 1 h + 20 = 0 (g) ] x + 3 g 2 - 4 ] x + 3 g - 5 = 0 (h) ] k - 8 g 2 - ] k - 8 g - 12 = 0 (i) ] t - 2 g 2 + 2 ] t - 2 g - 24 = 0 (j) ] b + 9 g 2 - 2 ] b + 9 g - 15 = 0 Solve (x ! 0) . 6 (a) x - x = 1 6 (b) x + x = 5 20 (c) x + x - 9 = 0 15 (d) x + x = 8 12 (e) 2x + x = 11 (c) 5 2x - 5 x - 20 = 0 (d) 9 x + 3 x - 12 = 0 (e) 4 x - 10.2 x + 16 = 0 5. Solve x 2 + 4 = 5 (x ! 0 ) . x2
6.
1 2 1 Solve b x + x l + b x + x l - 2 = 0 (x ! 0) . Solve 1 2 1 n - 9 d x 2 + 2 n + 20 = 0 x2 x correct to 2 decimal places (x ! 0) .
7.
2.
d x2 +
8.
3.
Solve (a) x 4 - 7x 2 - 18 = 0 9. (b) y 4 - 6y 2 + 8 = 0, giving exact values 2 (c) ^ x 2 - x h + ^ x 2 - x h - 2 = 0 giving exact values (d) ^ x 2 + 3x -1 h2 - 7 ^ x 2 + 3x -1 h +10 = 0 correct to 2 decimal places 10. 2 (e) ^ a 2 + 4a h + 2 ^ a 2 + 4a h - 8 = 0 giving exact values. Solve (a) 2 2x - 9.2 x + 8 = 0 (b) 3 2p + 3 p - 12 = 0
Solve for 0c # x # 360c. (a) sin 2 x - sin x = 0 (b) cos 2 x + cos x = 0 (c) 2 sin 2 x - sin x - 1 = 0 (d) 2 cos 2 x = cos x (e) sin x = cos 2 x - 1 Solve for 0c # x # 360c. (a) tan 2 x - tan x = 0 (b) cos 2 x - 1 = 0 (c) 2 sin 2 x - sin x = 0 (d) 8 sin 4 x - 10 sin 2 x + 3 = 0 (e) 3 tan 4 x - 10 tan 2 x + 3 = 0 Show that the equation 2 x+3+ = 5 has 2 real x+3 irrational roots (x ! - 3) .
4.
481
Test Yourself 9
1. Solve (a) x 2 - 3x # 0 (b) n 2 - 9 2 0 (c) 4 - y 2 $ 0 Evaluate a, b and c if 2x 2 - 5x + 7 = 2a(x + 1) 2 + b (x + 1) + c. Find (a) the equation of the axis of symmetry and (b) the minimum value of the parabola y = x 2 - 4x + 1. Show that y = x 2 - 2x + 7 is a positive denite quadratic function. If a and b are roots of the quadratic equation x 2 - 6x + 3 = 0, nd (a) a + b (b) ab 1 1 + (c) a b (d) ab2 + a 2 b (e) a 2 + b2 Solve (3x - 2) 2 - 2 (3x - 2) - 3 = 0. Describe the roots of each quadratic equation as (i) real, different and rational (ii) real, different and irrational (iii) equal or (iv) unreal. (a) 2x 2 - x + 3 = 0 (b) x 2 - 10x - 25 = 0 (c) x 2 - 10x + 25 = 0 (d) 3x 2 + 7x - 2 = 0 (e) 6x 2 - x - 2 = 0 Show that - 4 + 3x - x 2 1 0 for all x. 9. Find (a) the equation of the axis of symmetry and (b) the maximum value of the quadratic function y = - 2x 2 - x + 6.
2.
3.
10. Write 3x 2 + 7 in the form a (x - 2) 2 + b (x + 3) + c. 11. Solve 2 sin 2 x + sin x - 1 = 0 for 0c # x # 360c. 12. Find the value of k in x 2 + 3x + k - 1 = 0 if the quadratic equation has (a) equal roots (b) one root - 3 (c) one root double the other (d) consecutive roots (e) reciprocal roots. 3 13. Solve 2x = 5 + x (x ! 0) .
4.
5.
14. Find values of m such that mx 2 + 3x - 4 1 0 for all x. 15. Solve 5 2x - 26.5 x + 25 = 0. 16. For each set of graphs, state whether they have (i) 2 points (ii) 1 point (iii) no points of intersection. (a) xy = 7 and 3x - 5y - 1 = 0 (b) x 2 + y 2 = 9 and y = 3x - 3 (c) x 2 + y 2 = 1 and x - 2y - 3 = 0 2 (d) y = x and y = 3x + 1 (e) y = x 2 and y = 4x - 4
6. 7.
8.
482
17. State if each quadratic function is (i) indenite (ii) positive denite or (iii) negative denite. (a)
(d)
18. Show that kx 2 - px + k = 0 has reciprocal roots for all x. (b) 19. Find the quadratic equation that has roots (a) 4 and - 7 (b) 5 + 7 and 5 - 7 20. Solve 2 2x - 10.2 x + 16 = 0.
(c)
1. Show that the quadratic equation 2x 2 - kx + k - 2 = 0 has real rational roots. Find the equation of a quadratic function that passes through the points (- 2, 18), (3, - 2) and (1, 0) . Find the value of a, b and c if x 2 + 5x - 3 / ax (x + 1) + b (x + 1)2 + cx. 4. 5. 2. Solve x 2 + 1 + 25 = 10. x2 + 1
Find the maximum value of the function f (x) = - 2x 2 - 4x + 9. Find the value of n for which the equation (n + 2) x 2 + 3x - 5 = 0 has one root triple the other.
6.
3.
483
7.
Find the values of p for which x 2 - x + 3p - 2 2 0 for all x. Show that the quadratic equation x 2 - 2px + p 2 = 0 has equal roots. Solve 2 2x + 1 - 5.2 x + 2 = 0.
12. Find exact values of k for which x 2 + 2kx + k + 5 = 0 has real roots. 13. Solve 3 - 2 cos 2 x - 3 sin x = 0 for 0c # x # 360c. 1 2 1 14. Solve b x + x l - 5 b x + x l + 6 = 0. 15. Solve 2 sin 2 x + cos x - 2 = 0 for 0c # x # 360c. 16. If a and b are the roots of the quadratic equation 2x 2 + 4x - 5 = 0, evaluate a 3 + b 3.
8.
9.
10. Find values of A, B and C if 4x 2 - 3x + 7 / (Ax + 4)2 + B (x + 4) + C. 11. Express 4x + 1 in the form x -x-2 a b + . x-2 x+1
2
10
Locus and the Parabola
TERMINOLOGY
Axis: A line around which a curve is reflected e.g. the axis of symmetry of a parabola Chord: An interval joining any two points on a curve. In this chapter, any two points on a parabola Circle: The locus of a point moving so that it is equidistant from a fixed point on a plane surface Directrix: A fixed line from which all points equidistant from this line and a fixed point called the focus form a parabola Focal chord: A chord that passes through the focus Focal length: The distance between the focus and the vertex of a parabola or the shortest distance between the vertex and the directrix Focus: A fixed point from which all points equidistant from this point and the directrix form a parabola Latus rectum: A focal chord that is perpendicular to the axis of the parabola Locus: The path traced out by a point that moves according to a particular pattern or rule. Locus can be described algebraically or geometrically Parabola: The locus of a point moving so that it is equidistant from a fixed point called the focus and a fixed line called the directrix Tangent: A straight line that touches a curve at a single point only Vertex: The turning point (maximum or minimum point) of a parabola. It is the point where the parabola meets the axis of symmetry
Chapter 10 Locus and the Parabola
485
INTRODUCTION
THIS CHAPTER EXPANDS THE work on functions that you have already learned.
It shows a method of nding the equation of a locus. In particular, you will study the circle and the parabola, dened as a locus.
Circle
DID YOU KNOW?

Locus problems have been studied since very early times. Apollonius of Perga (262190 BC), a contemporary (and rival) of Archimedes, studied the locus of various figures. In his Plane Loci, he described the locus points whose ratio from two fixed points is constant. This locus is called the Circle of Apollonius. 2 Apollonius also used the equation y = lx for the parabola. Ren Descartes (15961650) was another mathematician who tried to solve locus problems. His study of these led him to develop analytical (coordinate) geometry.
Locus
A relation can be described in two different ways. It can be a set of points that obey certain conditions, or a single point that moves along a path according to certain conditions. A locus is the term used to describe the path of a single moving point that obeys certain conditions.
486
EXAMPLES
Describe the locus of the following. 1. A pencil on the end of compasses.
Solution
The path of the pencil is a circle with centre at the point of the compasses.
2. A person going up an escalator (standing still on one step).
What would the locus be if the person walks up the escalator?
Solution
The body travels along a straight line parallel to the escalator.
3. A doorknob on a closing door.
487
Solution
If the door could swing right around it would follow a circle. So a door closing swings through an arc of a circle.
4. A point on the number line that is 3 units from 0.
Solution
The locus is !3. 5. A point in the number plane that moves so that it is always 3 units from the y-axis.
Solution
The locus is 2 vertical lines with equations x = !3.
Class Discussion
Describe the path of a person abseiling down a cliff.
10.1 Exercises
Describe the locus of the following: 1. a racing car driving around a track a person climbing a ladder a child on a swing 4. 5. a balls ight when thrown a person driving up to the 5th oor of a car park
2. 3.
488
6.
a point that moves along the number line such that it is always less than 2 units from 0 a point on the number plane that moves so that it is always 2 units from the origin a point that moves so that it is always 1 unit from the x-axis a point that moves so that it is always 5 units from the y-axis
13. a point that is always 5 units below the x-axis 14. a point that is always 3 units away from the point (1, 1) 15. a point that is always 7 units to the left of the y-axis 16. a point that is always 3 units to the right of the y-axis 17. a point that is always 8 units from the x-axis 18. a point that is always 4 units from the y-axis 19. a point that is always 6 units from the point (- 2, 4) 20. a point that is always 1 unit from the point (- 4, 5).
7.
8.
9.
10. a point that moves so that it is always 2 units above the x-axis 11. a point that moves so that it is always 1 unit from the origin 12. a point that moves so that it is always 4 units from the point ^ 1, - 2 h
A locus describes a single point P ^ x, y h that moves along a certain path. The equation of a locus can often be found by using P ^ x, y h together with the information given about the locus.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the locus of a point P ^ x, y h that moves so that it is always 3 units from the origin.
Solution
You may recognise this locus as a circle, centre ^ 0, 0 h radius 3 units. Its equation is given by x 2 + y 2 = 9. Alternatively, use the distance formula. d=
2 2 _ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
You studied this formula in 2 Chapter 7. It is easier to use d than d to find the equation of the locus.
or d 2 = _ x 2 - x 1 i2 + _ y 2 - y 1 i2
489
Let P ^ x, y h be a point of the locus. We want PO = 3 i.e. PO 2 = 9 ^x - 0h2+ ^y - 0h2 = 9 x2 + y2 = 9 2. Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that moves so that distance PA to distance PB is in the ratio 2:1 where A = ^ - 3, 1 h and B = ^ 2, - 2 h .
Place P anywhere on the number plane.
Solution
Let P ^ x, y h be a point of the locus. PA : PB = 2:1 i.e. ` i.e. 2 PA = PB 1 PA = 2PB PA 2 = ] 2PB g 2 = 4PB 2
Use the distance formula as in Example 1.
[x - ^ - 3 h] 2 + ^ y - 1 h2 = 4 $ ^ x - 2 h 2 + [y - ^ - 2 h] 2 . ^ x + 3 h 2 + ^ y - 1 h2 = 4 [^ x - 2 h 2 + ^ y + 2 h 2 ] 2 x + 6x + 9 + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 4 ^ x 2 - 4x + 4 + y 2 + 4x + 4 h = 4x 2 - 16x + 16 + 4y 2 + 16y + 16 0 = 3x 2 - 22x + 3y 2 + 18y + 22 or 3x 2 - 22x + 3y 2 + 18y + 22 = 0
This is the equation of a circle.
3. Find the equation of the locus of a point P ^ x, y h that moves so that the line PA is perpendicular to line PB, where A = ^ 1, 2 h and B = ^ - 3, -1 h .
CONTINUED
490
Solution
Let P ^ x, y h be a point of the locus. For perpendicular lines, m 1 m 2 = -1 y2 - y1 Using m = x - x 2 1 y-2 PA: m 1 = x -1 y - ] -1 g PB: m 2 = x - ]-3g y +1 = x+3 For PA perpendicular to PB y - 2 y +1 # = -1 x -1 x + 3 y2 - y - 2 = -1 x 2 + 2x - 3 y 2 - y - 2 = - ^ x 2 + 2x - 3 h = - x 2 - 2x + 3 i.e. x 2 + 2x + y 2 - y - 5 = 0 4. Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that is equidistant from xed point A ^ 1, - 2 h and xed line with equation y = 5.
These results come from Chapter 7.
The locus is a circle with diameter AB.
Solution
Let P ^ x, y h be a point of the locus. B has coordinates ^ x, 5 h . We want PA = PB PA 2 = PB 2 ^ x - 1 h + [ y - ^ - 2 h] 2 = ^ x - x h 2 + ^ y - 5 h 2 ^x - 1h2+ ^y + 2h2 = ^y - 5h2 x 2 - 2x + 1 + y 2 + 4y + 4 = y 2 - 10y + 25 x 2 - 2x + 14y - 20 = 0 i.e.
2
This is the equation of a parabola. Can you see where the parabola lies?
491
10.2 Exercises
1. Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that moves so that it is always 1 unit from the origin. Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that moves so that it is always 9 units from the point ^ -1, -1 h . Find the equation of the locus of a point that moves so that it is always 2 units from the point ^ 5, - 2 h . Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that moves so that it is equidistant from the points ^ 3, 2 h and ^ -1, 5 h . Find the equation of the locus of a point that moves so that it is equidistant from the points ^ - 4, 6 h and ^ 2, -7 h . Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that moves so that it is equidistant from the x-axis and the y-axis. Find the equation of the locus of a point P that moves so that PA is twice the distance of PB where A = ^ 0, 3 h and B = ^ 4, 7 h . Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that moves so that the ratio of PA to PB is 3:2 where A = ^ - 6, 5 h and B = ^ 3, -1 h . Find the equation of the locus of a point that moves so that it is equidistant from the point ^ 2, - 3 h and the line y = 7. 11. Find the equation of the locus of a point that moves so that it is equidistant from the point ^ 2, 0 h and the line x = 6. 12. Find the equation of the locus of a point that moves so that it is equidistant from the point ^ 1, -1 h and the line y = 3. 13. Find the equation of the locus of a point that moves so that it is equidistant from the point ^ 0, - 3 h and the line y = 3. 14. Find the equation of the locus of a point P ^ x, y h that moves so that the line PA is perpendicular to line PB where A = ^ 1, - 3 h and B = ^ 4, 5 h . 15. Find the equation of the locus of a point P ^ x, y h that moves so that the line PA is perpendicular to line PB, where A = ^ - 4, 0 h and B = ^ 1, 1 h . 16. Find the equation of the locus of a point P ^ x, y h that moves so that the line PA is perpendicular to line PB where A = ^ 1, 5 h and B = ^ - 2, - 3 h . 17. Point P moves so that PA 2 + PB 2 = 4 where A = ^ 3, -1 h and B = ^ - 5, 4 h . Find the equation of the locus of P. 18. Point P moves so that PA 2 + PB 2 = 12 where A = ^ - 2, - 5 h and B = ^ 1, 3 h . Find the equation of the locus of P. 19. Find the equation of the locus of a point that moves so that its distance from the line 3x + 4y + 5 = 0 is always 4 units.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10. Find the equation of the locus of a point that moves so that it is equidistant from the point ^ 0, 5 h and the line y = - 5.
492
20. Find the equation of the locus of a point that moves so that its distance from the line 12x - 5y - 1 = 0 is always 1 unit. 21. Find the equation, in exact form, of the locus of a point that moves so that its distance from the line x - 2y - 3 = 0 is always 5 units. 22. Find the equation of the locus of a point that moves so that it is equidistant from the line 4x - 3y + 2 = 0 and the line 3x + 4y - 7 = 0.
23. Find the equation of the locus of a point that moves so that it is equidistant from the line 3x + 4y - 5 = 0 and the line 5x + 12y - 1 = 0. 24. Given two points A ^ 3, - 2 h and B ^ -1, 7 h, nd the equation of the locus of P ^ x, y h if the gradient of PA is twice the gradient of PB. 25. If R is the xed point ^ 3, 2 h and P is a movable point ^ x, y h, nd the equation of the locus of P if the distance PR is twice the distance from P to the line y = -1.
PROBLEM
Can you see 2 mistakes in the solution to this question? Find the locus of point P ^ x, y h that moves so that its perpendicular distance from the line 12x + 5y - 1 = 0 is always 3 units.
Solution
Let P ^ x, y h be a point of the locus. d= 3= = = | ax 1 + by 1 + c | a2 + b2 | 5x + 12y - 1| 5 2 + 12 2 | 5x + 12y - 1| 25 + 144 | 5x + 12y - 1|
169 | 5x + 12y - 1| = 13 ` 39 = 5x + 12y - 1 0 = 5x + 12y - 40 Can you nd the correct locus?
493
Circle as a Locus
The locus of point P (x, y) that is always a constant distance from a xed point is a circle.
The circle, centre ^ 0, 0 h and radius r, has the equation x2 + y2 = r2
Proof
Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that is always r units from the origin.
Let P ^ x, y h be a point of the locus. OP = r i.e. OP 2 = r 2 2 ^ x - 0 h + ^ y - 0 h 2 = r2 x2 + y2 = r2 So x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is the equation of the locus. It describes a circle with radius r and centre ^ 0, 0 h .
The circle, centre ^ a, b h and radius r, has the equation ^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - b h 2 = r2
Proof
Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that is always r units from point A ^ a, b h .
494
Let P ^ x, y h be a point of the locus. AP = r i.e. AP 2 = r 2 ^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - b h 2 = r2 So ] x - a g2 + ^ y - b h2 = r 2 is the equation of the locus. It describes a circle with radius r and centre ^ a, b h .
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the locus of a point that is always 2 units from the point ^ -1, 0 h .
Solution
This is a circle with radius 2 and centre ^ -1, 0 h . Its equation is in the form ^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - b h 2 = r2 i.e. [x - ^ -1 h] 2 + ^ y - 0 h 2 = 2 2 ^ x + 1 h 2 + y2 = 4 x 2 + 2x + 1 + y 2 = 4 x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 3 = 0 2. Find the radius and the coordinates of the centre of the circle x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 6y - 15 = 0.
You could find this equation by using P (x, y) and treating the question as a locus problem.
Solution
You learned how to complete the square in Chapter 3.
We put the equation into the form ^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - b h 2 = r 2 . To do this we complete the square. b 2 In general, to complete the square on x 2 + bx, add c m to give: 2 b 2 b 2 x 2 + bx + c m = c x + m 2 2 First we move any constants to the other side of the equation, then complete the square. 2 2 To complete the square on x 2 + 2x, we add c m = 1. 2
495
6 2 To complete the square on y 2 - 6y, we add c m = 9. 2 x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 6y - 15 = 0 x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 6y = 15 2 x + 2x + 1 + y 2 - 6y + 9 = 15 + 1 + 9 ^ x + 1 h 2 + ^ y - 3 h 2 = 25 ^ x - ] - 1 g h 2 + ^ y - 3 h 2 = 52 The equation is in the form ^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - b h 2 = r 2 . This is a circle, centre ^ -1, 3 h and radius 5.
10.3 Exercises
1. Find the length of the radius and the coordinates of the centre of each circle. (a) x 2 + y 2 = 100 (b) x 2 + y 2 = 5 (c) ^ x - 4 h 2 + ^ y - 5 h 2 = 16 (d) ^ x - 5 h 2 + ^ y + 6 h 2 = 49 (e) x 2 + ^ y - 3 h2 = 81 Find the equation of each circle in expanded form (without grouping symbols). (a) Centre (0, 0) and radius 4 (b) Centre (3, 2) and radius 5 (c) Centre ^ -1, 5 h and radius 3 (d) Centre (2, 3) and radius 6 (e) Centre ^ - 4, 2 h and radius 5 (f) Centre ^ 0, - 2 h and radius 1 (g) Centre (4, 2) and radius 7 (h) Centre ^ - 3, - 4 h and radius 9 (i) Centre ^ - 2, 0 h and radius 5 (j) Centre ^ - 4, -7 h and radius 3 . Find the equation of the locus of a point moving so that it is 1 unit from the point ^ 9, - 4 h . Find the equation of the locus of a point moving so that it is 4 units from the point ^ - 2, - 2 h . 5. Find the equation of the locus of a point moving so that it is 7 units from the point ^ 1, 0 h . Find the equation of the locus of a point moving so that it is 2 units from the point ^ - 3, 8 h . Find the equation of the locus of a point moving so that it is 2 units from the point ^ 5, - 2 h . Find the equation of a circle with centre ^ 0, 0 h and radius 3 units. Find the equation of a circle with centre ^ 1, 5 h and radius 1 unit.
6.
7.
2.
8.
9.
10. Find the equation of a circle with centre ^ - 6, 1 h and radius 6 units. 11. Find the equation of a circle with centre ^ 4, 3 h and radius 3 units. 12. Find the equation of a circle with centre ^ 0, - 3 h and radius 2 2 units. 13. Find the coordinates of the centre and the length of the radius of each circle. (a) x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 2y - 4 = 0 (b) x 2 + 8x + y 2 - 4y - 5 = 0 (c) x 2 + y 2 - 2y = 0
3.
4.
496
(d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)
x2 x2 + x2 x2 + x2 + x2 x2 +
10x + y 2 + 6y - 2 = 0 2x + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 0 12x + y 2 = 0 6x + y 2 - 8y = 0 20x + y 2 - 4y + 40 = 0 14x + y 2 + 2y + 25 = 0 2x + y 2 + 4y - 5 = 0
23. Find the exact length of AB where A and B are the centres of the circles x 2 - 6x + y 2 = 0 and x 2 + 4x + y 2 + 6y - 3 = 0 respectively. 24. (a) Find the length of XY where X and Y are the centres of the circles x 2 + 6x + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 0 and x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 0 respectively. (b) Find the radius of each circle. (c) What conclusion can you draw from the results for (a) and (b)? 25. Show that the circles x 2 + y 2 = 4 and x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 4y - 4 = 0 both have 3x + 4y + 10 = 0 as a tangent. 26. A circle has centre C ^ -1, 3 h and radius 5 units. (a) Find the equation of the circle. (b) The line 3x - y + 1 = 0 meets the circle at two points. Find their coordinates. (c) Let the coordinates be X and Y, where Y is the coordinate directly below the centre C. Find the coordinates of point Z, where YZ is a diameter of the circle. (d) Hence show +ZXY = 90c. 27. (a) Find the perpendicular distance from P ^ 2, - 5 h to the line 5x + 12y - 2 = 0. (b) Hence nd the equation of the circle with centre P and tangent 5x + 12y - 2 = 0.
14. Find the centre and radius of the circle with equation given by x 2 - 6x + y 2 + 2y - 6 = 0. 15. Find the centre and radius of the circle with equation given by x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 10y + 4 = 0. 16. Find the centre and radius of the circle with equation given by x 2 + 2x + y 2 + 12y - 12 = 0. 17. Find the centre and radius of the circle with equation given by x 2 - 8x + y 2 - 14y + 1 = 0. 18. Find the centre and radius of the circle with equation given by x 2 + 3x + y 2 - 2y - 3 = 0. 19. Sketch the circle whose equation is given by x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 0. 20. Prove that the line 3x + 4y + 21 = 0 is a tangent to the circle x 2 - 8x + y 2 + 4y - 5 = 0. 21. (a) Show that x 2 - 2x + y 2 + 4y + 1 = 0 and x 2 - 2x + y 2 + 4y - 4 = 0 are concentric. (b) Find the difference between their radii. 22. Given two points A ^ 2, - 5 h and B ^ - 4, 3 h, nd the equation of the circle with diameter AB.
Concentric circles have the same centre.
497
Parabola as a Locus
The locus of a point that is equidistant from a xed point and a xed line is always a parabola. The xed point is called the focus and the xed line is called the directrix.
Work on the parabola as a locus is very important, as the properties of the parabola are useful to us. The parabola is used in lenses of glasses and cameras, in car headlights, and for bridges and radio telescope dishes.
DID YOU KNOW?

Any rope or chain supporting a load (e.g. a suspension bridge) is in the shape of a parabola. Find some examples of suspension bridges that have a parabola shaped chain. Other bridges have ropes or chains hanging freely. These are not in the shape of a parabola, but are in a shape called a catenary. Can you find some bridges with this shape? More recent bridges are cable-stayed, where ropes or chains are attached to towers, or pylons, and fan out along the sides of the bridge. An example is the Anzac Bridge in Sydney. There are many different bridge designs. One famous bridge in Australia is the Sydney Harbour Bridge. Research different bridge designs and see if you can find some with parabolic shapes.
Parabola with vertex at the origin

Just as the circle has a special equation when its centre is at the origin, the parabola has a special equation when its vertex is at the origin. Both also have a more general formula.
498
The locus of a point that is equidistant from a xed point and a xed line is always in the shape of a parabola. If the xed point is (0, a) and the xed line is y = - a (where a 2 0), then one of the equidistant points is the origin (0, 0). The distance between the points (0, 0) and (0, a) is a units. The point on y = - a directly below the origin is ^ 0, - a h and the distance from (0, 0) to ^ 0, - a h is also a units.
y
(0, a) a x a (0, - a) y =- a
To nd the equation of the parabola, we use the general process to nd the equation of any locus. The features of the parabola have special names.
A parabola is equidistant from a xed point and a xed line. The xed point is called the focus. The xed line is called the directrix. The turning point of the parabola is called the vertex. The axis of symmetry of the parabola is called its axis. The distance between the vertex and the focus is called the focal length. An interval joining any two points on the parabola is called a chord. A chord that passes through the focus is called a focal chord. The focal chord that is perpendicular to the axis is called the latus rectum. A tangent is a straight line that touches the parabola at a single point.
499
PARABOLA x 2 = 4 ay The locus of point P ^ x, y h moving so that it is equidistant from the point ^ 0, a h and the line y = - a is a parabola with equation x 2 = 4ay
Proof
Let P ^ x, y h be a point of the locus. Taking the perpendicular distance from P to the line y = - a, point B = ^ x, - a h . PA = PB ` PA 2 = PB 2 ^ x - 0 h 2 + ^ y - a h 2 = ^ x - x h 2 + [y - ^ - a h] 2 x2 + ^ y - a h 2 = ^ y + a h 2 x 2 + y 2 - 2ay + a 2 = y 2 + 2ay + a 2 x 2 = 4ay
The parabola x 2 = 4ay has focus at ^ 0, a h directrix with equation y = - a vertex at ^ 0, 0 h axis with equation x = 0 focal length the distance from the vertex to the focus with length a latus rectum that is a horizontal focal chord with length 4a
Since the focal length is a, a is always a positive number.
Class Investigation
Find the equation of the locus if point P ^ x, y h is equidistant from ^ 0, - a h and y = a.
500
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus has coordinates ^ 0, 2 h and whose directrix has equation y = - 2.
Solution
The focus has coordinates in the form ^ 0, a h and the directrix has equation in the form y = - a, where a = 2. ` the parabola is in the form x 2 = 4ay where a = 2 i.e. x 2 = 4 (2) y x 2 = 8y 2. (a) Find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix of the parabola x 2 = 20y. (b) Find the points on the parabola at the endpoints of the latus rectum and nd its length.
Solution
(a) The parabola x 2 = 20y is in the form x 2 = 4ay 4a = 20 ` a=5 The focal length is 5 units. We can nd the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix in two ways. Method 1: Draw the graph x 2 = 20y and count 5 units up and down from the origin as shown.
y x2 = 20y (0, 5) 5 x 5 (0, -5) y = -5
The focus is (0, 5) and the directrix has equation y = -5.
501
Method 2: The focus is in the form (0, a) where a = 5. So the focus is (0, 5). The directrix is in the form y = - a where a = 5. So the directrix is y = - 5. (b) The latus rectum is a focal chord that is perpendicular to the axis of the parabola as shown
y x2 = 20 y
(0, 5) x
The endpoints of the latus rectum will be where the line y = 5 and the parabola intersect. Substitute y = 5 into the parabola. x 2 = 20y = 20 ] 5 g = 100 x = ! 100 = !10 So the endpoints are (-10, 5) and (10, 5).
y x2 = 20 y
(-10, 5)
(0, 5)
(10, 5) x
The latus rectum is 4a units long which gives 20 units.
From the graph, the length of the latus rectum is 20 units.
CONTINUED
502
3. Find the equation of the focal chord to the parabola x 2 = 4y that passes through (- 4, 4).
Solution
The parabola x 2 = 4y is in the form x 2 = 4ay. 4a = 4 à=1 The focal length is 1 unit. The focus is 1 unit up from the origin at (0, 1) and the focal chord also passes through (- 4, 4).
y (- 4, 4) x2 = 4y
(0, 1) x
You used these formulae in Chapter 7.
We can nd the equation of the line between (0, 1) and (- 4, 4) by using either formula y - y1 y2 - y1 y - y 1 = m _ x - x 1 i or x - x = x - x 1 2 1 y - y1 y2 - y1 x - x1 = x2 - x1 y -1 4 -1 = x-0 -4 - 0 y -1 3 x = -4 - 4 ^ y - 1 h = 3x - 4y + 4 = 3x 0 = 3x + 4y - 4
As you saw in the previous chapter, a parabola can be concave downwards. Can you guess what the equation of this parabola might be? PARABOLA x 2 = - 4 ay The locus of a point P(x, y) moving so that it is equidistant from the point ^ 0, - a h and the line y = a is a parabola with equation x 2 = - 4ay
503
Proof
y
B(x, a)
y=a
x P(x, y) A(0, -a)
Let P(x, y) be a point of the locus. Taking the perpendicular distance from P to the line y = a, point B = ^ x, a h . PA = PB ` PA 2 = PB 2
2 ^ x - 0 h 2 + 7 y - ^ - a h A = ^ x - x h 2 + ^ y - a h2 x 2 + ^ y + a h2 = ^ y - a h2 2 x + y 2 + 2ay + a 2 = y 2 - 2ay + a 2 x 2 = - 4ay
The parabola x 2 = - 4ay has focus at ^ 0, - a h directrix with equation y = a vertex at (0, 0) axis with equation x = 0 focal length a latus rectum a horizontal focal chord with length 4a
504
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus ^ 0, - 4 h and directrix y = 4.
Solution
If we draw this information, the focus is below the directrix as shown. So the parabola will be concave downwards (the parabola always turns away from the directrix).
y
y=4 4 x 4 (0, -4)
The focal length is 4 so a = 4. The parabola is in the form x 2 = - 4ay where a = 4. x 2 = - 4ay = -4]4gy = - 16y 2. Find the coordinates of the vertex, the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix of the parabola x 2 = - 12y.
Solution
The parabola x 2 = -12y is in the form x 2 = - 4ay. 4a = 12 à=3 The focal length is 3 units. The vertex is (0, 0). We can nd the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix in two ways. Method 1: Draw the graph x 2 = -12y and count 3 units up and down from the origin as shown. (The parabola is concave downward.)
505
y=3 3 x 3 (0, -3) x2 = -12y
Counting down 3 units, the focus is ^ 0, - 3 h . Counting up 3 units, the directrix has equation y = 3. Method 2: The focus is in the form ^ 0, - a h where a = 3. So the focus is ^ 0, - 3 h . The directrix is in the form y = a where a = 3. So the directrix is y = 3. 3. Find the equation of the parabola with focal length 5 and whose vertex is ^ 0, 0 h and equation of the axis is x = 0.
Solution
Vertex ^ 0, 0 h and axis given by x = 0 give a parabola in the form x 2 = !4ay, since there is not enough information to tell whether it is concave upwards or downwards. This gives two possible parabolas.
CONTINUED
506
Focal length of 5 means a = 5 i.e. The equation is x 2 = !4 (5) y x 2 = !20y
10.4 Exercises
1. Find the equation of each parabola. (a) focus (0, 5), directrix y = - 5 (b) focus (0, 9), directrix y = - 9 (c) focus (0, 1), directrix y = -1 (d) focus (0, 4), directrix y = - 4 (e) focus (0, 10), directrix y = -10 (f) focus (0, 3), directrix y = - 3 (g) focus (0, 6), directrix y = - 6 (h) focus (0, 11), directrix y = -11 (i) focus (0, 2), directrix y = - 2 (j) focus (0, 12), directrix y = -12 Find the equation of each parabola. (a) focus (0, - 1), directrix y = 1 (b) focus (0, - 3), directrix y = 3 (c) focus (0, - 4), directrix y = 4 (d) focus (0, - 7), directrix y = 7 (e) focus (0, - 6), directrix y = 6 (f) focus (0, - 9), directrix y = 9 (g) focus (0, - 8), directrix y = 8 (h) focus (0, - 2), directrix y = 2 (i) focus (0, -15), directrix y = 15 (j) focus (0, -13), directrix y = 13 Find (i) the coordinates of the focus and (ii) the equation of the directrix of (a) x 2 = 4y (b) x 2 = 28y (c) x 2 = 16y (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) 4. x 2 = 36y x 2 = 40y x 2 = 44y x 2 = 12y x 2 = 6y x 2 = 10y x 2 = 15y
2.
Find (i) the coordinates of the focus and (ii) the equation of the directrix of (a) x 2 = - 4y (b) x 2 = - 24y (c) x 2 = - 8y (d) x 2 = - 48y (e) x 2 = - 20y (f) x 2 = - 16y (g) x 2 = - 32y (h) x 2 = - 40y (i) x 2 = - 2y (j) x 2 = - 22y Find the equation of the parabola with (a) coordinates of the focus ^ 0, 7 h and equation of the directrix y = -7 (b) coordinates of the focus ^ 0, 11 h and equation of the directrix y = -11 (c) coordinates of the focus ^ 0, - 6 h and equation of the directrix y = 6 (d) coordinates of the focus ^ 0, 2 h and coordinates of the vertex ^ 0, 0 h .
5.
3.
507
(e) coordinates of the vertex ^ 0, 0 h, equation of the axis x = 0 and focal length 3 (f) coordinates of the vertex ^ 0, 0 h, equation of the axis x = 0 and focal length 8 (g) coordinates of the vertex ^ 0, 0 h and equation of the axis x = 0, and passing through the point ^ - 8, 2 h (h) coordinates of the vertex ^ 0, 0 h and equation of the axis x = 0, and passing through the point ^ -1, 7 h . 6. Find the coordinates of the focus, the equation of the directrix and the focal length of the parabola (a) x 2 = 8y (b) x 2 = 24y (c) x 2 = -12y (d) x 2 = 2y (e) x 2 = - 7y (f) 2x 2 = y Find the equation of the focal chord that cuts the curve x 2 = 8y at ^ - 4, 2 h . The tangent with equation 2x - y - 4 = 0 touches the parabola x 2 = 4y at A. Find the coordinates of A. The focal chord that cuts the parabola x 2 = - 6y at ^ 6, - 6 h cuts the parabola again at X. Find the coordinates of X.
11. The equation of the latus rectum of a parabola is given by y = - 3. The axis of the parabola is x = 0, and its vertex is ^ 0, 0 h . (a) Find the equation of the parabola. (b) Find the equation of the directrix. (c) Find the length of the focal chord that meets the parabola at 1 c 2, - m . 3 12. (a) Show that the point ^ - 3, 3 h lies on the parabola with equation x 2 = 3y. (b) Find the equation of the line passing through P and the focus F of the parabola. (c) Find the coordinates of the point R where the line PF meets the directrix. 13. (a) Find the equation of chord 1 PQ where P c -1, m and Q ^ 2, 1 h 4 lie on the parabola x 2 = 4y. (b) Show that PQ is not a focal chord. (c) Find the equation of the circle with centre Q and radius 2 units. (d) Show that this circle passes through the focus of the parabola. 14. (a) Show that Q _ 2aq, aq 2 i lies on the parabola x 2 = 4ay. (b) Find the equation of the focal chord through Q. (c) Prove that the length of the latus rectum is 4a.
7.
8.
9.
10. Find the coordinates of the endpoints of the latus rectum of the parabola x 2 = - 8y. What is the length of the latus rectum?
508
Investigation
Sketch the parabola x = y 2. You may like to complete the table below to help you with its sketch. x y -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Is this parabola a function? What is its axis of symmetry?
The parabola that has y2 rather than x2 in its equation is a sideways parabola. It still has the same properties, but generally the x and y values are swapped around. PARABOLA y 2 = 4 ax The locus of point P ^ x, y h moving so that it is equidistant from the point ^ a, 0 h and the line x = - a is a parabola with equation y 2 = 4ax
Proof
Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h, which moves so that it is equidistant from the point ^ a, 0 h and the line x = - a.
Coordinates of B are ^ - a, y h . We want PA = PB i.e. PA 2 = PB 2 ^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - 0 h 2 = [x - ^ - a h 2 ] 2 + ^ y - y h 2 ^ x - a h 2 + y2 = ^ x + a h 2 x 2 - 2ax + a 2 + y 2 = x 2 + 2ax + a 2 y 2 = 4ax
509
The parabola y 2 = 4ax has focus at ^ a, 0 h equation of directrix x = - a vertex at ^ 0, 0 h axis with equation y = 0 focal length the distance from the vertex to the focus with length a latus rectum that is a vertical focal chord with length 4a
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (7, 0) and directrix x = - 7.
Solution
If we draw this information, the focus is to the right of the directrix as shown (the parabola always turns away from the directrix). So the parabola turns to the right.
y x=-7
7 (7, 0) x
CONTINUED
510
The focal length is 7 so a = 7. The parabola is in the form y 2 = 4ax where a = 7. y 2 = 4ax = 4^7hx = 28x. 2. Find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix of the parabola y 2 = 32x.
Solution
The parabola y 2 = 32x is in the form y 2 = 4ax. 4a = 32 ` a=8 The focal length is 8 units. Method 1: Draw the graph y 2 = 32x and count 8 units to the left and right from the origin as shown. (The parabola turns to the right.)
y
x=-8
8 (8, 0)
x
y2 = 32 2x
Counting 8 units to the right, the focus is (8, 0). Counting 8 units to the left, the directrix has equation x = - 8. Method 2: The focus is in the form (a, 0) where a = 8. So the focus is (8, 0). The directrix is in the form x = - a where a = 8. So the directrix is x = - 8.
A parabola can also turn to the left.
511
PARABOLA y 2 = - 4 ax The locus of a point P(x, y) moving so that it is equidistant from the point ^ - a, 0 h and the line x = a is a parabola with equation y 2 = - 4ax
Proof
y P (x, y) B (a, y)
A ( - a, 0)
x=a
Let P(x, y) be a point of the locus. Taking the perpendicular distance from P to the line x = a, point B = ^ a, y h . PA = PB `
2
PA 2 = PB 2
7 x - ^ - a h A + ^ y - 0 h2 = ^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - y h 2 ^ x + a h 2 + y2 = ^ x - a h 2
x 2 + 2ax + a 2 + y 2 = x 2 - 2ax + a 2 y 2 = - 4ax
512
The parabola y 2 = - 4ax has focus at (- a, 0) directrix with equation x = a vertex at (0, 0) axis with equation y = 0 focal length a latus rectum a vertical focal chord with length 4a
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (- 4, 0) and directrix x = 4.
Solution
Drawing this information shows that the parabola turns to the left.
y
4 ( - 4, 0)
4 x
x=4
The focal length is 4 so a = 4. The parabola is in the form y 2 = - 4ax where a = 4. y 2 = - 4ax = -4^ 4h x = -16x. 2. Find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix of the parabola y 2 = - 2x.
Solution
The parabola y 2 = - 2x is in the form y 2 = - 4ax. 4a = 2 ` a= 1 2 1 unit. 2
The focal length is
513
Method 1: 1 Draw the graph y 2 = - 2x and count unit to the left and right from the 2 origin as shown. (The parabola turns to the left.)
y
1 2
1 2
x
- 1, 0 2
)
x= 1 2
Counting
1 1 units to the left, the focus is c - , 0 m . 2 2 1 1 Counting units to the right, the directrix has equation x = . 2 2
Method 2: 1 The focus is in the form (- a, 0) where a = . 2 1 So the focus is c - , 0 m . 2 1 The directrix is in the form x = a where a = . 2 1 So the directrix is x = . 2
10.5 Exercises
1. Find the equation of each parabola. (a) focus (2, 0), directrix x = - 2 (b) focus (5, 0), directrix x = - 5 (c) focus (14, 0), directrix x = -14 (d) focus (9, 0), directrix x = - 9 (e) focus (8, 0), directrix x = - 8 (f) focus (6, 0), directrix x = - 6 (g) focus (7, 0), directrix x = - 7 (h) focus (3, 0), directrix x = - 3 (i) focus (4, 0), directrix x = - 4 (j) focus (1, 0), directrix x = -1 2. Find the equation of each parabola. (a) focus (- 9, 0), directrix x = 9 (b) focus (- 4, 0), directrix x = 4 (c) focus (-10, 0), directrix x = 10 (d) focus (- 6, 0), directrix x = 6 (e) focus (- 2, 0), directrix x = 2 (f) focus (-12, 0), directrix x = 12 (g) focus (-11, 0), directrix x = 11 (h) focus (- 5, 0), directrix x = 5 (i) focus (- 3, 0), directrix x = 3 (j) focus (- 7, 0), directrix x = 7
514
3.
Find (i) the coordinates of the focus and (ii) the equation of the directrix of (a) y 2 = 8x (b) y 2 = 12x (c) y 2 = 16x (d) y 2 = 4x (e) y 2 = 28x (f) y 2 = 32x (g) y 2 = 24x (h) y 2 = 36x (i) y 2 = x (j) y 2 = 18x Find (i) the coordinates of the focus and (ii) the equation of the directrix of (a) y 2 = - 8x (b) y 2 = -12x (c) y 2 = - 28x (d) y 2 = - 4x (e) y 2 = - 24x (f) y 2 = - 52x (g) y 2 = - 60x (h) y 2 = - 2x (i) y 2 = - 26x (j) y 2 = - 5x Find the equation of the parabola with (a) coordinates of the focus ^ 5, 0 h and equation of the directrix x = -5 (b) coordinates of the focus ^ 1, 0 h and equation of the directrix x = -1 (c) coordinates of the focus ^ - 4, 0 h and equation of the directrix x = 4 (d) coordinates of the focus ^ 3, 0 h and coordinates of the vertex ^ 0, 0 h (e) coordinates of the vertex ^ 0, 0 h equation of the axis y = 0 and focal length 9
(f) coordinates of the vertex ^ 0, 0 h, equation of the axis y = 0 and focal length 2 (g) coordinates of the vertex ^ 0, 0 h and equation of the axis y = 0 and passing through the point ^ 3, 6 h (h) coordinates of the vertex ^ 0, 0 h and equation of the axis y = 0 and passing through the point ^ 2, 1 h . 6. Find the coordinates of the focus, the equation of the directrix and the focal length of the parabola (a) y 2 = 8x (b) y 2 = 4x (c) y 2 = -12x (d) y 2 = 6x (e) y 2 = - 5x (f) 3y 2 = x Find the equation of the focal chord that cuts the curve y 2 = 16x at ^ 4, 8 h . Find the length of the latus rectum of the parabola y 2 = 12x. What are the coordinates of its endpoints? The line with equation x - 3y - 27 = 0 meets the parabola y 2 = 4x at two points. Find their coordinates.
4.
7.
8.
9.
5.
1 10. Let R c , - 2 m be a point on the 5 parabola y 2 = 20x. (a) Find the equation of the focal chord passing through R. (b) Find the coordinates of the point Q where this chord cuts the directrix. (c) Find the area of DOFQ where O is the origin and F is the focus. (d) Find the perpendicular distance from the chord to the point P ^ -1, -7 h . (e) Hence nd the area of DPQR.
515
Application
A parabolic satellite dish receives its signals through the focus. If the dish has height 12 m and a span of 20 m, find where the focus should be placed, to the nearest mm.
SOLUTION
The parabola is of the form x 2 = 4ay and passes through (10, 12) and (-10, 12) Substituting (10, 12) gives
2 10 = 4a (12)
100 = 48a 2.083 = a So the focus should be placed 2.083 m from the vertex.
This is 2083 mm to the nearest millimetre.
Here is a summary of the 4 different types of parabola with the vertex at the origin.
1. x 2 = 4ay
y
x2 = 4ay Focus (0, a)

x
Directrix y = -a
516
2. x 2 = - 4ay
y
Directrix y=a x Focus (0, -a) x 2 = -4ay
3. y 2 = 4ax
y
Directrix x = -a
Focus (a, 0)
y 2 = 4a x
4. y 2 = - 4ax
y
Directrix x=a
Focus (-a, 0) y2 = -4ax
General Parabola
When the parabola does not have its vertex at the origin, there is a more general formula. Since we use a to mean the focal length, we cannot use (a, b) as the vertex. We use (h, k) instead.
517
PARABOLA (x - h)2 = 4a(y - k) The concave upwards parabola with vertex (h, k) and focal length a has equation ^ x - h h 2 = 4a ^ y - k h
Proof
Find the equation of the parabola with vertex ^ h, k h and focal length a.
Counting up a units from vertex V gives the focus F = ^ h, k + a h . Counting down a units from V gives the point on the directrix D = ^ h, k - a h . So the equation of the directrix is given by y = k - a. We nd the equation of the locus of P ^ x, y h that is equidistant from point F ^ h, k + a h and line y = k - a.
B has coordinates ^ x, k - a h . We want PF = PB i.e. PF 2 = PB 2 ^ x - h h 2 + [ y - ^ k + a h] 2 = ^ x - x h 2 + [ y - ^ k + a h] 2 ^x - hh2 + ^ y - k - ah2 = ^ y - k + ah2 ^x - hh2 = ^ y - k + ah2- ^ y - k - ah2 = [^ y - k + a h + ^ y - k - a h ] # [^ y - k + a h - ^ y - k - a h ] ^ difference of two squares h = ^ 2y - 2k h ^ 2a h = 4ay - 4ak = 4a ^ y - k h
518
The parabola ^ x - h h2 = 4a ^ y - k h has axis parallel to the y-axis vertex at ^ h, k h focus at ^ h, k + a h directrix with equation y = k - a
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus ^ 2, 3 h and directrix with equation y = - 7.
Solution
Draw a diagram to find the vertex and to find a.
Coordinates of B are ^ 2, -7 h . The vertex is the midpoint of ^ 2, 3 h and ^ 2, -7 h . ` vertex = ^ 2, - 2 h Focal length is the distance from the focus to the vertex. ` a=5 From the diagram the parabola is concave upwards. The equation is in the form ^ x - h h 2 = 4a ^ y - k h i.e. ^ x - 2 h 2 = 4 ^ 5 h [ y - ^ - 2 h] = 20 ^ y + 2 h x 2 - 4x + 4 = 20y + 40 x 2 - 4x - 20y - 36 = 0 2. Find the coordinates of the vertex and the focus, and the equation of the directrix, of the parabola with equation x 2 + 6x - 12y - 3 = 0.
519
Solution
Complete the square on x. x 2 + 6x - 12y - 3 = 0 x 2 + 6x = 12y + 3 x 2 + 6x + 9 = 12y + 3 + 9 ^ x + 3 h2 = 12y + 12 = 12 (y + 1) So the parabola has equation ^ x + 3 h2 = 12 ^ y + 1 h . Its vertex has coordinates ^ - 3, -1 h . 4a = 12 ` a=3 The parabola is concave upwards as it is in the form ^ x - h h 2 = 4a ^ y - k h .
Count up 3 units to the focus ` focus = ^ - 3, 2 h Count down 3 units to the directrix ` directrix has equation y = - 4.
It is easy to find the focus and the directrix by counting along the y-axis.
PARABOLA (x - h)2 = - 4a(y - k) The concave downwards parabola with vertex (h, k) and focal length a has equation ^ x - h h 2 = - 4a ^ y - k h
Proof
Find the equation of the concave downwards parabola with vertex (h, k) and focal length a.
520
Counting down a units from the vertex V gives the focus F = ^ h, k - a h . Counting up a units from the vertex V gives the point on the directrix D = ^ h, k + a h . So the equation of the directrix is given by y = k + a. We nd the equation of the locus of P(x, y) that is equidistant from point F ^ h, k - a h and line y = k + a.
y B y=k+a
P (x, y)
F (h , k - a)
B has coordinates ^ x, k + a h . We want PF = PB PF 2 = PB 2

2 2 ^x - hh2 + 7y - ^k - ahA = ^x - xh2 + 7y - ^k + ahA 2 2 2 ^x - hh + ^y - k + ah = ^y - k - ah ^x - hh2 = ^y - k - ah2- ^y - k + ah2 = 7^y - k - ah + ^y - k + ahA7^y - k - ah - ^y - k + ahA (difference of two squares) = ^ 2y - 2k h ^ - 2a h = - 4ay + 4ak = - 4a ^ y - k h
521
The parabola ^ x - h h 2 = - 4a ^ y - k h has axis parallel to the y-axis vertex at (h, k) focus at ^ h, k - a h directrix with equation y = k + a
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (- 2, 1) and directrix y = 3.
Solution
y
1 1
(- 2, 1) -2 -1
3 2 1
y=3
Coordinates of B are (- 2, 3). The vertex is the midpoint of (- 2, 1) and (- 2, 3). ` vertex = (- 2, 2) Focal length a = 1. From the diagram the curve is concave downwards. The equation is in the form ^ x - h h 2 = - 4a ^ y - k h i.e.
2 7x - ^ -2 h A = -4 ]1 g^ y - 2 h ^ x + 2h 2 = -4^ y - 2h
x 2 + 4x + 4 = - 4y + 8 x 2 + 4x + 4y - 4 = 0. 2. Find the coordinates of the vertex and focus, and the equation of the directrix of the parabola x 2 - 8x + 8y - 16 = 0.
CONTINUED
522
Solution
Complete the square on x. x 2 - 8x + 8y - 16 = 0 x 2 - 8x = - 8y + 16 x 2 - 8x + 16 = - 8y + 16 + 16 ^ x - 4 h2 = - 8y + 32 = -8^ y - 4h So the parabola has equation ^ x - 4 h 2 = - 8 ^ y - 4 h . Its vertex has coordinates (4, 4). 4a = 8 à=2 The parabola is concave downwards as it is in the form ^ x - h h 2 = - 4a ^ y - k h .
y y=6
5 4 3 2
1 1 2
(4, 4)
2 (4, 2)
Count down 2 units to the focus ` focus = ^ 4, 2 h Count up 2 units to the directrix ` directrix has equation y = 6.
PARABOLA ( y - k)2 = 4a(x - h) The parabola with vertex (h, k) and focal length a that turns to the right has equation ^ y - k h 2 = 4a ^ x - h h
Proof
Find the equation of the parabola that turns to the right with vertex (h, k) and focal length a.
523
Counting a units to the right from the vertex V gives the focus F = ^ h + a, k h . Counting a units to the left from the vertex V gives the point on the directrix D = ^ h - a, k h . So the equation of the directrix is given by x = h - a. We nd the equation of the locus of P(x, y) that is equidistant from point F ^ h + a, k h and line x = h - a.
y x=h-a
P (x, y)
F (h + a, k)
B has coordinates ^ h - a, y h . We want PF = PB PF 2 = PB 2

2 2 7x - ^h + ahA + ^y - kh2 = 7x - ^h - ahA + ^y - y h2 ^x - h - ah2+ ^y - kh2 = ^x - h - ah2 ^y - kh2 = ^x - h + ah2- ]x - h - ag2
= 7^x - h + ah + ^x - h - ahA7^x - h + ah - ^x - h - ahA (difference of two squares) = ^ 2x - 2h h ^ 2a h = 4ax - 4ah = 4a ^ x - h h
524
The parabola ^ y - k h 2 = 4a ^ x - h h has axis parallel to the x-axis vertex at ^ h, k h focus at ^ h + a, k h directrix with equation x = h - a
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (1, -1) and directrix x = - 5.
Solution
y x = -5
5 4 3 2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 B
1 2 3 4 5 (1, -1) 3
-2 -3
Coordinates of B are (- 5, -1). The vertex is the midpoint of (- 5, -1) and (1, -1). ` vertex = ^ - 2, -1 h Focal length a = 3 From the diagram the parabola curves to the right. The equation is in the form ^ y - k h 2 = 4a ] x - h g i.e.
2 7 y - ^ -1 h A = 4 ] 3 g 7 x - ^ - 2 h A ^ y + 1 h 2 = 12 ] x + 2 g
y 2 + 2y + 1 = 12x + 24 y 2 + 2y - 12x - 23 = 0
525
2. Find the coordinates of the vertex and focus, and the equation of the directrix of the parabola y 2 + 12y - 4x - 8 = 0.
Solution
Complete the square on y. y 2 + 12y - 4x - 8 = 0 y 2 + 12y = 4x + 8 y 2 + 12y + 36 = 4x + 8 + 36 ^ y + 6 h 2 = 4x + 44 = 4 ^ x + 11 h So the parabola has equation ^ y + 6 h2 = 4 ^ x + 11 h or 7 y - ] - 6 g A 2 = 4 6 x - ] -11 g @ . Its vertex has coordinates (-11, - 6). 4a = 4 ` a=1 The parabola turns to the right as it is in the form ^ y - k h 2 = 4a ^ x - h h .
y x = -12 x (-11, -6) 1 1 (-10, -6)
Count 1 unit to the right for the focus ` focus = ^ -10, - 6 h . Count 1 unit to the left for the directrix ` directrix has equation x = -12.
PARABOLA (y k)2 = 4a(x h) The parabola with vertex (h, k) and focal length a that turns to the left has equation ^ y - k h 2 = - 4a ^ x - h h
526
Proof
Find the equation of the parabola that turns to the left with vertex (h, k) and focal length a.
Counting a units to the left from the vertex V gives the focus F = ^ h - a, k h. Counting a units to the right from the vertex V gives the point on the directrix D = ^ h + a, k h. So the equation of the directrix is given by x = h + a. We nd the equation of the locus of P(x, y) that is equidistant from point F ^ h - a, k h and line x = h + a.
y x=h+a P (x, y) B
F (h -a, k)
B has coordinates ^ h + a, y h . We want PF = PB PF 2 = PB 2

2 7x - ^h - ahA + ^y - kh2 = 7x - ^h + ahA + ^y - y h2 ^x - h + ah2+ ^y - kh2 = ^x - h - ah2 2
^y - kh2 = ^x - h - ah2- ^x - h + ah2 = 7^x - h - ah + ^x - h + ahA7^x - h - ah - ^x - h + ahA

(difference of two squares) = ^ 2x - 2h h ^ - 2a h = - 4ax + 4ah = - 4a ^ x - h h = - 4a ^ y - k h
527
The parabola ^ y - k h 2 = - 4a ] x - h g has axis parallel to the x-axis vertex at (h, k) focus at ^ h - a, k h directrix with equation x = h + a
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (2, 1) and directrix x = 3.
Solution
y x=3 1 1 2 2 1 (2, 1) 1 2
(2 2x, 1)
Coordinates of B are (3, 1). The vertex is the midpoint of (3, 1) and (2, 1). 1 ` vertex = c 2 , 1 m 2 1 Focal length a = 2 From the diagram the parabola curves to the left. The equation is in the form
^ y - k h 2 = - 4a ^ x - h h 1 1 i.e. ^y - 1h2 = -4c m cx - 2 m 2 2 1 2 ^y - 1h = -2cx - 2 m 2 y 2 - 2y + 1 = - 2x + 5 y 2 - 2y + 2x - 4 = 0

2. Find the coordinates of the vertex and focus, and the equation of the directrix of the parabola y 2 + 4y + 8x - 4 = 0.
CONTINUED
528
Solution
Complete the square on y. y 2 + 4y + 8x - 4 = 0 y 2 + 4y = - 8 x + 4 y 2 + 4y + 4 = - 8x + 4 + 4 ^ y + 2 h 2 = - 8x + 8 = -8 ]x - 1 g So the parabola has equation ^ y + 2 h2 = - 8 ] x - 1 g or 7 y - ] - 2 g A 2 = - 8 ] x - 1 g . Its vertex has coordinates ^ 1, - 2 h . 4a = 8 ` a=2 The parabola turns to the left as it is in the form ^ y - k h 2 = - 4a ^ x - h h
y x=3
1 -3 -2 -1 (-1, -2) 2 1 -1 -2 2 (1, -2) 2 3 x
Count 2 units to the left for the focus ` focus = ^ -1, - 2 h . Count 2 units to the right for the directrix ` directrix has equation x = 3.
10.6 Exercises
1. Complete the square on x to write each equation in the form ] x - h g2 = !4a ^ y - k h . (a) x 2 - 6x - 8y - 15 = 0 (b) x 2 - 10x - 4y + 1 = 0 (c) x 2 - 2x - 4y - 11 = 0 (d) x 2 - 8x + 12y - 20 = 0 (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) x 2 - 12x - 8y - 20 = 0 x 2 + 14x + 16y + 1 = 0 x 2 - 4x + 4y - 16 = 0 x 2 + 18x - 12y + 9 = 0 x 2 + 2x - 8y - 7 = 0 x 2 - 6 x + 4y + 1 = 0
529
2.
Complete the square on y to write each equation in the form ^ y - k h2 = !4a ] x - h g (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) y 2 - 8y - 4x = 0 y 2 - 2y - 8x - 15 = 0 y 2 + 4y - 12x - 8 = 0 y 2 - 20y + 4x - 16 = 0 y 2 + 6y + 16x - 7 = 0 y 2 - 12y - 8x + 4 = 0 y 2 + 10y + 24x - 23 = 0 y 2 + 24y - 4x = 0 y 2 - 4y + 20x - 16 = 0 y 2 + 8y + 8x = 0
(g) (h) (i) (j) 5.
x2 x2 x2 x2
+ 2x + 8y - 15 = 0 - 4 x + 4y = 0 - 8x + 12y + 4 = 0 + 4x + 16y - 12 = 0
3.
Find the equation of each parabola (a) focus ^ -1, 3 h, directrix y = - 1 (b) focus ^ - 4, 1 h, directrix y = -1 (c) focus (2, 0), directrix y = - 4 (d) focus (3, 6), directrix y = 2 (e) focus ^ - 2, 5 h, directrix y = -3 (f) focus ^ -1, - 4 h, directrix y = 4 (g) focus ( 4, - 3), directrix y = 7 (h) focus ^ - 5, 1 h, directrix y = 5 (i) focus ^ - 3, - 6 h, directrix y = 0 (j) focus ^ 0, -7 h, directrix y = - 5 (k) focus (2, 3), directrix x = - 4 (l) focus ^ -1, 4 h, directrix x = - 3 (m) focus (6, 0), directrix x = 2 (n) focus ( 3, - 2 ), directrix x = -5 (o) focus ^ 1, -1 h, directrix x = - 3 (p) focus ^ - 2, - 4 h, directrix x = 4 (q) focus (2, 1), directrix x = 4 (r) focus ^ - 5, 3 h, directrix x = 3 (s) focus ^ - 1, 2 h, directrix x = 0 (t) focus (3, 1), directrix x = 4 Find (i) the coordinates of the focus and (ii) the equation of the directrix of (a) x 2 - 6x - 4y - 3 = 0 (b) x 2 - 2x - 8y - 7 = 0 (c) x 2 + 4x - 4y = 0 (d) x 2 - 8x - 12y + 4 = 0 (e) x 2 + 10x - 8y + 1 = 0 (f) x 2 - 6x + 4y + 1 = 0
Find (i) the coordinates of the focus and (ii) the equation of the directrix of (a) y 2 + 2y - 4x - 3 = 0 (b) y 2 - 8y - 12x + 4 = 0 (c) y 2 - 6y - 8x - 7 = 0 (d) y 2 + 4y - 16x - 12 = 0 (e) y 2 - 2y - 24x + 25 = 0 (f) y 2 + 10y + 8x + 1 = 0 (g) y 2 + 14y + 4x + 1 = 0 (h) y 2 - 12y + 20x - 4 = 0 (i) y 2 - 4y + 32x - 28 = 0 (j) y 2 + 6y + 40x + 29 = 0 Find the equation of the parabola with vertex ^ 0, 3 h if it is concave upwards and a = 3. Find the equation of the parabola with vertex ^ - 2, -1 h, focal length 2, and axis parallel to the y-axis. A parabola has its vertex at ^ 1, - 5 h and its focal length as 1. If the parabola is concave upwards, nd its equation. A parabola has its axis parallel to the x-axis. If its vertex has coordinates ^ 2, 6 h and a = 3, nd its equation if it turns to the left.
6.
7.
8.
9.
4.
10. Find the equation of the parabola with vertex at ^ 1, 0 h and focus at ^ 1, 4 h . 11. Find the equation of the parabola that has vertex ^ 1, 1 h and focus ^ 1, 8 h . 12. A parabola has its vertex at ^ 2, - 2 h and focus at ^ - 4, - 2 h . Find its equation.
530
13. Find the equation of the parabola with vertex ^ 0, 3 h and focus ^ 8, 3 h . 14. Find the equation of the parabola with vertex ^ 3, 3 h and equation of directrix y = 5. 15. Find the equation of the parabola with vertex ^ 3, -1 h and directrix x = -1. 16. A parabola has directrix y = 5 and focus ^ - 3, 3 h . Find its equation. 17. Find the equation of the locus of a point moving so that it is equidistant from the point ^ 2, 2 h and the line y = - 4. 18. Find the equation of the parabola with focus ^ 2, -1 h and directrix x = 10. 19. Find the coordinates of the vertex and focus and the equation of the directrix for the parabola (a) x 2 + 4x - 8y + 12 = 0 (b) x 2 - 6x - 12y + 33 = 0 (c) x 2 - 2x + 4y + 5 = 0 (d) y 2 - 8y - 16x + 64 = 0 (e) y 2 + 4y - 24x + 4 = 0 (f) y 2 + 8x + 40 = 0. 20. For the parabola x 2 + 2x + 28y - 111 = 0, nd the coordinates of its vertex and focus, and the equations of its directrix and axis. What is its maximum value?
21. The latus rectum of a parabola has endpoints ^ - 2, 3 h and ^ 6, 3 h . Find two possible equations for the parabola. 22.
(a) Find the equation of the arch above. (b) Find the coordinates of its focus and the equation of its directrix. 23. (a) Sketch y = x 2 + 2x - 8, showing intercepts and the minimum point. (b) Find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix of the parabola. 24. Find the equation of the parabola with vertex ^ - 2, 3 h that also passes through ^ 2, 1 h and is concave downwards. 25. A parabolic satellite dish has a diameter of 4 m at a depth of 0.4 m. Find the depth at which its diameter is 3.5 m, correct to 1 decimal place.
DID YOU KNOW?

The word directrix is due to the Dutch mathematician Jan De Witt (162972). He published a work called Elementa curvarum, in which he defined the properties of the parabola, ellipse, circle and hyperbola. These curves are all called conic sections.
531
De Witt was well known as the Grand Pensionary of Holland. He took part in the politics and wars of his time, opposing Louis XIV. When the French invaded Holland in 1672, De Witt was seized and killed.
Tangents and Normals

Remember that the gradient of the tangent to a curve is given by the derivative. The normal to the curve is perpendicular to its tangent at that point. That is, m 1 m 2 = - 1 for perpendicular lines.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the tangent to the parabola x 2 = 8y at the point ^ 4, 2 h .
Solution
x 2 = 8y x2 y= 8 dy 2x = 8 dx x = 4
CONTINUED
532
4 4 =1 So the gradient of the tangent at ^ 4, 2 h is 1. At ^ 4, 2 h, dx = 2. Find the equation of the normal to the parabola x 2 = 4y at the point ^ - 8, 16 h .
dy
Solution
x 2 = 4y So y= dy dx x2 4 2x = 4 x = 2 -8 = 2 = -4 = - 4.
At (- 8, 16):
dy dx
So the gradient of the tangent m 1
The normal is perpendicular to the tangent. ` m 1 m 2 = -1 So `

] - 4 g m 2 = -1
m2 =
1 4
The equation of the normal is given by y - y 1 = m (x - x 1) i.e. 1 [x - (- 8)] 4 1 = (x + 8 ) 4 4y - 64 = x + 8 0 = x - 4y + 72. y - 16 =
10.7 Exercises
1. Find the gradient of the tangent to the parabola x 2 = 12y at the point where x = 2. Find the gradient of the tangent to the parabola x 2 = - 3y at the point ^ 6, -12 h . 3. Find the gradient of the normal to the parabola x 2 = 4y at the point where x = 2. Find the gradient of the tangent to the parabola x 2 = 16y at the point ^ 4, 1 h .
2.
4.
533
5.
Show that the gradient of the tangent to the curve x 2 = 2y at any point is its x-coordinate. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve x 2 = 8y at the point ^ 4, 2 h . Find the equation of the normal to the curve x 2 = 4y at the point where x = - 4. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the parabola x 2 = - 24y at the point ^ 12, - 6 h . Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the parabola x 2 = 16y at the point where x = 4.
6.
12. The normal of the parabola x 2 = 18y at ^ - 6, 2 h cuts the parabola again at Q. Find the coordinates of Q. 13. Find the equations of the normals to the curve x 2 = - 8y at the 1 points ^ -16, - 32 h and c - 2, - m . 2 Find their point of intersection and show that this point lies on the parabola. 14. Find the equation of the tangent at ^ 8, 4 h on the parabola x 2 = 16y. This tangent meets the tangent at the vertex of the parabola at point R. Find the coordinates of R. 15. (a) Show that the point P _ 2p, p 2 i lies on the parabola x 2 = 4y. (b) Find the equation of the normal to the parabola at P. (c) Show that p 2 + 1 = 0 if the normal passes through the focus of the parabola ^ p ! 0 h .
7.
8.
9.
10. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve x 2 = - 2y at the point ^ 4, - 8 h . This tangent meets the directrix at point M. Find the coordinates of M. 11. Find the equation of the normal to the curve x 2 = 12y at the point ^ 6, 3 h . This normal meets the parabola again at point P. Find the coordinates of P.
534
Test Yourself 10
1. Find the equation of the locus of a point moving so that it is equidistant from A ^ - 1, 2 h and B ^ 3, 5 h. Find the equation of the parabola with focus ^ 2, 1 h and directrix y = - 3. Find the radius and centre of the circle x 2 - 6x + y 2 - 2y - 6 = 0. Find the coordinates of (a) the vertex and (b) the focus of the parabola (y + 3) 2 = 12 ] x - 1 g . Find the equation of the locus of a point that is always 5 units from the origin. Find (a) the equation of the directrix and (b) the coordinates of the focus of the parabola x 2 = - 8y. A point P ^ x, y h moves so that AP and BP are perpendicular, given A = ^ 3, 2 h and B = ^ - 4, 1 h . Find the equation of the locus of P. Point P ^ x, y h is equidistant from the point A ^ 4, - 2 h and the line y = 6. Find the equation of the locus. Find (a) the coordinates of the (i) vertex and (ii) focus and (b) the equation of the directrix of the parabola x 2 - 2x - 4y + 5 = 0. 12. Find the equation of the parabola with directrix x = 6 and focus ^ - 6, 0 h . 13. A parabola has a focus at ^ 0, 4 h and its vertex is at ^ 0, 2 h. Find the equation of the parabola. 14. Find the equation of the locus of a point that is always 3 units from the line 4x - 3y - 1 = 0 . 15. A point is equidistant from the x- and y-axis. Find the equation of its locus. 16. Find the equation of the parabola with vertex at the origin, axis y = 0 and 1 passing through the point c 1 , 5 m . 4 17. Find the gradient of (a) the tangent and (b) the normal to the parabola x 2 = - 12y at the point where x = 3. 18. (a) Find the equation of the normal to the parabola x 2 = 4y at the point ^ - 8, 16 h . (b) This normal cuts the parabola again at Q. Find the coordinates of Q. 19. Show that 7x - 3y + 12 = 0 is a focal chord of the parabola x 2 = 16y. 20. Find the point of intersection of the normals to the parabola x 2 = -12y at the 1 1 points c 4, -1 m and c - 2, - m . 3 3 21. (a) Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola x 2 = 12y at the point P (6, 3). (b) Find R, the y-intercept of the tangent. (c) Show that FP = FR where F is the focus.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10. Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola x 2 = 18y at the point ^ - 6, 2 h . 11. Find the length of the diameter of the circle x 2 + 8x + y 2 - 12y + 3 = 0.
535
1. (a) Find the equation of the locus of point P, which is equidistant from xed points A ^ 3, 5 h and B ^ -1, 2 h . (b) Show that this locus is the perpendicular bisector of line AB. (a) Find the equation of the circle with centre ^ 1, 3 h and radius 5 units. (b) Show that the circle cuts the x-axis at the points ^ 5, 0 h and ^ - 3, 0 h . The line with equation 5x - 12y + 36 = 0 is a chord of the parabola x 2 = 12y. Find the point of intersection of the tangents to the parabola from the endpoints of the chord. (a) Find the equation of the normals to the parabola x 2 = 8y at the points 1 M c - 2, m and N ^ 8, 8 h . 2 (b) Show that these normals are perpendicular. (c) Find the point of intersection X of the normals. (d) Find the equation of line MN and show that it is a focal chord. From which point on the parabola x 2 = 4ay does the normal pass through the focus? (a) Find the equation of the tangents to the parabola x = 4y at the points 1 A c 1, m and B ^ - 4, 4 h . 4 (b) Show that the point of intersection of these tangents lies on the directrix.
2
9.
Sketch the region x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 4y - 4 # 0.
2.
10. (a) Find the equation of the locus of a point P moving so that PA is perpendicular to PB where A = ^ - 4, 3 h and B = ^ 0, 7 h . (b) Show that this locus is a circle with centre ^ - 2, 5 h and radius 2 2 . 11. Find the exact gradient, with rational denominator, of the normal to the parabola y 2 = 12x at the point where x = 4 in the rst quadrant. 12. (a) Find the equation of the parabola with vertex ^ 3, - 2 h and focus ^ 7, - 2 h . (b) Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola at the point where x = 4 in the rst quadrant. 13. Find the exact length of the line from ^ 2, 7 h to the centre of the circle x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 6y - 3 = 0 . 14. Find the equation of the locus of midpoints of all chords of length 2 units in the circle with equation x 2 + y 2 - 2 y - 3 = 0. 15. A satellite dish is to be 3.5 m wide and 1.1 m deep. Find the position of the focus in millimetres, correct to the nearest millimetre.
1.1 m 3.5 m
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Find the equation of the parabola with axis parallel to the y-axis and passing through points ^ 0, - 2 h, ^ 1, 0 h and ^ 3, - 8 h . Find the equation of the straight line through the centres of the circles with equations x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 8y - 5 = 0 and x 2 - 2x + y 2 + 10y + 10 = 0.
8.
16. Find the equation of the locus of point P that moves such that the distance from P to the lines 3x - 4y + 1 = 0 and 12x + 5y + 3 = 0 is in the ratio 3:1.
PRACTICE ASSESSMENT TASK 1
195
Practice Assessment Task SET 1

1. 2. 3. Solve for p: p-3 p+1 = 1. 5 2 16. Simplify 2x + 6 . 2 Factorise fully: 10x + 2xy - 10y - 2y 2. Write in index form 1 (a) x (b) 4. 5. 6.
3
17. Solve 2x 2 - 3x - 1 = 0 correct to 3 signicant gures. 18. The radius r of a circle with area A is A given by r = . Find r, correct to r 2 decimal places, if A = 7.59. 19. Solve 5 - 2x 1 3 and sketch the solution on a number line. 20. Evaluate 3 5 1 2 + + . 20 15 3 12
x4
Simplify the expression 8y - 2 ^ y + 5 h . 5 Rationalise the denominator of . 5- 2 Expand and simplify ] x - 3 g ^ x 2 + 5x - 1 h . 3x 2 Solve the equation = . ^ x ! -1h x+1 3 Simplify x 2 - 2x - 3 x+1 . ' 5 10
7. 8. 9.
21. Solve the equation x 2 - 4x + 1 = 0, giving exact solutions in simplest surd form. 22. Write 7 - 2 as a rational number. 23. Solve simultaneous equations y = 3x - 1 and y = x 2 - 5. 24. Find integers x and y such that 3 = x + y 3. 2 3+3
Show that TABC and TEDC are congruent triangles. Hence, or otherwise, show that TACE is an isosceles triangle.
10. Evaluate ] 3.9 g4, correct to 1 decimal place. 11. Simplify 2 3 - 27 . 12. Find the size of each interior angle in a regular octagon. 13. Evaluate 0.72 ' 9.82 in scientic notation, correct to 3 signicant gures. 14. Expand and simplify 2 ^3 5 - 2 2 h.
25. Evaluate |-2 | 2 - | -1 | + | 4 |. 26. Find the value of x.
27. Factorise 8x 3 - 1. 28. Rationalise the denominator of 2 3 . 3 5- 2
15. Find, correct to 2 decimal places, the ] 2.14 g3 value of . 6.94 - 3.72
196
29. Simplify 2 | -4 | - | 3 | + | -2 |. 30. Find the sale price if a discount of 8% is given on a DVD player that usually sells for $699. 31. Evaluate 3 5.21 + 4.71 correct to 3.94 # 1.76 2 signicant gures. 5 +1
41. Solve x 2 $ 9. o as a fraction. 42. Write 0.16 43. Prove that the diagonals in any rhombus bisect the angles they make with the sides of the rhombus. 44. Write 1 in index form. x+3 45. Expand and simplify ] x + 2 g3. 46. Find the value of a 3 b - 2 in index form if 4 2 1 3 a = c m and b = c m . 5 2 47. Find the value of x, giving reasons for each step of your working out.
32. Rationalise the denominator of
. 2 2+3 33. The price of roller skates has increased by 6.5% to $89. Find the price before the increase.
34. Find the values of all pronumerals, giving reasons for each step of your calculations.
35. Find the area of this gure.
48. Find values of x and y.
36. Simplify
^ a - 4 h3 # b 6
a9 # ^ b-1 h
. 49. Write ] 3x + 2 g
1 2
37. Solve 5x - 9 2 21. 38. Evaluate 4

3 2
without an index.
as a rational number.
50. Simplify (a) 8x - 7y - y + 4x (b) (c) 124 x2 - 9 x 3 + 27
39. Simplify 2 ] x - 5 g -3 ] x - 1 g . 40. Solve 4 2x + 1 = 8.
197
(d) (e)
1 + 2+1
2 2-1
3 2 4 + x + 1 x2 - 1 x - 1
55. ABCD is a parallelogram with CD produced to E so that ED = AD. Prove that +ABC = 2+DEA.
1 (f) x - x when x = 2 3 (g) (h)

^ x - 2 h5 y 4 z - 3
x4 _ y3 i
-1
^ z - 4 h- 2
2 2
a+b a + 2ab + b ' 3 - 6b 5a - 20ab 2
(i) 8 5 - 3 20 + 2 45 (j) a3 b2 ^ c4 h 1 2 2 3 c m c m , if a = , b = 2 3 ^ a 2 h2 bc 5 4 -1 and c = c m 9

2
2 1 5 3 56. Find the exact value of . 5 16 1 1 57. Tran spent of her salary on rent, 4 3 1 1 on food, on bus and taxi fares, and 5 6 on going out. If she puts the rest of her salary into savings, what percentage of her salary is savings? 58. The speed of light is about 2.99 # 10 8 ms - 1 . If a rocket travels at one-fth the speed of light, nd its speed in kmh - 1 (in scientic notation correct to 2 signicant gures). 59. Find the value of k if ] 2x + 5 g2 = 4x 2 + kx + 25. 60. Simplify 81x 2 y 3 .
51. Find the values of x and y, correct to 1 decimal place.
52. Evaluate x.
53. The volume of a sphere is given by the 4 formula V = rr 3. Find the exact radius r, 3 2 if the volume V is 10 cm 3. 3 54. Find the perimeter of the gure below, correct to 3 signicant gures.
61. The sum of the interior angles in a regular polygon is 1620c. Find the size of each interior angle, to the nearest minute. 62. Find the area of the shaded region in this gure, correct to 2 decimal places.
198
63. Factorise (a) 5 ] a - 2 g3 + 40b 3 (b) ] 2a - b + c g2 - ] a + 5b - c g2 64. Solve -2 # 8x - 1 1 9. 5

20 m
65. ABCD and BCEF are parallelograms. Show that AFED is a parallelogram.
25 m
71. In the gure, BD is the perpendicular bisector of AC. Prove that triangle ABC is isosceles.
B
66. Find the value of b correct to 2 decimal places.
72. The diagonals of a rhombus are x and y. Find the length of its side. 67. The diagonals of a rhombus are 6 cm and 10 cm long. Find the (a) exact length of the sides of the rhombus (b) area of the rhombus. 68. Write as a single fraction with a rational 2 1 denominator . 3 3- 2 2+ 5 69. The exterior angles of a regular polygon are 18c . How many sides has the polygon? 70. A cable is used to support a 20 m tower as shown. If the cable is placed 25 m away from the base of the tower, how long must it be, to the nearest metre? 73. Write 1 in index form. 3 ] x - 2 g5
5 3 5 2
(a) ] x - 2 g
]x - 2 g (b) 3
(c) 3 ] x - 2 g 1 (d) 5 ] x - 2 g3
5 2
74. Write the number 54 000 000 in scientic notation. (a) 5.4 # 108 (b) 54 # 106 (c) 5.4 # 107 (d) 54 # 108
199
75. Simplify
7
^ 2a 3 b h 3
] ab g
o to a fraction. 78. Convert 0.36 (a) (b) 9 25 12 33 1 3
(a) 8a b (b) 8a8b (c) 2a7b (d) 2a8b 76. A computer costs $1850. If it has increased in cost by 4% since last week, how much did it cost last week? (a) $1924.00 (b) $1778.85 (c) $1867.80 (d) $1776.00 77. Evaluate 4 (a) - 8 (b) (c) 1 8 1 6
3 2
(c) 3 (d) 79.

A
11 30
E C
(d) 6
The triangles ABC and CDE can be proven congruent by using the test (a) SSS (b) SAS (c) RHS (d) AAS.
446
Practice Assessment Task SET 2

1. 2. 3. Evaluate sin 309c 41l to 2 decimal places. Simplify sin 2 38c + sin 2 52c. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ -1, 3 h that is perpendicular to the line 2x - 5y = 9. Calculate the point of intersection of the lines 2x - 3y - 10 = 0 and 5x + 4y - 2 = 0. Evaluate cot 107c 9l to 3 decimal places. ABCD is a parallelogram in which BC = 2 cm, +ABC = 150c and AB = 3 cm. Find (a) the exact area of the parallelogram (b) the exact lengths of both diagonals. The lines AB and AC have equations 3x - 4y + 9 = 0 and 8x + 6y - 1 = 0 respectively. Show that the lines are perpendicular and nd the coordinates of A. If sin ^ x + 5 hc = cos 70c, nd a possible value of x. Simplify as a fraction the expression sin 2 60c - cos 2 45c + tan 2 30c without using a calculator. 23. Find the value of y correct to 3 signicant gures. angle must a shot be made in order to score a goal? 13. Find the domain and range of y = 3 . 2x - 1
4.
14. (a) On a number plane, draw the line 2x - y = 4. (b) On your diagram, shade the region given by y $ 0, 2x - y $ 4. 15. Sketch y = x 2 - 5x + 4. 16. Simplify sin 2 i - sin 2 i cos 2 i. 17. Find the perpendicular distance from ^ -2, 3 h to the line 5x - 12y + 20 = 0. 18. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ 1, 2 h parallel to the line through ^ -3, 4 h and ^ 5, 5 h . 19. Solve cos i = 1 for 0c # i # 360c. 2
5. 6.
7.
20. Find the gradient of the line through the origin and ^ -3, 5 h . 21. Simplify tan 20c + cot 70c . tan 20c
8.
22. Find a in degrees and minutes.
9.
10. Sketch 5x - 2y - 10 = 0. 11. On the number plane, shade in the region given by x 2 + y 2 # 9 and x - y $ 2. 12. A soccer goal is 8 m wide. A man shoots for goal when he is 9 m from one post and 11 m from the other. Within what
447
24. Find the equation of the line passing through ^ 1, 2 h that passes through the intersection of lines x - 2y - 11 = 0 and 5x - y - 19 = 0. 25. Solve 3x - 7 1 2. 26. If f ] x g = 9 - 2x 2, nd the value of f ] -1 g . 27. Find the value of x if f ] x g = 7 where f ] x g = 2 x - 1. 28. Find the exact value of tan 300c. 29. Show that 3x - 4y + 10 = 0 is a tangent to the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4. 3-x if x 2 1 30. If g ] x g = ) 2x if x # 1 (a) nd g ] 2 g and g ] -3 g (b) sketch the graph of g ] x g. 31. Find lim 3x 2 h - 4xh + 2h 2 . h "0 h
36. Simplify
9 - 9 sin 2 i .
37. (a) Find the equation of the straight line l through ^ -1, 2 h that is perpendicular to the line 3x + 6y - 7 = 0. (b) Line l cuts the x-axis at P and the y-axis at Q. Find the coordinates of P and Q. (c) Find the area of TOPQ where O is the origin. 38. Two points A and B are 100 m apart on the same side of a tower. The angle of elevation of A to the top of the tower is 20c and the angle of elevation from B is 27c. Find the height of the tower, to the nearest metre. 39. The lines 3x - y = 6, 2x + y = 14 and y = 0 enclose a triangle. Find the area of the triangle. 40. Show that f ] x g = x 6 - x 2 - 3 is an even function.
4 41. Differentiate x ^ 2x 2 + 1 h .
32. Find the exact value of cos 135c. 33. A bird at the top of a 10 m tree sees a mouse on the ground. If the angle l, how far, to of depression is 34c51 1 decimal place, does the bird need to y to reach the mouse? 34. If the point ^ 3, -7 h is the midpoint of ^ x, 3 h and ^ 8, y h, nd the values of x and y. 35.
42. Solve 3y - 7 # 20. 3 43. Differentiate x . 44. (a) Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x 3 - 2 at the point P ^ 1, -1 h . (b) The curve y = x 3 - 2 meets the y-axis at Q. Find the equation of PQ. (c) Find the equation of the normal to y = x 3 - 2 at the point ^ -1, - 3 h . (d) Find the point R where this normal cuts the x-axis. 45. Find the distance between the parallel lines 5x - 12y - 3 = 0 and 5x - 12y + 5 = 0. 46. What is the domain and range of the 3 function f ] x g = ? x+4
(a) Find AB, correct to 1 decimal place. (b) Find the area of TABC, to 3 signicant gures.
448
47. Differentiate
2x - 7 .
48. Justin walks for 3.1 km due west, then turns and walks for 2.7 km on a bearing of 205c. How far is he from his starting point? Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place. 49. Find the derivative of 4x 2 - 7x + 3 + 5x - 2 . 5x 50. Find the derivative of . x+1 51. Differentiate from rst principles f ] x g = x 2 - 3x + 2. 52. Write as a single fraction 3 4 2 - + . x 2 + 5x x x + 5 53. Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = 3x 2 - 6x + 9 at the point where x = 2. 54. If f ] x g = 2x 3 - 5x 2 + 4x - 1, nd f ] -2 g and f l ] -2 g . 55. At the point ^ 2, -3 h on the curve y = ax 2 + bx + 7, the tangent is inclined at 135c to the x-axis. Find the values of a and b. 56. Find the equation of the straight line passing through ^ 3, 6 h that also passes through the intersection of the lines x - 2y = 0 and 3x + y + 7 = 0. 57. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve f ] x g = 2x 3 - 7x + 1 at the point where x = -3. 58. Solve for x: 4 2x - 1 = 1 . 8
60. For the interval AB where A = ^ 3, -2 h and B = ^ -1, 4 h nd (a) the midpoint (b) the exact distance (c) the gradient (d) the equation of line AB. 61. Differentiate ] 3x - 2 g ] 2x + 1 g6 (a) 12 ] 3x - 2 g ] 2x + 1 g5 + 3 ] 2x + 1 g6 (b) 36 ] 2x + 1 g5 (c) 6 ] 3x - 2 g ] 2x + 1 g5 + 3 ] 2x + 1 g6 (d) 18 ] 2x + 1 g5. 62. Find an expression involving i for the triangle below (there may be more than one answer).
i 7
52 + 42 - 72 2#5#4 sin i sin a = (b) 4 5 sin i sin a = (c) 5 4 52 + 72 - 42 (d) cos i = 2#5#7 (a) cos i = 8x 3 if x 2 3 2 ] g 63. If f x = * 3x - 2 if 0 # x # 3 9 if x 1 0 evaluate f ] 3 g + f ] 1 g + f ] -1 g (a) 35 (b) 226 (c) 233 (d) 53
59. Find the domain and range of (a) y = 2x - 1 (b) y = 5 x+7
(c) y = - 4 - x 2
449
64. The equation of the normal to the parabola y = 3x 2 - 5x + 1 at the point ^ 2, 3 h is (a) 7x - y - 11 = 0 (b) 7x - y - 17 = 0 (c) x + 7y - 23 = 0 (d) x + 7y - 19 = 0
65. The linear function with equation 4x - 2y + 3 = 0 has 1 (a) gradient -2, y-intercept -1 2 3 1 (b) gradient , y-intercept 4 2 1 (c) gradient 2, y-intercept 1 2 (d) gradient 4, y-intercept 3.
536
Practice Assessment Task SET 1 3

1. 2. Solve m 2 - 5m + 6 $ 0. Find the locus of point P that moves so that it is equidistant from the points A^ -3, 1 h and B ^ 5, 7 h . Find the centre and radius of the circle with equation x 2 + 6x + y 2 - 10y - 15 = 0. If a and b are the roots of the quadratic equation 3x 2 - 2x - 1 = 0, nd the value of (a) a + b (b) ab (c) a 2 + b2 Find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix of the parabola x 2 = - 8 y. Solve ] x + 3 g + 5(x + 3) + 6 = 0.
2
13. A and B are the points ^ -4, 0 h and ^ 4, 0 h respectively. Point P ^ x, y h moves so that PA 2 + PB 2 = 64. Find the equation of the locus of P and describe it geometrically. 14. Find the equation of the circle with centre ^ -2, -3 h and radius 5 units. 15. The lines PA and PB are perpendicular, where A is ^ -2, 7 h, B is ^ 5, -1 h and P is ^ x, y h . Find the equation of the locus of P. 16. Find the gradient of the normal to the curve x 2 = - 6y at the point where x = - 4. 17. Find the locus of a point moving so that the ratio of PA to PB is 2:3 where A is ^ 3, 2 h and B is ^ 0, 7 h . 18. If 2x 2 - 3x + 1 / a(x - 1) 2 + b(x - 1) + c, nd the values of a, b and c. 19. Differentiate 9 - x2 .
3.
4.
5.
6. 7.
Find the value of k in the equation x 2 - ] k - 4 g x + 3k = 0 if the sum of the roots is -5. Find the equation of the locus of a point whose distance from the line 3x - 4y + 1 = 0 is 3 units. Find the coordinates of the vertex and focus of the parabola y = x 2 + 8x - 1.
2x x
8.
9.
20. Find the locus of the point that is equidistant from the point ^ 2, 5 h and the line y = -3. 21. Show that D ABC is similar to DCDE and hence nd y, correct to 1 decimal place.
10. Solve 2 - 9.2 + 8 = 0. 11. Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola x 2 = 16y at the point ^ -4, 1h . 12. For what values of b does the equation x 2 + 4x - 2b = 0 have real roots?
537
22. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve ] x - 2 g2 = 8y at the point where x = 6. 23. Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that moves so that it is always equidistant from the point ^ -1, 3 h and the line y = - 5. 24. Solve 2 2x - 5.2 x + 4 = 0. 25. Show that - x 2 + x - 9 1 0 for all x. 26. Differentiate ^ 3x - 1 h ^ 2x + 5 h .
4
36. Show that the quadratic equation 6x 2 + x - 15 = 0 has 2 real, rational roots. 37. Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = 2x 4 - 5x 2 - 1 at the point ^ -1, -4 h. 38. Find values of k for which the quadratic equation x 2 - 2x + k - 2 = 0 has real roots. 39. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ 5, -4 h , that is parallel to the line through ^ 7, 4 h and ^ 3, -1 h. 40. Rationalise the denominator of
27. Simplify cot x + tan x. 28. Find the centre and radius of the circle whose equation is x 2 + 10x + y 2 - 6y + 30 = 0. 29. Show that x 2 - x + 3 2 0 for all x. 30. Find the value of k in the quadratic equation x 2 - 3x + k + 1 = 0 if the roots are consecutive numbers. 31. Find the equation of the locus of the point that is equidistant from ^ -2, 1 h and ^ 4, 5 h . 32. A ship sails from port due east for 150 km, then turns and sails on a bearing of 195c for 200 km. (a) How far from port is the ship, to the nearest kilometre? (b) On what bearing, to the nearest degree, is the ship from port? 33. Find the values of a, b and c if 3x 2 - 7 / a ] x + 3 g2 + bx + c. 34. Solve 2x - 7 2 1. 35. Find the value of i in degrees and minutes. 45. Simplify a3 ^ b2 h 2 4 if a = and b = . 2 7 1 3 9 â h b
4
2+1 3 3+ 5
41. Find the values of x and y correct to 1 decimal place.
42. Given f ] x g = 8x - 3, nd the value of x for which f ] x g = 5. 43. Find the distance between ^ 0, 7 h and ^ -2, -1 h correct to 3 signicant gures. 44. Find the value of p correct to 1 decimal place.
46. Solve cos 2x = -
1 for 0c # x # 360c . 2
47. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ 3, -1 h perpendicular to the line 3 x - 2 y - 7 = 0.
538
48. Solve 5y - 3 = 5 - y. 49. Find the size of each internal angle in a regular 20-sided polygon. 50. Solve 2 cos 2 x = 1 for 0c # x # 360c . 51. Solve equations x 2 + xy + 1 = 0 and 3x - y + 5 = 0 simultaneously. 52. Factorise a 3 - 8b 3 . x+1 x+2 53. Solve = 7. 2 3 54. Find the gradient of the normal to the curve y = 2x 3 + 7x + 1 at the point where x = - 2. 55. Find the perpendicular distance from ^ 3, -2 h to the line 4x - 3y - 9 = 0. 56. Simplify
] sec i + 1 g ] sec i - 1 g .
2 4
64. Solve x 2 - 4 2 0. 65. A circle with centre at the origin O passes through the point (2, 5 ). Find the radius of the circle, and hence its equation. 66. Find values of a, b and c for which 3x 2 - 2x - 7 / a (x + 2) 2 + b (x + 2) + c. 67. What is the domain and range of y = x 2 - 3? 68. Prove that TABC is congruent to TCDE.
69. Find the area of the gure below.
57. Differentiate ] 2x + 5 g (x - 1) . 58. Find lim

x "2
x-2 . x2 - 4 59. Find the equation of the locus of point P(x, y) if PA is perpendicular to PB, given A = ^ 3, -2 h and B = ^ -5, 5 h .
60. Find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix of the parabola x 2 - 4x + 8y - 20 = 0. 61. Find the equation of the normal to the parabola x 2 = -12y at the point where x = 12. 62. Prove that the line 6x - 8y + 40 = 0 is a tangent to the circle with centre the origin and radius 4 units. 63. In the quadratic equation (k -1) x 2 - 5x + 3k + 4 = 0, the roots are reciprocals of each other. Find the value of k. 70. Find the equation of the straight line through the midpoint of (-5, 7) and (1, 3) and making an angle of 135c with the x-axis. 71. Complete the square on x 2 - 12x. 72. Solve 2y + 4 $ 9. 73. (a) Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x 3 - 3x at the point P (-2, -2).
539
(b) Find the equation of the normal to y = x 3 - 3x at P. (c) Find the point Q where this normal cuts the x-axis. 74. (a) Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = x 2 - 6x + 9 at the point where x = -1. (b) This normal cuts the curve again at point R. Find the coordinates of R. 75. The function f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c has a tangent at (1, -3) with a gradient of -1. It also passes through (4, 3) . Find the values of a, b and c. 76. The equation of the locus of point P(x, y) that moves so that it is always 4 units from ^ -1, 3 h is (a) ^ x - 1 h2 + ^ y + 3 h2 = 4 (b) ^ x + 1 h2 + ^ y - 3 h2 = 4 (c) ] x + 1 g2 + ^ y - 3 h2 = 16 (d) ^ x - 1 h + ^ y + 3 h = 16
2 2
(c) x 2 - 2x - 8y + 17 = 0 (d) y 2 - 4y + 8x - 4 = 0 79. The quadratic equation x 2 + ] k - 3 g x + k = 0 has real roots. Evaluate k (a) k # 1, k $ 9 (b) k = 1, 9 (c) 1 # k # 9 (d) k 1 1, k 2 9 80. Find the centre and radius of the circle x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 8y + 13 = 0. (a) Centre ^ -1, 4 h, radius 4 (b) Centre ^ 1, -4 h, radius 2 (c) Centre ^ -1, 4 h, radius 2 (d) Centre ^ 1, -4 h, radius 4 81. For the quadratic function y = ax 2 + bx + c to be positive denite (a) a 2 0, b 2 - 4ac 2 0 (b) a 1 0, b 2 - 4ac 2 0 (c) a 2 0, b 2 - 4ac 1 0 (d) a 1 0, b 2 - 4ac 1 0
77. If a and b are the roots of the quadratic equation x 2 - 5x + 2 = 0, a b evaluate + b a 1 2 1 (b) 12 2 1 (c) 2 2 1 (d) 10 2 (a) 11 78. The equation of the locus of point P(x, y) moving so that it is equidistant from (3, 2) and the line x = -1 is given by (a) x 2 - 2x + 8y - 15 = 0 (b) y 2 - 4y - 8x + 12 = 0
540
Answers
Chapter 1: Basic arithmetic 8. o (b) 0.07 oo (c) 0.13 oo (d) 0.16 o (a) 0.83 o oo o (g) 0.142857 or 0. 142857 (h) 1.18 (a) (h) (c) Rational (g) Irrational (d) Irrational (h) Rational 7 15 8 9 13 60 (b) 2 9 (c) 1 5 9 (d) 3 37 495 oo (d) 0.68 7 18 (e) oo (e) 1.72 4 45 15. 41.7% 7 9 (e) 67 99 o (e) 0.6 oo (f) 0.15
Problem
5 9. (f) 6 11 (g) 7 45
Exercises 1.1
1. (a) Rational (b) Rational (e) Rational (f) Irrational (i) Rational (j) Irrational (a) 18 (b) 11 (c) 6 (d) 11 (h) 1 3. 19 20 (i) 2 (j) 3 1 3 (c) 8.80 (d) 22.71 (e) - 13.20 (j) 8.16
(i)
217 990
(j) 1
o 10. (a) 0.5 11. (a) 5 8
(b) 7.4 (b) 2 1 8
o (c) 0.73 (c) 8 11
2.
(e) - 4.3
(f) 1
(g) 2
(d) 2
12. 74%
13. 77.5%
14. 17.5%
(a) 16.36 (b) 21.87
(f) 0.17 (g) 0.36 (h) 1.20 (i) - 4.27 4. 8. 1300 600 5. 950 6. 3000
Exercises 1.4
1. 3 20 (d) 8. 3 28 2. 7 20 3 (e) 5 1 20 7 4. $547.56 5. 714.3 g 6. 24 3. (a) (b) (c) 1 17 20 7 10
7. 11 000
9. $8 000 000 10. $34 600 000 12. 0.73 13. 33 14. 3.248 15. 4.21
7. $65
11. 844 km 16. 1.7
17. 79 cents 18. 2.73 19. 1.1 20. 3.6 m 22. 1.8 g 23. $3.20
179 cm 9. (a) 11.9 (b) 5.3 (c) 19 (d) 3.2 (e) 3.5 (f) 0.24 (g) 0.000 18 (h) 5720 (i) 0.0874 (j) 0.376 11. 54.925 mL 15. 402.5 g 19. 573 12. 1152.125 g 13. $10.71
21. $281.93
10. $52.50 14. 5.9% 18. 3.2 m
24. (a) 7.95 (b) 30.03 (c) 0.37 (d) 5.74 (e) 0.52 25. 0.2
16. 41.175 m 20. $2898
17. $30.92
Exercises 1.2
1. 6. 1 - 1.2 4 15 2. - 11 3. - 56 4. 10 5. - 4 9. 6.57 13. 10 14. 1
Problem
8. - 35.52 12. 23 5 5 minutes after 1 oclock. 11
7. - 7.51 11. - 7 17. 1
10. - 2 15. 5
Exercises 1.5
1. 2. (a) 500 (a) 13.7 (a) a 17 (g) y 6 (m) w 10 (b) 145 (b) 1.1 (b) y 0 = 1 (h) x 21 (n) p 5 y
2
16. 3
18. 60 19. 20 20. 9
(c)
1 64
(d) 3 (d) 2.7 (d) w
(e) 2 (e) - 2.6 (e) x 5 (k) a b3 a2 (f) 0.5
Exercises 1.3
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. (a) 16 25 (b) 51 1000 (c) 5 1 20 (d) 11 4 5
(c) 0.8 (c) a - 4
3.
(f) p 10 (l) x 10 y 45
o (a) 0.4 (b) 1.875 (c) 0.416 (a) 1 50 (b) 3 8 (c) 1 1000
oo (d) 0.63 97 1000
(i) 4x 10 (o) x -3
(j) 81y - 8
(p) a - 2 b 3 or
(d) 1
(a) 0.27 (b) 1.09 (c) 0.003 (d) 0.0623 1 (a) 35% (b) 33 % 3 2 (c) 226 % 3 (d) 0.1% 4.
(q) x - 5 y 2 or
x5 (c) m4 (d) k10 (e) a -8 (f) x (g) mn2
(a) x14 (b) a -7 (h) p - 1
(a) 124% (b) 70% (c) 40.5% (d) 127.94% (a) 0.52; 13 25 (b) 0.07; 7 100 (c) 0.168; 217 500 21 125 49 400 5.
(i) 9x22 (j) x21 a8

8
(a) p5q15 (b) (f) x4y10
(d) 1.09; 1
9 100
(e) 0.434;
(f) 0.1225;
b 2k 23 (g) 27
(c)
64a 3 b 12
(d) 49a10b2 (e) 8m17 (i) a3 (j) 125x - 21 y 18
(h) 16y47
ANSWERS
541
6.
1 2
7. 324
2 2
8. 2
10 27
9. (a) a3b 1 12. 18 17. 5 22 2 58
(b)
1 25
5. 6.
(a) x 2
(b) x
1 2 3
(c) x 3
2
(d) x 3
2
(e) x 4
1
10. (a) pq r 1 81
7 (b) 32 1 108
4 11. 9 16. 1 12
4 13. 27 18. 49 3888
(a) x + x 2 + 2x 2 (d) x + x - 1 + 2
(b) a 3 - b 3 (e) x
1 2
(c) p 2 + p - 1 + 2p 2
3 2
- 3x
+x
7
5 2
14.
15.
7.
(a) (d)
1
3
a - 2b 1
(b)
3
^ y - 3 h2
6
(c)
4
] 6a + 1 g4
Exercises 1.6
1. 1 1 1 1 1 (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 1 4 27 343 10 000 256 1 1 1 1 1 1 (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) 1 7 64 9 32 81 81 1 1 1 1 (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) 1 36 125 100 000 128 1 1 (s) (t) 64 64 (a) 1 11 1 (a) 1 (b) 16 (c) 1 (d) 1 (e) 1 (f) 125 (g) 1 2 25 3 3 13 19 1 (h) 49 (i) 3 (j) 32 (k) 2 (l) 1 (m) 1 (n) 1 8 3 36 81 5 16 7 (o) 1 (p) 16 (q) - 15 (r) (s) 1 (t) 8 23 25 (a) m - 3 (g) 2x (l)
-4 -6
3 4 ^ x + y h5
(e)
7 9 ] 3x + 8 g2
Exercises 1.8
1. (a) 3.8 # 10 3 (d) 1.2 #10 7 (g) 9 #10 2.
2
(b) 1.23#10 6 (e) 8.67 # 10 9

4
(c) 6.19 # 10 4 (f) 4.16 # 10 5 (i) 2 # 10 7 (j) 8 #10 4
(h) 1.376 # 10
(a) 5.7 # 10 - 2 (d) 6.2 #10 (g) 7.6#10

-4 -6
(b) 5.5 # 10 - 5 (e) 2 #10

-6 -1
(c) 4 # 10 - 3 (i) 8.5#10 - 3 (j) 7#10 - 11
2.
(f) 8#10 - 8
(h) 2.3#10
3.
(a) 36 000 (b) 27 800 000 (c) 9 250 (d) 6 330 000 (e) 400 000 (f) 0.072 3 (g) 0.000 097 (h) 0.000 000 038 (i) 0.000 007 (j) 0.000 5 (a) 240 000 (b) 9 200 000 (c) 11 000 (d) 0.36 (e) 1.3 (f) 9.0 (g) 16 (h) 320 (i) 2900 (j) 9.1 (a) 6.61 (b) 0.686 (c) 8.25 (d) 1.30
3.
(b) x - 1 (h) 3y
2
(c) p - 7
(d) d 9 (e) k 5 (f) x - 2 3t - 8 (j) 5 2x - 1 (k) 7
2y - 7 5m (m) (n) ] 3x + 4 g- 2 (o) ] a + b g- 8 2 3 (p) ] x - 2 g- 1 (q) ^ 5p + 1 h- 3 (r) 2 ] 4t - 9 g- 5

]x + 1g 4
- 11
1 z- 6 (i) z - 6 or 2 2
4.
5. 6.
1.305 # 10 10
7. 6.51 # 10 - 10
(s) 4. (a) (h)
(t) 1 x 1 8x 3
2 6
5 ] a + 3b g 9 1 y
3
-7
1 t 5 x7
5
(b) (i) 1
(c)
(d)
1 n
8
(e) 1
1 w
10
(f)
2 x
(g)
3 m
4
Exercises 1.9
1. (a) 7 (b) 5 (c) 6 (d) 0 (e) 2 (f) 11 (g) 6 (h) 24 (i) 25 (j) 125 2. (a) 5 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 14 (e) 4 (f) 67 (g) 7 (h) 12 (i) 6 (j) 10 3. (a) 3 (b) 3 (c) 1 (d) 3 (e) 1 4. (a) a (b) - a (c) 0 (d) 3a (e) 3a (f) 0 (g) a + 1 (h) -a - 1 (i) x - 2 (j) 2 - x (a) | a + b | = 6 (b) | a + b | = 3 (c) | a + b | = 1 (d) | a + b | = 1 (e) | a + b | = 10 (a) (d) 7. |a | + | b |= 6 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b | |a | + | b |= 3 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b | |a | + | b |= 5 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b | |a | + | b |= 9 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b | | a | + | b | = 10 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b | (b) (e) x2 = | x | = 2 x2 = | x | = 9 (c) x2 = | x | = 3
1 (j) 4n 1
(k)
9
] x + 1 g6
1 (l) 8y + z
(m)
]k - 3g
(r) ] a + b g2
^ 3x + 2y h x-y 3x + y 7 o (s) (t) e x+y 2w - z
(n)
(o) x5 (p) y10 (q)
p 2
5.
Exercises 1.7
1. (a) 9 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 2 (e) 7 (f) 10 (g) 2 (h) 8 (i) 4 (j) 1 (k) 3 (l) 2 (m) 0 (n) 5 (o) 7 (p) 2 1 1 (q) 4 (r) 27 (s) (t) 2 16 (a) 2.19 (b) 2.60 (c) 1.53 (d) 0.60 (e) 0.90 (f) 0.29 (a) 3 y (e)
1
6.
x2 = | x | = 5 x2 = | x | = 4
2. 3.
(b) 3 y 2 or _ 3 y i 1
(c) (g)
1 x
5
(d) 1
2x + 5 or 1 ^ 5 x + 7 h2
1
3x - 1
1
(f) 3 6q + r
3
] x + 7 g2
1
4.
(a) t 2
(b) y 5
2 3 1 2
(c) x 2
(d) ] 9 - x g 3
3 2
(e) ] 4s + 1 g 2
5
(f) ] 2t + 3 g (i) ] x - 2 g (l)
(g) ^ 5x - y h (j)
1
(h) ] 3x + 1 g 2
1
2a 2 2 y - 1k 3
1 ^ y + 7 h 2 (k) 5 ] x + 4 g 3 2 3 3 4 (m) _ x 2 + 2 i 5
(a) x + 5 for x 2 - 5 and - x - 5 for x 1 - 5 (b) b - 3 for b 2 3 and 3 - b for x 1 3 (c) a + 4 for a 2 - 4 and - a - 4 for a 1 - 4 (d) 2y - 6 for y 2 3 and 6 - 2y for y 1 3 (e) 3x + 9 for x 2 - 3 and - 3x - 9 for x 1 - 3 (f) 4 - x for x 1 4 and x - 4 for x 2 4 1 1 (g) 2k + 1 for k 2 - and - 2k - 1 for k 1 2 2 2 2 (h) 5x - 2 for x 2 and - 5x + 2 for x 1 5 5 (i) a + b for a 2 - b and - a - b for a 1 - b (j) p - q for p 2 q and q - p for p 1 q x = !3 9. !1 10. !1, x ! 2
8.
542
Test yourself 1
1. (a) 9 20 (b) 0.14 (c) 0.625 2. (a) 1 49 (b) 1 5 (d) 157 200 1 (c) 3 (e) 1.2%
Chapter 2: Algebra and surds
Exercises 2.1
1. 7. 7x -y 2. 3a 8. 5x 14. - x 3. z 9. 0 4. 6a 5. 3b 6. 3r 12. 10w 18. - 10x
(f) 73.3% 3.
(a) 8.83 (b) 1.55 (c) 1.12 (d) 342 (e) 0.303 4. (a) 1 (e) - 10 (f) - 1 (g) 4 5. (a) x 9 8x 18 29 (b) 25y 6 (c) a 11 b 6 (d) (e) 1 6. (a) 27 40 1 1 1 (b) 3 (c) 12 (d) 2 (e) 12 7. (a) 4 (b) 6 (c) 19 7 2 2 1 1 (d) (e) 4 (f) 3 (g) (h) 2 (i) 1 (j) 4 7 64 (b) 1 (c) 39 (d) 2
10. 3k
11. 9t
13. - m
15. 0
16. 5b
17. 11b
19. 6x - 6y
20. a - 3b
21. 4xy + 2y
22. - 6ab 2
23. m 2 - 6m + 12 26. - 2ab + 10b
24. p 2 - 2p - 6 27. 2bc - ac
25. 8x + 3y
28. 2a 5 - 9x 3 + 1
8.
(a) a
(b) x y
30 18
(c) p
(d) 16b
36
(e) 8x y
11
9. (a) n
1
1 2
29. x 3 - 2xy 2 + 3x 2 y + 2y 3
30. 3x 3 + x 2 - 7x - 6
(b) x - 5 (c) ^ x + y h- 1 (f) 2x - 1 10. (a) 1 (g) 1 -3 x 2 (c)
(d) ] x + 1 g
4
1 4
(e) ] a + b g 7
9
Exercises 2.2
3 4
(h) x 3 x+1
(i) ] 5x + 3 g 7 (d) 1 x-y
(j) m (e)
1. 5. 9.
10b
2. 8xy
3. 10p 2
4. - 6wz
15ab 6. 14xyz 7. 48abc 8. 12d 2 12a3 10. - 27y3 11. 32x10 14. 21p 3 q 4 18. 81t 12
1 ] 4t - 7 g4 1 1 (f) 5 a + b (g) (h) 4 b 3 (i) 3 ] 2x + 3 g4 (j) 3 x x3 11. | a + b | = 2 | a | +| b | = 8 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b | a5 (b) 4 n 12. 1 1 13. 192
1
12. 6a 2 b 3 15. 5a 3 b 3 19. - 14m
13. - 10a 3 b 2
16. - 8h 10 17. k 3 p 3
11
20. 24x y
7 14. 689 mL 15. (a) 6 h (b) 12

1
1 (c) 8
7
Exercises 2.3
1. 8. 6x 2. 2 3. 4a 2 4. 8a 5. 4a 6. y 2 7. 3p
(d) 33.3% 19. (a) x 2
16. $38 640 17. 70% 18. 6.3 # 10 23 (c) ] x + 3 g 6 (d) ] 2x - 3 g- 11 21. (a) 7 9 (e) y 3 (b) 41 330
(b) y - 1
20. (a) 1.3 # 10 - 5 22. (a) 1 x

3
(b) 1.23 # 10 11 b 5 (c) c m a
(b)
1 2a + 5
23. 14 500
ab 4 1 -2 9. 10. - 3x 3 11. 3a 12. 13. qs 3y 2 3ab 2 4 7 6 2 a b 2 z b 14. 15. 16. 6p 4 q 17. 18. 4c 2a 3c 2 d 2x 2 x3 z3 3y 20. a 13 2b 6
24. LHS = | -2 + - 5 | = 7, RHS = | -2 | + | -5 | = 7. So | a + b | # | a | +| b | since 7 # 7.
19. -
Challenge exercise 1
1. 4. 9. 11. 4 278 303 2. 1 11 18 3. 0.502, 51%,
14
Exercises 2.4
1. 51 o , 0. 5 99 5. 9. 2x - 8 2. 6h + 9 3. - 5a + 10 4. 2xy + 3x x 2 - 2x 6. 6a 2 - 16ab 7. 2a 2 b + ab 2 8. 5n 2 - 20n 3x3 y2 + 6x2 y3
2
1 1 53 % 5. 3 16 18 h 10. 1.98
6. 3.04 # 10
3271 7. 83% 8. 1 9990
10. 4k + 7
11. 2t - 17 18. a 2 - 2a + 4 21. 4x - 1
12. 4y + 11y 15. - 3m + 1

2
13. - 5b - 6
14. 8 - 2x
2
16. 8h - 19 17. d - 6 20. 2ab - 2a b + b 24. 5t - 6
LHS = 2 ^ 2 k - 1 h + 2 k + 1 = 2k+1 - 2 + 2k+1 = 2:2 k + 1 - 2 = 2 ^ 2k+1 - 1 h = RHS ` 2 ^ 2k - 1 h + 2k+1 = 2 ^ 2k+1 - 1 h
19. 3x - 9x - 5 22. - 7y + 4
23. 2 b
25. 2a + 26
Exercises 2.5
1. 4. 7. a 2 + 7a + 10 m 2 - 6m + 8 2x 2 + x - 6 2. x 2 + 2x - 3 5. x 2 + 7x + 12 8. h 2 - 10h + 21 14. n 2 - 4 3. 2y 2 + 7y - 15 6. y 2 - 3y - 10 9. x 2 - 25 15. 4x 2 - 9 19. x 2 - 9
o , 0, 12. 24 35 13. - 0.34, 2, 1. 5
3 7
2 14. 6 % 3
1 1 15. when x 2 - 1, when x 1 - 1 16. 0.73 x-1 1-x

17. 0.6% 18 4.54 19. 4.14 # 10 - 20
10. 15a 2 - 17a + 4 11. 8y 2 + 6y - 9 12. xy + 7x - 4y - 28 13. x 3 - 2x 2 + 3x - 6 16. 16 - 49y 2 20. y 2 - 36 17. a 2 - 4b 2 18. 9x 2 - 16y 2
20. | a + b | = | a | + | b | when a 2 0, b 2 0 or a 1 0, b 1 0; | a + b | 1 | a | + | b | when a 2 0, b 1 0 or a 1 0, b 2 0; ` | a + b | # | a + b | for all a, b
21. 9a 2 - 1
22. 4z 2 - 49
ANSWERS
543
23. x 2 - 2xy + 11x - 18y + 18 24. 2ab + 2b 2 - 7b - 6a + 3 25. x + 8

3 2
Exercises 2.8
1. 4. 7.
]x + 4g]2 + bg ]m - 2g]m + 3g
26. a - 27
3 2
27. a + 18a + 81
2
2. ^ y - 3 h ] a + b g
3. ] x + 5 g ] x + 2 g 9. ^ y + 1 h ] a + 1 g 12. (m - 2) (1 - 2y) 17. ] x - 3 g ^ 7 - y h 20. ] a + 3 g ] 2 - b g
28. k - 8k + 16 31. 4x 2 + 12x + 9

2 2
29. x + 4x + 4 32. 4t 2 - 4t + 1
2
30. y - 14y + 49
2
5. ] d - c g ] a + b g 6. ] x + 1 g ^ x 2 + 3 h 8. ^ 2y - x h ^ x + y h 11. (y + 3) (1 + a)
2
] 5a - 3 g ] b + 2 g
33. 9a + 24ab + 16b 35. 4a + 4ab + b 38. a - 2ab + b

2 2 2
34. x - 10xy + 25y

2 2 2 2
2 2
10. ] x + 5 g ] x - 1 g
36. a - b 39. a + b
3 3
37. a + 2ab + b 40. a - b

3 3
13. ^ x + 5y h ^ 2x - 3y h
14. ^ a + b h ] ab - 4 g
15. ] 5 - x g ] x + 3 g 16. (x + 7) (x 3 - 4) 18. ] d + 3 g ] 4 - e g 19. ] x - 4 g ^ 3 + y h 21. (x - 3) (x 2 + 6) 22. ^ q - 3 h ^ p + q h
Exercises 2.6
1. 4. 7. t + 8t + 16
2
2. z - 12z + 36
2
3. x - 2x + 1
2
23. ] x - 2 g ^ 3x 2 - 5 h 25. ^ y + 7 h ] x - 4 g
2 2
24. ] a - 3b g ] 4 + c g 26. (x - 4) (x 3 - 5) 29. 5 (y - 3) (1 + 2x)
y 2 + 16y + 64 n 2 + 2n + 1
2
5. q 2 + 6q + 9 8. 4b 2 + 20b + 25 11. x + 2xy + y

2 2 2 2
6. k 2 - 14k + 49 9. 9 - 6x + x 2 12. 9a - 6ab + b

2
27. (2x - 3) (2x + 4) = 2 (2x - 3) (x 2 + 2) 28. 3 (a + 2b) (a + 3) 30. ] r + 2 g ] rr - 3 g
10. 9y - 6y + 1
2
13. 16d + 40de + 25e 16. p 2 - 1 20. x 2 - 25y 2

4 2
14. t - 16 18. x 2 - 100
15. x 2 - 9 19. 4a 2 - 9 23. x 4 - 4 4 26. x + 4 + 2 x

2
17. r 2 - 36
21. 16a 2 - 1
2
22. 49 - 9x 2
2 2
Exercises 2.9
1. 4. 7.
]x + 3g]x + 1g ] t + 4 g2 ]v - 3g]v - 5g
24. x + 10x + 25 27. a 2 1 a2
25. 9a b - 16c
2. ^ y + 4 h ^ y + 3 h 8. ] t - 3 g
3. ] m + 1 g2
28. x 2 - ^ y - 2 h2 = x 2 - y 2 + 4y - 4
5. ] z + 3 g ] z - 2 g
2
6. ] x + 1 g ] x - 6 g 9. ] x + 10 g ] x - 1 g
29. ] a + b g2 + 2 ] a + b g c + c 2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 + 2ac + 2bc + c 2 30. ] x + 1 g2 - 2 ] x + 1 g y + y 2 = x 2 + 2x + 1 - 2xy - 2y + y 2 31. 12a 32. 32 - z

2
10. ^ y - 7 h ^ y - 3 h 12. ^ y + 12 h ^ y - 3 h 14. ] a - 2 g

2
11. ] m - 6 g ] m - 3 g 13. ] x - 8 g ] x + 3 g 17. ] n - 6 g ] n - 4 g 18. ] x - 5 g 2 20. ] k - 2 g ] k - 5 g 21. ] x + 4 g ] x - 3 g
33. 9x + 8x - 3
2
15. ] x - 2 g ] x + 16 g
34. x 2 + 3xy + y 2 - 2x
3 2
35. 14n 2 - 4 37. x

2
16. ^ y + 4 h ^ y - 9 h
4 2 2 4
36. x - 12x + 48x - 64

3 2
38. x - 2x y + y
19. ^ p + 9 h ^ p - 1 h
39. 8a + 60a + 150a + 125 40. 4x + 16x + 15x - 4x - 4

4 3 2
22. ] m - 7 g ] m + 1 g 23. ^ q + 10 h ^ q + 2 h 24. ] d - 5 g ] d + 1 g 25. ] l - 9 g ] l - 2 g
Problem
a = 2, b = 7, c = 9, d = 4, e = 3, f = 8, g = 0, h = 6, i = 1
Exercises 2.10
1. 3. (2a + 1) (a + 5) 2. ^ 5y + 2 h ^ y + 1 h (3x + 7) (x + 1) 4. (3x + 2) (x + 2) 5. (2b - 3) (b - 1) (7x - 2) (x - 1) 7. ^ 3y - 1 h ^ y + 2 h 8. ] 2x + 3 g ] x + 4 g
Exercises 2.7
1. 5. 9. 2^ y + 3h 6 ^ 4 - 3y h 2. 5 ] x - 2 g 3. 3 ] m - 3 g 4. 2 ] 4x + 1 g 6. x ] x + 2 g 7. m ] m - 3 g 8. 2y ^ y + 2 h 13. 2xy ] 4x - z g 14. a ] 6b + 3 - 2a g 16. q 2 _ 3q 3 - 2 i 17. 5b 2 ] b + 3 g 20. ^ y - 1 h ^ 2 - y h
6. 9.
^ 5p - 2 h ^ p + 3 h 10. ] 3x + 5 g ] 2x + 1 g
12. ] 5x - 1 g ] 2x + 1 g 14. (3x + 4) (2x - 3) 16. ] 4n - 3 g ] n - 2 g
11. (2y + 1) (y - 6) 13. (4t - 1) (2t - 3) 15. ^ 6y - 1 h ^ y + 8 h
3a ] 5 - a g 10. ab ] b + 1 g 11. 2xy ] 2x - 1 g
12. 3mn ^ n 2 + 3 h 15. x ^ 5x - 2 + y h

2 2
17. ] 4t - 1 g ] 2t + 5 g 18. ^ 3q + 2 h ^ 4q + 5 h 19. ] 4r - 1 g ] 2r + 6 g = 2 ] 4r - 1 g ] r + 3 g 20. ] 2x - 5 g ] 2x + 3 g 22. ^ 2p - 3 h ^ 3p + 2 h 24. ] 3b - 4 g ] 4b - 9 g 26. ] 3x + 5 g2 29. ] 6a - 1 g2 21. ^ 6y - 1 h ^ y - 2 h 23. (8x + 7) (x + 3) 25. (6x + 1) (x - 9) 28. ] 5k - 2 g2
18. 3a b ] 2b - a g 19. (m + 5) (x + 7) 21. (7 + y) (4 - 3x) 23. ] 2t + 1 g ^ x - y h 25. 3x ] 2x + 3 g

2
22. ] a - 2 g ] 6x + 5 g 24. ] 3x - 2 g ] a + 2b - 3c g
3
26. 3q _ pq 2 - 2 i
27. 3ab ^ 5a 3 b 2 + 1 h 30. 4ab 2 ^ 6ab 3 + 4 h 33. (x + 4) (y 2 + 2)
28. 4x 2 ] x - 6 g 34. - ] a + 1 g
29. 5m 2 n ^ 7mn 3 - 5 h 35. (a 2 + 1) (4ab - 3)
27. ^ 4y + 3 h2 30. ] 7m + 6 g2
31. 2rr ] r + h g 32. ] x - 3 g ] x + 2 g
544
Exercises 2.11
1. 5. 9.
Exercises 2.14
2 2
^y - 1h
2 2
2. (x + 3)
3. (m + 5)
2 2
4. (t - 2)
2 2
1. 3. 5. 8.
2
2 ] x + 3 g ] x - 3 g 2. 3 ^ p + 3 h ^ p - 4 h 5 ^ y - 1 h _ y 2 + y + 1 i 4. 2ab ^ a + 2b) (2a - 1 h 5 ] a - 1 g2 6. - ] 2x - 3 g ] x - 4 g 7. 3z ] z + 5 g ] z + 4 g ab ] 3 + 2ab g ] 3 - 2ab g 9. x ] x + 1 g ] x - 1 g 12. - 7 ] 2x + 1 g 14. ] x - 1 g ] x + 2 g ^ x 2 - 2x + 4 h
(x - 6)
6. ] 2x + 3 g
7. ] 4b - 1 g
8. ] 3a + 2 g
] 5x - 4 g2
10. ^ 7y + 1 h2 14. ] 9a - 2 g2 18. d 3y + 1 2 n 5
11. ^ 3y - 5 h2 15. ] 7m + 6 g2 1 2 19. c x + m x
12. ] 4k - 3 g2 16. d t + 20. d 5k 1 n 2
13. ] 5x + 1 g2 17. d x 2 2 n 3
2 2 n k
10. 2 ] 3x - 2 g ] x + 2 g 11. ] m - 5 g ] 3 + n g 13. ^ y + 5 h ^ y + 4 h ^ y - 4 h 15. ] x + 1 g ^ x 2 - x + 1 h ] x - 1 g ^ x 2 + x + 1 h
Exercises 2.12
1. 4. 7. (a + 2) (a - 2)
]x + 5g]x - 5g
2. (x + 3) (x - 3)
3. (y + 1) (y - 1) 6. (4y + 3) (4y - 3)
16. x ] x + 2 g ] x - 5 g 17. ] x + 3 g (x - 3) 2 18. y (2xy + 1) (2xy - 1) 22. (x + 2) (x + 5) (x - 5) 19. 3 ] 2 - b g ^ 4 + 2b + b 2 h 23. z ] z + 3 g2 20. 3 ] 3x - 2 g ] 2x + 5 g 21. 3 ] x - 1 g2 24. ] x + 1 g ] x - 1 g ] 2x + 3 g ] 2x - 3 g 25. 2 ] x + 2 g ] x - 2 g ^ x + y h _ x 2 - xy + y 2 i 26. 4a (a + 3) (a - 3) 27. 5x ] 2 - x g ^ 4 + 2x + x 2 h 29. 4k (k + 5) 2 28. (a + 2) (a - 2) (a + 3) (a - 3) 30. 3 (x + 1) (x - 1) (x + 3)
5. (2x + 7) (2x - 7)
(1 + 2z) (1 - 2z) 8. ] 5t + 1 g ] 5t - 1 g 9. ] 3t + 2 g ] 3t - 2 g 11. (x + 2y) (x - 2y) 13. ] 2a + 3b g ] 2a - 3b g 15. ] 2a + 9b g ] 2a - 9b g 17. (a + b - 3) (a - b + 1) 1 1 19. d x + n d x - n 2 2
10. ] 3 + 4x g ] 3 - 4x g 12. ^ 6x + y h ^ 6x - y h
14. ^ x + 10y h ^ x - 10y h
16. ^ x + 2 + y h ^ x + 2 - y h 18. ] z + w + 1 g ] z - w - 1 g 20. e y 3 + 1oe y 3
- 1 o 21. ^ x + 2y + 3 h ^ x - 2y + 1 h
Exercises 2.15
1. 3. 5. 7. x 2 + 4x + 4 = ] x + 2 g2 2. b 2 - 6b + 9 = ] b - 3 g2 4. y 2 + 8y + 16 = ^ y + 4 h2
2
22. (x 2 + 1) (x 2 - 1) = (x 2 + 1) (x + 1) (x - 1) 23. _ 3x 3 + 2y i _ 3x 3 - 2y i 24. _ x 2 + 4y 2 i ^ x + 2y h ^ x - 2y h 25. (a 4 + 1) (a 2 + 1) (a + 1) (a - 1)
x 2 - 10x + 25 = ] x - 5 g2 m - 14m + 49 = ] m - 7 g
2
6. q 2 + 18x + 81 = ^ q + 9 h2
x 2 + 2x + 1 = ] x + 1 g2
8. t 2 - 16t + 64 = ] t - 8 g2
Exercises 2.13
1. 3. 5. 7. 9. (b - 2) (b 2 + 2b + 4)
]t + 1g^t - t + 1h
2
9. 2. ] x + 3 g ^ x 2 - 3x + 9 h
2
x 2 - 20x + 100 = ] x - 10 g2
10. w 2 + 44w + 484 = ] w + 22 g2 11. x 2 - 32x + 256 = ] x - 16 g2 13. x 2 - 7x + 15. x 2 + 9x + 17. k 2 49 7 2 = dx - n 4 2 81 9 2 = dx + n 4 2 12. y 2 + 3y + 3 2 9 = dy + n 4 2
4. (a - 4) (a + 4a + 16) 6. ^ 2 + 3y h _ 4 - 6y + 9y i
2
(1 - x) (1 + x + x )
2 2
(y + 2z) (y - 2yz + 4z 2)
8. (x - 5y) (x 2 + 5xy + 25y 2) x x 2 3x - 3ne + + 9o 4 2 2
14. a 2 + a + 16. y 2 2
^ 2x + 3y h _ 4x 2 - 6xy + 9y 2 i 10. ] ab - 1 g ^ a 2 b 2 + ab + 1 h
12. d
1 1 2 = da + n 4 2 25 5 2 = dy - n 4 16
5y 2
11. (10 + 2t) (100 - 20t + 4t 2) 10 1 100 10 1 13. d + ne 2 + o a b ab b 2 a
11k 121 11 n + = dk 4 2 16
14. ^ x + 1 - y h _ x 2 + 2x + 1 + xy + y + y 2 i 15. ^ 5xy + 6z h _ 25x 2 y 2 - 30xyz + 36z 2 i 17. d 1 x x x ne1 + + o 9 3 3

2 2 2
16. - 9 ^ a 2 - a + 1 h
18. x 2 + 6xy + 9y 2 = ^ x + 3y h2 19. a 2 - 4ab + 4b 2 = ] a - 2b g2 20. p 2 - 8pq + 16q 2 = ^ p - 4q h2
Exercises 2.16
1. 6. 10. 14. a+2 1 y-4 p+5 3
2
18. ^ x + y + 3 h _ y - 3y - xy + 9 + 6x + x i 19. ^ x + y - 1 h _ x 2 + 4x - xy + y 2 - 5y + 7 i 20. (2a + 6 - b) (4a 2 + 24a + 2ab + 6b + b 2 + 36) 2. 2t - 1 7. 3.
4y + 1 3 8.
4.
4 2d - 1 9.
5.
x 5x - 2
2 ] b - 2a g a-3 a+1 a+3 15.
s-1 s+3 3+y

2
b2 + b + 1 b+1 13. x - 3
11.
12.
x + 2x + 4
p-2 4p - 2p + 1
a+b 2a - b
ANSWERS
545
Exercises 2.17
1. (a) 5x 4 (b) 13y + 3 15 (b) (c) a+8 12 (d) 4p + 3 6 (c) (e) x - 13 6
Exercises 2.20
1. 3 5 7. - 7 2 13. - 3 2. 2 3. 6 3 4. 3 3 5. - 3 5 11. 6. 3 6 2 12. 5 3 9. - 4 2 15. 5 7
8. 8 5 14. 2
10. 4 5 16. 2
2.
(a)
b 2a - 1 ab
^ p - 2 h _ q2 - q + 1 i
q+1
]x - 3g]x - 1g (e) ]x - 5g]x - 2g
b 2 ^ x + 2y h 10 ] 2b - 1 g
17. 13 6 21. 7-5 2
18. - 9 10
19. 47 3
20. 5 2 - 2 3
(d)
x 2 - xy + y 2
22. - 2 3 - 4 5 2x (d) x+2 2]x - 1g (f) ]x + 1g]x - 3g
23. 7 6 + 3 5
24. - 2 - 2 3
25. - 17 5 + 10 2
3.
5 (a) x
-x + 2 (b) x ]x - 1g
a+b+3 (c) a+b
Exercise 2.21
1. 21 2. 15 3. 3 6 9. 60 4. 10 14 10. 5. - 6 6 6. 30
^ p + qh^ p - qh + 1 p2 - q2 + 1 = (e) p+q p+q

- 3x + 8 (g) ]x + 2g]x - 2g (i) a+2 (h) ] a + 1 g2
7. - 12 55
8. 14
12 = 2 3
11. 2 48 = 8 3 13. 2 20 = 4 5 16. 28 17. 30
12. 15 28 = 30 7 14. - 84 15. 2 19. 18 22. 4 3 28. 1 3 5 5 2 2 23. 1 29. 2 3 1 2 35. 5 7 24. 8 6 18. - 2 105 21. 2 6 27. 1 2 5 9 2 5
2 _ 3y 2 + 14y + 13 i
^y + 2h^y + 3h^y - 1h
x2 ] x + 2 g 8 _ y 2 - 3y + 9 i (b)
- ] 5x + 22 g (j) ]x + 4g]x - 4g]x + 3g
4.
(a)
^y + 2h^y + 1h
15y
20. 30 50 = 150 2 25. 2 3 3 2 2 26. 1 3 10 3 2
5.
x 2 + 10x - 24 3b 2 - 5b - 10 (d) (e) x 2 ]x - 3g]x - 4g 2b ] b + 1 g 3x - 13 3 - 5x (a) (b) ]x - 5g]x - 2g]x + 3g ]x + 2g]x - 2g (c) (c) 3p 2 + 5pq - 2q 2 pq ^ p + q h ^ p - q h y ^x + y + 1h (d) a 2 - 2ab - b 2 + 1 ]a + bg]a - bg
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
Exercises 2.22
1. (a) 10 + 6 (b) 2 6 - 15 (c) 12 + 8 15 (h) 5 - 5 15 (d) 5 14 - 2 21 (f) 5 33 + 3 21 (i) 6 + 30 (e) - 6 + 4 18 = - 6 + 12 2 (g) - 6 - 12 6
(e)
^x + yh^x - yh
Exercises 2.18
1. (a) - 7.1 (b) - 6.9 (c) 48.1 (d) - 37.7 4. 375 (e) 0.6 5. - 196 3 4 2. (f) 2.3 (g) - 5.3 6. 5.5 7. 377 3. - 7
(j) 2 54 + 6 = 6 6 + 6 (l) 210 - 14 15 (o) 4 3 - 12 (n) - 10 - 2 2
(k) - 8 + 12 12 = - 8 + 24 3 (m) 10 6 - 120
2. 47
8. 284 9. - 40 14. 3 4
10. 51.935 11. - 1
(a) 10 + 3 6 + 3 5 + 9 3 (b) 10 - 35 - 2 + 14 (c) 2 10 - 6 + 10 15 - 15 6 (d) 12 20 + 18 60 - 8 10 - 12 30 = 24 5 + 36 15 - 8 10 - 12 30 (e) 52 - 13 10 (f) 15 - 15 + 18 10 - 6 6 (i) - 12 (j) 43 (k) 3 (l) - 241 (p) 25 + 6 14 (o) 11 - 4 6 (g) 4 (h) - 1
12. 22.4 17.
13. 1838.8
15. 15 16. 10 21. 4
12 = 2 3
18. 23.987 19. 352.47 20. 93
Exercises 2.19
1. (a) 2 3 (f) 10 2 (k) 4 7 (p) 6 3 2. (a) 6 3 (f) 8 14 3. (a) (f) 4. 18 160 (b) 3 7 (g) 4 3 (l) 10 3 (q) 3 11 (b) 20 5 (g) 72 5 (b) (g) 20 117 (c) 2 6 (h) 5 3 (m) 8 2 (r) 5 5 (c) 28 2 (h) 30 2 176 98 (d) (i) (d) 4 7 (e) 16 5 (j) 24 5 5. (c) 128 363 (e) (j) 75 1008 6. 9. (h) (d) 5 2 (i) 4 2 (n) 9 3 (e) 6 2 (j) 3 6 (o) 7 5 3. 4.
(m) - 6
(n) 7 + 2 10
(q) 57 + 12 15
(r) 27 - 4 35 (t) 53 + 12 10 (d) 19 + 6 2 (e) 9
(s) 77 - 12 40 = 77 - 24 10 (a) 18 (b) 108 2 (c) 432 2
(a) a = 21, b = 80 (a) a - 1 k = 25
(b) a = 19, b = - 7
(i) 14 10
(b) 2p - 1 - 2 p ^ p - 1 h 7. 2x - 3y - 5 xy 8. a = 17, b = 240
(a) x = 45 (b) x = 12 (c) x = 63 (d) x = 50 (e) x = 44 (f) x = 147 (g) x = 304 (h) x = 828 (i) x = 775 (j) x = 960
a = 107, b = - 42
10. 9 + 5 units 2
546
Exercises 2.23
1. (a) (e) (h) 7 7 (b) 6 4 (f) (c) 2 15 5 (d) 6 14 3 14 = 5 10 5 + 2 10 5 (j) 4 15 - 2 10 35
8.
2 3+2 2 2
3+ 6 3
12 - 5 2 2 (i)
(g)
3 14 - 4 7 14
8 5 + 3 10 20 (b)
2 3-2 2 8 = # + # 3+2 2 3-2 2 2 2^3 - 2 2 h 8 2 + = 2 2 32 - ^ 2 2 h 6-4 2 +4 2 9-4#2 6-4 2 = +4 2 1 =6-4 2+4 2 =6 = So rational b+4 b+4 b-4
8 2 2
2.
(a) 4 3 - 4 2 = 4 ^ 3 - 2 h (c)
-^ 6 + 7 3 h 47
- ^ 2 15 - 4 18 h - 2 ^ 15 - 6 2 h = 19 19 - ^ 19 - 8 3 h 8 3 - 19 = (d) (e) 6 + 2 + 5 3 + 5 2 13 13 6 15 - 9 6 + 2 10 - 6 2
9.
x = -^ 3 + 2h
10.
(f) 3.
Test yourself 2
1. (a) - 2y (f) 6 2 2. (b) a + 4 (g) 4 5 (b) ] a + 3 g ] a - 1 g (c) 4ab ] b - 2 g (e) 2 ^ 2n - p + 3 h (c) - 6k 5 (d) 5x + 3y 15 (e) 3a - 8b
(a) 2 2 (b) - ^ 2 + 6 - 3 2 + 3 3 h = - 2 - 6 + 3 2 - 3 3 22 5 + 14 2 (c) 39 ^ (d) - 6 6 - 16 - 3 84 + 8 14 h 10 - 3 6 + 8 + 3 21 - 4 14 = 5 (e) - 4 (f) 4 2 20 12 + 19 6 + 25 3 - 6 19 6 + 65 3 - 6 (g) = 15 15 (h) (j) (l) 6+9 2+2 3 6 (i) 4 6+9 3 21 (k) 28 - 2 6 - 7 3 13
(a) ] x + 6 g ] x - 6 g (d) (y - 3) (5 + x)
(f) (2 - x) (4 + 2x + x 2) 3. (a) 4b - 6
2
(b) 2x 2 + 5x - 3
(c) 4m + 17 (f) - 1 - 7a
(d) 16x - 24x + 9 (g) 2 6 - 5 3 4. (a) 8 b 2 ^ a 2 + 3a + 9 h
(e) p 2 - 25
(h) 3 3 - 6 + 21 - 2 7 (b) 15 ] m - 2 g2 (b) 6 15 - 9 17 (c) 2 (d) 216 (e) 2
15 30 - 30 5 - 4 3 30
5. 7.
V = 157.464
6. (a) 17
2 15 + 2 10 - 2 6 - 3 - 5 2 (b) a = 1, b = 8 1 1 (c) a = - , b = 2 2
4.
(a) a = 45, b = 10
8 5 (d) a = - 1 , b = 9 9 5. 2-1 = = + 2+1 2-1 4 2 # 2-1 + +
(e) a = 5, b = 32
4x + 5 8. (a) 36 (b) - 2 ]x + 3g]x - 2g 1 9. (a) (b) 8 10. d = 11.25 5 2 3 2+ 6 11. (a) (b) 15 2 12. (a) 3 6 - 6 - 4 3 + 4 2 13. (a) 3 (x - 3) (x + 3) x3 3y 4 1 3x - 1 (c) 5 ^ y + 2 h _ y 2 - 2y + 4 i 14. (a) (b)
4 2
2+1 2-1 ^ 2 - 1h^ 2 - 1h
2 2
(b) 11 + 4 7
(b) 6 ] x - 3 g ] x + 1 g
^ 2 h2 - 1 2 2- 2- 2+1 = +2 2 2-1 3-2 2 = +2 2 1 =3-2 2+2 2 =3 So rational

6. 7. (a) 4 (b) 14 (c) 16 3 5 - 2 - 15 - 3 3
4 2 2
15. (a) 99
(b) 24 3 (b) a 2 + 2ab + b 2 (c) a 2 - 2ab + b 2
16. (a) a 2 - b 2 17. (a) ] a - b g2 18. 3 3+1 2
(b) ] a - b g ^ a 2 + ab + b 2 h 19. (a) 4b + 3a ab (b) 3x - 11 10
20.
21 5 - 46 - 2 7
ANSWERS
547
21. (a) 6 2 (f) m 3n 4
(b) - 8 6 (g) 2x - 3y
(c) 2 3
(d)
4 3
(e) 30a 2 b
Chapter 3: Equations
Exercises 3.1
1. 2. z = - 5.6 3. y = 1 4. w = 6.7 5. x = 12 1 8. b = 35 9. n = - 16 10. r = 4 6. x = 4 7. y = 15 11. y = 9 12. k = 6 13. d = 2 14. x = 5 15. y = 15 t = -5
22. (a) 2 6 + 4 (c) 7 23. (a)
(b) 10 14 - 5 21 - 6 10 + 3 15
(d) 43 (e) 65 - 6 14 (b) 6 15 (e) (c) 5+1 2
3 7 7
(d)
12 - 2 6 15 x + 10 10 1 k-1 (b)
20 + 3 15 + 4 10 + 3 6 53 (c) 3 - 2x (x + 1) (x - 1)
24. (a)
17a - 15 21
16. x = 20 17. m = 20 18. x = 4 19. a = - 7 20. y = 3 2 21. b = - 4 22. x = 3 23. a = - 1 24. t = - 4 3 1 25. x = 1.2 26. a = 1.6 27. b = 28. t = 39 8 29. p = 5 30. x Z 4.41
(d)
(e)
15 - 6 - 15 3 - 15 2 3 (c) n = 392
Exercises 3.2
1. 6. b =3 1 3 2. x = 35 3. y = 4 4 9 4. x = 1 9 35 5. k = 5 5 8
25. (a) n = 48
(b) n = 175
(d) n = 5547 26. 3 71 121
(e) n = 1445 28. (d) 34. (d) 29. (a), (d) 35. (b) 30. (c)
x = 36 7. t = 0.6 8. x = - 3 9. y = - 1.2 10. x = 69 12. t = 30 16. p = 3 20. x = - 3 24. y = 1 13. x = 14 17. t = 8.2 14. x = - 1 18. x = - 9.5 22. a = - 0.375
11. w = 13 27. (b), (c) 33. (a) 15. x = - 0.4 19. q = 22 23. x = 3 (b) y 4 - 4
31. (c)
32. (b)
1. (a) 2a 2 b - 8ab 2 + 6a 3
3 2
21. b = 0.8 2 25. t = - 1 3
Exercises 3.3
1. 6. t = 8.5 r = 6.68 2. l = 122 3. b = 8 4. a = 41 5. y = 4 2 3
(c) 8x - 60x + 150x - 125 2. 17 3 + 2 5 + 20 17 x2 + 2 3. or 4 2 2 1
7. x = 6.44
8. n = 15
9. y 1 = 3
4. 5.
b b2 b 2 n x + 2 = dx + a a 2 4a
10. h = 3.7 15. x = ! 2 19. x = 5.5 (d) ] b - 2 g ] a + 2 g ] a - 2 g y+1 2]x - 1g
11. (a) BMI = 25.39 12. r = 0.072 16. r = 2.12 20. r = 3.3
(b) w = 69.66 13. x 1 = - 9 14. t = 2.14 18. x = 1.19
(a) ] x + 4 g ] x + 9 g (b) _ x 2 - 3y i _ x 2 + 2y i = (x + 3 y) (x - 3 y) _ x 2 + 2y i (c) ] 5x + 7 g ^ 25x 2 - 35x + 49 h
(c) h = 1.94
17. r = 10.46
Exercises 3.4
8. 2 5 1. (a) x 2 3 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
6. 9.
4x 2 + 12x + 9 = ] 2x + 3 g2
]a + 1g
2
7.
a2 - a + 1
10. d
2 a 2 a + nd - n x b x b
11.
3x 3 - 6x 2 + 3x + 4xy - 6y
]x - 3g]x + 3g]x - 2g
3 2
(b) y # 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
12. (a) 8x - 12x + 6x - 1 13. x 3 - 7x 2 + 15x - 9 14.
3x + 4 (b) ] 2x - 1 g2
2.
(a) t 2 7 (b) x $ 3 (c) p 2 - 1 (d) x $ - 2 (e) y 2 - 9 (f) a $ - 1 (j) y 1 12 (n) m 2 14 (g) y $ - 2 1 2 (h) x 1 - 2 (l) x 2 30 1 4 (i) a # - 6 3 4
- 66 6 + 4 2 - 15 + 4 5 - 65 3 13 2x 1 1 2 + = dx + n 9 3 3 18. (a) 3 3 4 r = 16. x = 2 71 121 3 r 4r (b) a = 17 14 , b=23 23
(k) b 1 - 18 2 3 (o) b $ 16 (s) x $ 35 2 3
(m) x # 3
15. x 2 + 17.
(p) r # - 9
(q) z 2 8 2 5
400 - 59 5 10 1 2
(r) w 1 2
4 5
(t) t $ - 9 1 4
(u) q 2 - 6
19. i = 1
20. r =
(v) x 2 - 1
(w) b # - 11
21. s = 2 + 6 3
548
3. 0
(a) 1 1 x 1 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3.
(a) n = 27 (e) p = 243 (i) a = 128
(b) t = 16 (j) t = 81 (b) a = 1 2
(c) x = 32
(d) t = 8 (h) y = 27
(f) m = 625
(g) b = 216
(b) - 2 # p 1 5 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 4.
(a) x = (e) n =
(c) 1 1 x 1 4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 5 2 3 2 3
(c) y =
1 2
(d) x = !
1 7
(f) a = 2 (g) x = ! 2 (h) b = 9 (j) b = ! 1 (b) x = 6 (f) x = 4 127 216 (c) m = 9 (h) x = 2 (d) x = 5 (i) x = 1 (e) m = 0 (j) k = 2 1 2 (c) a = 1 81 1 625 19 (h) n = 7 32 (d) k =
(d) - 3 # y # 5 -3 -2 -1 1 2 (e) 1 y 1 1 6 3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5.
(i) x = ! (a) x =
-3
1 512 1 (e) x = ! 8 (i) b = 8
1 4
(g) y = ! 8
(j) m = 1 (b) y = 5 (g) x = 2
Exercises 3.5
1. (a) x = ! 5 (b) y = ! 8 (c) - 4 1 a 1 4 (h) a 2 14, a 1 - 14 6. (a) n = 4 (f) x = 3 7. (a) x = 2 (f) x = 6 8. (a) m = 1 2 2 3 1 6
(d) k $ 1, k # - 1 (f) - 10 # p # 10 (i) - 12 1 y 1 12 2. (a) x = 5, - 9 (d) 4 # x # 6 (g) - 3
(e) x 2 6, x 1 - 6 (g) x = 0 (j) b $ 20, b # - 20 (c) a 2 2, a 1 - 2 5 (f) x = 5, -4 7 (i) x = ! 12
(b) x = 1 (c) x = - 2 (d) n = 2 (e) x = 0 1 (g) y = (h) x = 2 (i) x = 2 (j) a = 0 3 (b) x = (f) n = 1 3 3 4 2 3 1 3 2 3 (c) k = - 4 (g) x = - 4 1 2 (d) n = 3 (h) x = - 1 7 11 (c) x = 1 3 1 2 (d) k = (h) n = 1 2 2 3
(b) n = 4, -2 (e) x = 3, -6
1 1y 12 2
(h) x $ 9, x # - 6
(e) k = (i) k = -
(g) x = 1
(j) 2 # a # 10 3. (a) x = 1 1 4 (b) a = 3, 1 3 (c) b = 2 2 7 1 3 2 3 9.
(j) x = 1
(a) x = - 1 (e) x = - 2 (i) x = 1 4 5 1 4 1 18 1 7 1 2
(b) x = - 1 (f) x = (j) x = 18 (b) k = - 2 (f) n = -
(d) No solutions (e) y = - 2 3 1 (h) d = 2 , -1 4 2 4. (a) x = 2, 1 2 1 3 (i) y =
(f) x = 7 (g) m = 5, 1 (j) No solutions 3 5
4 , -2 5 1 3
(b) y = 3, 2
(c) a = - 10, 1
10. (a) m = (e) n =
3 4
(c) x = 2 (g) x = 4 5
3 8
(d) k = 1
1 2 1 6
(d) x = 4, -7 5. (a) t = 3, -1
(e) d = 4, -5 (b) - 1 2 1t 13 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2
(h) b = - 3
2 5
(i) x = - 1
(j) m = 5
-3
-2
-1
Puzzle
1. All months have 28 days. Some months have more days as well. 2. 10 3. Bottle $1.05; cork 5 cents 16 each time 5. Friday
Exercises 3.6
1. (a) x = 3 (e) p = 10 (i) n = ! 4 2. (b) y = ! 8 (f) x = ! 5 (j) q = - 2 (c) n = ! 2 (g) y = ! 3 (d) x = ! 2 5 (h) w = 2
4.
Exercises 3.7
1. 5. y = 0, -1 x = -2, -7 2. b = 2, -1 6. q = !3 3. p = 3, -5 7. x = !1 4. t = 0, 5 8. a = 0, -3
(a) p = ! 6.71 (b) x = 4.64 (c) n = 2.99 (d) x = ! 5.92 (e) y = 1.89 (f) d = ! 2.55 (g) k = ! 4.47 (h) x = 2.22 (i) y = ! 3.81 (j) y = 3.01
ANSWERS
549
9.
x = 0, - 4 1 2
10. x = ! 13. b =
1 2
11. x = -1, -1
1 3 2 3
1 12. y 1 - 1 , y 2 2 2 14. b 1 - 3, b 2 16. - 4 # y # 3 19. - 2 1 x 1 3 22. 1 # a # 1 1 2 2 5
13. x # 15. - 1
2 ,x $1 3
12. y = 1, -1 16. x = 1, 2 20. x = 3, 4 1 2
3 1 , 4 2
14. x = 5, -2 15. x = 0, 18. y = - 1, 2
1 1 #x #2 3 18. - 1 # a # 1 21. 0 1 x 1 2
17. x = 0, 5 21. m = - 6, 1
19. n = 3, 5
17. x 1 - 4, x 2 4 20. x # - 1, x $ 3 23. y # - 2, y $ 4 5
22. x = 0, -1, -2 25. m = 8, -1
23. y = 1, -5, -2
24. x = 5, -7
Exercises 3.8
1. (a) x = ! 5 - 2 (d) x = ! 13 - 1 (b) a = ! 7 + 3 (c) y = ! 23 + 4 (e) p = ! 44 - 7 = ! 2 11 - 7
2 1 24. m 1 - 1 , m 2 1 3 2
25. 1 # x # 1
1 3
Exercises 3.11
1. 4. 7. a = 1, b = 3 x = 6, y = 17 x = - 3, y = 2 2. x = 2, y = 1 3. p = 2, q = - 1 6. t = 3, v = 1 9. x = 3, y = - 4 12. a = 0, b = 4 5. x = - 10, y = 2 11. w 1 = - 1, w 2 = 5 14. x 1 = 1, x 2 = - 1 18. k = - 4, h = 1 20. x = 2, y Z 1.41
(f) x = ! 28 + 5 = ! 2 7 + 5 (g) y = ! 88 - 10 = ! 2 22 - 10 = 2 ^ ! 22 - 5 h (h) x = ! 2 + 1 ! 5+3 (j) y = 2 2. (a) x = 3.45, -1.45 (e) b = - 4.26, -11.7 (g) r = 22.3, - 0.314 (i) a = 0.162, - 6.16 (b) x = - 4.59, -7.41 (d) x = 4.45, - 0.449 (f) x = 17.7, 6.34 (h) x = - 0.683, -7.32 (j) y = 40.1, - 0.0749 (c) q = 0.0554, -18.1 (i) n = ! 137 - 12
8. x = - 64, y = - 39
10. m = 2, n = 3 13. p = - 4, q = 1 17. a = - 2, b = 0
15. x = - 1, y = - 4 16. s = 2, t = - 1 19. v 1 = - 2, v 2 = 4
Problem Exercises 3.9

1. (a) y = - 0.354, - 5.65 (c) b = 3.54, - 2.54 (g) m = - 2, - 5 (e) x = - 0.553, 0.678 (j) y = 2.62, 0.382 2. (a) x = (c) q = - 1 ! 17 2 (b) x = 5 ! 13 6 (b) x = 1, 1.5 (f) n = 0.243, -8.24 (i) x = 1, - 6 (d) x = 1, - 0.5 23 adults and 16 children.
Exercises 3.12
1. 2. 3. 4. 6. 8. 9. x = 0, y = 0 and x = 1, y = 1 x = 0, y = 0 and x = - 2, y = 4 x = 0, y = 3 and x = 3, y = 0 x = 4, y = - 3 and x = 3, y = - 4 x = 3, y = 9 m = - 4, n = 0 and m = 0, n = - 4 x = 1, y = 2 and x = - 1, y = - 2 12. x = 0, y = 1 1 1 15. t = - , h = 4 2 5. x = - 1, y = - 3 7. t = - 2, x = 4 and t = 1, x = 1
(h) x = 0, 7
4 ! 28 = 2! 7 2
- 12 ! 128 -3 ! 2 2 (d) h = = 8 2 8 ! 40 4 ! 10 = (e) s = 6 3 - 11 ! 133 (f) x = 2 - 5 ! 73 (g) d = 12 1! 5 (i) t = 2
10. x = 0, y = 0 and x = 1, y = 1 11. x = 2, y = 1 and x = - 1, y = - 2 13. x = 1, y = 5 and x = 4, y = 11 1 14. x = , y = 4 and x = - 1, y = - 1 4 16. x = 2, y = 0 17. x = 0, y = 0 and x = - 2, y = - 8 and x = 3, y = 27 18. x = 0, y = 0 and x = 1, y = 1 and x = - 1, y = 1 19. x = 3 1 ,y =2 4 2 20. x = 5 12 ,y =13 13
2 ! 32 (h) x = =1!2 2 2 (j) x = 7 ! 41 4
Exercises 3.10
1. 4. 7. -3 1 x 1 0 c 1 - 1, c 2 2 2. 0 1 y 1 4 3. n # 0, n $ 1 6. - 5 # n # 3 9. 4 1 x 1 5 1 3 x # - 2, x $ 2 5. n 1 - 1, n 2 1 8. - 4 # x # - 2 1 2
Exercises 3.13
1. 3. 5. 7. 9. x = - 2, y = - 8, z = - 1 a = - 4, b = 2, c = 7 x = 5, y = 0, z = - 2 p = - 3, q = 7, r = 4 h = - 3, j = 2, k = - 4 2. a = - 2, b = - 1, c = 2 4. a = 1, b = 2, c = - 3 6. x = 0, y = - 5, z = 4 8. x = 1, y = - 1, z = 2 10. a = 3, b = - 1, c = - 2
10. b # - 2, b $ -
11. a 1 - 1, a 2
550
Test yourself 3
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 9. (a) b = 10 (b) a = - 116 (c) x = - 7 (d) p # 4 4.
(i) y = 40c (j) x = 80c 2. (a) 121c (b) 72c 29l (c) 134c 48l 3. (a) 42c (b) 55c 37l (c) 73c 3l (a) (i) 47c (ii) 137c (b) (i) 9c (ii) 99c (c) (i) 63c (ii) 153c (d) (i) 35c (ii) 125c (e) (i) 52c (ii)142c (f) (i) 15c7l (ii) 105c7l (g) (i) 47c36l (ii) 137c36l l l (ii)162c21 l (i) (i) 26c11 l (ii) 116c11 (h) (i) 72c21 l (ii) 128c51 l 5. (a) x = 49c (b) 41c (j) (i) 38c51 (c) 131c 6. (a) y = 15c, x = z = 165c (b) x = 142c, y = 48c, z = 28c (c) a = 43c, b = 137c, c = 101c (d) a = 97c, b = d = 41c , c = 42c (e) a = 68c , b = 152c , c = 28c (f) a = 10c, b = 150c 8x - 10 + 2x - 10 + x + 10 + 7x + 10 = 360 18x = 360 x = 20 +ABE = 8x - 10 = 8 (20) - 10 = 150c +EBC = 2x - 10 = 2 (20) - 10 = 30c +ABE + +EBC = 150c + 30c = 180c ` +ABC is a straight angle +DBC = 7x + 10 = 7 (20) + 10 = 150c +DBC + +EBC = 150c + 30c = 180c ` +DBE is a straight angle ` AC and DE are straight lines 8. +DFB = 180c - (180 - x) c =x ` +AFC = x
(+AFB is a straight angle) (angle of revolution)
(a) A = 1262.48
(b) P = 8558.59 (b) k 2 + 4k + 4 = ] k + 2 g2
(a) x 2 - 8x + 16 = ] x - 4 g2 (a) x = - 2, y = 5 (a) x = 2 (b) y = 1 3
1 (b) x = 4, y = 1 and x = - , y = - 8 2 1 4 1 4 (c) x $ 4, x # 3 1 ,1 2 7.
(a) b = 2, -1 (a) A = 36 -1 1 y # 3
(b) g = 2,
(b) b = 12
8. x =
10. (a) x = - 0.298, -6.70 (c) n = 0.869, -1.54 11. (a) V = 764.5 13. x 1 2, x 2 9 (b) r = 3.9
(b) y = 4.16, -2.16
(b) r = 2.9
12. x 2 71
1 4
14. x = 2.4, y = 3.2 (b) i (c) ii
15. (a) V = 2100 (d) iii (e) iii
16. (a) ii
17. a = 3, b = 2, c = - 4 18. n 2 0, n 1 - 3 19. x = - 4 (c) x = 2 1 3 21. (a) y 2 3 (e) x = 3, -1 2 5 (b) - 3 # n # 0 (f) t $ 1, t # - 2
20. x = - 2 (d) x = 2
(g) - 4 # x # 2 (j) x # - 1, x $ 1
(h) x = - 3 5 (k) x = 6
(i) y 2 2, y 1 - 2 1 (l) - # b # 2 2 (o) - 1 1 x 1 3
1 3 (m) No solutions (n) t = 2 , 3 5 (p) m # - 3, m $ 2
+CFE = 180c - (x + 180c - 2x) =x ` +AFC = +CFE ` CD bisects +AFE 9. +ABD + +DBC = 110 - 3x + 3x + 70 = 180c So +ABC is a straight angle. AC is a straight line. 10. +AEB + +BEC + +CED = 50 - 8y + 5y - 20 + 3y + 60 = 90c 3 5 1. So +AED is a right angle.
(+AFB is a straight angle)
1. 3. 5. 6. 7. 9. y =1 2. x 1 - a, x 2 a 4. x = 2.56, -1.56 a = 3, b = !2
] x + 3 g ] x - 3 g ] x - 2 g ^ x 2 + 2x + 4 h; x = ! 3, 2
x = 1, y = 2 and x = - 1, y = 0 b = 4; x = ! 17 + 4 Z 8.12, - 0.123 -1 1 t 1 1 10. - 3 # x # 8 8. x = ! 1 1 11. x = 4
12. r = 2.31
13. No solutions 16. x =
14. x = ! b + a 2 + a 17. y 1 -1, y 2
15. P = 2247.36
2 ^ 4 ! 10 h 3
Exercises 4.2
Chapter 4: Geometry 1 (a) a = b = e = f = 148c , c = d = g = 32c (b) x = z = 70c , y = 110c (c) x = 55c , y = 36c , z = 89c (d) y = 125c , x = z = 55c (e) n = e = g = a = c = z = x = 98c, o = m = h = f = b = d = y = w = 82c
Exercises 4.1
1. (a) y = 47c (b) x = 39c (c) m = 145c (d) y = 60c (e) b = 101c (f) x = 36c (g) a = 60c (h) x = 45c
ANSWERS
551
(f) a = 95c , b = 85c , c = 32c (g) a = 27c , b = 72c , c = 81c (h) x = 56c , y = 124c , z = a = 116c , b = 64c (i) x = 61c 2. (a) (j) y = 37c
(FGH is a straight angle)
5.
+CGF = 180c - 121c
+ACB = 180c - 124c = 56c +CBA + 68c = 124c +CBA = 124c - 68c = 56c ` +CBA = +ACB = 56c ` D ABC is isosceles y = 38c (a) x = 64c
(DCB is a straight angle) (exterior angle of D)
= 59c ` +BFG = +CGF = 59c These are equal alternate angles. ` AB < CD (b) +BAC = 360c - 292c = 68c
(angle of revolution)
6. 7.
(b) x = 64c , y = 57c
(c) x = 63c
(d) a = 29c , b = 70c 8. +HJI = 180c - (35c + 25c) = 120c +IJL = 180c - 120c = 60c +JIL = 180c - (90c + 30c) = 60c +ILJ = 180 - (60c + 60c) = 60c
(angle sum of D HJI) (HJL is a straight angle) (angle sum of D IKL) (angle sum of D JIL)
` +BAC + +DCA = 68c + 112c = 180c These are supplementary cointerior angles. ` AB < CD
(+BCE is a straight angle) (c) +BCD = 180 - 76 = 104c +ABC = +BCD = 104c These are equal alternate angles.
Since +IJL = +JIL = +ILJ = 60c, D IJL is equilateral +KJL = 180c - 60c = 120c +JLK = 180c - (30c + 120c) = 30c ` +JLK = +JKL = 30 ` D JKL is isosceles 9. BC = BD ` +BDC = 46c (base angles of isosceles triangle) +CBD = 180 - 2 # 46 = 88c ` +CBD = +BDE = 88c These are equal alternate angles. ` AB ; ED 10. +OQP = 180 - ] 75 + 73 g (angle sum of triangle) = 32c ` +MNO = +OQP = 32c These are equal alternate angles. ` MN ; QP
(KJI is a straight angle) (angle sum of D JKL)
` AB ; CD (d) +CEF = 180 - 128 (+CED is a straight angle) = 52c +CEF = +ABE = 52c These are equal corresponding angles. ÀB ; CD (e) +CFH = 180 - ] 23 + 115 g (+EFG is a straight angle) = 42c ` +BFD = 42c (vertically opposite angles) +ABF + +BFD = 138c + 42c = 180c These are supplementary cointerior angles. ` AB ; CD
Exercises 4.3
1. (a) x = 60c (e) x = 30c (b) y = 36c (f) x = 20c (c) m = 71c (g) x = 67c (d) x = 37c (h) a = 73c
(i) a = 75c , b = 27c , c = 46c (j) a = 36c , b = 126c , c = 23c (k) x = 67c , y = z = 59c , w = 121c 2. All angles are equal. Let them be x. Then x + x + x = 180 (angle sum of D) 3x = 180 x = 60 So all angles in an equilateral triangle are 60c. 3. 4.
] 90 - x g c
(vertically opposite angles) +ACB = 50c +ABC = 180c - (50c + 45c) (angle sum of D) = 85c ` +DEC = +ABC = 85c These are equal alternate angles.
Exercises 4.4
1. (a) Yes AB = EF = 5cm BC = DF = 6 cm AC = DE = 8 cm ` D ABC / DDEF (b)Yes XY = BC = 4.7 m YZ = AC = 2.3 m ` D XYZ / DABC (c) No
(given) (given) (given) (given) (SSS)
+XYZ = +BCA = 110c (given)

(given) (SAS)
` AB < DE
552
(d) Yes +PQR = +SUT = 49c +PRQ = +STU = 52c QR = TU = 8 cm `DPQR / DSTU (e) No 2. (a) AB = KL = 4 (given) (given) +B = +L = 38c (given) BC = JL = 5 ` by SAS, D ABC / D JKL
(given) (b) +Z = +B = 90c (given) XY = AC = 7 (given) YZ = BC = 2 ` by RHS, D XYZ / D ABC (given) (c) MN = QR = 8 (given) NO = PR = 8 (given) MO = PQ = 5 ` by SSS, D MNO / D PQR (given) (d) +Y = +T = 90c (given) +Z = +S = 35c (given) XY = TR = 1.3 ` by AAS, D XYZ / D STR (given) (e) BC = DE = 4 (given) +C = +E = 90c (given) AC = EF = 7 ` by SAS, D ABC / D DEF (given) (given) (given) (AAS)
(b) +ABC = +ADC 7. (a) OA = OC OB is common
(corresponding angles in congruent triangles) (equal radii)
+AOB = +COB = 90c (given) `DOAB / DOBC (b) +OCB = +OBC

(SAS) (base angles of OBC, an isosceles right angled triangle)
But +OCB + +OBC = 90c So +OCB = +OBC = 45c Similarly +OBA = 45c
(angle sum of triangle)
` +OBA + +OBC = 45c + 45c = 90c So +ABC is right angled 8. (a) +AEF = +BDC = 90c AF = BC FE = CD `DAFE / DBCD (b) +AFE = +BCD 9. (a) OA = OC OB is common AB = BC `DOAB / DOBC (b) +OBA = +OBC But +OBA + +OBC = 180c So +OBA = +OBC = 90c
OB is perpendicular to AC. (given) (SSS) (corresponding angles in congruent triangles) (ABC is a straight angle) (given) (given) (given) (RHS) (corresponding angles in congruent triangles) (equal radii)
3.
(a)
+B = +C (base angles of isosceles D) +BDA = +CDA = 90c (given) AD is common ` by AAS, D ABD / D ACD
(b) ` BD = DC (corresponding sides in congruent Ds) ` AD bisects BC 4. +ABD = +BDC

(alternate angles, AB < CD)
(alternate angles, AD < BC) +ADB = +DBC BD is common ` by AAS, D ABD / D CDB ` AD = BC (corresponding sides in congruent Ds)
10. (a) AD = BC +ADC = +BCD = 90c DC is common `DADC / DBCD (b) AC = BD
(given) (given) (SAS) (corresponding sides in congruent triangles)
5.
(a)
OA = OC OB = OD
(equal radii) (similarly) (vertically opposite angles) (SAS) (corresponding sides in congruent triangles)
Exercises 4.5
1. (a) x = 15.1 (b) x = 4.4 (c) m = 6.6 (e) b = 4.5 (g) p = 9.7 (d) a = 76c , i = 23c , b = 81c (f) a = 115c , x = 19c , y = 3.2 2. 3. a = 1.81, b = 5.83 +BAC = +EDC +ABC = +DEC +ACB = +ECD
(alternate angles, AB < ED) (similarly) (vertically opposite angles)
+AOB = +COD `DAOB / DCOD (b) AB = CD
6.
(a) AB = AD BC = DC AC is common `DABC / DADC
(given) (given)
` since 3 pairs of angles are equal, DABC ||| DCDE

(SSS)
ANSWERS
553
4.
(given) +GFE = +EFD GF 1.5 o = = 0.5 EF 2.7 2.7 EF o = = 0.5 DF 4.86 GF EF ` = EF DF Since two pairs of sides are in proportion and their included angles are equal, then DDEF ||| DFGE
Since three pairs of sides are in proportion, D ABC ||| D ACD, x = 109c, y = 47c 11. (a) x = 7.8 (b) m = 4.0, p = 7.2 (c) x = 6.5
(d) x = 6.2, y = 4.4 12. (a) AB AD = DE BC AD AF Also = DE FG AB AF ` = BC FG BD AD = AE CE AD DF Also = AE EG BD DF ` = CE EG
(e) x = 1.4, y = 9.2 (b) Also ` AB AD = AE AC AD AF = AE AG AB AF = AC AG
1.3 AB = = 0.714 5. DE 1.82 4.2 AC = = 0.714 DF 5.88 4.9 BC = = 0.714 EF 6.86 AC BC AB = = ` DE DF EF Since three pairs of sides are in proportion, D ABC ||| D DEF y = 41c 6. (a) OA = OB OC = OD OA OB ` = OD OC +AOB = +COD
(equal radii) (similarly)
(c)
13. a = 4.8, b = 6.9
14. y = 0.98
15. x = 3.19, y = 1.64
Exercises 4.6
1. 2. (a) x = 6.4 (a) p = 61 (b) y = 6.6 (b) t = 58 (c) b = 5.7 (c) x = (d) m = 6.6 65 (d) y = 33
Since two pairs of sides are in proportion and their included angles are equal, 3 OAB ||| 3 OCD (b) AB = 5.21 cm 7. (a) +A is common +ABC = +ADE +ACB = +AED (b) x = 2.17, y = 2.25 8. +ABF = +BEC +CBE = +BFA ` +C = +A
(alternate angles, AB z CD) (similarly, BC z AD) (angle sum of Ds) (corresponding angles, BC < DE) (similarly)
3. 5.
s = 6.2 m
4. CE = 15.3 cm
AB 2 = 81, CB 2 = 144, CA 2 = 225 AB 2 + CB 2 = 81 + 144 = 225 = CA 2 ` D ABC is right angled XY = YZ = 1 ` D XYZ is isosceles YZ 2 = XY 2 = 1, XZ 2 = 2 YZ 2 + XY 2 = 1 + 1 =2 = XZ 2 ` D XYZ is right angled
` since 3 pairs of angles are equal, D ABC ||| D ADE
6.
` since 3 pairs of angles are equal, D ABF ||| DCEB 9. +A is common 1.2 AD = = 0.4 AB 3 0.8 AE = = 0.4 2 AC AD AE ` = AB AC Since two pairs of sides are in proportion and their included angles are equal, D AED ||| D ABC, m = 4.25 = = = = 2 = 0.769 2.6 3 = 0.769 3.9 3.9 = 0.769 5.07 BC AC = AD AC 7.
AC 2 = AB 2 + BC 2 2 2 2 = ^ 3 h + BC 2 4 1 `1 AC = 3 + BC 2 = BC 2 = BC =2 =2#1 = 2BC
8.
AB 10. CD BC AC AC AD AB ` CD
(a) AC = 5 (b) AC 2 = 25, CD 2 = 144, AD 2 = 169 AC 2 + CD 2 = 25 + 144 = 169 = AD 2 ` D ACD has a right angle at +ACD ` AC is perpendicular to DC
554
9.
AB =
3b
10.
x2 + y2 x 6.
(d) a = 121c, b = 52c, i = 77c (e) x = 60c (f) x = 3, y = 7 +ADB = +CDB +CDB = +ABD +ADB = +DBC ` +ABD = +DBC ` BD bisects +ABC (a) AD = BC = 3.8 cm AB = DC = 5.3 cm
(BD bisects +ADC) (alternate angles, AB < DC) (alternate angles, AD < BC)
11. d 2 = ] 20 - 3t g 2 + ] 15 - 2t g 2 = 400 - 120t + 9t 2 + 225 - 60t + 4t 2 = 13t 2 - 180t + 625 12. 1471 mm 13. 683 m 14. 12.6 m 15. 134.6 cm
16. 4.3 m 17. 42.7 cm 18. 1.3 2 + 1.1 2 = 2.9 and 1.5 2 = 2.25 1.3 2 + 1.1 2 ! 1.5 2 so the triangle is not right angled ` the property is not a rectangle 19. No. The diagonal of the boot is the longest available space and it is only 1.4 m. 20. (a) BC 2 = 6 2 - 4 2 = 20 BC = 20 AO = 6 cm (equal radii) So AC 2 = 6 2 - 4 2 = 20 AC = 20 Since BC = AC, OC bisects AB (b) +OCA = +OCB = 90c (given) OA = OB (equal radii) OC is common ` DOAC / DOBC (RHS) So AC = BC (corresponding sides in congruent triangles) ` OC bisects AB 7.
(given) (given)
Since two pairs of opposite sides are equal, ABCD is a parallelogram. (b) AB = DC = 7cm (given) AB < DC (given) Since one pair of opposite sides is both equal and parallel, ABCD is a parallelogram. (c) +X + +M = 54c + 126c = 180c These are supplementary cointerior angles. ` XY < MN Also, XM < YN ` XMNY is a parallelogram (d) AE = EC = 5 cm DE = EB = 6 cm
(given) (given) (given)
Since the diagonals bisect each other, ABCD is a parallelogram. 8. (a) x = 5 cm, i = 66c (b) a = 90c, b = 25c, c = 65c (c) x = 3 cm, y = 5 cm (d) x = 58c, y = 39c (e) x = 12 cm 6.4 cm 10. +ECB = 59c, +EDC = 31c, +ADE = 59c 12. x = y = 57c
Exercises 4.7
1. (a) x = 94c (b) y = 104c (c) x = 111c (d) x = 60c (e) y = 72c (f) x = 102, y = 51 (g) x = 43, y = 47 D ABE is isosceles. ` +B = +E = 76c (base +s equal) +CBE = +DEB = 180c - 76c = 104c (straight +s) +D + 62c + 104c + 104c = 360c (angle sum of quadrilateral) +D + 270c = 360c +D = 90c ` CD is perpendicular to AD` 3. (a) +D = 180c - x +C = 180c - (180c - x)
(+A and +D cointerior angles, AB < DC) (+C and +D cointerior angles, AD < BC)
9.
2.
11. 4 2 cm
Exercises 4.8
1. (a) 540c (b) 720c (c) 1080c (d) 1440c (e) 1800c (f) 2880c 2. (a) 108c (b) 135c (c) 150c (d) 162c (e) 156c 3. (a) 60c (b) 36c (c) 45c (d) 24c 128c34l 5. (a) 13 2340c 9. 168c23l (b) 152c18l 6. 16 7. 3240c
4. 8.
= 180c - 180c + x =x `+A = +C = x +B = 180c - x (+B and +C cointerior angles, AB < DC) `+B = +D = 180c - x (b) Angle sum = x + x + 180c - x + 180c - x = 360c 4. 5. a = 150c , b = 74c (a) a = 5 m, b = 3 m, x = z = 108c, y = 72c (b) x = 53c, y = 56c, z = 71c (c) x = y = 5 cm, a = b = 68c
10. Sum = 145n = (n - 2) # 180c 145n = 180n - 360 = 35n 10.3 = n But n must be a positive integer. ` no polygon has interior angles of 145c. 11. (a) 9 (b) 12 (c) 8 (d) 10 (e) 30
12. (a) ABCDEF is a regular hexagon. (equal sides) AF = BC FE = CD (equal sides) +AFE = +BCD (equal interior angles) ` D AFE / D BCD (SAS)
ANSWERS
555
(b)
S = ] n - 2 g # 180c = (6 - 2) # 180c = 720c 720c +AFE = 6 = 120c Since AF = FE, triangle AFE is isosceles. So +FEA = +FAE (base angles in isosceles triangle) 180 - 120c ` +FEA = (angle sum of triangle) 2 = 30c +AED = 120 - 30c = 90c Similarly, +BDE = 90c So +AED + +BDE = 180c These are supplementary cointerior angles ÀE < BD
15. (a)
360 p (b) Each interior angle: 360 180 p 180p 360 = p p 180p - 360 = p 180 ^ p - 2 h = p
Exercises 4.9
1. (a) 26.35 m 2 (b) 21.855 cm 2 (c) 18.75 mm 2 (d) 45 m 2 (e) 57 cm 2 (f) 81 m 2 (g) 28.27 cm 2 2. 4.83 m 2 (a) 42.88 cm 2 (b) 29.5 m 2 (c) 32.5 cm 2 (d) 14.32 m 2 (e) 100.53 cm 2 4. (a) 25 m 2 (b) 101.85 cm 2 (c) 29.4 m 2 (d) 10.39 cm 2 (e) 45 cm 2 7 51 + 98 = 7 ^ 51 + 14 h cm 2 $621.08 (a) 48 cm 8. (a) 161.665 m 2 (b) 27 cm 6. 22.97 cm 2 (c) 10.5 m
3.
13. A regular octagon has equal sides and angles. (equal sides) AH = AB GH = BC (equal sides) +AHG = +ABC (equal interior angles) ` D AHG / D ABC (SAS) So AG = AC
(corresponding sides in congruent triangles)
5. 7. 9.
(b) 89 m 2
10. 12w units 2
S = ] n - 2 g # 180c = (8 - 2) # 180c = 1080c 1080c ` +AHG = 8 = 135c +HGA = +HAG
Test yourself 4
1. (a) x = 43c, y = 137c, z = 147c (b) x = 36c (c) a = 79c, b = 101c, c = 48c (d) x = 120c (e) r = 7.2 cm (f) x = 5.6 cm, y = 8.5 cm (g) i = 45c +AGF = i
(vertically opposite +HGB)
(base angles in isosceles triangle)
180 - 135c `+HAG = (angle sum of triangle) 2 = 22c30l +GAC = 135 - 2 # 22c30l = 90c We can similarly prove all interior angles are 90c and adjacent sides equal. So ACEG is a square. 14. +EDC =
] 5 - 2 g # 180c 5 = 108c
2.
So +AGF = +CFE = i These are equal corresponding +s. ` AB < CD 3. 4. 118.28 cm2
(common) (a) +DAE = +BAC (corresponding angles, DE < BC) +ADE = +ABC (similarly) +AED = +ACB ` D ABC and D ADE are similar (AAA)
ED = CD (equal sides in regular pentagon) So EDC is an isosceles triangle. (base angles in isosceles triangle) `+DEC = +ECD 180 - 108c +DEC = (angle sum of triangle) 2 = 36c +AEC = 108 - 36c = 72c Similarly, using triangle ABC, we can prove that +EAC = 72c So EAC is an isosceles triangle. (Alternatively you could prove EDC and ABC congruent triangles and then AC = EC are corresponding sides in congruent triangles.)
(b) x = 3.1 cm, y = 5.2 cm 5. 8. 162c 6. 1020.7 cm3 7. 36 m

(adjacent sides in kite) (similarly)
(a) AB = AD BC = DC
AC is common ` ABC and ADC are congruent (SSS) (b) AO = CO BO = DO +AOB = +COD
(equal radii) (similarly) (vertically opposite angles)
` AOB and COD are congruent (SAS) 9. 73.5 cm2
2 10. 6 2 + ^ 2 7 h = 36 + 28 = 64 = 8 2 ` ABC is right angled (Pythagoras)
556
11.
AF AD = AE AG AD AB = AE AC AF AB ` = AG AC
(equal ratios on intercepts) (similarly)
1. 4. 94c 2. x = 75c , y = 46c , z = 29c 3. 1620c , 32c 44l
+BAD = +DBC +ABD = +BDC ` +ADB = +DCB
(given) (alternate angles, AB < DC) (angle sum of D)
12. (a) AB = AC +B = +C BD = DC
(given) (base +s of isosceles D ) (AD bisects BC, given)
` since 3 pairs of angles are equal, D ABD < ; D BCD d = 6.74 cm 5. AB = DC (given) +A + +D = 131c + 49c = 180c +A and +D are supplementary cointerior angles ` AB < DC Since one pair of opposite sides are both parallel and equal, ABCD is a parallelogram. 6. 27.36 m 2
` D ABD / D ACD ] SAS g (b) +ADB = +ADC (corresponding +s in congruent Ds) (straight +) But + ADB + +ADC = 180c So +ADB = +ADC = 90c So AD and BC are perpendicular. 13. +ACB = 68c +CAD = 68c - 34c = 34c ` +CAD = +ADC = 34c So ACD is isosceles 14.
(base +s of isosceles D) (exterior + of D)
^ base +s equal h
7.
+DAC = +ACB +BAC = +ACD AC is common
(alternate +s, AD < BC) (alternate +s, AB < DC)
` D ABC / D ADC (AAS) (corresponding sides in congruent Ds) ` AB = DC Similarly, AD = BC ` opposite sides are equal 15. (a) 24 cm2 (b) 5 cm 16. 9 8.
Let ABCD be a square with diagonals AC and BD and +D = 90c (adjacent sides of square) AD = DC ` D ADC is isosceles (base angles of isosceles D) `+DAC = +DCA (angle sum of D) +DAC + +DCA = 90 ` +DAC = +DCA = 45 Similarly, +BAC = +BCA = 45
(other angles can be proved similarly)
17. +BFG + +FGD = 109c - 3x + 3x + 71c = 180c These are supplementary cointerior +s. ` AB < CD 18. 57 cm2 19. +ACB = 180c - ] +A + +B g = 180c - x - y +ACD = 180c - +ACB z = 180c - (180c - x - y) = 180c - 180c + x + y =x+y 20. (a) +A AC EF AB DE AC ` EF = +E 2.97 = = 1.1 2.7 3.96 = = 1.1 3.6 AB = DE (+sum of D) (straight +)
^ given h
Let ABCD be a kite (given) AD = AB (given) DC = BC AC is common ` by SSS, D ADC / D ABC ` +DAC = +BAC AD = AB +DAE = +BAE AE is common
(corresponding angles in congruent Ds) (given) (found)
So ABC and DEF are similar (two sides in proportion, included +s equal). (b) x = 4.3 cm
ANSWERS
557
` by SAS, D ADE / D ABE ` +DEA = +BEA (corresponding angles in congruent Ds) But +DEA + +BEA = 180c (DEB is a straight angle) ` +DEA = +BEA = 90c ` the diagonals are perpendicular 9.
(exterior angle of D MNZ) +MNY + 84c = (15c + 112c) ` +MNY = 43c (exterior angle of D XYZ) +XYZ + 69c = 112c ` +XYZ = 43c ` +MNY = +XYZ = 43c These are equal corresponding angles. ` MN < XY
18. r = 1.55 19. x 2 1
20.
7 15
21. x =
4 ! 12 =2! 3 2
22.
1 49
23. x = 4, y = 11 or x = -1, y = - 4 25. 7 28. 26. 7.02 cm
24. x = 2, y = -1
27. ] 2x - 1 g ^ 4x 2 + 2x + 1 h 29. 7 30. $643.08 31. 1.1
6 15 + 2 6 43
10. x = 2.12 m
11. (a) 6 m 2
(b) 10 + 2 5 = 2 ^ 5 + 5 h m 13. x = 7.40 m, y = 4.19 m
32. -2 10 + 3 5 - 2 2 + 3
33. $83.57
12. x = 28.7 cm, y = 3.8 cm 14. (a)
34. x = 22c, y = 29c, w = z = 90c 35. 56.7 cm 2 36. a - 21 b 10 = 39. - x - 7 b 10 a 21 37. x 2 6, x 1 -2 1 4 2 5 38. 1 8 42. 1 6
(adjacent sides in square) AB = BC +ABE = +CBE = 45 (diagonals in square make 45c with sides)
EB is common. ` by SAS, D ABE / DCBE ` AE = CE (corresponding sides in congruent Ds) Since AB = BC and AE = CE, ABCE is a kite.
40. x =
41. x # -3, x $ 3
43. Given diagonal AC in rhombus ABCD:

(adjacent sides in rhombus) AB = BC (alternate +s, AD < BC) +DAC = +ACB (base +s of isosceles D ABC) +BAC = +ACB ` +DAC = +BAC ` diagonal AC bisects the angle it meets. Similarly, diagonal BD bisects the angle it meets.
44. ] x + 3 g-1 45. x 3 + 6x 2 + 12x + 8 46. (b) BD = = = DE = x2 + x2 2x 2 2x 48. x = 98c, y = 41c 50. (a) 12x - 8y (e) 1 3x + 2 (c) x-3
54 2 17
47. x = 53c
49.
1 BD 2 2x = units 2
(b) 2 31
x 2 - 3x + 9
(d) 3 2 + 1
Practice assessment task set 1

4
y7 - ]x + 5g 11 3 (f) (g) x - 14 y 7 z -11 = 14 11 ]x + 1g]x - 1g 6 x z 3 1 (h) (i) 8 5 (j) 13 2 5a ] a + b g ] 1 + 2b g (b) x 3 51. x = 2.7, y = 3.1 54. 17.3 cm 55. Let +DEA = x (base +s of isosceles D) Then +EAD = x +CDA = x + x (exterior + of DEAD) = 2x ` +ABC = 2x (opposite +s of < gram are equal) ` +ABC = 2+DEA 56. 2 5 57. 5% 58. 2.2 # 10 8 kmh -1 61. 147c 16l 62. 5.57 m 2 59. k = 20 52. x = 25 53. r = 2
3
1. 4. 7. 9.
p =9 6y - 10 2 x= 7
2. 2 ^ 5 + y h ^ x - y h 5. 25 + 5 2 23
3. (a) x - 1
cm
6. x 3 + 2x 2 - 16x + 3
2 8. x-3
(given) +ABC = +EDC = 90 (vertically opposite angles) +ACB = +ECD (given) AB = ED ` by AAS D ABC / DEDC (corresponding sides in congruent triangles) ` AC = EC ` D ACE is isosceles
60. 9xy y
10. 231.3
11. - 3
12. 135c
13. 7.33 # 10
-2
63. (a) 5 ] a + 2b - 2 g ^ a 2 - 4a - 2ab + 4b 2 + 4b + 4 h (b) ] 3a + 4b g ] a - 6b + 2c g
14. 3 10 - 4
15. 3.04 16. x + 3
17. x = 1.78, -0.281
558
64. - 1 65.
3 1 #x 15 4 8
Exercises 5.3
1. 2 , y-intercept -2 3 (b) x-intercept -10, y-intercept 4 (c) x-intercept 12, y-intercept 4 (d) x-intercepts 0, -3, y-intercept 0 (e) x-intercepts !2, y-intercept -4 (f) x-intercepts -2, -3, y-intercept 6 (g) x-intercepts 3, 5, y-intercept 15 (a) x-intercept (h) x-intercept - 3 5 , y-intercept 5 (i) x-intercept -3, no y-intercept (j) x-intercept !3, y-intercept 9 2. f ] -x g = ] -x g 2- 2 = x2 - 2 = f (x) ` even function (a) f ^ x 2 h = x 6 + 1
3
BC < AD (ABCD is a < gram) BC < FE (BCEF is a < gram) ` AD < FE Also BC = AD ^ opposite sides of < gram h BC = FE ^ similarly h ` AD = FE Since AD and FE are both parallel and equal, AFED is a parallelogram. 67. (a) 34 cm (b) 30 cm2
66. b = 11.95 m 68.
18 3 + 31 2 - 25 5 75
69. 20 70. 32 m
71. BD bisects AC So AD = DC +BDC = +BDA = 90c (given) BD is common ` DBAD / DBCD (SAS) (corresponding sides in congruent ` AB = CB
triangles)
3.
(b) 7 f ] x g A 2 = x 6 + 2x 3 + 1 (d) Neither odd nor even
(c) f ] - x g = - x + 1 4.
So triangle ABC is isosceles 72. x2 + y2 2 73. (b) 74. (c) 75. (a) 76. (b) 77. (b) 5. 6.
g ] - x g = ] - x g8 + 3 ] - x g4 - 2 ] - x g 2 = x 8 + 3x 4 - 2x 2 = g (x) ` even function f ] - x g = - x = -f ] x g ` odd function f ] - x g = ] - x g2 - 1 = x2 - 1 = f (x) ` even function 7. f ] - x g = 4 ] - x g - ] - x g 3 = - 4x + x 3 = - ^ 4x - x 3 h = - f ]xg ` odd function
78. (d)
79. (d)
Chapter 5: Functions and graphs
Exercises 5.1
1. 8. Yes Yes 2. No 9. Yes 15. Yes 9. 2. h ] 0 g = -2, h ] 2 g = 2, h ] -4 g = 14 4. 14 3. No 10. No 4. Yes 5. Yes 11. Yes 6. Yes 7. No 13. Yes 8.
12. No
14. No
f ] -x g = ] -x g 4 + ] -x g 2 = x4 + x2 = f ]xg ` even function f ]xg - f ]- xg = 0 (a) Odd (b) Neither (c) Even (d) Neither (e) Neither (b) Odd values i.e. n = 1, 3, 5, f
Exercises 5.2
1. 3. 5. f ] 1 g = 4, f ] -3 g = 0
10. (a) Even values i.e. n = 2, 4, 6, f
f ] 5 g = -25, f ] -1 g = -1, f ] 3 g = -9, f ] -2 g = -4 -35 6. x = 9 7. x = !5 8. x = -3
9. z = 1, -4
11. (a) No value of n (b) Yes, when n is odd (1, 3, 5, ) 12. (a) (i) x 2 0 (b) (i) x 1 2 (ii) x 1 0 (ii) x 2 2 (iii) Even (iii) Neither (iii) Neither (iii) Odd
10. f ^ p h = 2p - 9, f ] x + h g = 2x + 2h - 9 11. g ] x - 1 g = x 2 + 2 13. t = -1; t = 2, -4 12. f ] k g = ] k - 1 g ^ k 2 + k + 1 h 14. 0
(c) (i) -2 1 x 1 2 (d) (i) All real x ! 0 (e) (i) None
(ii) x 1 -2, x 2 2 (ii) None (iii) Neither
15. f ] 5 g = 125, f ] 1 g = 1, f ] -1 g = -1 16. f ] 2 g - f ] -2 g + f ] -1 g = 0 - 4 + 1 = -3 17. 10 18. 7 19. -28
(ii) All real x
Exercises 5.4
1. (a) x-intercept 2, y-intercept -2 1 (b) x-intercept -1 , y-intercept 3 2 1 (c) x-intercept , y-intercept 1 2 (d) x-intercept -3, y-intercept 3 2 1 (e) x-intercept , y-intercept 3 3
20. (a) 3 (b) x - 3 = 3 - 3 = 0 Denominator cannot be 0 so the function doesnt exist for x = 3. (c) 4 21. f ] x + h g - f ] x g = 2xh + h 2 - 5h 23. 5] x - c g 24. 3k 2 + 5 22. 4x + 2h + 1 (c) n 4 + n 2 + 2
25. (a) 2 (b) 0
ANSWERS
559
2.
(a) 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 (b) 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 (c) 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 (d) 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 x y 1 2 3 4 x y 1 2 3 4 x y 1 2 3 4
(e) 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 (f)
1 21
2 3 4
y 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 x
(g) 5 4 3 2 2 - 1
3
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 (h) 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 y
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
560
(i)
5 4 3 2 1
Exercises 5.5
1. (a) x-intercepts 0, -2, y-intercept 0 (b) x-intercepts 0, 3, y-intercept 0 (c) x-intercepts !1, y-intercept -1 (d) x-intercepts -1, 2, y-intercept -2 (e) x-intercepts 1, 8, y-intercept 8 (a) 6 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 x (b) 6 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 (c) 6 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 5 x y 1 2 3 4 5 x y 1 2 3 4 5 x y
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
(j) 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 3. y
2.
111 2
2 3
(a) " all real x ,, " all real y , (b) " all real x ,, " y: y = 2 , (c) ! x: x = -4 +, " all real y , (d) ! x: x = 2 +, " all real y , (e) ! all real x +, " y: y = 3 , (a) Odd (b) Even y 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 111 2 2 3 4 x (c) Neither (d) Odd (e) Odd
4. 5.
(3, -1)
ANSWERS
561
(d) 6 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 (e) 6 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 (f) 12 10 8 6 4 2 -4 -3 -2 -1 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 (g)
(h)
y
5 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
(i) 5 4 3 2 1 y
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
111 2 3 4 2
(j) 5 4 3 2 1 x -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
1 2 3 4
1 2
3 4
3.
5 4 3 2 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
(a) (i) x-intercepts 3, 4, y-intercept 12 (ii) {all real x}, 1 ( y: y $ - 2 4 (b) (i) x-intercepts 0, -4, y-intercept 0 (ii) {all real x}, " y: y $ -4 , (c) (i) x-intercepts -2, 4, y-intercept -8 " y: y $ - 9 , (ii) {all real x},
1 2 3 4
(d) (i) x-intercept 3, y-intercept 9 (ii) {all real x}, " y: y $ 0 , (e) (i) x-intercepts ! 2, y-intercept 4 " y: y # 4 , 4. (a) {all real x}, " y: y $ -5 , (ii) {all real x},
(b) {all real x}, " y: y $ - 9 ,
562
1 (c) {all real x}, ( y: y $ -2 2 4 (e) {all real x}, " y: y $ 0 , 5. (a) 0 # y # 9 (b) 0 # y # 4
(d) {all real x}, " y: y # 0 ,
(c) 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 (d)
5 4 3 2 1
(d) -4 # y # 21 6.
(c) -1 # y # 24 1 (e) -18 # y # 2 4 (b) (i) x 1 0 (ii) x 2 0
(a) (i) x 2 0 (ii) x 1 0
(c) (i) x 2 0 (ii) x 1 0 (d) (i) x 1 2 (ii) x 2 2 (e) (i) x 2 -5 (ii) x 1 -5 7. f ] -x g = - ] -x g = -x2 = f (x) ` even
2
8.
(a) Even (b) Even (c) Even (d) Neither (e) Neither (f) Even (g) Neither (h) Neither (i) Neither (j) Neither
Exercises 5.6
1. (a) x-intercept 0, y-intercept 0 (b) No x-intercepts, y-intercept 7 (c) x-intercepts ! 2, y-intercept -2 (d) x-intercept 0, y-intercept 0 (e) x-intercepts ! 3, y-intercept 3 (f) x-intercept -6, y-intercept 6 2 (g) x-intercept , y-intercept 2 3 4 (h) x-intercept - , y-intercept 4 5 1 (i) x-intercept , y-intercept 1 7 (j) No x-intercepts, y-intercept 9 (a) 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 (b) 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 5 x y 1 2 3 4 5 x y
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
(e) 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 (f) 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
2.
ANSWERS
563
(g)
5 4 3 2 1
3.
(a) {all real x}, " y: y $ 0 , (b) {all real x}, " y: y $ -8 , (c) {all real x}, " y: y $ 0 , (d) {all real x}, " y: y $ -3 , (e) {all real x}, " y: y # 0 , (a) (i) x 2 2 (ii) x 1 2 (b) (i) x 2 0 (ii) x 1 0 1 1 (d) (i) x 2 0 (ii) x 1 0 (c) (i) x 2 1 (ii) x 1 1 2 2 (e) (i) x 1 0 (ii) x 2 0 (a) 0 # y # 2 (d) 0 # y # 11 (b) - 8 # y # -4 (e) -1 # y # 0 (c) x 2 9 (d) x 2 2 (c) 0 # y # 6
4.
1 2 3 4 5
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
5.
6.
y
(h)
5 4 3 2 1
(a) x 2 -3 (e) x 1 -2 (a) x = !3
(b) x 1 0
7.
(b) x 2 1, x 1 -1
(c) -2 # x # 2
(d) x = -1, -3 (e) x = 3 (f) x = 1, 2 (g) -3 1 x 1 5 (h) - 4 # x # 2 (j) x # 2, x $ 4 1 (k) - 4 # x # 1 (l) x # 0, x $ 1 (m) x = 2, 2 (n) No solutions (o) x = 0 (p) x = 1 (q) x = 0, -2 1 (t) x = 0, 6 (r) No solutions (s) x = 3 (i) x 2 4, x 1 0
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 y
5 4 3 2 1
Exercises 5.7
1. (a) (i) {all real x: x ! 0}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) no y-intercept (iii)
5 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4 5
(i)
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
(j) 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
(b) (i) {all real x: x ! 0}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) no y-intercept (iii) 2 x y
-2
-1 -1
-2
564
(c) (i) {all real x: x ! -1}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) 1 (iii) 2 1 y
(iii)
5 4 3 2 1
-2
-1 -1
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
2 3
-2 1 (d) (i) {all real x: x ! 2}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) -1 2 (iii)

5 4 3 2 1
(g) (i) {all real x: x ! 1}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) -4 (iii)

5 4 3 2 1
y y
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
1 2
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 1 6 -5
(e) (i) {all real x: x ! -2}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) (iii) 2 1 y
(h) (i) {all real x: x ! -1}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) -2 (iii)

5 4 3
-2
-1 -1 -2
2 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 2 3 -3 -4 -5
(f) (i) {all real x: x ! 3}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii)
ANSWERS
565
(i) (i) ' all real x: x ! (iii)
1 2 1, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) 2 3 y 2
Exercises 5.8
1. (a) (i) y
1 -3 3 x
-2
-1
-
1 2
-1
2 3
-3
-2 (j) (i) {all real x: x ! -2}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) -3 (iii)

5 4 3 2 1
(ii) ! x: -3 # x # 3 +, " y: -3 # y # 3 , (b) (i) y
y 4
-4
1 2 3 4 5
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 2 f ] -x g = -x 2 =x = - f (x) ` odd function 1 (a) # y # 1 9 3 (d) # y # 3 7 4. (a) 1 # x # 3 (d) 1 # x # 4
-4
(ii) ! x: -4 # x # 4 +, " y: -4 # y # 4 , (c) (i) 5 4 3 2 y
2.
3.
1 (b) # y # 1 3
1 1 (c) -2 # y # 2 2
1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1
(2, 1) x
1 (e) - 2 # y # 8 (b) 1 # x # 4 (e) 1 # x # 2 (c) - 6 # x # 0
566
(ii) ! x: 0 # x # 4 +, " y: -1 # y # 3 , (d) (i) 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 (ii) ! x: -4 # x # 2 +, " y: -3 # y # 3 , (e) (i) 5 4 3 2 (-2, 1) 1 1 2 3 4 x y 1 2 3 4 x y
(iii) ! x: -5 # x # 5 +, " y: -5 # y # 0 , (b) (i) Above x-axis (ii) y
-1
(iii) ! x: -1 # x # 1 +, " y: 0 # y # 1 , (c) (i) Above x-axis (ii) y
-6
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2
(iii) ! x: -6 # x # 6 +, " y: 0 # y # 6 , (d) (i) Below x-axis (ii) y
(ii) ! x: -3 # x # -1 +, " y : 0 # y # 2 , 2. (a) (i) Below x-axis (ii) y x
-8
-8
-5
(iii) ! x: -8 # x # 8 +, " y: -8 # y # 0 ,
-5
ANSWERS
567
(e) (i) Below x-axis (ii) y
6.
(a) {y: - 9 # y # 3} (b) {y: 0 # y # 9} (c) {y: -8 # y # 1} 1 (d) ' y: # y # 1 1 (e) {y: 0 # y # 4} 5 (f) {y: -1 # y # 15} (g) {y: -1 # y # 0} (h) " y: - 1 # y # 8 , (i) {y: - 4 # y # 21} 1 (j) ' y: - 6 # y # 6 1 4
- 7
7.
- 7 8. (iii) " x: - 7 # x # 3. 7 ,, # y: - 7 # y # 0 5 , centre (0, 0) 9.
(a) {all real x: x ! -1} (b) x-intercept: y = 0 3 0= x+1 0=3 This is impossible so there is no x-intercept (c) {all real y: y ! 0} (a) {all real x: x ! 0} (a)
25 20 15 10 5
(b) {all real y: y ! !1} y
(a) Radius 10, centre (0, 0) (b) Radius
(c) Radius 4, centre (4, 5) (d) Radius 7, centre (5, -6) (e) Radius 9, centre (0, 3) 4. (a) x 2 + y 2 = 16 (b) x - 6x + y - 4y - 12 = 0 (c) x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 10y + 17 = 0 (d) x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 6y - 23 = 0 (e) x 2 + 8x + y 2 - 4y - 5 = 0 (f) x 2 + y 2 + 4y + 3 = 0 (g) x 2 - 8x + y 2 - 4y - 29 = 0 (h) x 2 + 6x + y 2 + 8y - 56 = 0 (i) x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 1 = 0 (j) x 2 + 8x + y 2 + 14y + 62 = 0
2 2
-4 -3 -2 -1 -5 -10 -15 (b)

8 6 4 2
Exercises 5.9
1. (a) {all real x}, {all real y} (b) {all real x}, {y: y = -4} (c) {x: x = 3}, {all real y} (d) {all real x}, {y: y $ -1} 1 (e) {all real x}, {all real y} (f) {all real x}, ' y: y # 12 1 4 (g) {x: -8 # x # 8}, {y: -8 # y # 8} (h) {all real t: t ! 4}, {all real f (t): f (t) ! 0} (i) {all real z: z ! 0}, {all real g ^ z h: g ^ z h ! 5} (j) {all real x}, {y: y $ 0} (a) {x: x $ 0}, {y: y $ 0} (b) {x: x $ 2}, {y: y $ 0} (c) {all real x}, {y: y $ 0} (d) {all real x}, {y: y $ -2} 1 (e) ' x: x $ -2 1, {y: y # 0} 2 (f) {all real x}, {y: y # 5} (g) {all real x}, {y: y 2 0} (h) {all real x}, {y: y 1 0} (i) {all real x: x ! 0}, {all real y: y ! 1} (j) {all real x: x ! 0}, {all real y: y ! 2} (a) x = 0, 5 (b) x = -3, 1, 2 (c) x = 0, 2, 4 (d) x = 0, ! 4 (e) x = !7 4. (a) -1 # x # 1 (b) {x: -1 # x # 1} (a) {x: x # - 1, x $ 2} (b) {t: t # - 6, t $ 0}
-4 -3 -2 -1 -2 -4 -6 -8 (c)
25 20 15 10 5
2.
3.
-4 -3 -2 -1 -5 -10 -15
5.
568
(d)
8 6 4 2
(g)
3 2
-4 -3 -2 -1 -2 -4 -6 -8
x -1
1 1
-1
10. (a) " x: x $ 1 , " y: y $ 0 , (b) (e)

8 6 4 2
y
2 1 1 2 3
-1
-4 -3 -2 -1 -2 -4 -6 -8
11.
6 5 4 3 2 1
-1
-1
(f)
10
12. (a) (i) {all real x}, {all real y} (ii) All x (iii) None (b) (i) {all real x}, " y: y 2 -2 , (ii) x 2 0 (iii) x 1 0 (c) (i) {all real x: x ! 0}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) None (iii) All x ! 0 (d) (i) {all real x}, {all real y} (ii) All x (iii) None (e) (i) {all real x}, " y: y 2 0 , (ii) All x (iii) None 13. (a) - 2 # x # 2 (b) (i) {x: - 2 # x # 2}, { y: 0 # y # 2} (ii) {x: - 2 # x # 2}, { y: - 2 # y # 0}
-10
10
Exercises 5.10
1. -10 (a) 21 (b) -10 (c) 8 (d) 3 (e) 3 (f) 75 1 (j) 1 (k) - 7 (l) x 2 - 3x (h) - 6 (i) 4 (n) 3c 2 (g) 0
(m) 2x 3 + 3x - 5
ANSWERS
569
2.
(a) Continuous (b) Discontinuous at x = - 1 (c) Continuous (d) Continuous (e) Discontinuous at x = !2 (a)
(b)
6 5 4 3 2 1
3.
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 (b) (c)
6 5 4 3 2 1
-4 y
(c)
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 (d)
6 5 4 3 2
Exercises 5.11
1. (a)
6 5 4 3 2 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4
570
(e)
6 5 4 3 2 1
(h)
6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
y = x +1
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 (f)
6 5 4 3 2 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
3x - y - 6 = 0
-6 (i) y = 2x - 3
6 5 4 3 1 2 3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3
x + 2y - 2 = 0
2 1 1 2 3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 y -4 -5 -6
(g)
6 5 4 3 2 1
x+y = 1
(j)
6
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4
5 4 3 2 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
x=
1 2
ANSWERS
571
2.
(a) x 2 -3 (e) y $ 2
x
(b) y $ -2
(c) y $ x + 1
(d) y 2 x 2 - 4
(d)
5 4 3 2 1
3.
(a)
5 4 3 2 1
y=x2
y = x2 - 1 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1 -2 -3 -4 -5 y
8
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
(e)
(b)
6 4 2
-4 -3 -2 -1 -2 -4 -3
3
y = x3
-6 -8
4. -3
(a) y 1 3x - 2 (b) y 2 x 2 + 2 (c) x 2 + y 2 1 49 (d) x 2 + y 2 2 81 (e) x 1 5, y 2 2 (a)

5
(c)
5.
4 3 2 1
-1
x -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2
1 2 3 4
-1
572
(b)
5 4 3 2 1
(c)
6 5 4 3 2 1 2 3 4
y = 3x 5
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 (c)
5 4 3 2 1
x -4 -3 -2
-1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
(d)
1 2 3 4
y
6 5 4 3
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 6. (a)
6 5 4 3 2 1
y=x+1
2 1
-4
-3
-2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4
y=3x
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4
-5 -6 (e) y
(b)
6 5 4 3 2 1
y=1 x
-3
y=x -3
1 2 3 4
-4
-3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
-3
ANSWERS
573
(f)
(i)
1 1
-2
-1
-1
-2 x=1 (g)
5 4 3 2 1
-1
y (j) y=4
6 5 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 5
x - y = -1
y = x2 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
x-y=2
1 2 3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
(h) x = -2
8 6 4 2
y y = x3 y=3 x
-6 y y = x2
5 4 1 2 3 4 3 2 1
7.
(a)
-4 -3 -2 -1 -2 -4 -6 -8
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
574
(b)
8 6 4
y y = x3
(e)
2 1
1 2 3 4
y=1
-4 -3 -2 -1 -2 -4 -6 -8
-4
y=
-3 -2
1 x+2
-1 -1 -2
(c)
8.
(a) y = x2
5 4 3
y=5
2 -2
1 2
x -4 -3 -2 -1
1 -1 -2 -3 1 2 3 4 5 x
-2 x=1 (d) y (b) 2
-4 -5
x=2
y
6 5 4
1 -1
2 y= x
-2
3 2 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 y=x-2 -6
x y = -1
x=3
ANSWERS
575
(c)
6 5 4 3 2 1
y y = 2x + 1
Test yourself 5
1. 2. (a) f ] - 2 g = 6 (a) (b) f ] a g = a 2 - 3a - 4 (c) x = 4, -1
2x - 3y = 6
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
(b)
(d)
y (c)
3
y=2
-3
(d)
x = -3
-3 (e)
(e)
6
y = |x|
5 4 3 2 1
(f) y=3
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3
x=2
576
(g)
9.
(h) 10.
3.
1 4 (b) Domain: all real x; range: all real y (c) Domain: - 1 # x # 1; range: - 1 # y # 1 (d) Domain: - 1 # x # 1; range: 0 # y # 1 (e) Domain: - 1 # x # 1; range: - 1 # y # 0 (f) Domain: all real x ! 0; range: all real y ! 0 (g) Domain: all real x; range: all real y (h) Domain: all real x; range: y $ 0 (a) Domain: all real x; range: y $ - 6 15 5. (a) 4 (b) 5 (c) 9 (d) 3 (e) 2
11. (a) y # 3
(b) y 2 x + 2
(c) y $ - x 2, y # 0
12. (a) Domain: all real x ! 3, range: all real y ! 0 (b)
4. 6.
13. (a) 7.
(b) (i) x = 2, -4 (ii) - 4 1 x 1 2 (iii) x 2 2, x 1 - 4 14. (a) 2 8. (b) x = 3 2 3 (c) 1 1 3
15. (a) x-intercept -10, y-intercept 4 (b) x-intercepts - 2, 7, y-intercept -14 16. (a) i (b) iii (c) ii (d) i (e) iii
ANSWERS
577
17. (a) 4 (b) 18.
2 5
(c) - 1
1 2
(d) 3
3.
4.
19. (a) Domain: x $ 2, range: y $ 0 (b)
5.
f ] 3 g = 9, f ] -4 g = 16, f ] 0 g = 1
20. (a)
f ( x) = x 4 + 3 x 2 - 1 f (- x) = ] - x g4 + 3 ] - x g2 - 1 = x 4 + 3x 2 - 1 = f (x) So f ] x g is even. (b)
f (x) = x 3 - x f (- x) = ] - x g3 - (- x) = - x3 + x = - (x 3 - x) = - f (x) So f ] x g is odd.
1. 2. 2 b=- ,3 3 6. 7. Domain: all real x ! ! 1; range: y # - 1, y 2 0
578
8. 10.
Domain: x $ 0; range: y $ 0
9. x = 0, 3, - 2
16. (a)
1 x+3 2]x + 3g 1 = + x+3 x+3 2x + 6 + 1 = x+3 2x + 7 = x+3 = LHS 2x + 7 1 =2+ ` x+3 x+3 RHS = 2 +
(b) Domain: all real x ! - 3; range: all real y ! 2 (c)
11. h ] 2 g + h ] -1 g - h ] 0 g = - 3 + 0 - ] -1 g = - 2
17.
12.
18.
13.
19. Domain: x $ 3; range: y $ 0 20. Domain: - 2 # x # 2 21.
14. f ^ (-a) 2 h = 2 (-a 2) - 1 = 2a 2 - 1 = f (a 2) 15. x = 1 ! 41 4
ANSWERS
579
Chapter 6: Trigonometry
5. 6.
(a) 0.635
(b) 0.697
(c) 0.339
(d) 0.928
(e) 1.393
Exercises 6.1
1. cos i = 5 12 12 , sin i = , tan i = 5 13 13
(a) 17c 20l (b) 34c 20l (c) 34c 12l (d) 46c 34l (e) 79c 10l
Exercises 6.3
1. 5 74 9 56 2. 5. 7. (a) x = 6.3 (b) y = 5.6 (c) b = 3.9 (d) x = 5.6 (e) m = 2.9 (f) x = 13.5 (g) y = 10.0 (h) p = 3.3 (i) x = 5.1 (j) t = 28.3 (k) x = 3.3 cm (l) x = 2.9 cm (m) x = 20.7 cm (n) x = 20.5 mm (o) y = 4.4 m (p) k = 20.6 cm (q) h = 17.3 m (r) d = 1.2 m (s) x = 17.4 cm (t) b = 163.2 m 1.6 m 3. 20.3 cm 4. 13.9 m 6. 10 cm and 10.5 cm (b) 6.6 cm
2. 3.
3 5 4 sin b = , cot b = , sec b = 5 4 3 sin b = cos x = cos i = 7 74 , tan b = 7 , cos b = 5
4.
5 , tan x = 9 3 4 , sin i = 5 5
56 , cosec x = 5
5.
(a) 18.4 cm
(b) 13.8 cm
6.
5 5 3 tan i = , sec i = , sin i = 2 2 3 cos i = tan i = (a) 2 35 , tan i = 6 1 35
47.4 mm 8. 20.3 m (c) 9.0 cm (b) 6.5 cm
9. (a) 7.4 cm
7.
10. (a) 6.8 cm
11. 38 cm
8. 9.
51 51 , sin i = 7 10
Exercises 6.4
1. (a) x = 39c 48l (b) a = 35c 06l (c) i = 37c 59l (d) a = 50c 37l (e) a = 38c 54l (f) b = 50c 42l l (i) a = 29c 43l (g) x = 44c 50l (h) i = 30c 51 (j) i = 45c 37l (k) a = 57c 43l (l) i = 43c 22l (m) i = 37c 38l (n) i = 64c 37l (o) b = 66c 16l (p) a = 29c 56l (q) i = 54c 37l (r) a = 35c 58l (s) i = 59 2l (t) c = 56c 59l 37c 57l 3. 22c 14l (a) 11.4 cm (a) 13 m 4. 36c52l 5. 50c
(b) 45c 1 1 (c) sin 45c = , cos 45c = , tan 45c = 1 2 2 3 (b) sin 30c = 3 1 1 , cos 30c = , tan 30c = 2 2 3 3
10. (a)
(c) sin 60c =
3 1 , cos 60c = , tan 60c = 2 2
2. 6. 8.
11. sin 67c = cos 23c = 0.92 13. tan 48c = cot 42c = 1.11 (b) 0 (c) 0 (d) 1 (e) 2
12. sec 82c = cosec 8c = 7.19 14. (a) 2 cos 61c or 2 sin 29c
(b) 37c 52l 7. a = 31c 58l, b = 45c 44l
(b) 65c 17l 9. (a) 11c 19l (b) 26 cm 11. (a) 12.9 m (b) 56c 34l
10. 4.96 cm and 17.3 cm 18. b = 25c
15. x = 80c 19. t = 20c
16. y = 22c 20. k = 15c
17. p = 31c
Exercises 6.5
1. (a)
North
Exercises 6.2
1. 2. (a) 47c (b) 82c (c) 19c (d) 77c (e) 52c
100c
3.
(a) 77.75c (d) 68.35c
(b) 65.5c
(c) 24.85c
(e) 82.517c
Beach house
4.
Boat
580
(b)
North Jamie
(f) North
Farmhouse
12c
Campsite
Dam
(g)
320c
North
(c)
North
House 160c
Jetty
200c
Mohammed
(h)
North
Seagull
(d) North
Alistair Mine shaft 80c Town

50c
Bus stop North
(i)
Yvonne
North
(e)
Plane
349c
School
B Hill 285c
ANSWERS
581
(j)
North
6.
(a) 1st 1 (e) 2
(b)
3 2
7. (a) 1 3 (g) 2 3 2 (c) 1 3 3 2
(b)
1 2 1 3
(c) - 3 (i) 3 2 3 2
(d)
1 2 1 2
1 (f) 2 (b) (g) 1 2 3 1 2
(h) -
(j) 3 2
8.
(a) -
1 2
(d) (i) 1 2 1 2
(e) 1 2 (f)
Boat ramp 280c Island

9.
(f) - 3 3 2
(h) -
(j) 1 2
(a) (g) 1
(b)
(c)
(d) 1 2
(e) -
2. 3. 7.
(a) 248c 080c 21 m
(b) 145c (c) 080c (d) 337c (e) 180c 5. 160c 6. 10.4 m
(h)
(i) 1
(j)
4. 210c
8. 126.9 m 9. 72c48l
3 4 10. sin i = - , cos i = 5 5 11. cos i = 15. 035c 12. cos x = 8 89 33 4 , tan i = 7 33 , cosec x = 5 21 , cot x = 89 5 2 21 , tan x = 21 2
10. (a) 1056.5 km (b) 2265.8 km (c) 245c 11. 83.1 m 12. 1.8 km 13. 12 m 14. 242c
l 20. 2.6 m 16. 9.2 m 17. 171 m 18. 9.8 km 19. 51c 41 21. 9c21l 22. 1931.9 km 23. 34.6 m 24. 149c 28. 217c
13. cosec x = 14. cos x = 15. tan i = -
25. 198 m 26. 4.8 km 29. (a) 1.2 km
27. 9.2 m
(b) 7.2 km 30. (a) 13.1 m (b) 50c26l
7 74 5 74 , sin x = 74 74 4 65 , sec i = 9 65
Exercises 6.6
1. (a) 3+1 2 1 4 (h) (b) 1 (c) 6+ 2 = 4 (k) 0 2 (d) 4 (e) 4 3 3 (i) 3 (n) 2 3 (t) 6 2- 3 2 (f) 2 3 3
16. tan x =
55 8 8 , sec x = - , cosec x = 3 3 55 3 10 (b) cos x = 91 3 , tan x = 10 91
(g) 1
2 ^ 3 + 1h 4
17. (a) sin x =
(j) - ^ 2 + 3 h (o) 1 1 3
(l) 1
(m) 2 ^ 2 - 1 h (r) 1 2 (s) 6
5 18. cot a = - , sec a = 6 19. sin i = 20. (a) sin i
61 61 , cosec a = 5 6
(p) 3 - 2 2 3 2 2 2m
(q) 2 3 9 3 2
51 7 , cot i = 10 51 (b) cos x (c) tan b (d) - sin a (e) - tan i (h) - tan x
2. 3. 7.
(a) x = 60c 4.
(b) y = 5.
(c) p = 2 3 6. 10 3 m 3 9. 5^3 + 3 h m 3
3m
(f) - sin i (g) cos a
Exercises 6.8
1. l (b) i = 120c, 240c (a) i = 20c 29l, 159c 31 (c) i = 135c, 315c (d) i = 60c, 120c (e) i = 150c, 330c (f) i = 30c, 330c (g) i = 30c, 120c, 210c, 300c ] 0c # 2i # 720c g (h) i = 70c, 110c, 190c, 230c, 310c, 350c ] 0c # 3i # 1080c g (i) i = 30c, 150c, 210c, 330c (j) i = 15c, 45c, 75c, 105c, 135c, 165c, 195c, 225c, 255c, 285c, 315c, 345c (a) i = !79c 13l (b) i = 30c, 150c (d) i = - 60c, -120c (f) i = !30c, !150c (g) i = 22c 30l, 112c 30l, -67c 30l, -157c 30l (c) i = 45c, -135c
(a) 6 2 m
(b) 4 m
8. 0.9 m
10. 100 3 m
Exercises 6.7
1. (a) 1st, 4th (b) 1st, 3rd (c) 1st, 2nd (e) 3rd, 4th (f) 2nd, 3rd (g) 3rd (h) 3rd (i) 2nd (j) 4th (a) 3rd (b) 1 2 3. (a) 4th (b) 1 2 1 2 (d) 2nd, 4th
2.
2.
(e) i = 150c, -30c
4.
(a) 2nd (b) - 3
5. (a) 2nd
(b)
582
(h) i = !15c, !45c, !75c, !105c, !135c, !165c (i) i = 135c, -45c 3. (j) i = !30c, !60c, !120c, !150c
17.
Exercises 6.9
4. 5. -1 1. 2. (a) cos i (b) - tan i (c) cos i (d) tan i (e) - sec a (a) sin i (b) sec i (c) cosec x (f) cosec x (j) sin2 x 3.
2
(d) cos2 x
(e) sin a
(g) sec x
(h) tan i (i) 5 cosec 2 i

2
(k) 1
(l) sin i cos i
(a) LHS = cos 2 x - 1 = 1 - sin 2 x - 1 = - sin 2 x = RHS So cos 2 x - 1 = -sin 2 x (b) LHS = sec i + tan i sin i 1 = + cos i cos i 1 + sin i = cos i = RHS 1 + sin i So sec i + tan i = cos i (c) LHS = 3 + 3 tan 2 a = 3 (1 + tan 2 a ) = 3 sec 2 a 3 = cos 2 a 3 = 1 - sin 2 a = RHS
6. 9. 10.
x = 0c, 180c, 360c x = 0c, 360c
7. - 1
8. 1
11. 0
12. x = 270c
13. x = 0c, 180c, 360c 15. x = -270c, 90c
So 3 + 3 tan 2 a =
3 1 - sin 2 a
14. x = 0c, 180c, 360c 16.
(d) LHS = sec 2 x - tan 2 x = tan 2 x + 1 - tan 2 x =1 = cosec 2 x - cot 2 x = RHS So sec 2 x - tan 2 x = cosec 2 x - cot 2 x (e) LHS = ] sin x - cos x g 3 = ] sin x - cos x g ] sin x - cos x g 2 = ] sin x - cos x g ^ sin 2 x - 2 sin x cos x + cos 2 x h = ] sin x - cos x g ] 1 - 2 sin x cos x g = sin x - 2 sin 2 x cos x - cos x + 2 sin x cos 2 x = RHS So ] sin x - cos x g 3 = sin x - 2 sin 2 x cos x - cos x + 2 sin x cos 2 x
ANSWERS
583
(f) RHS =
1 - sin 2 i + 2 sin i sin i cos i cos 2 i + 2 sin i = sin i cos i 2 sin i cos 2 i = + sin i cos i sin i cos i cos i 2 = + sin i cos i = cot i + 2 sec i = LHS 1 - sin 2 i + 2 sin i sin i cos i
RHS = =
sec b tan b + cot b sec b sin b cos b sin b sec b sin 2 b + cos 2 b sin b cos b sec b + cos b
So cot i + 2 sec i =
(g) LHS = cos 2 ] 90c - i g cot i = sin 2 i cot i cos i = sin 2 i # sin i = sin i cos i = RHS So cos 2 ] 90c - i g cot i = sin i cos i (h) LHS = ] cosec x + cot x g ] cosec x - cot x g = cosec 2 x - cot 2 x = 1 + cot 2 x - cot 2 x =1 = RHS So ] cosec x + cot x g ] cosec x - cot x g = 1 (i) LHS = 1 - sin 2 i cos 2 i cos 2 i sin 2 i cos 2 i 1 = 2 cos i cos 2 i 2 2 = sec i - sin i = tan 2 i + 1 - (1 - cos 2 i) = tan 2 i + 1 - 1 + cos 2 i = tan 2 i + cos 2 i = RHS cos 2 i 1 + cot b = tan 2 i + cos 2 i
1 sin b cos b cos b sin b = sec b # 1 cos b sin b 1 = # 1 cos b = sin b LHS = RHS So 1 + cot b cosec b - cos b = sin b
4.
LHS = x 2 + y 2 = ] 2 cos i g 2 + ] 2 sin i g 2 = 4 cos 2 i + 4 sin 2 i = 4 (cos 2 i + sin 2 i) = 4 ]1g =4 = RHS So x 2 + y 2 = 4
5.
So
1 - sin 2 i cos 2 i
LHS = x 2 + y 2 = ] 9 cos i g 2 + ] 9 sin i g 2 = 81 cos 2 i + 81 sin 2 i = 81 (cos 2 i + sin 2 i) = 81 ] 1 g = 81 = RHS So x 2 + y 2 = 81
(j) LHS = =
- cos b cosec b 1 + cot b - cos b cosec b cosec b 1 + cot b - cos b # 1 sin b
Exercises 6.10
1. (a) x = 8.9 (b) y = 9.4 cm (e) d = 8.0 (c) a = 10.0 (d) b = 10.7 m 2.
= =
(a) i = 51c 50l (b) a = 61c 23l (c) x = 43c 03l (d) a = 87c 04l (e) i = 150c 56l
cosec b 1 + cot b - cot b 3. 5. 7. 9.
cosec b 1 = cosec b = sin b
126c 56l 4. (a) 13.5 mm (a) 1.8 m (a) 10.3 m (b) 2.7 m (b) 9.4 m
(b) 25 mm
6. 5.7 cm 8. (a) 60c 22l (b) 57c 9l
(a) 14.1 cm (b) 15.6 cm
10. (a) 54.7 mm (b) 35.1 mm
584
Exercises 6.11
1. (a) m = 5.8 (d) n = 16.4 2. (b) b = 10.4 m (e) y = 9.3 (c) h = 7.4 cm
5.
LHS =
(a) i = 54c 19l (b) i = 60c 27l (c) x = 57c 42l l (e) i = 73c 49l (d) b = 131c 31
3. 5. 6. 7. 9.
32.94 mm
4. 11.2 cm and 12.9 cm So
2 cos 2 i 1 - sin i 2 ^ 1 - sin 2 i h = 1 - sin i 2 ] 1 + sin i g ] 1 - sin i g = 1 - sin i = 2 (1 + sin i) = 2 + 2 sin i = RHS
l (c) 82c 13l (a) 11.9 cm (b) 44c 11 +XYZ = +XZY = 66c 10l, +YXZ = 47c 40l (a) 18.1 mm (b) 80c49l 8. (a) 6.2 cm 12.9 cm 10. (i) 11 cm (ii) 30c (b) 12.7 cm 6. 8. 9.
2 cos 2 i = 2 + 2 sin i 1 - sin i 7. (a) 1 2 (b) 3 2 (c) - 3
b = 40c
x = 120c, 240c
Exercises 6.12
1. 4. 7. 12.5 cm and 4.7 cm 2. (a) 040c (b) 305c 3. 16.4 m 103c 5. 1.97 m 6. 11c (b) 1 minute 8. 32 m 9. 107 m
(a) 1.21 km
10. (a) AC = 11. h = 8.5 14. 1841 km
5.8 sin 42c 29l (b) i = 74c 50l sin 101c 36l 12. 7.7 km 13. 5.7 km and 5.4 km
x = 90c, 270c 10. 122 km 11. 5 3 12. (a) 6.3 cm (b) 8.7 m
15. 35.8 m 16. 89c 52l 17. 9.9 km
l (b) i = 84c 16l (c) i = 39c 47l 13. (a) i = 65c 5 14. 65.3 cm 2 15. (a) x = !60c, !120c
18. 163.5 km 19. 64.1 m 20. 3269 km 21. (a) 11.3 cm (b) 44c 40l 22. 141c 23. (a) 11.6 cm (b) 73c 14l l 24. (a) 265.5 km (b) 346c 33 l (b) (i) 4.5 m 25. (a) 35c 5 (ii) 0.55 m
(b) x = 15c, 105c, -75c, -165c (c) x = 0c, !180c, 30c, -150c 3 4 16. sin i = - , cot i = 5 3 18. (a) AD = 20 sin 39c sin 99c 17. (a) 209c (b) 8.5 m (b) 029c
19. 2951 km
Exercises 6.13
1. (a) 7.5 cm 2 (b) 32.3 units 2 (c) 9.9 mm 2 (d) 30.2 units 2 (e) 6.3 cm 2 15 3 2 m 2 1.2 m 2 3. 7.5 cm
2
1. 4. 6. 9. (c) 19.1 cm 2 92c 58l 2. 50.2 km (a) AC = - cos x 3. x = 12.7 cm 5. 4.1 km
2. 6. 9.
4. 15.5 cm
5. 34.8 cm
l 25.3 sin 39c 53 (b) h = 25.2 cm l sin 41c 21 7. 16 3 cm 2 8. 1 2
7. 42 cm 2
8. 247.7 mm 2
(a) 7.8 cm (b) 180.8 cm 2
l x = 22c 30l, 112c 30l, 202c 30l, 292c 30l 10. i = 75c 45 12. i = 110c, 230c 15. 31 m 13. 6.43 km cos i ] sin i + cos i g 1 - sin 2 i ] sin i + cos i g
10. (a) 5.6 cm (b) 18.5 cm 2
11. 5.4 m 14. 56 9
Test yourself 6
1. 2. 3. 4. cos i = (a) cos x (a) 0.64 5 34 , sin i = 3 34
16. LHS =
= cos i
(b) 2
(c) cosec A
(b) 1.84 (c) 0.95 17. x 2 + y 2 + 4y - 5 = 0
cos 2 i sin i + cos i = cos i = tan i + 1 = RHS
(a) i = 46c 3l (b) i = 73c 23l (c) i = 35c 32l
ANSWERS
585
Chapter 7: Linear functions
8.
AC = BD =
125 , midpoint AC = midpoint 9. ^ - 8, 13 h
Exercises 7.1
1. (a) 5 (b) 10 (c) 3. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 85 (d) (c) 13 2. (a) 13 (b) 65 52 = 2 13
1 BD = d 4, - n ; rectangle 2
1 1 1 1 10. (a) X = d - , 3 n , Y = d , n , Z = ^ 1, 1 h 2 2 2 2 (b) XY = AC = 10 , BC = 40 = 2 10 ; XZ = 2 34 , 2
(a) 9.85 (b) 6.71 (c) 16.55 4. 12 units Two sides = 34 , 1 side = 85 17 units from ^ 7, -3 h 128
Show AB = BC = Show points are
34 ; YZ =
2 , AB = 2
11. x 2 + y 2 = 4
12. x 2 + y 2 = 1
Radius = 3 units, equation x 2 + y 2 = 9 Distance of all points from ^ 0, 0 h is x + y = 11

2 2
Exercises 7.3
1. (a) 2 (g) - 4 3. (b) 1 1 2 1 3 (c) - 1 2 3 1 3 1 4 (d) - 2 2 5 (e) 2 3 (f) 1 8
11 , equation
10. a = 3
11. a = ! 6 - 2
12. All 3 sides are 2 units. 13. a = 10, - 2 14. MQ = NP = 15. BD = AC = 37 , QP = MN = 98 20 , so parallelogram 40 , BC = 4 61 units
(h) -
(i) 2
(j) - 2
2. y 1 = 21 3 5
x = 1.8
4. x = 9
5. (a) Show m 1 = m 2 =
16. (a) AB = AC = 17. 2 101 116 , AC = 18. 145
(b) Lines are parallel.
(b) OC = OB = 2 19. AB =
2
y
4 3 (-2, 1) 2 1 1 2 3 4 (2, -1) 5 6 7 (3, 4) (7, 2)
29 , BC =
2
AB + BC = 29 + 116 = 145 = AC 2 So triangle ABC is right angled (Pythagoras theorem) 20. XY = 65 , YZ = 130 , XZ = 65
Since XY = YZ, triangle XYZ is isosceles. XY 2 + XZ 2 = 65 + 65 = 130 = YZ 2 So triangle XYZ is right angled. (Pythagoras theorem)
-3 -2 -1 -1 -2
6.
Gradient of AB = gradient of CD = 1 Gradient of BC = gradient of AD = 0
1 2
Problem
30.2 7.
Gradient of AB = gradient of CD = -1 Gradient of BC = gradient of AD = 1 Gradient of AC = - 5 , 2 1 gradient of BD = 2 3 4
1 3
Exercises 7.2
1. (a) ^ 2, 4 h (b) ^ 1, -1 h (c) ^ - 2, 1 h (d) ^ - 3, 2 h (e) ^ -1, 1 h (f) ^ - 3, 2 h (g) d 3, 1 1 1 (i) d , 2 n (j) d 0, 5 n 2 2 2 2. (a) a = 9, b = - 3 (e) a = 6, b = 1 3. 5. 3 + ]-3g -4 + 4 = 0, =0 2 2 4. P = Q = ^ 2, -1 h (b) a = - 5, b = 6 1 1 n (h) d 1 , 1 n 2 2
8. 9.
Gradient of AC = 1, gradient of BD = -1 (a) Show AB 2 + BC 2 = AC 2 (b) Gradient of AB = gradient of BC = 4 5 1 n 2 5 6 5 , 4
(c) a = -1, b = - 2 (d) a = -1, b = - 2
^ 4, 3 h 6. x = 3 is the vertical line through midpoint ^ 3, 2 h.
10. (a) F = ^ 1, - 2 h, G = d 4,
7.
1 1 Midpoint of AC = midpoint of BD = d 2 , 3 n . 2 2 Diagonals bisect each other
(b) Gradient of FG = gradient of BC =
586
11. 4x - 3y - 11 = 0 12. Gradient of ^ 2, - 4 h and ^ 3, -1 h = gradient of ^ 3, -1 h and ^ 5, 5 h = 3 13. 1 18. (a) 14. 0.93 15. 21 16. 50c 12l 17. 108c 26l 3 (b) 1 3 (c) - 3
2.
(a) x - y + 1 = 0 (b) x - 3y + 16 = 0 (c) x + y - 5 = 0 (d) x + 2y + 5 = 0 (f) x + 3y - 1 = 0 (e) x - 2y + 4 = 0 (g) 3x + 4y + 13 = 0
3. 4.
m 1 = m 2 = 3 so parallel m1 m2 = 1 # 5 = - 1 so perpendicular 5 1 5 3 7 # = -1 7 3 7. k = 2 3 8. m 1 = m 2 = 4
19.
m -1 ` i
-5 - ] -2 g = 7-4 -3 = 3 = -1 = tan i = tan i = 180c - 45c ^ 2nd quadrant h = 135c 2^ 3 + 3h 3
5. m 1 = m 2 = 1 6.
m1 # m2 = -
20. x =
5 AB < CD _ m 1 = m 2 = 3 i and BC < AD d m 1 = m 2 = - n 8 1 10. Gradient of AC: m 1 = , gradient of BD: m 2 = - 2, 2 1 m 1 # m 2 = # - 2 = -1 2 9. (ii) -7 (ii) - 2 (ii) 0 11. (a) y = - x (b) 5x - y - 8 = 0 (c) 2x + y + 2 = 0
Exercises 7.4
1. (a) (i) 3 (ii) 5 (d) (i) -1 (g) (i) - 2 (ii) 0 (ii) 6 (b) (i) 2 (ii) 1 (c) (i) 6 (ii) 3 (e) (i) - 4 (h) (i) -1
(f) (i) 1
(d) 2x - 3y + 16 = 0
12. 7x + 6y - 24 = 0
(ii) 1 (i) (i) 9
13. x + y - 3 = 0 14. 2x - y - 5 = 0 15. 2x - 3y + 18 = 0
(j) (i) 5 (ii) - 2 2. (a) (i) - 2 (ii) 3 (b) (i) - 5 (ii) - 6 1 (c) (i) 6 (ii) -1 (d) (i) 1 (ii) 4 (e) (i) - 2 (ii) 2 1 1 4 (f) (i) 3 (ii) 1 (g) (i) (ii) - 2 (h) (i) (ii) 2 5 2 3 (i) (i) 3 (c) 0 1 2 (ii) 1 2 (j) (i) 1 2 3 (ii) 2 3 3. (a) 4 (h) (b) - 2 (i) 1 1 2
Exercises 7.7
1. (a) ^ 2, - 4 h (e) ^ 5, -1 h (b) ^ -1, - 3 h (f) ^ -1, 1 h (c) ^ 4, 4 h (d) ^ 0, - 2 h (i) ^ 41, 26 h (g) ^ 3, 7 h (h) ^ 4, 0 h
1 4 3 1 2 1 1 2 (j) 1 (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) 4 5 7 5 3 2 3 1 1 1 (p) (q) 15 (r) - 1 (s) (t) 6 14 2 8 (d) - 2 (e) -1 (f) - 3 (g) 2
1 7 n 2. Substitute ^ 3, - 4 h into both lines (j) d , 19 19 3.

^ 2, 5 h, ^ 4, 1 h and ^ -1, -1 h
4. All lines intersect 6. 11x + 6y = 0
at ^ 2, -3 h 5. 7. All lines meet at ^ - 5, 0 h 5x + 6y - 27 = 0 x+y-1=0 8. 4x + 7y + 23 = 0
Exercises 7.5
1. (a) y = 4x - 1 (b) y = - 3x + 4 (g) y = x - 1 3. (h) y = x + 5 (c) y = 5x (d) y = 4x + 20 (e) 3x + y - 3 = 0 (f) 4x - 3y - 12 = 0 2. x + y - 8 = 0
9.
10. 2x + y - 2 = 0 12. x - 2y - 3 = 0 14. x - 3y + 2 = 0 16. x + 5y + 13 = 0 18. 3x - y - 14 = 0 20. 3x - y - 11 = 0
11. x + y - 3 = 0 13. x - y + 1 = 0 15. 3x + y - 7 = 0 19. 2x - y - 1 = 0
(a) 4x - 3y + 7 = 0 (c) 4x - 5y + 13 = 0 (e) x - 2y + 2 = 0 (b) x = -1
(b) 3x - 4y + 4 = 0 (d) 3x + 4y - 25 = 0 5. (a) y = 3 7. 3x - 4y - 12 = 0 10. 3x + 8y - 15 = 0 4. 4x + y - 8 = 0
17. 27x - 5y - 76 = 0 21. 5x - y + 17 = 0
6. y = - 2x
Exercises 7.8
1. 2. 3. 4. (a) 2.6 (a) 3.48 (a) 7 13 13 (b) 1 3 13 (c) 2.5 (d) 2.4 (e) 8 13 (e) 1.66 (e) 14 13 13
8.
2x + y - 3 = 0
9. x = - 4
Exercises 7.6
1. (a) - 3 (h) 1 3 (b) 1 3 1 3 (c) 3 4 1 5 (d) 1 1 2 (e) 1 (f) 5 6 (g) 1 3
(b) 1.30 (b) 5
(c) 0.384 (c) 4 205 205
(d) 5.09 (d)
5 26 13
(i)
(j)
d1 = d2 = d3 = 1
ANSWERS
587
5.
A: d =
14 5
, B: d =
-3 5 5 10
13. Solving simultaneously, x - y - 4 = 0 and 2x + y + 1 = 0 have point of intersection ^ 1, - 3 h . Substitute ^ 1, - 3 h in 5x - 3y - 14 = 0: LHS = 5 # 1 - 3 # - 3 - 14 = 0 = RHS ` point lies on 5x - 3y - 14 = 0: Substitute ^ 1, - 3 h in 3x - 2y - 9 = 0: LHS = 3 # 1 - 2 # - 3 - 9 = 0 = RHS ` point lies on 3x - 2y - 9 = 0: ` lines are concurrent 14. - 0.499 15. c = -13, - 65 -8 13 , ^ 6, 3 h: d = 16. y = 3 2 13 17. x = 1 4 5
Opposite signs so points lie on opposite sides of the line 6.

^ 2, - 3 h: d =
13 10
, ^ 9, 2 h: d =
Same signs so points lie on the same side of the line 7.

^ - 3, 2 h : d = - 4 , ^ 4 , 1 h : d = 2
1 5
Opposite signs so points lie on opposite sides of the line 8. 9. d 1 = d 2 = 2 so the point is equidistant from both lines
^ 8, - 3 h: d =
55 37
, ^ 1, 1 h: d =
9 37
18. ^ - 2, 1 h: d =
Same signs so points lie on same side of the line 10. ^ - 3, 2 h: d = -6 5 , ^ 4, 1 h: d = 7 5
Opposite signs so points lie on opposite sides of the line 19. x - y - 4 = 0 20. 3x - 7y - 14 = 0
Opposite signs so points lie on opposite sides of the line 11. d 1 = d 2 = 4 so same distance 12. 14. 4.2 15. x = 9 2 1 or -18 3 3 2 or -17 3 8 5 units 5 16. b = 3 1 1 or -1 4 12
1. 4. k = -2 2. x - 3 y - 3 3 = 0 3. 10x 2 + 10y 2 = 81
13. 1
Show AC and BD have the same midpoint ^ 1, 2 h and m AC # m BD = -1 Show distance of all points from ^ 0, 0 h is 3; radius 3; equation x 2 + y 2 = 9 4 13 13 12 13 13 7. +OBA = 45c; a = b (sides of isosceles D) 9. 113c12l 10. 2x + 3y + 13 = 0 12. ^ 3, - 5 h
17. m = - 1
5.
18. Show distance between ^ 0, 0 h and the line is 5 19. Show distance between ^ 0, 0 h and the line is greater than 1 4 1 20. (a) ^ 3, -1 h, d 3 , n, ^ - 2, 2 h 7 7 (b) 2 10 13 5 26 34 , , 5 5 119 6.
8.
Test yourself 7
1. 3. 4. 1 6.4 units 2. d 2 , - 2 n 2 (a) - 1 1 5 (b) 2 (c) 1 3 (d) 3 5 (c) 3x + 2y = 0
11. BC = AC = 18 , AB = 6, so D is isosceles; m BC # m AC = -1, so D is right angled. 13. a = 2, b = 3 15. 14. 2x + 5y + 14 = 0
3x +y + 3 - 2 3 =0
16. x - y + 6 = 0
(a) 7x - y - 11 = 0 (d) 3x + 5y - 14 = 0
(b) 5x + y - 6 = 0 (e) x - 3y - 3 = 0
Chapter 8: Introduction to calculus
5. 6.
6 5 units 5 1 m 1 = - , m 2 = 4 so m 1 m 2 = -1 4 ` lines are perpendicular. x-intercept 5, y-intercept - 2 (a) 2x + y - 1 = 0 (b) 1 2 (c) 5 units 2 10. 3x - 4y = 0
Exercises 8.1
1.
7. 8. 9.
m 1 = m 2 = 5, so lines are parallel 12. a = 6, b = 1
11. ^ -1, 1 h
588
2.
8.
9. 3.
10. 4.
5.
Exercises 8.2
1. 5. 8. Yes, x = 0 2. Yes, x = x 1 3. No 4. Yes, x = 0 7. Yes, x = - 3
Yes, x = x 1, x = x 2 Yes, x = 2
6. Yes, x = 0
9. Yes, x = - 2, 3
10. Yes, -1 # x 1 0 13. No 14. No
11. Yes, x = 90c, 270c 15. Yes, x = !3
12. Yes, x = 0
Exercises 8.3
6. 1. (a) 3 (b) -7 (c) 3 (d) 8 (h) -1 (i) 10 (j) -1 (e) 2 (f) - 3 (g) 2
2.
(a) x 2 - 2x - 4 (b) 2x 3 + x - 1 (c) - 7x - 1 (d) 4x 4 - x 2 (e) - 4x + 3 (f) 2x 2 + 6 (g) - 2x (h) 4x 2 (i) 3x - 1 (j) x 2 - 2x + 9
Exercises 8.4
1. 7. 2. 4. (a) 4.06 (a) 13.61 (b) 3.994 (c) 4 (c) 12.9401 (d) 13 3. 6
(b) 13.0601
(a) f ] x + h g = x 2 + 2xh + h 2
2 2 2 (b) f (x + h) - f (x) = x + 2xh + h - x 2 = 2xh + h
(c)
f ]x + hg - f ]xg h
2xh + h 2 h h ] 2x + h g = h = 2x + h =
ANSWERS
589
(d) f l(x) = lim = 2x 5.
f ]x + hg - f ]xg
13. (a) 0.252
(b) 0.25
(c) 0.2498 (c) - 0.04 15. -1
h = lim (2x + h)
h "0
h "0
14. (a) - 0.04008
(b) - 0.03992
Exercises 8.5
1. (a) 1 (b) 5 (c) 2x + 3 (d) 10x - 1 (e) 3x 2 + 4x - 7 (f) 6x 2 - 14x + 7 (g) 12x 3 - 4x + 5 (h) 6x 5 - 25x 4 - 8x 3 (i) 10x 4 - 12x 2 + 2x - 2 (j) 40x 9 - 63x 8 (a) 4x + 1 (b) 8x - 12 (e) 6x 2 + 6x - 3 (a) x -1 3 (b) 2x 3 - x 2 (c) 2x (d) 16x 3 - 24x
(a) f (x + h) = 2 ] x + h g2 - 7 (x + h) + 3 = 2 (x 2 + 2xh + h 2) - 7x - 7h + 3 = 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 - 7x - 7h + 3

2 2 (b) f (x + h) - f (x) = (2x + 4xh + 2h - 7x - 7h + 3) 2 - (2x - 7x + 3) = 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 - 7x - 7h + 3 - 2x 2 + 7x - 3 = 4xh + 2h 2 - 7h
2.
(c) f ] x + h g - f ] x g h
4xh + 2h - 7h = h h ] 4x + 2h - 7 g = h = 4x + 2h - 7
2
3.
(c)
8x 7 - 6x 5 3
(d) 4x
(e)
1 4
(f) 2x 2 - 2x + 2 4. 6. f l] x g = 16x - 7 dy dx 5. - 56 7. ds = 10t - 20 dt dh = 40 - 4t dt (c) x = 4
(d) f l] x g = 4x - 7 6. (a) f ] 2 g = 11 (b) f ] 2 + h g = h 2 + 5h + 11
= 60x 9 - 40x 7 + 35x 4 - 3 dv = 30t dt 13. (a) 5 15. 18
(c) f ] 2 + h g - f ] 2 g = h 2 + 5h (d) f ] 2 + h g - f ] 2 g h h 2 + 5h h h ]h + 5 g = h =h+5 =
8.
gl] x g = - 20x - 5 dV = 4rr 2 dr
9.
10.
11.
12. 3
(b) - 5
14. (a) 12
(b) x = ! 2
(e) f l] 2 g = 5 7. (a) f ] -1 g = -7 (b) f ] -1 + h g - f ] -1 g = 4h 3 - 12h 2 + 12h 8. 9. (a) f ] 3 g = 8 (b) f ] 3 + h g - f ] 3 g = 6h + h 2 (b) 17 (c) 12 (c) f l] 3 g = 6
Exercises 8.6
1. (a) 72 (g) 11 2. (a) (f) 3. 1 7 1 26 (b) -13 (h) 136 (b) 1 25 (c) 11 (i) - 4 (c) (h) 1 6 1 20 (d) -18 (j) 149 (d) (i) 1 8 1 43 (e) 1 5 1 10 (e) 18 (f) 27
(a) f l] 1 g = - 13
10. (a) y = x 2 + 2x Substitute _ x + dx, y + dy i: y + dy = ] x + dx g2 + 2 (x + dx) = x 2 + 2 xd x + d x 2 + 2 x + 2 d x Since y = x 2 + 2x d y = 2x d x + d x 2 + 2 d x dy 2x d x + d x 2 + 2d x (b) = dx dx d x ] 2x + d x + 2 g = dx = 2x + dx + 2 (c) dy dx = 2x + 2 (d) 15 (e) - 9 = 2x + 5 dy dx = 10x - 1 6.
(g) -
1 71
1 20
(j) 1 8 1 (ii) 8
(a) (i) 6 (c) (i) 24 (e) (i) 11
(ii) -
(b) (i) 8 (d) (i) - 8
(ii) -
(ii) -
1 24 1 (ii) 11
4.
(a) 27x - y - 47 = 0 (b) 7x - y - 1 = 0 (c) 4x + y + 17 = 0 (d) 36x - y - 47 = 0 (e) 44t - v - 82 = 0 (a) x + 24y - 555 = 0 (c) x - 17y - 516 = 0 (e) x + 2y - 9 = 0 (b) x - 8y + 58 = 0 (d) x - 45y + 3153 = 0
5.
11. (a) 2 (b) 5 (c) -12 12. (a) f l] x g = 2x (b) dy dx
(c) f l] x g = 8x - 4 (e) (g) dy dx dy dx = 3x 2

2
(d)
(f) f l] x g = 6x 2 + 5 7. (h) f l] x g = - 6x 2
(a) (i) 7x - y + 4 = 0 (ii) x + 7y - 78 = 0 (b) (i) 10x - y + 36 = 0 (ii) x + 10y - 57 = 0 (c) (i) 10x + y - 6 = 0 (ii) x - 10y - 41 = 0 (d) (i) 2x + y + 2 = 0 (ii) x - 2y - 19 = 0 (e) (i) 2x - y + 2 = 0 (ii) x + 2y - 9 = 0 x = !3 8. (1, 2) and (-1, 0) 9. (- 5, -7)
= 3x - 4 x + 3
590
10. (0, 1) 11. (1, 2) 13. (a) (1, -1)
3 15 n 12. d - 1 , - 4 4 16
(k) (l)
(b) 6x - y - 7 = 0 15. 4x - 2y - 19 = 0 2. (b) 1.4x 0.4 (f) x 5 2 x (g) 12 x5 5. 1 32 6. 3 7. 2x + 3 x + 1 10. x - y + 9 = 0 13. (9, 3) (d) (g) 3 x7
2 3
2 2-x - 2 ] 5x + 3 g
] 2x - 1 g2
+ 2-x = +
4 - 3x 2 2-x
14. 10t - h - 7 = 0
5 11 =2x - 1 ] 2x - 1 g2 7+ 1 7 = 8 7 5. 176
Exercises 8.7
1. (a) - 3x - 4 (e) x 2.
1 2
26
3. 1264
4.
(c) 1.2x - 0.8 (g) 6x 1 6 6 x5

1 4
(d) (h) x
1 -2 x 2
3 2
6.
10x - y - 9 = 0 x= - 6 ! 30 3
7. 69x - y - 129 = 0 9. 34x - y + 29 = 0
+ 3x - 2 (b)
8. (a) (f) (j) 1 27 1 8 1 x2 1 2 x3 1 2x 3 (c) (d) 10 x6 2 3x 2 1. (e) 15 x4
Exercises 8.10
(a) -2 ] 2x - 1 g2 16 ] 5x + 1 g2 - 2x 2
^ 2x 2 - x h2
3 x (h) 2
(i) -
(b) (e) (h)
15 ] x + 5 g2
2
(c) = (i)
x 4 - 12x 2
^x - 4h
2 2
x 2 ^ x 2 - 12 h
^ x 2 - 4 h2
- x + 14x x4 -6 ] x - 2 g2 (l)
- x + 14 x3 - 34 ] 4x - 3 g2
(f) (j)
11 ] x + 3 g2 -14 ] 3x + 1 g2
3.
4. 3
8.
9. 3x + 16y - 8 = 0 1 2 x3 (b) 1 16
11. (a) -
12. x + 16y - 16 = 0
4x ] x - 3 g 4x 2 - 12x = ] 2x - 3 g2 ] 2x - 3 g2 ^ 3x 2 - 7 h 2x 2 ] x + 6 g - 18x 2x 3 + 12x 2 = (m) (n) 2 2 2 ] g ] x + 4 g2 ^x - 5h x+4 (k) - 3x 2 - 6x - 7

2
14. x = 4
2 2 15. d 5, n, d - 5, - n 5 5
(o)
2x 3 + 9x 2 + 7 ] x + 3 g2
(p)
3x 2 + 8x - 5 ] 3x + 4 g2 2]x + 5g - x ]x + 5g (r) x+5

1 2 1 2
Exercises 8.8
1.
6 (a) 4 ] x + 3 g3 (b) 6 ] 2x - 1 g2 (c) 70x ^ 5x 2 - 4 h 5 4 (d) 48 ] 8x + 3 g (e) - 5 ] 1 - x g (f) 135 ] 5x + 9 g8 3 (g) 4 ] x - 4 g (h) 4 ^ 6x 2 + 3 h ^ 2x 3 + 3x h 7 2 ^ h (i) 8 ] 2x + 5 g x + 5x - 1 1 3 5 (j) 6 ^ 6x 5 - 4x h ^ x 6 - 2x 2 + 3 h (k) ] 3x - 1 g 2 2 2 5 -4 (l) 2 ] 4 - x g- 3 (m) - 6x ^ x 2 - 9 h (n) ] 5x + 4 g 3 3 1 3^ 2 3 4 3x - 14x + 1 h ^ x 3 - 7x 2 + x h (o) (p) 4 2 3x + 4 8x 5 2 (q) (r) (s) 3 ] 5x - 2 g2 ^ x 2 + 1 h5 7 - 3x
(q) (s) (t) (u)
x 4 - 2x 3 - 4x 2 - 1
^ x 2 - x - 1 h2
] 2x - 9 g2 ] 20x + 51 g 6 ] 5x + 1 g ] 2x - 9 g2 - 5 ] 2x - 9 g3 = 2 ] 5x + 1 g ] 5x + 1 g2 ] 7x + 2 g4 - 28 ] x - 1 g ] 7x + 2 g3 ] 7x + 2 g8
- 21x + 30 ] 7x + 2 g5
15 ] 2x - 5 g3 ] 3x + 4 g4 - 6 ] 3x + 4 g5 ] 2x - 5 g2 ] 2x - 5 g6 4 ] ] g 3 3x + 4 4x - 33 g = ] 2x - 5 g4 3x + 1
(t) -
5 2 ] 4 + x g3
(u) -
3 4 ] 3x - 1 g3
(v) -
27 2 ] 2x + 7 g10 5 4 4 ] 7 - x g9
3 x+1 -2 x+1 3x + 5 (v) = x+1 2 ] x + 1 g3 2x - 3 (w) 2 x-1 -2 x-1 - 2x + 1 = ] 2x - 3 g2 2 x - 1 ] 2x - 3 g2 x ] x - 9 g2 (x) x2 + 1 - 2 ] x - 9 g x2 + 1

] x - 9 g4
(w) -
^ 4x 3 - 9 x 2 + 3 h ^ x 4 - 3x 3 + 3x h2
16 3 4x + 1 (x) 3 1 2
(y)
2.
3. 40
4. (4, 1) 5. x = 2, -1
6. 8x + y + 7 = 0
- x 2 - 9x - 2 x2 + 1 ] x - 9 g3
Exercises 8.9
1. (a) 8x 3 + 9x 2 (b) 12x - 1 (c) 30x + 21 (d) 72x 5 - 16x 3 (e) 30x 4 - 4x (f) x ] 5x + 2 g ] x + 1 g2 (g) 8 ] 9x - 1 g ] 3x - 2 g4 (h) 3x 3 ] 16 - 7x g ] 4 - x g 2 (i) ] 10x + 13 g ] 2x + 5 g3 4 5 (j) 10x ^ x 3 + 5x 2 - 3 h ^ x 2 + 1 h + ^ 3x 2 + 10x h ^ x 2 + 1 h 4 3 2 2 ^ h ^ h = x 13x + 60x + 3x - 20 x + 1 2. 6.
1 8
3. - 1
5 9
4. x = 0, 1
5. x = - 9, 3
x - 18y + 8 = 0
7. 17x - 25y - 19 = 0
ANSWERS
591
Test yourself 8
1. (a)
17. 9 20. 7 10
18. 12x + y - 4 = 0
19.
ds 1 = u + at, t = 5 dt
1. 3. 4. (b) 5. 6. 7. f ] 1 g = - 3, f l] 1 g = - 36 2. 13 18
dx = 8t 3 + 300t 2; t = 0, - 37.5 dt 2x + y = 0, 3x - y - 3 = 0, 6x - y + 12 = 0
^ 2, 2 h, ^ - 2, -14 h, x + 12y - 26 = 0, x + 12y + 170 = 0
3 4 5 ] 5x + 1 g3 ] x - 9 g4 + 15 ] x - 9 g5 ] 5x + 1 g2 = 10 ] 5x + 1 g2 ] x - 9 g4 (4x - 13) 2 ] 4x - 9 g4 - 16 ] 2x + 1 g ] 4x - 9 g3 ] 4x - 9 g8 - 2 ] 12x + 17 g = ] 4x - 9 g5 x= - 6 ! 204 - 3 ! 51 = 6 12 1 27 10. 2x + y - 25 = 0
8.
2.
dy dx (b) (d)
= 10x - 3 dy dx dy dx dy =
3. (a)
dy dx
= 42x 5 - 9x 2 + 2x - 8 9. = 9 (2x + 4) (x 2 + 4x - 2)8
11 ] 2x + 1 g2
(c)
dy dx
11. a = 14. 1 2
1 1 1 1 ! 13 n 13. x = , 12. P = d - 2 , 6 4 16 3 3 10
= 40x ] 2x - 1 g3 + 5 ] 2x - 1 g4 = 5 ] 2x - 1 g3 (10x - 1) (f) dy dx =10 x3
5 x3 (e) = 2 dx 4. 8. 9. dv = 4t - 3 dt (a) x = - 2
15. 3x - y + 5 = 0, Q = ^ 0, 5 h, PQ =
16. n = 8 18. x = (b) 5 ] x - 3 g2 4 x2

1
11 3 3 o 17. e 1 , , 12x - 12 3 y + 31 = 0 12 2 19. (a) x = 90c, 270c
5. (a) 1 (b) x = 1
(b) 20 6. 10 7. 42 (c) x = 2 (b) dy dx =dy dx
1 1 3 , -1 , 1 2 2 5 y
(a) f l] x g = 32 ] 4x + 9 g3 (c) dy dx
= ] 9x - 1 g ] 3x - 1 g (d) 1 5 5 x4 y
=-
(e) f l] x g = 10.
90c
180c
270c
360c
20. ^ - 4, -73 h
21. 3x - 9y - 14 = 0
22.
3 ] 4 - 5x g 4x 4 3x - 2
23. (a) 16x + 32y + 1 = 0, 4x - 2y - 1 = 0 1 (b) m 1 $ m 2 = - # 2 2 = -1 11. 9x - y - 7 = 0 12. (2, 3) 13. dS = 8rr dr 16. 3525 So perpendicular
14. (- 2, 71), (5, - 272) 15. 4x - y - 6 = 0
592
24. x = 0, 2, 6 27. p = 1 1 2
25. a = - 14, b = 7 8r 3 dV = 3 dr 32. -
26.
5 22 22 30. x - y - 4 = 0
14.
28.
29. k = 4 1 48
31. 4x - y - 13 = 0
33. a = -1, b = 2, c = 4
34. S = 8rr - 8r + 2rrh 35. (a) 6x 2 - 5 ] 3x - 1 g ] 3x - 5 g3 36. x = 4 ! 13 6 15. 37. (a) x + 7y - 80 = 0 1 1 n (b) Q = d - 4 , 12 7 49 (b) - ] 5x + 6 g
] x - 3 g4 2x + 1
Practice assessment task set 2 1. 5. 7. 9. 10. - 0.77 - 0.309 2. 1 3. 5x + 2y - 1 = 0 6. (a) 3 cm 2 (b) AC = 4. ^ 2, - 2 h 13 cm, BD = 1 cm 8. x = 15c 16. sin 4 i 17. 2 units 19. i = 120c, 240c 23. y = 16.5 26. 7 18. x - 8y + 15 = 0 2 3 21. 2 22. a = 115c 56l 2 1x 13 3
3 8 1 m 1 m 2 = # - = -1; A = d -1, 1 n 4 6 2 7 12
20. - 1
24. 3x + y - 5 = 0 28. - 3
25. 1
27. x = 3
29. Show perpendicular distance from ^ 0, 0 h to the line is 2 units, or solving simultaneous equations gives only one solution. 30. (a) g ] 2 g = 1, g ] - 3 g = - 6 (b)
11.
31. 3x 2 - 4x
32. -
1 2
33. 17.5 m (b) 27.8 m2
34. x = - 2, y = -17
35. (a) AB = 7.0 m
36. 3 cos i 37. (a) 2x - y + 4 = 0 (c) 4 units 1 12. 45c 49 13. Domain: all real x ! ; range: all 2 real y ! 0 38. 127 m
2
(b) P ^ - 2, 0 h, Q ^ 0, 4 h
39. 15 units2 40. f (- x) = ] - x g6 - ] - x g2 - 3 = x6 - x2 - 3 = f (x)

3 4 3
41. 16x 2 ^ 2x 2 + 1 h + ^ 2x 2 + 1 h = ^ 18x 2 + 1 h ^ 2x 2 + 1 h
ANSWERS
593
42. - 4
1 #y#9 3
43. -
3 x2
9.
Minimum value 3.75, no solutions
10. Minimum value 0, 1 solution 11. (a) x = -3; (-3, -12) 1 1 1 (c) x = 1 ; d 1 , 3 n 4 4 8 (e) x = -3; ^ -3, -23 h (b) x = -4; (-4, 17) 1 1 1 (d) x = -1 ; d -1 , -13 n 4 4 4
44. (a) 3x - y - 4 = 0 (c) x + 3y + 10 = 0 45. 8 units 13 1 2x - 7 5 ] x + 1 g2
(b) x - y - 2 = 0 (d) R = ^ -10, 0 h
46. Domain: all x ! - 4; range: all y ! 0 48. 4.9 km 49. 8x - 7 - 10x 51. 2x - 3 52. -17 - 2x x 2 + 5x =
-3
47.
12. (a) (i) x = -1 (b) (i) x = 1
(ii) -3 (ii) 1
(iii) (-1, -3) (iii) (1, 1)
50.
- ] 17 + 2x g x 2 + 5x
53. x + 6y - 56 = 0 55. a = 2, b = - 9
54. f ] - 2 g = - 45, f l] - 2 g = 48 56. 7x - 5y + 9 = 0
57. 47x - y + 109 = 0 58. x = - 0.25 59. (a) domain: x $ 1 range: y $ 0 2 (b) domain: all real x ! -7 range: all real y ! 0 range: - 2 # y # 0 (c) - 1 1 2
13. (a) Minimum (-1, 0) (b) Minimum (4, -23) (c) Minimum (-2, -7) (d) Minimum (1, -1) (e) Minimum (2, -11) 1 1 (f) Minimum d - , -3 n 4 8 (g) Maximum (-1, 6) (h) Maximum (2, 11) 1 3 (i) Maximum d , 7 n 2 4 (j) Maximum (1, -3) 14. (a) (i) -2 (iii) (ii) Minimum 0 y 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 (b) (i) -1, 3 (iii)
5 4 3 2 1
(c) domain: - 2 # x # 2
60. (a) (1, 1) (b) 2 13 units (d) 3x + 2y - 5 = 0 61. (a) 62. (b), (d) 63. (a)
64. (c)
65. (c)
Chapter 9: The quadratic function
Exercises 9.1
1. Axis of symmetry x = - 1, minimum value - 1
(ii) Minimum -4 y
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Axis of symmetry x = - 1.5, minimum value - 7.5 Axis of symmetry x = - 1.5, minimum value - 0.25 Axis of symmetry x = 0, minimum value - 4 Axis of symmetry x = 3 7 3 n , minimum point d , 8 8 16
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
Axis of symmetry x = 1, maximum value -6 Axis of symmetry x = - 1, maximum point ^ - 1, 7 h Minimum value -1, 2 solutions
594
(c) (i) 5.83, 0.17 (ii) Minimum -8 (iii) 10 8 6 4 2 -4 -3 -2 -1 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 1 2 3 4 5 6 x y
(iii)
5 4 3 2 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -2 1 -3 12 -4 -5 -6
2 3
(d) (i) -2, 0 (ii) Minimum -1 (iii)

5 4 3 2 1
(g) (i) 1.65, -3.65 (iii)
(ii) Maximum 7 y
7 6 5
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 (e) (i) ! 3 (iii) 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 -12 -14 -16 -18 2 (f) (i) -1, 3
4 3 2 1
(ii) Minimum -18 y
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3
x (h) (i) 1.3, -2.3 (iii)

5 4 3 2 1 3
(ii) Maximum 3 y
1 4
1 4
1 (ii) Minimum - 2 12
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3
ANSWERS
595
(i) (i) 0.56, -3.56 (ii) Minimum 4 (iii)

5 4 3 2 1
1 4
16. (a) None (c)
(b) 6
3 4 y 14 12 10 8 6
y
41 4
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3
4 2 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 1 2 3 4 5 x
(j) (i) 2.87, -0.87 (ii) Maximum 7 (iii) 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 1 2 3 4 5 x y 17. (a) - 3 (c) 7 8
(b) None y
2 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 -12 -14
15. (a) 4 (b) None (c) 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 (b) x 1 2, x 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 x y 18. (a)
-16 -18 y
8 6 4 2
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3
(c) 2 # x # 3
596
19.
8 6 4 2
22.
2 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 x -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7
-4
-3 -2 -1 -2 -4 -6
Graph is always above the x-axis so y 2 0 for all x ` 3x 2 - 2x + 4 2 0 for all x 20.
8 6 4 2
Graph is always below the x-axis so y 1 0 for all x ` - 5x 2 + 4x -1 1 0 for all x
Exercises 9.2
1. 4. x 7. x 1 -3, x 2 3 x 1 - 2, x 2 2 x 1 - 4, x 2 2 2. - 1 # n # 0 5. 0 # y # 6 3. a # 0, a $ 2 6. 0 1 t 1 2 9. m 1 2, m 2 4
8. p # - 3, p $ - 1 1 11. 1 1 h 1 2 2 14. q 1 3, q 2 6 17. - 3 1 x 1 5
-4 -3 -2 -1 -2 -4 -6
10. x # - 3, x $ 2 13. - 2 1 #k #7 2
12. - 4 # x # 5 15. All real x 18. - 6 # t # 2
16. n # - 4, n $ 3 1 19. y 1 - , y 2 5 3
Graph is always above the x-axis so y 2 0 for all x ` x 2 + x + 2 2 0 for all x 21.
4 2
20. x # - 2, x $ 4
Exercises 9.3
1. (a) 20 (b) -47 (c) -12 (h) 64 (i) 17 (j) 0 (d) 49 (e) 9 (f) -16 (g) 0
-4 -3 -2 -1 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 -12 -14 -16 -18
2.
(a) 17 unequal real irrational roots (b) -39 no real roots (c) 1 unequal real rational roots (d) 0 equal real rational roots (e) 33 unequal real irrational roots (f) -16 no real roots (g) 49 unequal real rational roots (h) -116 no real roots (i) 1 unequal real rational roots (j) 48 unequal real irrational roots p = 1 4. k = ! 2 5. b # a =320 b 2 - 4ac = ] - 1 g2 - 4 ] 3 g ] 7 g = - 83 10 So 3x 2 - x + 7 2 0 for all x 1 7 6. p 2 2 7. k 2 - 2 12 8
3. 8.
Graph is always below the x-axis so y 1 0 for all x ` - x 2 + 2x - 7 1 0 for all x
9.
k # - 5, k $ 3
10. 0 1 k 1 4 13. p 1 1 3
11. m 1 - 3, m 2 3 14. 0 # b # 2 1 2
12. k # - 1, k $ 1
ANSWERS
597
15. p # - 2, p $ 6 16. Solving simultaneously: y = 2x + 6 y =x +3

2
2. 3. (1) (2) 4.
m = 2, p = - 5, q = 2 x 2 - 4x + 5 = x ] x - 2 g - 2 ] x + 1 g + 3 + 4 RHS = a ] x - 2 g ] x + 3 g + b ] x - 2 g + c = 1 ] x - 2 g ] x + 3 g + 1 ] x - 2 g + 17 = x 2 + 3x - 2x - 6 + x - 2 + 17 = x 2 + 2x + 9 = RHS ` true A = 1, B = 5 , C = - 6 6. a = 2, b = 1, c = - 1
Substitute (2) in (1): x 2 + 3 = 2x + 6 x 2 - 2x - 3 = 0 b 2 - 4ac = ] - 2 g2 - 4 ] 1 g ] - 3 g = 16 20 So there are 2 points of intersection 17. 3x + y - 4 = 0 y = x 2 + 5x + 3 From (1): y = - 3x + 4 Substitute (2) in (3): x 2 + 5x + 3 = - 3x + 4 x 2 + 8x - 1 = 0 b 2 - 4ac = 8 2 - 4 ] 1 g ] - 1 g = 68 20 So there are 2 points of intersection 18. y = - x - 4 y = x2 Substitute (2) in (1): x2 = - x - 4 x2 + x + 4 = 0 b 2 - 4ac = 1 2 - 4 ] 1 g ] 4 g = - 15 10 So there are no points of intersection 19. y = 5x - 2 y = x 2 + 3x - 1 Substitute (2) in (1): x 2 + 3x - 1 = 5 x - 2 x 2 - 2x + 1 = 0 b 2 - 4ac = ] - 2 g2 - 4 ] 1 g ] 1 g =0 So there is 1 point of intersection ` the line is a tangent to the parabola 20. p = 3 1 4 (1) (2) (3)
5. 7. 9.
K = 1, L = 6, M = 7.5 8. 12 ] x + 5 g + ] 2x - 3 g2 - 65 - 2 a = 0, b = - 4, c = - 21 (b) y = x 2 - 3x (d) y = x 2 + 4x - 9
10. (a) y = x 2 - x - 5
2
(c) y = 2x 2 - 3x + 7 (e) y = - x - 2x + 1
Exercises 9.5
1. (a) a + b = - 2, ab = 1 (b) a + b = 1.5, ab = - 3 (c) a + b = 0.2, ab = - 1.8 (d) a + b = - 7, ab = 1 2 (e) a + b = 2 , ab = 1 3 (a) 3 (b) - 6 (c) - 0.5 (d) 21
(1) (2) 2. 3.
(a) x 2 + 3x - 10 = 0 (b) x 2 - 4x - 21 = 0 (c) x 2 + 5x + 4 = 0 (d) x 2 - 8x + 11 = 0 (e) x 2 - 2x - 27 = 0 m = 0.5 k = -5 5. k = - 32 10. m = ! 3 6. b = 4 7. k = 1 8. p = 13
4. (1) (2) 9.
11. k = - 1
12. n = - 1, 3 15. a = 0, b = - 1
13. p = 2, r = - 7 16. ab = 1 ` b = 17. (a) k = - 1
14. b = - 6, c = 8 1 a
(b) k = - 1, 0
(c) k = - 1.8
(d) k = 3
(e) k # - 1, k $ 0 18. (a) p = ! 2 3 (c) p = ! 19. (a) k = 2 20. (a) m = 1 (c) m = - 3 3 3 2 (b) k = - 3 (b) m 1 (c) k = 2 (b) p # - 2 3 , p $ 2 3
21. (c) and (d)
Exercises 9.4
1. (a) a = 1, b = 2, c = -6 (b) a = 2, b = -11, c = 15 (c) a = 1, b = 1, c = - 2 (d) a = 1, b = 7, c = 18 (e) a = 3, b = -11, c = -16 (f) a = 4, b = 17, c = 11 (g) a = 2, b = -12, c = -9 (h) a = 3, b = - 8, c = 2 (i) a = - 1, b = 10, c = - 24 (j) a = - 2, b = 0, c = - 1
3 - 10 3 + 10 ,m2 2 2
Exercises 9.6
1. (a) x = -1, - 4 (b) y = 2, 5 (c) x = - 4, 2 (d) n = - 1, 4 (e) a = - 3, 5 (f) p = 3, 4 (g) x = 2, - 4 (h) k = 5, 12 (i) t = 6, - 4 (j) b = -12, - 4
598
2.
(a) x = - 2, 3 1 (e) x = 1 , 4 2
(b) x = 2, 3
(c) x = 4, 5
(d) x = 3, 5
10. 3 ] x - 2 g2 + 12 ] x + 3 g - 41 12. (a) k = 3 1 4 (b) k = 1
11. x = 30c , 150c , 270c (d) k = 3 (e) k = 2
3.
(a) x = ! 3
(b) y = ! 2, ! 2
1! 5 (c) x = 2 (e) a = - 2, - 2 ! 6
(c) k = 3 9 16
(d) x = 1.37, - 4.37, 0.79, - 3.79 4. 5. 7. 8.
1 13. x = - , 3 2 16. (a) i 17. (a) iii (b) i (b) i
14. m 1 (c) iii (c) i (d) i (d) ii
15. x = 0, 2
(a) x = 0, 3 (b) p = 1 (c) x = 1 (d) x = 1 (e) x = 1, 3 x = ! 1, !2 6. x = - 1
(e) ii
x = ! 2.19, !0.46, !1.93, !0.52 (a) x = 0c , 90c , 180c , 360c (b) x = 90c , 180c , 270c (c) x = 90c , 210c , 330c (d) x = 60c , 90c , 270c , 300c (e) x = 0c , 180c , 270c , 360c (a) x = 0c , 45c , 180c , 225c , 360c (b) x = 0c , 180c , 360c (c) x = 0c , 30c , 150c , 180c , 360c (d) x = 45c , 60c ,135c , 120c , 225c , 240c , 315c , 300c (e) x = 30c , 60c , 120c , 150c , 210c , 240c , 300c , 330c x+3+ 2 =5 x+3
18. For reciprocal roots b = ab 1 a LHS a
9.
1 a c = a k = k = RHS = 1 (b) x 2 - 10x + 18 = 0
roots are reciprocals for all x. 19. (a) x 2 + 3x - 28 = 0 20. x = 1, 3
10.
1. D = ] k - 4 g2 $ 0 and a perfect square real, rational roots y = x 2 - 5x + 4 11 3. a = 4, b = - 3, c = 7 7. p 2 0.75 4. x = ! 2
2 # (x + 3) = 5 # (x + 3) (x + 3) # (x + 3) + ]x + 3g ] x + 3 g2 + 2 = 5 ] x + 3 g ] x + 3 g2 - 5 ] x + 3 g + 2 = 0 Let u = x + 3 u 2 - 5u + 2 = 0 b 2 - 4ac = ] - 5 g2 - 4 ] 1 g ] 2 g = 17 20 So u has 2 real irrational roots. ` x + 3 and so x has 2 real irrational roots
2. 5. 9.
6. n = - 2.3375
8. Show D = 0
x = !1
10. A = 2, B = - 19, C = 67 or A = - 2, B = 13, C = - 61 11. 4x + 1 x2 - x - 2 = 3 1 + x-2 x+1
Test yourself 9
1. 2. 4. (a) 0 # x # 3 (b) n 1 - 3, n 2 3 3. (a) x = 2 (c) - 2 # y # 2 (b) - 3 a = 1, b = - 9, c = 14 a =120 D = b 2 - 4ac = ] -2 g 2 -4 # 1 # 7 = - 24 10 ` positive definite (a) 6 (b) 3 (a) iv (b) ii (c) 2 (d) 18 (c) iii (d) ii 2 1 (e) 30 6. x = 1 , 3 3 (e) i
12. k #
1 - 21 1 + 21 ,k$ 2 2 14. x = 1, 3! 5 2
13. x = 30c , 90c , 150c
15. x = 60c , 90c , 270c , 300c
16. - 23
Chapter 10: Locus and the parabola Exercises 10.1

1. 3. 6. 7. A circle An arc 2. A straight line parallel to the ladder. 4. A (parabolic) arc 5. A spiral
5. 7. 8.
a = -1 1 0 D = b 2 - 4ac = 3 2 - 4 # (-1) # (- 4) = -7 10 ` - 4 + 3x - x 2 1 0 for all x
The straight line - 2 1 x 1 2 or | x | 1 2 A circle, centre the origin, radius 2 (equation x2 + y2 = 4 i lines y = ! 1 9. lines x = !5 10. line y = 2
8.
9.
1 (a) x = 4
1 (b) 6 8
11. Circle x 2 + y 2 = 1 (centre origin, radius 1) 12. Circle, centre ^ 1, -2 h, radius 4 13. y = -5
ANSWERS
599
14. Circle, centre (1, 1), radius 3 17. y = !8 18. x = !4
15. x = -7
16. x = 3
4. 6. 7. 9.
x 2 + 4x + y 2 + 4y - 8 = 0
5. x 2 - 2x + y 2 - 48 = 0
x 2 + 6x + y 2 - 16y + 69 = 0 x 2 - 10x + y 2 + 4y + 27 = 0 x 2 - 2x + y 2 - 10y + 25 = 0 8. x 2 + y 2 - 9 = 0
19. Circle, centre ^ -2, 4 h, radius 6 20. Circle, centre ^ -4, 5 h, radius 1
Exercises 10.2
1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. x +y =1
2 2 2
10. x 2 + 12x + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 0 2. x + 2x + y + 2y - 79 = 0
2 2 2
11. x 2 - 8x + y 2 - 6y + 22 = 0
12. x 2 + y 2 + 6y + 1 = 0
x - 10x + y + 4y + 25 = 0 12x - 26y - 1 = 0
4. 8x - 6y + 13 = 0
6. y = ! x
3x 2 - 32x + 3y 2 - 50y + 251 = 0 5x 2 - 102x + 5y 2 + 58y - 154 = 0 x 2 - 4x + 20y - 36 = 0 10. x 2 - 20y = 0
13. (a) Radius 3, centre (2, 1) (b) Radius 5, centre (4, 2) (c) Radius 1, centre (0, 1) (d) Radius 6, centre (5, 3) (e) Radius 1, centre (1, 1) (f) Radius 6, centre (6, 0) (g) Radius 5, centre (3, 4) (h) Radius 8, centre (10, 2) (i) Radius 5, centre (7, 1) (j) Radius 10 , centre (1, 2) 14. Centre ^ 3, -1 h , radius 4 16. Centre ^ - 1, -6 h , radius 7 15. Centre ^ 2, 5 h , radius 5 17. Centre (4, 7), radius 8
11. y 2 + 8x - 32 = 0 13. x 2 + 12y = 0
12. x 2 - 2x + 8y - 7 = 0
14. x 2 - 5x + y 2 - 2y - 11 = 0
1 1 18. Centre d - 1 , 1 n , radius 2 2 2 19.
15. x 2 + 3x + y 2 - y - 4 = 0 16. x 2 + x + y 2 - 2y - 17 = 0 17. 2x 2 + 4x + 2y 2 - 6y + 47 = 0 18. 2x 2 + 2x + 2y 2 + 4y + 27 = 0 19. 3x + 4y + 25 = 0, 3x + 4y - 15 = 0 20. 12x - 5y - 14 = 0, 12x - 5y + 12 = 0 21. x - 2y - 3 ! 5 5 = 0 22. x - 7y + 9 = 0, 7x + y - 5 = 0 23. 7x - 4y - 30 = 0, 32x + 56y - 35 = 0 24. xy - 16x - 7y + 40 = 0 25. x 2 - 6x - 3y 2 - 12y + 9 = 0
20. Show perpendicular distance from the line to ^ 4, -2 h is 5 units, or solve simultaneous equations. 21. (a) Both circles have centre ^ 1, -2 h (b) 1 unit 22. x 2 + 2x + y 2 + 2y - 23 = 0 23. 34 units
Problem
12x + 5y - 40 = 0, 12x + 5y + 38 = 0
24. (a) 5 units (b) 3 units and 2 units (c) XY is the sum of the radii. The circles touch each other at a single point, ^ 0, 1 h . 25. Perpendicular distance from centre ^ 0, 0 h to the line is equal to the radius 2 units; perpendicular distance from centre ^ -1, 2 h to the line is equal to the radius 3 units. 26. (a) x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 6y - 15 = 0 (b) ^ 2, 7 h, ^ -1, -2 h (c) Z = ^ -1, 8 h 1 (d) m zx # m yx = - # 3 3 = -1 ` +ZXY = 90c 27. (a) 4 units (b) x 2 - 4x + y 2 + 10y + 13 = 0
Exercises 10.3
1. (a) Radius 10, centre (0, 0) (b) Radius 5 , centre (0, 0) (c) Radius 4, centre (4, 5) (d) Radius 7, centre (5, 6) (e) Radius 9, centre (0, 3) (a) x + y = 16 (b) x - 6x + y - 4y - 12 = 0 (c) x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 10y + 17 = 0 (d) x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 6y - 23 = 0 (e) x 2 + 8x + y 2 - 4y - 5 = 0 (f) x 2 + y 2 + 4y + 3 = 0 (g) x 2 - 8x + y 2 - 4y - 29 = 0 (h) x 2 + 6x + y 2 + 8y - 56 = 0 (i) x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 1 = 0 (j) x 2 + 8x + y 2 + 14y + 62 = 0
2 2 2 2
2.
3.
x 2 - 18x + y 2 + 8y + 96 = 0
600
Exercises 10.4
1. (a) x = 20y
2
Exercises 10.5
(b) x = 36y
2
(c) x = 4y
2
(d) x = 16y
2
1.
(e) x 2 = 40y (i) x = 8y

2
(f) x 2 = 12y (j) x = 48y

2
(g) x 2 = 24y
(h) x 2 = 44y 2.
(a) y 2 = 8x (b) y 2 = 20x (c) y 2 = 56x (d) y 2 = 36x (e) y 2 = 32x (f) y 2 = 24x (g) y 2 = 28x (h) y 2 = 12x (i) y 2 = 16x (j) y 2 = 4x (a) y 2 = -36x (b) y 2 = - 16x (c) y 2 = -40x (d) y 2 = -24x (e) y 2 = - 8x (f) y 2 = -48x (g) y 2 = - 44x (h) y 2 = -20x (i) y 2 = -12x (j) y 2 = -28x (a) (i) (2, 0) (c) (i) (4, 0) (e) (i) (7, 0) (g) (i) (6, 0) 1 (i) (i) c , 0 m 4 (ii) x (ii) x (ii) x (ii) x = -2 = -4 = -7 = -6 1 (ii) x = 4 (b) (i) (3, 0) (ii) x = -3 (d) (i) (1, 0) (ii) x = -1 (f) (i) (8, 0) (ii) x = -8 (h) (i) (9, 0) (ii) x = -9 1 1 (j) (i) c 4 , 0 m (ii) x = -4 2 2
2.
(a) x 2 = -4y (d) x 2 = -28y (g) x 2 = -32y (j) x = -52y

2
(b) x 2 = -12y (e) x 2 = -24y (h) x 2 = -8y
(c) x 2 = -16y (f) x 2 = -36y (i) x 2 = -60y
3.
3.
(a) (i) (0, 1) (ii) y = -1 (b) (i) (0, 7) (ii) y = -7 (c) (i) (0, 4) (ii) y = -4 (d) (i) (0, 9) (ii) y = -9 (e) (i) (0, 10) (ii) y = -10 (f) (i) (0, 11) (ii) y = -11 1 1 (g) (i) (0, 3) (ii) y = -3 (h) (i) c (0, 1 m (ii) y = -1 2 2 3 1 1 (i) (i) c 0, 2 m (ii) y = -2 (j) (i) c 0, 3 m 4 2 2 3 (ii) y = -3 4 (a) (i) (0, 1) (ii) y = 1 (b) (i) (0, 6) (ii) y = 6 (c) (i) (0, 2) (ii) y = 2 (d) (i) (0, 12) (ii) y = 12 (e) (i) (0, 5) (ii) y = 5 (f) (i) (0, 4) (ii) y = 4 (g) (i) (0, 8) (ii) y = 8 (h) (i) (0, 10) (ii) y = 10 1 1 (i) (i) c 0, - m (ii) y = 2 2 1 1 (j) (i) c 0, -5 m (ii) y = 5 2 2
4.
4.
(a) (i) (2, 0) (ii) x = 2 (b) (i) (3, 0) (ii) x = 3 (c) (i) (7, 0) (ii) x = 7 (d) (i) (1, 0) (ii) x = 1 (e) (i) (6, 0) (ii) x = 6 (f) (i) (13, 0) (ii) x = 13 1 1 (g) (i) (15, 0) (ii) x = 15 (h) (i) c - , 0 m (ii) x = 2 2 1 1 1 1 (i) (i) c - 6 , 0 m (ii) x = 6 (j) (i) c - 1 , 0 m (ii) x = 1 4 4 2 2 (a) y 2 = 20x (b) y 2 = 4x (c) y 2 = -16x (d) y 2 = 12x (h) y 2 = 1 x 2
5.
(e) y 2 = !36x 6.
(f) y 2 = !8x
(g) y 2 = 12x
5.
6.
(a) x 2 = 28y (b) x 2 = 44y (c) x 2 = -24y (d) x 2 = 8y (e) x 2 = !12y (f) x 2 = !32y 1 (g) x 2 = 32y (h) x 2 = y 7 (a) Focus ^ 0, 2 h, directrix y = -2, focal length 2 (b) Focus ^ 0, 6 h, directrix y = -6, focal length 6 (c) Focus ^ 0, -3 h, directrix y = 3, focal length 3 1 1 1 (d) Focus d 0, n, directrix y = - , focal length 2 2 2 3 3 3 (e) Focus d 0, -1 n, directrix y = 1 , focal length 1 4 4 4 1 1 1 (f) Focus d 0, n, directrix y = - , focal length 8 8 8
(a) Focus ^ 2, 0 h, directrix x = - 2, focal length 2 (b) Focus ^ 1, 0 h, directrix x = - 1, focal length 1 (c) Focus ^ -3, 0 h, directrix x = 3, focal length 3 1 1 1 (d) Focus d 1 , 0 n, directrix x = - 1 , focal length 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 (e) Focus d -1 , 0 n, directrix x = 1 , focal length 1 4 4 4 (f) Focus d 1 1 1 , 0 n, directrix x = - , focal length 12 12 12 8. 12, ^ 3, 6 h, ^ 3, -6 h
7. 9.
x = 4 (latus rectum)
^ 9, - 6 h, ^ 81, 18 h
7.
y =2
8. ^ 4, 4 h
9.
3 1 X = d -1 , - n 2 8
10. (a) 5x - 12y - 25 = 0 (d) 4 2 units 13
5 1 (b) d - 5, - 4 n (c) 10 units2 6 12
(e) 11.7 units2
10. ^ 4, -2 h and ^ -4, -2 h ; 8 units 11. (a) x 2 = - 12y (b) y = 3 (c) 33 1 units 3 1.
Exercises 10.6
(a) ] x - 3 g2 = 8 ^ y + 3 h
2
(b) ] x - 5 g2 = 4 ^ y + 6 h
12. (a) Substitute the point into the equation. 3 (b) 3x + 4y - 3 = 0 (c) d 2, - n 4 13. (a) x - 4y + 2 = 0 (b) ^ 0, 1 h does not lie on the line (c) x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 0 (d) Substitute ^ 0, 1 h into the equation of the circle. 14. (a) Substitute Q into the equation of the parabola. (b) _ q 2 - 1 i x - 2qy + 2aq = 0 (c) Equation of latus rectum is y = a. Solving with x 2 = 4ay gives two endpoints A ^ -2a, a h, B ^ 2a, a h . Length of AB = 4a.
(c) ] x - 1 g = 4 ^ y + 3 h (d) ] x - 4 g2 = -12 ^ y - 3 h (e) ] x - 6 g2 = 8 ^ y + 7 h (f) ] x + 7 g2 = -16 ^ y - 3 h (g) ] x - 2 g2 = -4 ^ y - 5 h (h) ] x + 9 g2 = 12 ^ y + 6 h (i) ] x + 1 g2 = 8 ^ y + 1 h 2. (j) ] x - 3 g2 = - 4 ^ y - 2 h
(a) ^ y - 4 h2 = 4 ] x + 4 g (b) ^ y - 1 h2 = 8 ] x + 2 g (c) ^ y + 2 h2 = 12 ] x + 1 g (d) ^ y - 10 h2 = - 4 ] x - 29 g (e) ^ y + 3 h2 = - 16 ] x - 1 g

2
(f) ^ y - 6 h2 = 8 ] x + 4 g
(g) ^ y + 5 h = - 24 ] x - 2 g (h) ^ y + 12 h2 = 4 ] x + 36 g (i) ^ y - 2 h2 = - 20 ] x - 1 g (j) ^ y + 4 h2 = - 8 ] x - 2 g
ANSWERS
601
3.
(a) x 2 + 2x - 8y + 9 = 0 (c) x - 4x - 8y - 12 = 0
2
(b) x 2 + 8x - 4y + 16 = 0 (d) x 2 - 6x - 8y + 41 = 0 (f) x 2 + 2x + 16y + 1 = 0 (h) x + 10x + 8y + 1 = 0

2
3 1 (b) d -1, -8 n, y = -9 4 4 24. x 2 + 4x + 8y - 20 = 0 25. 0.3 m
(e) x 2 + 4x - 16y + 20 = 0 (g) x - 8x + 20y - 24 = 0

2
(i) x 2 + 6x + 12y + 45 = 0 (k) y - 6y - 12x - 3 = 0

2
(j) x 2 + 4y + 24 = 0 (l) y - 8y - 4x + 8 = 0
2
Exercises 10.7
1. 5. 8. 9. m= dy dx 1 3 2. m = -4 3. m = -1 4. m = 1 2
(m) y 2 - 8x + 32 = 0
2
(n) y 2 + 4y - 16x - 12 = 0 (p) y + 8y + 12x + 4 = 0

2
(o) y + 2y - 8x - 7 = 0 (q) y 2 - 2y + 4x - 11 = 0 (s) y - 4y + 2x + 5 = 0

2
=x
6. x - y - 2 = 0
7. x - 2y + 12 = 0
(r) y 2 - 6y + 16x + 25 = 0 (t) y - 2y + 2x - 6 = 0

2
x + y - 6 = 0, x - y - 18 = 0 x - 2y - 2 = 0, 2x + y - 9 = 0
4.
(a) (i) (3, 2) (c) (i) (2, 0) (e) (i) (5, 1) (g) (i) (1, 0) (i) (i) (4, 2)
(ii) y = -4 (ii) y = -2 (ii) y = -5 (ii) y = 4 (ii) y = 4
(b) (i) (1, 1) (d) (i) (4, 2) (f) (i) (3, 1) (h) (i) (2, 0) (j) (i) (2, 3)
(ii) y = - 3 (ii) y = - 4 (ii) y = 3 (ii) y = 5 (ii) y = 2
7 1 10. 4x + y - 8 = 0, M = d 1 , n 8 2 11. x + y - 9 = 0, P = ^ - 18, 27 h 12. Q = ^ 33, 60.5 h 13. x + 4y + 144 = 0, 4x + 2y + 9 = 0, ^ 18, -40.5 h ; show the point lies on the parabola by substituting it into the equation of the parabola 14. x - y - 4 = 0, R = ^ 4, 0 h 15. (a) Substitute P into the equation of the parabola (b) x + py - 2p - p 3 = 0 (c) Substitute ^ 0, 1 h into the equation of the normal. 0 + p - 2p - p 3 = 0 0 = p3 + p = p (p 2 + 1) 2 Since p ! 0, p + 1 = 0
5.
(a) (i) (0, 1) (ii) x = -2 (b) (i) (2, 4) (ii) x = - 4 (c) (i) (0, 3) (ii) x = -4 (d) (i) (3, 2) (ii) x = -5 (e) (i) (7, 1) (ii) x = -5 (f) (i) (1, 5) (ii) x = 5 (g) (i) (11, 7) (ii) x = 13 (h) (i) (3, 6) (ii) x = 7 1 1 (i) (i) (7, 2) (ii) x = 9 (j) (i) c -10 , -3 m (ii) x = 9 2 2 x 2 - 12y + 36 = 0 x 2 + 4x - 8y - 4 = 0, x 2 + 4x + 8y + 12 = 0 x 2 - 2x - 4y - 19 = 0 9. y 2 - 12y + 12x + 12 = 0 11. x 2 - 2x - 28y + 29 = 0 13. y 2 - 6y - 32x + 9 = 0 15. y + 2y - 16x + 49 = 0
2
6. 7. 8.
10. x 2 - 2x - 16y + 1 = 0 12. y 2 + 4y + 24x - 44 = 0 14. x - 6x + 8y - 15 = 0

2
Test yourself 10
1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 8x + 6y - 29 = 0 2. x 2 - 4x - 8y - 4 = 0 4. (a) ^ 1, - 3 h (b) ^ 0, - 2 h 8. x 2 - 8x + 16y - 16 = 0 (b) ^ 4, - 3 h
Centre ^ 3, 1 h, radius 4 x 2 + y 2 = 25
16. x 2 + 6x + 4y - 7 = 0
2
17. x 2 - 4x - 12y - 8 = 0
6. (a) y = 2
18. y + 2y + 16x - 95 = 0 19. (a) Vertex ^ - 2, 1 h, focus ^ - 2, 3 h, directrix y = -1 (b) Vertex ^ 3, 2 h, focus ^ 3, 5 h, directrix y = -1 (c) Vertex ^ 1, -1 h, focus ^ 1, - 2 h, directrix y = 0 (d) Vertex ^ 3, 4 h, focus ^ 7, 4 h, directrix x = -1 (e) Vertex ^ 0, - 2 h, focus ^ 6, - 2 h, directrix x = -6 (f) Vertex ^ - 5, 0 h, focus ^ - 7, 0 h, directrix x = -3 20. Vertex ^ - 1, 4 h, focus ^ -1, -3 h , directrix y = 11, axis x = - 1, maximum value 4 21. x 2 - 4x - 8y + 12 = 0 or x 2 - 4x + 8y - 36 = 0 22. (a) 8x 2 + 9y - 72 = 0 23. (a) (b) d 0, 7 23 9 n, y = 8 32 32
x 2 + x + y 2 - 3y - 10 = 0 (a) (i) ^ 1, 1 h (ii) ^ 1, 2 h
(b) y = 0
10. 2x + 3y + 6 = 0 12. y 2 = - 24x
11. 14 units
13. x 2 - 8y + 16 = 0
14. 4x - 3y - 16 = 0, 4x - 3y + 14 = 0 15. y = x, y = - x 16. y 2 = 20x 17. (a) 1 2 (b) 2
18. (a) x - 4y + 72 = 0
1 (b) d 9, 20 n 4
19. Sub ^ 0, 4 h : LHS = 7 # 0 - 3 # 4 + 12 = 0 = RHS 2 20. d , -7 n 9 21. (a) x - y - 3 = 0 (b) R = ^ 0, -3 h (c) F = ^ 0, 3 h FP = FR = 6
602
1. (a) 8x + 6y - 29 = 0 (b) Midpoint of AB lies on line; m 1 m 2 = -1 (a) x 2 - 2x + y 2 - 6y - 15 = 0 (b) Put y = 0 into equation 1 d 2 , -3 n 2 (a) 4x - 2y + 9 = 0; x + 2y - 24 = 0 (b) m 1 m 2 = - 1 (c) X = ^ 3, 10.5 h (d) 3x - 4y + 8 = 0; focus ^ 0, 2 h lies on the line
^ 0, 0 h
8. 9.
3x - 4y - 14 = 0, 3x - 4y + 16 = 0 Vertex ^ - 4, -17 h , focus ^ - 4, -16.75 h 11. x + 2y + 2 = 0 12. b $ -2
2.
10. x = 0, 3
13. x 2 + y 2 = 16, circle centre ^ 0, 0 h and radius 4 14. x 2 + 4x + y 2 + 6y - 12 = 0 15. x 2 - 3x + y 2 - 6y - 17 = 0 16. - 0.75 17. 5x 2 - 54x + 5y 2 + 20y - 79 = 0
3. 4.
5. 6.
18. a = 2, b = 1, c = 0 19. x 9 - x2
(a) 2x - 4y - 1 = 0; 2x + y + 4 = 0 (b) Point lies on line y = - 1 y = - 2 x + 4x - 2

2
7. 9.
8. 3x + y + 2 = 0
20. x 2 - 4x - 16y + 20 = 0 21. ` AC = BC and CD = CE (given) AC BC = CD CE +ACB = +ECD (vertically opposite angles)
` since two sides are in proportion and their included angles are equal, ABC is similar to CDE y = 5.3 cm
22. x - y - 4 = 0 23. x 2 + 2x - 16y - 15 = 0 25. 24. x = 0, 2
10. (a) x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 10y + 21 = 0 (b) ] x + 2 g2 + ^ y - 5 h2 = 8; centre ^ -2, 5 h; radius = 11. 2 3 3 (b) 2x - y - 6 = 0 8 =2 2
a 10 D = b 2 - 4ac = 1 2 - 4 (- 1) (- 9) = - 35 10 Since a 1 0 and D 1 0, - x 2 + x - 9 1 0 for all x
26. 8 (3x - 1) (2x + 5) 3 + 3 (2x + 5) 4 = ] 30x + 7 g (2x + 5) 3 27. sec x cosec x 28. Centre ^ -5, 3 h, radius 2 29. a 2 0 D = b 2 - 4ac = ] -1 g2 - 4 (1) (3) = -11 10 Since a 2 0 and D 1 0, x 2 - x + 3 2 0 for all x 30. k = 1 31. 3x + 2y - 9 = 0 (b) 153c 34. x 2 4, x 1 3
12. (a) y 2 + 4y - 16x + 52 = 0 13. 4 2 units
14. x 2 + y 2 - 2y - 2 = 0
15. 696 mm from the vertex 16. 141x + 127y + 32 = 0; 219x + 23y + 58 = 0
Practice assessment task set 3 1. 3. 4. 5. 6. m 2, m 3 2. 4x + 3y - 16 = 0 32. (a) 217 km
Centre ^ - 3, 5 h, radius 7 (a) 2 3 (b) 1 3 (c) 1 1 9
33. a = 3, b = - 18, c = - 34 35. i = 95c 44
Focus ^ 0, -2 h, directrix y = 2 x = - 5 or - 6 7. k = - 1
36. T = 361 ^ 2 0 and a perfect square h 37. x + 2y + 9 = 0 38. k # 3
ANSWERS
603
39. 5x - 4y - 41 = 0
40.
3 6 - 10 + 3 3 - 5 22 42. x = 1 43. 8.25 units
63. k = -2
1 2
41. x = 4.9 cm, y = 11.1 cm 44. 4.5 m 45. 128 2187
64. x 1 - 2, x 2 2 65. Radius 3; x 2 + y 2 = 9 66. a = 3, b = -14, c = 9 67. Domain: all real x; range: y $ - 3 68. +ACB +ABC AC ` by AAS, DABC = +ECD ^ vertically opposite angles h = +CED (alternate angles AB||ED) = CD ^ given h / DCDE
46. x = 60, 120, 240, 300 1 1 48. y = 1 , 3 2 49. 162c
47. 2x + 3y - 3 = 0
50. x = 45, 135, 225, 315 1 1 51. x = - 1, y = 2 or x = - , y = 4 4 4 52. ] a - 2b g ^ a 2 + 2ab + 4b 2 h 55. 1.8 units 56. tan i
2 3 2 4
53. x = 43
54. -
1 31
69. 46 m2
70. x + y - 3 = 0
57. 8x ] 2x + 5 g (x - 1) + 2 (x - 1) = 2 (x 2 - 1) 3 (9x 2 + 20x - 1) 58. 1 4
71. x 2 - 12x + 36 = ] x - 6 g2 72. y $ 2.5, y # - 6.5 73. (a) 9x - y + 16 = 0 (c) Q = ^ - 20, 0 h 74. (a) x - 8y + 129 = 0 75. a = 1, b = - 3, c = -1 76. (c) 77. (d) 78. (b) 79. (a) 80. (c) 81. (c) 1 1 n (b) R = d 7 , 17 64 8 (b) x + 9y + 20 = 0
59. x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 3y - 25 = 0
60. Focus (2, 1), directrix y = 5 61. x - 2y - 36 = 0 62. Distance from centre ^ 0, 0 h to line is a2 + b2 40 = 10 =4 = radius ` line is tangent d= | ax 1 + by 1 + c |

Complete Textbook

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Descrição original:

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Complete Textbook

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Mathematics Preliminary Course

Mathematics Preliminary Course

FEATURES OF THIS BOOK

Real functions (4.1 4.4)

Trigonometric ratios (5.1 5.5)

Linear functions (6.1 6.5, 6.7)

Chapter 7: Linear functions

The quadratic polynomial and the parabola (9.1 9.5)

Plane geometry (2.1 2.4)

Tangent to a curve and derivative of a function (8.1 8.9)

Chapter 8: Introduction to calculus

I hear and I forget I see and I remember I do and I understand

Assessment tasks and exams

Good luck with your studies!

Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic

Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

What is the correct answer?

Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic

` 24 629 = 25 000 to the nearest thousand

Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

2. Write 850 to the nearest hundred.

Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic

Dont round off at each step of a series of calculations.

Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic

9.91 - ] 9.68 - 5.47 g 5.39 2 correct to 1 decimal place.

DID YOU KNOW?

Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Adding and subtracting

Multiplying and dividing

Same signs = + + + =+ - - =+ Different signs = + - =- + =-

Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic

Start at -1 and move 3 places to the right.

Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

4. Write 0.436 as a percentage.

0.436 = 0.436 #100% = 43.6% 5. Write 20 g as a fraction of 1 kg in its simplest form.

Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic

A rational number is any number that can be written as a fraction.

Check this on your calculator by dividing 4 by 9.

2. Change 1.329 to a fraction.

Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic

Operations with fractions, decimals and percentages

Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

DID YOU KNOW?

3. Evaluate 0.056 # 100.

Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic

4. Evaluate 0.02 # 0.3.

Move the decimal point 1 place to the left.

Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic

Powers and Roots

A root of a number is the inverse of the power.

36 = 6 since 6 2 = 36 8 = 2 since 2 3 = 8 64 = 2 since 2 6 = 64

DID YOU KNOW?

See if you can find other formulae involving indices.

Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

POWER AND ROOT KEYS

Use the Use the Use the

Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic

Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course

(h) (i) (j) (k)