CPL Navigation

CPL Navigation FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE
CPL DOC 8
Revision 1/1/2001 Version 7

CPL

NAVIGATION

CPL Navigation FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE
CPL DOC 8

INDEX

CPL NAVIGATION

1. The Earth 01
2. Charts 25
3. Relative Velocity 55
4. Solar System & Time 59
5. Navigation Computer 83
6. Plotting 95

Annex A Sample Exams 137
Annex B Answers to Questions 149

Copyright 2001 Flight Training College of Africa
All Rights Reserved. No part of this manual may be reproduced in any manner
whatsoever including electronic, photographic, photocopying, facsimile, or stored in a
retrieval system, without the prior permission of Flight Training College of Africa.

CPL NAVIGATION FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE
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CHAPTER 1

THE EARTH

The earth is not a perfect sphere, there is a slight bulge at the Equator and a flattening at the
Poles. The earth's shape is described as an oblate spheroid. The polar diameter is 6860.5
nm which is 23.2 nm shorter than the average equatorial diameter of 6883.7 nm. This gives a
compression ratio of 1/2967 which for all practical purposes can be ignored. Cartographers
and Inertial Navigation systems will take the true shape of the earth into account.

PARALLELS OF LATITUDE

Parallels of Latitude are small circles that are parallel to the Equator. They lie in a 090 and
270 Rhumb Line direction as they cut all Meridians at 90.

LATITUDE

The Latitude of a point is the arc of a Meridian from the Equator to the point. It is expressed
in degrees and minutes North or South of the Equator. It can be presented in the following
forms.

N 27:30 27:30 N 2730'N 3525'45"S 35:25:45S

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LONGITUDE

The Longitude of a point is the shorter arc of the Equator measured East or West from the
Greenwich Meridian. It can be presented in the following forms.

E032:15 3215' E 32:15 E 6524'W 6524'38"W 65:24:38 W
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FINDING PLACES WITH LAT/LONG

Example 1

At 26:34 S / 26:16.5 E what do you find?

Did you find a town?

Example 2

The lat/long of the township of Hartbeesfontein is?

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GREAT CIRCLE (GC)

A Great Circle is a circle drawn on the surface of a sphere whose centre and radius are
those of the sphere itself. A Great Circle divides the sphere into two halves. The Equator is a
Great Circle dividing the earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. On a flat
surface the shortest distance between TWO points is a straight line. On a sphere the shortest
distance between two points is the shorter arc of a Great Circle drawn through the two
points. To fly from Europe to the West Coast of America the shortest distance is of course a
Great Circle which usually takes the least time and fuel used. A Great Circle cuts all
Meridians at different angles.

RHUMB LINE (RL)

A Rhumb Line is a curved line drawn on the surface of the earth which cuts all Meridians at
the same angle. An aircraft steering a constant heading of 065(T) with zero wind will be
flying a Rhumb Line.

MERIDIANS

Meridians are Great semi-circles that join the North and South Poles. Every Great Circle
passing through the poles forms a Meridian and its Anti-Meridian. All Meridians indicate True
North or 000(T) and 180(T). As Meridians have a constant direction they are Rhumb Lines
as well as Great Circles.

EQUATOR

The Equator cuts all Meridians at 90 providing a True East-West or 090(T) and 270(T)
erection. As the Equator cuts all Meridians at 90 it is a Rhumb Line as well as a Great
Circle.
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SMALL CIRCLE

A Small Circle is a circle drawn on a sphere whose centre and radius are not those of the
sphere itself.

DIRECTION

True North

True North is the direction of the Meridian passing through a position.

True Direction

Aircraft Heading or Track is measured clockwise from True North. It is usually expressed in
degrees and decimals of a degree, e.g. 092(T) 107.25GC 265.37 RL

Magnetic North

Magnetic North is the direction in the horizontal plane indicated by a freely suspended
magnet influenced by the earth's magnetic field only.

Variation

Variation is the angular difference between True North and Magnetic North

Magnetic Direction (M)

Aircraft Magnetic Heading or Magnetic Track is measured clockwise from Magnetic
North, which is sometimes referred to as the Magnetic Meridian, e.g. 100(M)

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Compass North (C)

Compass North is the direction indicated by the compass needle in an aircraft. Magnetic
Fields in the aircraft will attract the compass needle away from Magnetic North causing
Compass Deviation.

Deviation

The angular difference between Compass North and Magnetic North.

Deviation is Westerly when Compass North is to the West of Magnetic North
Deviation is Easterly when Compass North is to the East of Magnetic North

DEVIATION EAST COMPASS LEAST DEVIATION WEST COMPASS BEST

Heading l00(C) Dev+4e 104(M) Heading 100(C) Dev-3w 096(M)

Deviation West is Negative (-) Deviation East is Positive (+)
Deviation is a correction to Compass Heading to give Magnetic Heading

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CONVERGENCE AND CONVERSION ANGLE

CONVERGENCE

Meridians are Semi Great Circles joining the North and South Poles. They are parallel at the
Equator. As the meridians leave the Equator either Northwards or Southwards they
converge and meet at the Poles.

Convergence is defined as the angle of inclination between two selected meridians
measured at a given Latitude.

Considering the two meridians shown above, one at 20W and the other at 20E. The
Change of Longitude (Ch. Long) or Difference in Longitude (D Long) between the two
meridians is 40.

At the Equator (Latitude 0) they are parallel, the angle of convergence is 0. At the Poles
(Latitude 90) they meet, and the angle of convergence is the Difference of Longitude, 40.
At any intermediate Latitude the angle of inclination between the same two meridians
will between 0 and 40 depending on the Latitude.

This is a sine relationship, convergence varies as Sine of the Mean Latitude. Convergence
also varies as the Change of Longitude between the two meridians. The greater the
Ch. Long, the greater the convergence.

Convergence = Ch. Long x Sine Mean Latitude

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Example 1. Calculate the value of Convergence between A (N 45:25 E 025:36) and
B (N 37:53 E042:17).

A N 45:25 E 025:36
B N 37:53 E 042:17
N 41:39 Mean Latitude 16:41 Change of Longitude

Convergence = Ch. Long x Sin Mean Latitude
= 1641' x Sin 41 39'
= 16.6833 x Sin 41.65
= 11.0874

NOTE Both Mean Latitude and Change of Longitude must be changed into decimal notation.

THE MERIDIANS CONVERGE TOWARDS THE NEARER POLE

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CONVERGENCE = CHANGE OF LONGITUDE x SIN MEAN LATITUDE
CONVERGENCE = DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INITIAL AND FINAL GC TRACKS

Example 1 A and B are in the same hemisphere
The Great Circle Track from A to B is 062
The Great Circle Track from B to A is 278

(a) In which hemisphere are A and B?
(b) What is the value of Convergence between A and B?

Example 2 C and D are in the same hemisphere
The Great Circle bearing of D from C is 136 (brg of D measured at C)
The Great Circle bearing of C from D is 262 (brg of C measured at D)

(a) In which hemisphere are C and D?
(b) What is the value of Convergence between C and D?

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CONVERSION ANGLE (CA)

CONVERSION ANGLE = DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GREAT CIRCLE AND RHUMB LINE

Conversion Angle (CA) is used to change Great Circle bearings and tracks into Rhumb Line
bearings and tracks or vice versa.

THE GREAT CIRCLE IS ALWAYS NEARER THE POLE
THE RHUMB LINE IS ALWAYS NEARER THE EQUATOR

CONVERSION ANGLE

CONVERGENCE

CONVERGENCE

CONVERSION ANGLE

CONVERSION ANGLE

CONVERGENCE

=

=

=

=

=

=

CONVERGENCE

TWICE CONVERSION ANGLE

CHANGE OF LONGITUDE x SIN MEAN LATITUDE

CHANGE OF LONGITUDE x SIN MEAN LATITUDE

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GREAT CIRCLE AND RHUMB LINE

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INITIAL AND FINAL GREAT CIRCLES

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The Rhumb Line is a constant direction. If the Rhumb Line track from A to B is 100, then the
Rhumb Line track from B to A is 280. You can always take the reciprocal of a Rhumb Line,
NEVER A GC.

Initial GC track A to B is 080 GC, initial GC track B to A is 300 GC (Conv. angle 20)

Example 3 The Great Circle bearing of A from B is 255 GC
The Rhumb Line bearing of B from A is 084 RL

Example 4 The Great Circle bearing of X from Y is 072 GC
The Rhumb Line bearing of Y from X is 259 RL
What is the great circle bearing of Y from X?

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Example 5

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DISTANCE

Kilometre (KM.)

A Kilometre is 1/10 000 th. part of the average distance from the Equator to either Pole. It is
generally accepted to equal 3280 feet.

Statute Mile (SM)

Defined in British law as 5280 feet.

Nautical Mile (NM)

A Nautical Mile is defined as the distance on the surface of the earth of one minute of arc at
the centre of the earth. As the earth is not a perfect sphere the distance is variable.

At the Equator I NM is 6046.4 feet At the pole 1 NM -Is 6078 feet

For navigation purposes the Standard Nautical Mile is 6080 feet (South Africa and UK)

ICAO 1 NM = 1852 metres or 6076.1 feet

Most navigational electronic calculators use I NM = 6076.1 feet. To answer questions in the
CAA examinations any of the following may be used :-

1 NM = 6080 feet or 1852 metres

Conversion Factors 1 Foot = 12 inches
1 Inch = 2.54 Centimetres

As one minute of arc is 1 NM, then Great Circle distance along a Meridian can be calculated.
One minute of Latitude is 1 NM and 1Degree of Latitude is 60 NM.

The Great Circle distance from N75:30 E065:45 to N82:15 W114:15 is:-

As W114:15 is the anti-meridian of E065:45 the Great Circle distance is along a Meridian
over the Pole where 1 of Latitude equals 1 nm.

N 75:30 to the Pole = 1430' change of Latitude (14=x 60 = 840 nm+30 nm)
= 870nm
Pole to N 82:15 = 745' change of Latitude (7 x 60 = 420nm + 45nm)
= 465nm + 870nm
= 1335 nm

CHANGE OF LONGITUDE (CH. LONG) or DEPARTURE DISTANCE

Departure is the distance in Nautical Miles along a parallel of Latitude in an East-West
direction. At the Equator, two meridians (5W and 5E) have a change of Longitude of 10 of
arc. As the Equator is a Great Circle, 10 of arc equals 600 nautical miles. As Latitude
increases, either to the North or to the South, the meridians converge, and the distance
between them decreases, until they meet at the Poles where the distance between them is
zero.

Departure (nm) = ch long (mins) x cos mean lat:
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The departure between any 2 points is thus a function of their latitudes and the change of
longitude, and the relationship is given by

Where mean lat = lat A + lat B
2

E 032:45 W 067:25 Both East or West SUBTRACT
E 021:15 E 027:30 One East & One West ADD
11:30Ch.Long 94:55 Ch. Long

DEPARTURE = CHANGE of LONGITUDE (in minutes) x COSINE LATITUDE

Example 1 The distance from A (N 20:10 E 005:00) to B (N 20:10 W 005:00) is :-

Departure = Ch. Long x cos Lat
= 10 x 60 x cos2010'
= 600 x cos 20.1667
= 563.2163 nm

Example 2 An aircraft leaves A (E 012:30) and flies along the parallel of S 29:30 in an
Easterly direction. After flying 1050 nm its Longitude is :-
Departure = Ch. Long x cos Lat
1050nm = Ch. Long xcos2930'
Ch Long = 1050 nm
cos 29.5
= 1206.4
60
= 20 06' 24" Easterly
+12 30'
= E 032 36' 24"
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Example 3 An aircraft in the Northern Hemisphere flies around the world in an Easterly
direction at an average groundspeed of 515 Kts in 14 hours. The Latitude at
which the aircraft flew was :-

Departure = Ch. Long cos Latitude
GS 515 x 14 Hrs. = 360 x 60 x cos Lat

7210
21600 = cos Lat = 70 30 N

DISTANCE ALONG A PARALLEL OF LATITUDE IS DEPARTURE
DISTANCE ALONG A MERIDIAN IS CHANGE OF LATITUDE

As a Meridian is a Great Circle, then the arc of Change of Latitude can be converted into
nautical miles.

Example 4 The shortest distance from A (N 78:15 W 027:13) in B (N82:30 E 152:47) is :-

As E 152:47 is the anti-meridian of W 027:13, A to B is the arc of a Great
Circle.

N 78:15 to the North Pole = 11:45 Change of Latitude
North Pole to N 82:30 = 7:30 Change of Latitude
_____
19:15 Change of Latitude

19 x 60 = 1140nm + 15 minutes = 1155nm shortest (GC) distance A to B

Example 5 An aircraft departs A (N 25:13 W017:25) and flies a track of 090(T) at GS 360
for 1 hour 35 minutes. Then the aircraft flies a track of l80 (T) for I hour 55
minutes and arrives at position;

Departure = Ch. Long x cos Latitude

N 25:13
W017:25;

Track 180
Change of Latitude

Departure = Ch. Long x cos Latitude Departure
cos Lat = Ch. Long
GS360 x 1:35
cos 25:13 = 630 minutes of Longitude = 1030-East of W 017:25 = W006:55

GS360 x 1:55 = 690nm =1130 t= N 13:43
Track 180 = S Change of Latitude Old Latitude N 25:13 - 11:30 = N13:43

Position = N 1343 W 00655
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RADIO BEARINGS

VHF D/F VERY HIGH FREQUENCY - DIRECTION FINDING VDF

Major airports in South Africa have a VDF service, it is usually on the Approach frequency
and will provide radio bearings to aircraft on request. The aircraft transmits on the
appropriate frequency and direction finding equipment at the airport will sense the direction
of the incoming radio wave. The bearing will be passed to the aircraft in Q-code form.

Q CODE QTE
QDR
QUJ
QDM
TRUE bearing FROM the VDF station
MAGNETIC bearing FROM the VDF station
TRUE track TO the VDF station
MAGNETIC track TO the VDF station

Take the shortest route to change one bearing to another

QTE 180 = QUJ

QDR 180 = QDM

QDR Variation = QTE

VOR VOR Radials are Magnetic bearings from the VOR = QDR
RMI Readings are Magnetic tracks to the VOR = QDM

RMI BEARINGS (VOR & ADF)

Usually termed RMI READING which is QDM
QDM Variation = QUJ
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ADF BEARINGS

ADF Relative bearings are measured from the Fore and Aft axis of the aircraft.

ADF Relative bearings must be converted into True Bearings (QTE) before they can be
plotted on a chart.

RELATIVE BEARING + TRUE HEADING = QUJ 180 = QTE

MAGNETIC VARIATION AT THE AIRCRAFT IS ALWAYS USED WITH ADF BEARINGS

Lets demonstrate it to you..

ADF bearing 095 Relative
Heading (T) + 057
QUJ 152 (T) TO NDB
180
QTE 332 (T) FROM NDB

Heading (T) 318
QUJ 518
Subtract 360
QUJ 158 (T) TO NDB
180

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QUESTIONS

1. The Initial Great Circle track from A to B is 067
The Initial Great Circle track from B to A is 263

The Rhumb Line track from A to B is:-

(a) 059
(b) 075
(c) 083

2. The Initial Great Circle track from C to D is 097
The Initial Great Circle track from D to C is 263

The Rhumb Line track from D to C is :-

(a) 256
(b) 262
(c) 270

3. The Great Circle bearing of A from B is 255
The Rhumb Line bearing of B from A is 084

The Great Circle bearing of B from A is :-

(a) 093
(b) 096
(c) 099

4. The Great Circle bearing of X from Y is 072
The Rhumb Line bearing of Y from X is 259

The Great Circle bearing of Y from X is :-

(a) 262
(b) 266
(c) 270

5. The initial great circle track from A (S 30:45 E 045:15) to B(S 30:45 E 062:38) is

(a) 085.6
(b) 094.4
(c) 098.9

6. The initial great circle track from A (S 28:30 W 015:15) to B is 099
If A and B are on the same parallel of latitude the longitude of B is :-

(a) W 003:37
(b) E 012:15
(c) E 022:28

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7. The latitude where the value of convergency is half the value of convergency at 60 N
is

(a) 30 00 N
(b) 27 52 N
(c) 25 39 N

8. The Initial Great Circle Track from A (S 27:30 E 017:45) to B (S 27:30 E 029:15)is:

(a) 092.65 GC
(b) 087.35 GC
(c) 095.31 GC

9. A and B are in the Northern Hemisphere. The Great Circle bearing of B from A is
068.
If Conversion angle is 6 the Great Circle bearing of A from B is :-

(a) 242 GC
(b) 254 GC
(c) 260 GC

10. A and B are in the Southern Hemisphere. The Great Circle bearing of A from B is
245
If Conversion Angle is 7 the Great Circle bearing of B from A is :-

(a) 079 GC
(b) 065 GC
(c) 051 GC

11. A and B are in the same hemisphere.
The Rhumb Line bearing of A from B is 100
The Great Circle bearing of B from A is 275

The Great Circle bearing of A from B is :-

(a) 105 GC
(b) 100 GC
(c) 095 GC

A bears 080 GC from B
B bears 255 GC from A

The Rhumb Line Track from B to A is :-

(a) 077.5 RL
(b) 082.5 RL
(c) 085.0 RL
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The bearing of B from A is 143 GC
The bearing of A from B is 319 GC

The Rhumb Line Track from A to B is :-

(a) 141 RL
(b) 145 RL
(c) 147 RL

14. The Latitude where the Convergency between two meridians is twice the value of
their Convergency at 20 N is :-

(a) N 42:45
(b) N 43:10
(c) N 43:16

The Great Circle bearing of A from B is 080

The Rhumb Line Track from B to A is :-

(a) 075RL
(b) 080RL
(c) 085RL

The Great Circle bearing of A from B is 290

The Rhumb Line bearing of A from B is :-

(a) 294RL
(b) 298RL
(c) 302RL

The bearing of A from B is 280 GC
The bearing of B from A is 095 RL

The Great Circle bearing of B from A is

(a) 090GC
(b) 100GC
(c) 105GC
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18. Two positions on the same parallel of Latitude are in the Northern Hemisphere.
A at 171E and B at 173 W have a 8 angle of Convergency between them.
The Initial Great Circle Track from A to B is :-

(a) 086GC
(b) 090GC
(c) 094GC

19. Two positions on the same parallel of Latitude are in the Northern
Hemisphere.
A at 171 E and B at 173 W have a 8 angle of Convergency between them.
The Latitude of A is :-

(a) 25N
(b) 30N
(c) 35N

20. The position of A is S 30:00 W 010:00. Position B is on the same parallel of Latitude.
The Initial Great Circle Track from A to B is 256.
The Longitude of B is :-

(a) 56W
(b) 61W
(c) 66W

21. The position of A is N 42:13 W 158:24. Position B is on the same parallel of Latitude.
The Great Circle bearing of B from A is 278.
The Longitude of B is :-

(a) E 175:13
(b) E 182:13
(c) E 177:47

22. The distance from A (S 27:43 W 005:15) to B(S 27:43 E 018:29) is :-

(a) 703 nm
(b) 1261 nm
(c) 1452 nm

23. An aircraft departs C (N 45:17 E 025:52) on a track of 270 (T) and arrives at D after
a flight of 456 nm. The Longitude of D is :-

(a) E 015:04
(b) E 016:32
(c) E 017:25

24. An aircraft in the Southern Hemisphere flies around the world in 16 hours 35 minutes
at GS 478. The Latitude at which the aircraft flew was :-

(a) S 68:28
(b) S 68:47
(c) S 69:12
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25. An aircraft leaves ORLANDO. FLORIDA (N 28:32 W 081 :20) at 08:20 Z, GS 375.
The ETA at TENERIFE. CANARIES (N 28:32 W 016:16) is :-

(a) 17:29 Z
(b) 17:44 Z
(c) 17:57 Z

26. An aircraft departed ABU DHABI (N 24:23 E 054:44) at 06:52 Z and arrived at
KARACHI (N 24:23 E 067:11) at 08:17 Z.

The average groundspeed for the flight was :-

(a) 470 Kts
(b) 480 Kts
(c) 490 Kts

27. An aircraft leaves X (N 57:42 E 030:15) on a Rhumb Line track of 270 (T) After
flying 1037 nm the Longitude of the aircraft is :-

(a) W 002:06
(b) W 003:38
(c) W 004:29

28. An aircraft flies 425 nm along the parallel of Latitude N 46:52. The change of
Longitude is

(a) 1051
(b) 1036
(c) 1022

29. The length of one nautical mile is :-

(a) constant
(b) maximum at the poles
(c) maximum at the equator

30. The shortest distance from A (N 75:39 E 123:17) to B(N 78:27 W 056:43) is :-

(a) 1554 nm
(b) 1672 nm
(c) 1739 nm

31. An aircraft leaves X (S 34:58 E 018:24) at 06:30 Z, track 360 (T), GS 300 Kts.
At 07:55 Z the aircraft turns right onto track 090 (T). The longitude of the aircraft at
09:05 is

(a) E 024:30
(b) E 025:00
(c) E 025:30
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32. The Latitude where the distance between two meridians is half the distance between
the same two meridians at 25 N is :-

(a) N 62:08
(b) N 62:31
(c) N 63:03

33. An aircraft leaves P (N 32:27 E 027:56) at 17:30 Z. track 270 (T), GS 390 Kts.
At E 021:00 it flies due South and passes abeam of Q(N 20:20 E 021:56) at 20:12 Z.
The groundspeed on the second leg was :-

(a) 384 Kts
(b) 394 Kts
(c) 404 Kts

34. An aircraft departs X (S 27:34 W 034:15) at 09:00 Z, track 090(T). GS 455 Kts. At
W 015:00 it flies due North at GS 422 Kts. The ETA abeam of Y (S 19:35 W 013:45)
is:

(a) 12:23
(b) 12:33
(c) 12:43

35. Aircraft A and aircraft B depart the same position (60N 150W). Aircraft A flies a
track of 090T. Aircraft B flies directly north to the pole then a track of 180T so as to
intercept aircraft A. The groundspeeds are the same for A and B. At what longitude
will aircraft A and B intercept each other?

(a) 90E
(b) 30W
(c) 30E

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CHAPTER 2

CHART PROJECTION THEORY

The original problem of map making is still with us even in the 21
st
century, how can you
represent the curved surface of the earth on a flat piece of paper without distortion???

The answer is IT CANNOT BE DONE!! Its the same as trying to flatten out a Orange peel, it
too cannot be done.

Charts which are produced by conic projections are used widely in aviation mainly because
conic projections

1. preserve true shapes
2. preserve angular relationships (called conformal or orthomorphic)
3. have a reasonably constant scale over the whole chart
4. show great circle as straight lines..

Lets now look at the chart projections and properties that we as pilots are interested in:

ORTHOMORPHISM

Orthomorphism means true shape. In theory a cartographer starts with a 'reduced earth'
which is the earth reduced by the required scale. The 'reduced earth' is a true undistorted
representation of the earth. Details, such as Parallels of Latitude, Meridians and
topographical features are 'projected' from the reduced earth onto a cylinder (Mercator's
Projection), a cone (Lambert's Projection) or a flat sheet of paper (Polar Stereographic
Projection). The ideal chart would possess the following features.

Scale, both correct and constant
Bearings correct
Shapes correctly shown
Areas correctly shown
Parallels of Latitude and Meridians will intersect at 90

Unfortunately to reproduce a spherical surface on a flat sheet of paper is impossible.
Distortions will occur. Only one of the above features can be shown correctly.

If shapes and areas are approximately correct to enable map reading, then slight distortions
can be tolerated.

Bearings and scale must be correct, but we cannot have both.

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The 1 nm square on the reduced earth is correct, the diagonal of a square is 45 and
bearings are correct.

The 1 nm square of the reduced earth projected onto a cylinder becomes a rectangle.
Bearings are no longer correct. The scale has been expanded in the North/South direction to
a greater degree than the East/West case. To overcome this problem the scale expansion
North/South is reduced mathematically to equal the scale expansion East/West. The
rectangle becomes a square and the diagonal is 45 Bearings are now correct. Meridians
and Parallels of Latitude intersect at 90 Scale is expanded, but by the same amount in all
directions over short distances. Shapes and areas are approximately correct and the chart
is orthomorphic. On the Mercator, Lambert and Polar Stereographic charts the Parallels of
Latitude are adjusted in the above manner. Bearings are correct but the scale is variable.

SCALE

Scale is the ratio of a line drawn on a chart to the corresponding distance on the surface of
the earth.

Statement In Words 1 inch equals 40 nm

Usually found on radio facility charts. 1 inch on the chart equals 40 nm.

Graduated Scale Line

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1_____1_____1_____1_____!_____1_____1_____1_____1______1

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Representative Fraction

1
1000 000 or 1/1 000 000 or 1:1 000 000

1 Unit on the chart equals 1 000 000 units on the earth
1 Centimetre on the chart equals 1 000 000 centimetres on the earth .
1 Inch on the chart equals 1 000 000 inches on the earth

SCALE FACTOR

Due to the inherent difficulty of presenting a spherical object (the earth) on a flat sheet of
paper. there is no such thing as a constant scale chart. Scale expansion or contraction will
occur. Usually scale will be correct at a certain Latitude but expands else where. For
example :-

Mercator Chart Scale 1:1 000 000 at the Equator
What is the scale at 40N with a Scale factor of 1.3054

1
_______ x Scale factor 1.3054
1 000 000

Scale at 40N = 1: 766 049

Example 1 A chart has a scale of 1:2 500 000. How many nautical miles are represented
by 4 cm on the chart?

Chart Length (CL) 1 4 cm
Scale = ________________ ________ ______
Earth Distance (ED) 2 500 000 ED

ED = 2 500 000 x 4 cms

2 500 000 x 4 cms Divide by 2.54 = Inches
______________ = 53.96nm Divide by 12 = Feet
2.54 x 12 x 6080 Divide by 6080 = Nautical Mile;

Example 2 32 centimetres on a chart represents 468 nm. The scale of the chart is :

CL 32 cms 1
Scale = _________________________ = _______
ED 468 nm x 6080 x 12 x 2.54 2 710 282

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Example 3 The scale of a chart is 1: 3 500 000. The length of a line that represents 105
nm is :-

CL 1 CL
Scale = ___ = ________ = __________________________
ED 3 500 000 105 nm x 6080 x 12 x 2.54

= 3 500 000 x CL = 105 nm x 6080 x 12 x 2.54

105 nm x 6080 x 12 x 2.54
CL = _____________________ = 5.56 cms
3 500 000

Example 4 Chart A has a scale of 1:2 500 000
Chart B has a scale of 1:1 750 000

Which chart has the larger scale?
1 1
Chart B has the larger scale ___ > ___
2 4

The smaller denominator is the larger scale (half a cake is larger than quarter of a cake)

CPL DOC8
Page 29
LAMBERT CONFORMAL CONIC CHART

The Lambert's chart was developed from the Simple Conic chart.

Simple Conic

A cone is placed over a reduced earth so it is tangential to a selected parallel of latitude. The
apex of the cone is above the pole. A light source at the centre of the reduced earth projects
details onto the cone. The cone is opened to give a simple conic projection.

CPL DOC8
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The scale is correct at the parallel of tangency (45N) and expands north and south of 45N.
Due to the scale expansion the chart is not suitable for navigation.

The Meridians are straight lines converging on the nearer pole and the value of convergence
is constant throughout the chart.

Parallels of Latitude are arcs of circles radius the Pole.

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SIMPLE CONIC CONVERGENCE

When the cone is opened, 360 of Longitude is represented by the angular extent of the
chart which is 254.5584. The angular extent of the chart is controlled by the latitude chosen
to be the parallel of tangency.

Angular extent of the chart 254.5584
______________________________ = 0.7071 Constant of the Cone or 'n' factor
Change of Longitude 360

Two Meridians 1 apart have a convergence 0.7071
and this is called the: CHART CONVERGENCE FACTOR (CCF)

Parallel of Tangency 45 Sine 45 = 0.7071 = CCF = Constant of the Cone = 'n' factor

LAMBERT CONFORMAL CONIC CHART

The Lambert's chart is based on the simple conic and is produced mathematically from it.
Firstly, the scale is reduced throughout the chart. Since scale on the simple conic is correct
only on the parallel of tangency and expands either side, the reduction will give two Standard
Parallels (SP) on which scale is correct, one on either side of the simple conic parallel of
tangency which is renamed the Parallel of Origin (// 0). Further mathematical modification
is applied by adjusting the radius of the parallels of latitude to produce an orthomorphic
projection.

The above can be shown be lowering the simple conic cone so that it cuts the earth at the
two Standard Parallels instead of the original parallel of tangency of the simple conic.

Lambert's Chart Properties

PARALLELS OF LATITUDE Arcs of circles, radius the Pole, unequally spaced.

MERIDIANS Straight lines converging towards the nearer Pole

SCALE Correct at the two Standard Parallels
Expands outside the Standard Parallels
Contracts between the Standard Parallels

Scale variation throughout 1:1 000 000 and 1:500 000 charts is negligible and
can be considered constant if the band of Latitude projected is small and the
Standard Parallels are positioned according to the one sixth rule. That is one
sixth of that Latitude band from the top and bottom of the chart. Charts of the
North Atlantic with a scale of 1:5 600 000 have a marked scale variation and
care must be taken when measuring distances.

RHUMB LINES Curves concave to the Pole and convex to the Equator.

GREAT CIRCLES A straight line joining two positions on the Parallel of
Origin curves slightly concave to the Parallel of Origin.

CPL DOC8
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CONVERGENCE Constant throughout the chart
Correct at the Parallel of Origin

Chart Convergence Ch. Long x sin Parallel of Origin
Chart Convergence Ch. Long x CCF (Chart Convergence Factor)
Chart Convergence Ch. Long x 'n'
Chart Convergence Ch. Long x Constant of the Cone

SHAPES and AREAS Slight distortion

CHART FIT Charts of the same scale and Standard Parallels will fit
N/S and E/W. Charts with different SP will not fit.

CPL DOC8
Page 33
Lambert's Chart - Tracks

For all practical purposes the Great Circle is a straight line.

The Rhumb Line track is parallel to the mean Great Circle track at the Mid Meridian between
two positions

The difference between the Great Circle and the Rhumb Line is :
Chart Conversion Angle (CCA)

The difference between the Initial Great Circle track and the Final Great Circle track is
Chart Convergence (CC)

NB: For examination purposes

Unless otherwise stated in a question, the Great Circle is taken to be the straight line and
Chart Convergence (CC) is used.

Where a question asks for 'the most accurate value of the Great Circle' or 'the true
Great Circle' then Earth Convergence (EC) is used.

The Parallel of Origin of a Lamberts chart is mid way between the two Standard
Parallels

If the Standard Parallels (SP) are 20S and 40S, then the Parallel of Origin (// 0) is
30S

If one SP is 20S and the // 0 is 30S - Then the other SP is 40S

Chart Convergence (CC) = Change of Longitude x sine Parallel of Origin

Chart Convergence (CC) = Change of Longitude x Chart Convergence Factor

Sine Parallel of Origin = Chart Convergence Factor (CCF)

If a statement regarding convergence is given :-

CPL DOC8
Page 34
e.g. a Lamberts chart has a chart convergence of 5 between the meridians of 10E and
20E) then the Parallel of Origin can be calculated (CC 5 = ch. long 10 x sin 30) and the
CCF = 0.5 As convergence is proportional to the CCF, convergence between any two
meridians is easily found.

Lets look at some problems that can arise in the examination..

Q1. On a North Hemisphere Lamberts chart (SP 20N & 40 N) the initial GC track from A
(10E) to B (42E) is 065. The GC track at B is:

CC = Ch Long X sin // O
= 32 X sin 30
= 16
65 + 16 = 81 GC at B

Q2. The Chart Convergency factor of a Lamberts chart is .5. The Great Circle track from
C (20N 10E) to D (45N 30 W) measures 316 at C. The Rhumb Line Track from
C to D is:

CC = CH Long X CCF Track C to D 316 GC
CC = 40 X 0.5 CCA 10
CC = 20 Track C TO D 306
CCA = 10

Q3 The CCF of a Lambert's chart is 0.5
If one Standard Parallel (SP) is 25S then the Latitude of the other Standard Parallel
is :-
The Parallel of Origin (// 0) is midway between the two Standard Parallels
CCF 0.5 = sin//0 = 30S
SP25S Parallel of Origin 30S Other SP35S
D
C
GC
RL
A
B
65
65
CC
16
10E
42E
CPL DOC8
Page 35
Lambert's Chart Plotting Radio Bearings

Radio bearings are Great Circles. Straight Lines on a Lambert's chart are Great Circles and
plotting radio bearings is simple.

VOR & VDF

VOR and VDF bearings are determined at the station, that is measured from the Meridian of
the station.

VOR Radial (QDR) Correct for VOR station Variation only and plot from VOR Meridian
VOR RMI reading RMI reading is a QDM VOR Variation 180 = QTE
Plot QTE from VOR Meridian (do not apply compass deviation)

VDF QDM = Station Variation 180 = QTE
QDR Station Variation = QTE
QUJ 180 = QTE
Plot QTE from VDF station Meridian

Plotting ADF Bearings

A problem arises with the plotting of ADF bearings due to the bearing being measured at the
aircraft's Meridian and plotted from the NDB's Meridian which differ by the amount of
Convergence between the two positions.

ADF QUJ 180 = Bearing to plot from Aircraft Meridian paralleled through NDB
ADF QUJ 180 CC = Bearing to plot from NDB Meridian

CPL DOC8
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CPL DOC8
Page 37
Scale Problems

Lambert's scale 1:2 500 000, SP20 S and 40S.
The scale is correct at the two Standard Parallels

Scale 20S = Scale at 40S

Some problems that may arise..

Example 1 A Lambert's chart has Standard Parallels of 30N and 50 N
The Rhumb Line distance from A (50N 30E)to B (50N 10E) is 13.75
inches.
The scale at 30N is :-

CL 13.75 inches 1
Scale = __ = ________________________________ = ________
ED 20 Ch. Long x 60 x cos 50 x 6080 x 12 4 092 898
(Departure in nm)

Example 2 On a Lambert's chart the Standard Parallel of 35S measures 58.4 cms.
The other Standard Parallel measures 43.9 cms.
The Latitude of the second Standard Parallel is :-

CL 58.4 cms CL 43.9 cms
Scale at 35S = _________________ Scale at 2
nd
SP = _______________
ED Ch. Long x cos 35 ED Ch.Long x cos Lat

The scales are equal.

As CH. Long is the same in both equations it disappears

58.4 cms 43.9 cms
___________ = ____________
cos 35 cos Lat

cos lat = 0.6158

lat = (.6158)
COS-1

lat = 52S

CPL DOC8
Page 38
Lambert's Questions

1. The convergence between the meridians of 37E and 59E at 30S on a Lamberts
chart (Standard Parallels 29S and 41S) is :-

(a) 11.0
(b) 11.8
(c) 12.6

2. Chart convergency on a Lamberts chart between the meridians of 10E and 10W is
12. If one standard parallel is S 30:20 the other standard parallel is at :-

(a) S 40:48
(b) S 41:52
(c) S 43:24

3. On a Lamberts chart the standard parallel of 32N measures 77.5 cms. The other
standard parallel measures 72 cms. The latitude of the second standard parallel is :-

(a) 37N
(b) 38N
(c) 39N

4. A Lamberts chart has standard parallel of 20S and 40S. The rhumb line distance
from A (20S 15E) to B (20S 37E) is 76.62 cms. The scale of the chart at 40S is :-

(a) 1:3 000 000
(b) 1:3 500 000
(c) 1:4 000 000

5. A Lamberts chart has standard parallels of 25S and 45S. The rhumb line distance
from X (45S 17W) to Y (45S 05E) is 80.5 cms.

The rhumb line distance from 25S 17W to 25S 05E is :-

(a) 97 cms
(b) 100 cms
(c) 103 cms

6. A Lamberts chart has standard parallels of 30N and 50N.
The initial great circle track from A (32N 63W) to B (45N 15W) is 056(T).

The longitude at which the great circle track becomes 090(T) is :-

(a) W 012:37
(b) W 010:06
(c) W 008:28
CPL DOC8
Page 39

7. A northern hemisphere Lamberts chart has a CCF of 0.57.
A straight line from A (27W) to C (32E) passes through B (09E).
The initial great circle track at A is 062(T). The great circle track at B is :-

(a) 082.5
(b) 087.2
(c) 093.8

8. An aircraft heading 321(T) in the northern hemisphere receives an ADF bearing of
094 relative. If chart convergency between the aircraft and the NDB is 5 the bearing
to plot from the NDB on a Lamberts Chart is :-

(a) 230
(b) 235
(c) 240

9. An aircraft heading 112(T) in the southern hemisphere receives an ADF bearing of
to plot from the NDB on a Lamberts Chart is :-

(a) 084
(b) 092
(c) 096

10. A Lambert's chart has a chart convergency of 12.04 between the Meridians of 70E
and 84E. If One Standard Parallel is 64N, the Latitude of the other SP is :-

(a) N59:19
(b) N57:15
(c) N54:38

11. On a Lambert's chart, a straight line from A (45N 045E) to B (47N 035E) cuts the
40E Meridian at 75. Convergency between A and B is 8. The Rhumb Line track
from A to B is :-

(a) 255
(b) 270
(c) 285

12. On a Lambert's chart, Convergency between A(50S 005E)and B (52S 015E) is
8. The Great Circle track from A to C (50 S 020 E) is :-

(a) 084
(b) 090
(c) 096
CPL DOC8
Page 40

13. A bearing obtained from a NDB is 273 relative. Aircraft heading 330 (T). d.long
between aircraft and NDB is 14, mean Latitude 26S. Parallel of Origin 30S. The
bearing to plot on a Lambert's chart is :-

(a) 063
(b) 070
(c) 077

14. Two Meridians. 175W and 171E, in the Northern Hemisphere, have a convergency
of 7 on a Lambert's chart. The GC track from X (169E) to Y (175W) is 080(T) at
X. The Rhumb Line track from Y to X is :-

(a) 256
(b) 260
(c) 264

15. A Northern Hemisphere Lambert's chart has a CCF of 0.75. The straight line from A
(20E) to C (60 E) passes through B (044E). The direction of the track at A is 100
(T). The Great Circle track at B is :-

(a) 109
(b) 115
(c) 118

16. A Lambert's chart has Standard Parallels of 24S and 46S. Position X (46S 045W)
and Y (46S 025W) are plotted on the chart. The Great Circle bearing of Y from X
is :-

(a) 095.74
(b) 096.94
(c) 097.19

17. The chart convergency factor of a Lambert's chart is 0.50. A straight line is drawn
from X (20N 010E) to Y (40N 030W) and measures 305 (T) at X. The RL track
from X to Y is :-

(a) 295
(b) 305
(c) 315

18. An aircraft heading 173 (T) obtains a relative bearing of 313 from a NDB.
Convergency between aircraft and NDB is 14. What bearings would you plot from
the NDB on a Lambert's chart in:

1. Northern Hemisphere?

2. Southern Hemisphere?
(a) 292
(b) 306
(c) 320
(a) 292
(b) 306
(c) 320

CPL DOC8
Page 41

19. Positions X and Y are in the Southern Hemisphere. An aircraft at X. heading 240
(T). obtains a relative bearing of 198 from a NDB at Y. When plotted as a straight
line from the NDB on a Lambert's chart, the bearing measures 250 (T).

The RL track from X to Y is :-

(a) 074
(b) 078
(c) 082

20. The Standard Parallels on a Lambert's chart are 10N and 30 N. A straight line is
drawn from Position A (30 N 160W) to B (10 N 150 E) on a Mercator and a
Lambert's chart. The straight line cuts the 180 Meridian at 244 on the Mercator. The
GC tracks from A to B on the Lambert's chart at 160 W and 170 E are :-.

160 W 170 E
(a) 249.67
(b) 252.55
(c) 254.05
(a) 241.41
(b) 242.29
(c) 243.84

21. Positions X (45 N 010 W) and Y (20 N 060 E) are joined by a straight lines on a
Mercator and Lambert's chart. Lambert's: SPs 20 N and 45 N. Mercator track X to Y
is 124 (T) at 40 E. The Longitude that the track on the Lambert's chart equals 124
(T) is :-

(a) 23E
(b) 25E
(c) 27E

22. On a Northern Hemisphere Lambert's chart the Initial Great Circle track from A to B is
082(T). An aircraft leaves A steering a constant heading of 082(T) in zero wind
conditions. The aircraft will pass :-

(a) North of B
(b) Overhead B
(c) South of B

23. A Lambert's chart has Standard Parallels of 15S and 35S. The difference between
Chart Convergency and Earth Convergency of Meridians 22 apart at 34S is :-

(a) 2
(b) 3
(c) 4

24. A Lambert's chart has Standard Parallels of 25N and 45N. A straight line is drawn
on the chart from X (42N 15W) to Y (43N 15E). The true Great Circle between X
and Y will be :-

(a) to the North of the straight line
(b) the same as the straight line
(c) to the South of the straight line

CPL DOC8
Page 42
25. Parallels of Latitude on a Lambert's chart are :-

(a) Parallel straight lines unequally spaced
(b) Arcs of circles equally spaced
(c) Arcs of circles unequally spaced

26. Lambert's charts of the same scale and Standard Parallels will fit :-

(a) N/S only
(b) E/W only
(c) both N/S and E/W

27. A Lambert's chart has a scale of 1:2 500 000. The chart length of 1 of Latitude varies
as follows :-

Latitude
70N
65N
60N
55N
50N
45N

Chart length of 1 of Latitude
4.471 cms
4.441 cms
4.422 cms
4.441 cms
4.471 cms
4.516 cms

The Standard Parallels are :-

(a) 54N & 66N
(b) 55N & 67N
(c) 56N & 68N
CPL DOC8
Page 43
MERCATOR CHART

Before the advent of Inertial Navigation, and GPS computers aircraft flew constant headings.
They flew Rhumb Lines. The Mercator chart was constructed so that Rhumb Lines are
straight lines and the headings flown were easily plotted.

A cylinder is positioned over the reduced earth tangential to the Equator. A light source at
the centre of the reduced earth projects details of the reduced earth onto the cylinder and we
have a Geometric Cylindrical Projection. After adjusting the Parallels of Latitude so that the
scale expansion North/South equals the scale expansion East/West it becomes a Mercator
chart.

CPL DOC8
Page 44
MERCATOR CHART PROPERTIES

POINT OF PROJECTION Centre of the reduced earth

POINT OF TANGENCY Equator

PARALLELS OF LATITUDE Parallel straight lines, unequally spaced

MERIDIANS Parallel straight lines, equally spaced

CONVERGENCY Constant
Value Zero
Correct at the Equator

SCALE Correct at the Equator
Expands as the secant of the Latitude
RHUMB LINES Straight Lines

GREAT CIRCLES Complex curves towards the nearer Pole Convex to the
Pole, Concave to the Equator
CPL DOC8
Page 45

SHAPES & AREAS Approximately correct, excellent between 12N and 12S
becoming distorted with increasing Latitude. The chart has a
limit of 70N and 70S.

CHART FIT Charts of the same equatorial scale will fit N/S. E/W and
diagonally.

USES Plotting and Met charts
Topographical maps between 12N and 12S

ADVANTAGES Rhumb Lines are straight lines - plotting easy

DISADVANTAGES Great Circles (radio bearings) are complex curves.
Great care must be taken measuring distances due to
rapidly changing scale.

CPL DOC8
Page 46
SCALE

Scale is correct at the Equator and expands North and South as the secant of the Latitude.
Every Parallel of Latitude has its own scale. (SF x cos LAT)

Equator 1:2 000 000
5S 1:1 992 389
10S 1:1 969 615
30S 1:1 732 051
60S 1:1 000 000

Great care must be taken when measuring distances on a Mercator chart due to the variable
scale. Use the Latitude scale at the mid point between the two positions.

SCALE PROBLEMS

Scale problems are easily solved by use of ABBA

SCALE DENOMINATOR A x COS B = SCALE DENOMINATOR B x COS A

Example 1 The scale of a Mercator chart is l:2500000 at 15S. 15S = A
What is the scale at 45N? 45N = B


2 500 000 x cos 45 = Scale B x cos 15

2 500 000 x cos 45
cos 15 = 1 830 127
Scale at 45N 1:1 830 127

Example 2 The scale of a Mercator chart is 1:3 500 000 at 10N 10N = A
At what Latitude is the scale 1:2 500 000? Lat X = B


3 500 000 x cos X = 2 500 000 x cos 10

cos X = 2 500 000 x cos 10
3 500 00
= 0:7034

X = (0.7034)
cos -1

= 45 17'49" N/S

CPL DOC8
Page 47

Example 3 The Meridian spacing on a Mercator chart is 2.7 cms. The scale at 30S is
If ABBA cannot solve the problem, then revert to:-

CL 2.7 cms
Scale = __ = _______________________________
ED 1 Long x 60 x cos 30 x 6080 x 12 x 2.54

= 2.7 (scale is 1/xxxxxx)
9 629 426

= 1:3 566 454

PLOTTING RADIO BEARINGS VDF & VOR

Radio bearings are Great Circle bearings. They have to be converted into Rhumb Line
bearings by applying Conversion Angle before they can be plotted.

Both VDF and VOR bearings are measured at the station, thus station variation must be
applied. Conversion angle is also applied where the bearing was measured, that is the VDF
or VOR station.

VDF & VOR APPLY STATION VARIATION APPLY CA TO QTE

BEARING VARIATION HEMISPHERE CA PLOT RL
QDM 100 10 W NORTHERN 2
QDR 258 16 W SOUTHERN 3
RMI Reading 113 15E NORTHERN 4
RMI Reading 088 11 W SOUTHERN 2
QDR 129 20 E NORTHERN 3
QDM 285 14 W SOUTHERN 4
QUJ 131 24 E NORTHERN 1
Answers on next page
CPL DOC8
Page 48

NOTE

VOR RMI readings are QDM's. Apply VOR station variation, but not compass deviation.

Answers to VOR/VDF bearings

QDM 100 VAR 10 W QUJ 090 180 GC QTE 270 N CA -2 RL QTE 268
QDR 258 VAR 16 W GC QTE 242 S CA +3 RL QTE 245
QDM 113 VAR 15 E QUJ 128 180 GC QTE 308 N CA -4 RL QTE 304
QDM 088 VAR 11 W QUJ 077 180 GC QTE 257 S CA +2 RL QTE 259
QDR 129 VAR 20 E GC QTE 149 N CA +3 RL QTE 152
QDM 285 VAR 14 W QUJ 271 180 GC QTE 091 S CA -4 RL QTE 087
QUJ 131 180 GC QTE 311 N CA -1 RL QTE 310

PLOTTING ADF/NDB BEARINGS

ADF bearings are presented to the pilot by either a RELATIVE BEARING INDICATOR (RBI)
or by a RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR (RMI).

RELATIVE BEARING INDICATOR (RBI)

ADF bearings are measured clockwise from the fore and aft axis of the aircraft and are
termed RELATIVE BEARINGS, that is relative to the aircraft's fore and aft axis. ADF
Relative bearings must be converted into True Bearings (QTE) before they can be plotted on
a chart,

RELATIVE BEARING + TRUE HEADING = GC QUJ CA = RL QUJ 180 = RL QTE

NB The GC QUJ must be converted into a RL QUJ before the reciprocal is taken. The
reciprocal of a Rhumb Line can always be taken, never the reciprocal of a Great
Circle


CPL DOC8
Page 49
RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR (RMI)

The RMI is a remote gyro compass on which radio bearings (both ADF and VOR) are shown.
As it is a compass, the heading index is heading compass and it may suffer from deviation,
for which a correction must be made to ADF bearings but not VOR bearings. The sharp end
of the pointers are referred to as RMI readings or QDM. The opposite or blunt end of the
needle will be a QDR.

ADF QDM Deviation Aircraft Variation = GC QUJ CA RL QUJ 180= RL QTE

ADF BEARINGS

HEADING DEVIATION VARIATION BEARING HEMISPHERE CA
016 (C) 2 W 13 E 071 REL NORTHERN 4
065 (C) 3 E 18 W 214 REL SOUTHERN 5
225 (C) 4 W 21 W 069 REL NORTHERN 3
345 (C) 2 E 19 W 123 RMI SOUTHERN 2

CPL DOC8
Page 50

Hdg 016 ( C ) Hdg 065 ( C ) Hdg 225 ( C ) RMI 123
Dev 2 W Dev 3 E Dev 4 W Dev 2 E
Hdg 014 (M) Hdg 068 (M) Hdg 221 (M) QDM 125
Var 13 E Var 18 W Var 21 W Var 19 W
Hdg 027 (T) Hdg 050 (T) Hdg 200 (T) QUJ 106 GC
ADF 071 Rel ADF 214 Rel ADF 069 Rel CA - 2 S
QUJ 098 GC QUJ 264 GC QUJ 269 GC QUJ 104 RL
CA + 4 N CA +5 S CA - 3 N 180
QUJ 102 RL QUJ 269 RL QUJ 266 RL QTE 284 RL
180 180 180
QTE 282 RL QTE 089 RL QTE 086 RL

NB

VOR & VDF APPLY STATION VARIATION
DO NOT APPLY DEVIATION
APPLY CA TO QTE

RMI READING = QDM

ADF NDB APPLY AIRCRAFT DEVIATION & VARIATION
GC QUJ CA = RL QUJ 180 = RL QTE

Station West of ACFT Station East of ACFT
CPL DOC8
Page 51

Mercator Questions

1. A Mercator chart has a scale of 1:2 500 000 at 20N. The scale at 50N is:-

(a) 1:1 710 100
(b) 1:1 835 000
(c) 1:1 972 060

2. A Mercator chart has a scale of 1:2 000 000 at 20N.
The latitude where the scale would be 1:1 500 000 is :-

(a) N 44:11
(b) N 45:11
(c) N 46:1 I

3. The distance between meridians on a Mercator chart 1 apart is 2.7 centimetres
The scale of the chart at 33S is :-

(a) 1:3 247 500
(b) 1:3 453 800
(c) 1:3 694 400

4. An aircraft at position S 22:35 E 029:45 obtains an ADF QDM of 095. If variation is
14W and conversion angle 2 the bearing to plot on a Mercator chart is :-

(a) 263
(b) 261
(c) 259

5. An aircraft obtains a QDM of 275 from a VHF D/F station in the Southern
Hemisphere. Aircraft Variation is 16W and VHF D/F station Variation is 18W. lf
Convergency between the aircraft and the VHF D/F station is 6 the bearing to be
plotted on a Mercator chart is :-

(a) 080
(b) 074
(c) 071

6. An aircraft at position S 23:15 E 027:32 (variation 15W) heading 267(T) obtains a
relative bearing of 346 Relative from a NDB at S 25:27 E 019:32 (variation 17W). CA
2. The bearing to plot on a Mercator chart is :-

(a) 060
(b) 071
(c) 075
CPL DOC8
Page 52

7. On a Mercator chart the distance between two meridians 5 apart is 156 millimetres.
The scale of the chart at 32N is :-

(a) 1:3 022 286
(b) 1:3 127 654
(c) 1:3 226 327

8. Two straight lines of equal length are drawn East/West on a Mercator chart. One at
15S and the other at 45N.

(a) The line at 15S represents a greater distance than the line at 45N
(b) The line at 45N represents a greater distance than the line at 15S
(c) Both line represent the same distance

9. Two straight lines representing 200 nm are drawn East/West on a Mercator chart.
One at 22S and the other at 48N.

(a) The line at 22S is longer than the line at 48N
(b) The line at 48N is longer than the line at 22S
(c) The lines are of equal length

10. The Meridian spacing on a Mercator chart is 3 cms. The Latitude where the scale is
1:2 500 000 is

(a) 42 45'
(b) 45 15'
(c) 47 35'

11. The Meridians on a Mercator chart are 5,75 cms apart. The ratio of nautical miles
to the centimetre at 52N is :-

(a) 6.42
(b) 7.53
(c) 8.64

12. The Parallels of Latitude on a Mercator chart are :-

(a) Parallel straight lines equally spaced
(b) Parallel straight lines unequally spaced.
(c) Arcs of circles radius the nearer Pole

13. The Meridians on a Mercator chart are :-

(a) Parallel straight lines equally spaced
(b) Parallel straight lines unequally spaced.
(c) Straight lines converging on the nearer Pole

14. A Great Circle on a Mercator chart is :-

(a) A curve concave to the nearer Pole
(b) A curve concave to the Equator
(c) A curve convex to the Equator

CPL DOC8
Page 53
15. Mercator charts of the same scale at the Equator will fit :-

(a) N/S only
(b) E/W only
(c) in all directions

CPL DOC8
Page 54

CPL DOC8
Page 55
CHAPTER 3

RELATIVE VELOCITY

Relative Velocity is the comparison of aircraft speeds or the speed of one aircraft relative to
another.

The calculations can be broken down into 3 main areas:

Aircraft meeting

Aircraft overtaking

Speed adjustment

Meeting

Aircraft A GS 240 Kts Aircraft B GS 300 Kts
SPEED OF CLOSING 540 Kts

Overtaking

Aircraft A being faster will overtake Aircraft B SPEED OF CLOSING 90 Kts


Aircraft B being faster than Aircraft A will fly further ahead of B
SPEED OF OPENING 70 Kts

POSITION BOTH AIRCRAFT AT THE SAME TIME

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Example 1. Aircraft A is overhead NDB PY at 0900 Z enroute to VOR CN. GS 240 Kts
Aircraft B is overhead VOR CN at 0920 Z enroute to NDB PY. GS 300 Kts Distance PY to
CN is 1150 nm

1150 nm

Note: Times have been rounded off to the nearest minute

Example 2 Aircraft A. GS 180 Kts, passes overhead X at 1200 Z bound for Y
Aircraft B, GS 270 Kts, passes overhead X at 1225 Z bound for Y
At what time will aircraft B overtake aircraft A?

556nm
595nm
PY CN
Y
X
B
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Example 3 Two aircraft at the same Flight Level following the same route are
approaching a VOR.
Aircraft A, GS 350 Kts, is 260 nm from the VOR at 0800 Z.
Aircraft B, GS 450 Kts, is 390 nm from the VOR at 0750 Z.

At what time must aircraft B reduce to GS 350 in order to :-

(a) ensure a 50 nm separation at the VOR?
(b) ensure a 5 minute separation at the VOR?

As aircraft B reduces speed to the same speed as aircraft A it is a 'speed of closing'
problem. If aircraft B reduces speed to a different speed than aircraft A it is a 'delay'
problem.

390 nms 315nms 260 nms

B B A
0750 0800 0800
5 mins @ 350 kts =29 nms

(a) Speed of closing 100 kts (b) Speed of closing 100 kts
Distance to close (55-50) 5 nm Distance to close (55-29) 26 nms
Time to close 3 mins Time to close 16 mins
Reduce speed at 0803Z Reduce speed at 0816

Example 4 An aircraft, GS 450 Kts, estimates overhead 'Delta' at 0915 Z.
ATC requests the aircraft to cross 'Delta' at 0920 Z.
To accomplish this the aircraft reduces speed to 390 Kts at time :-

Delay x Old GS x New GS 5 x 450 x 390
Distance = ______________________ = ___________ = 243.75 nm
Difference in GS x 60 60 x 60

GS 450 Dist 243.75 nm Time 32 mins ETA 0915 - 32 mins = 0842

GS 390 Dist 243.75 nm Time 37 mins ETA 0920 - 37 mins = 0842'

Alternative solution DISTANCE = SPEED x TIME

At the point where speed is reduced, the aircraft is 'D nm' from Delta.

At GS 450 D = 450 x T At GS 390 D = 390 x (T+5)

As D is common, then 450 T = 390 (T + 5)
450 T = 390 T + 1950
450 T-390T = 1950
60 T = 1950
T = 32 mins

At GS 450 ETA 0915 - T 32 mins = 0842
At GS 390 ETA 0920 - (T+5) 37 mins = 0842
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Example 5 A/c A, GS 180 Kts passes over NDB PB 5 minutes ahead of a/c B
A/c B. GS 260 Kts. passes over VOR CPL 8 minutes ahead of a/c A.
The distance from NDB PB to VOR CPL is :-

As aircraft B overtakes aircraft A. the times are added.

Delay x Old GS x New GS 13 x 180 x 260
Distance = ______________________ = ______________ = 126.75 nm
Difference in GS x 60 80x60

Example 6 Aircraft A. GS 250 Kts, passes NDB DN 14 minutes ahead of aircraft B.
GS 315 Kts.

Aircraft A then passes VOR PON 5 minutes ahead of aircraft B

The distance from NDB DN to VOR PON is :-

As aircraft B does not overtake aircraft A the times are subtracted

Delay x Old OS x New GS 9 x 250 x 315
Distance = _____________________ = _______________ = 181.73 nm
Difference in GS x 60 65 x 60

QUESTIONS

Q1. An aircraft is at FL 330, at M.85 with IOAT -35C W/V 250/45. The aircraft Estimates
overhead PWV at 1011Z, track to PWV is 61T the local variation is 21E. ATC
requests that the aircraft change GS to 200 so as to arrive overhead PWV at 1020Z.
At what time must the aircraft be slowed down.

a. 1015Z
b. 1005Z
c. 1001Z
d. 1008Z

Q2. Aircraft A is overhead PNV at 1010Z FL 240 enroute to JWV, GS 250kts. Aircraft B is
overhead JWV at 1020Z FL 330 enroute to PNV, GS 420 KTS. Distance PNV to
JWV is 998 NMS. What time will they cross?

a. 11:49Z
b. 11:43Z
c. 11:46Z
d. 11:52Z

Q3. An aircraft flying at FL120, IAS 200 knots, temperature 5 C, wind component +30
knots. At a position 100 nm from the next reporting point the aircraft is ordered to
delay arrival by 5 minutes. The immediate reduction in IAS to comply with this order
is:
a. 50 kt
b. 16 kt
c. 32 kt
d. 41 kt
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CHAPTER 4

THE SOLAR SYSTEM & TIME

The measurement of the passage of time is based upon observations of events occurring at
regular intervals. The two repetitive events which most influence life on Earth are the rotation
of the Earth on its axis. Causing day and night, and the movement of the Earth in its orbit
around the Sun, causing the seasons.

THE EARTHS ORBIT

The orbit of a planet around the Sun conforms with Keplers Laws of Planetary Motion which
state :-

1. The orbit of a planet is an ellipse, with the Sun at one of the foci.

2. The line joining the planet to the Sun, known as the radius vector, sweeps out equal
areas in equal in equal intervals of time.

In the above sketch the planet (P) moves anticlockwise in its orbit and is at its closest
position to the Sun at position A which is called PERIHELION. At Perihelion the Earth is
about 91 million miles from the Sun and occurs on January 4.

At position C the planet is furthest from the Sun and is known as APHELION. At Aphelion the
Earth is about 94 million miles from the Sun and occurs on July 4.

The mean distance of the Earth from the Sun is about 93 million miles.

According to Keplers Law the radius vector sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of
time. If the area SAX equals the area SYC then as the distance AX is greater than the
distance CY and the orbital speed of the planet is faster at Perihelion than at Aphelion. The
orbital speed of the Earth is variable.

SAX SYC
A
X
C
Y
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The Earth completes one orbit around the Sun in about 365.25 days. The plane of the orbit
is called the plane of the Ecliptic, and the N/S axis of the Earth is inclined to this plane at an
angle of 66. The plane of The Ecliptic is at an angle of 23 to the Earths Equator and
this angle is known as the obliquity of the ecliptic.

THE SEASONS

One effect of the tilt of the Earths axis is the annual cycle of seasons. As the Earth moves
around the Sun, on or near 23
rd
of December the North Pole is inclined away from the Sun,
which is vertically above Latitude 23N. This is known as winter solstice and is midwinter
in the Northern Hemisphere and midsummer in the Southern Hemisphere.

As the Earth travels around its orbit, being a gyro. Its axis will always point in the same
direction relative to space and will reach a point at the summer solstice, on or about 22
nd

June, when the Sun is vertically overhead Latitude 23N. It is then midsummer in the
Northern Hemisphere and midwinter in the Southern Hemisphere.

Between these dates the Sun. will be overhead the Equator. These events occur on 21
st

March which is the spring or vernal equinox, and 23
rd
September which is the autumn
equinox.

Jan 4
Mar 21
Jun 22
July 4
Sep 23
Dec 23
Perihelion
Vernal or Spring Equinox
Summer Solstice
Aphelion
Autumn Equinox
Winter Solstice
Sun 91 million miles
Sun overhead Equator Declination 00:N/S
Sun overhead Tropic of Cancer Declination 23N
Sun 94 million miles
Sun overhead Equator Declination 00:N/S
Sun overhead Topic of Capricorn 23S

The seasons apply to the Northern Hemisphere and reversed in the Southern Hemisphere.

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MEASUREMENT OF TIME THE DAY

The rotation of the Earth on its axis is used as a basis for the measurement of the length of a
day. The length of time taken for the Earth to complete one revolution on its axis can be
found by taking the time between two successive transits of a fixed point in space over a
particular meridian.

Sidereal Day (23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds)

As stars are at immense distances from the Earth, they can be considered to be at infinity
and rays of light from stars can be considered parallel regardless of the position of the Earth
in its orbit round the Sun. The time interval between two successive transits of a star or a
fixed point in space over a meridian is called a SIDEREAL DAY and is constant at 23 hours
56 minutes and 4 seconds.

Apparent Solar Day

The time interval between two successive transits of the True Sun over a meridian is an
Apparent Solar Day.

The Sun and a star are in transit overhead a meridian. After 23 hours 56 minutes and 4
seconds the star is in transit For a second time (a Sidereal Day), rays of light from a star
being parallel. Due to the Earths orbital speed (approximately 58 000 Kts) it has moved
some 1 400 000 nm along its orbit and the Earth has to rotate X degrees before the Sun is
in transit for a second time. This of course takes time thus an Apparent Solar Day is always
longer than a Sidereal Day.

An average of 365 Apparent Solar Days is taken and termed a Mean Solar Day which is 24
hours.

Mean Solar Day

The 24 hour day is based on the Mean Sun. When the Mean Sun is overhead a meridian it
is 12:00 Local Mean Time (LMT). Each and every meridian has its own LMT.

THE EQUATION OF TIME (E)

The equation of time is the time difference between the apparent solar day and the
mean solar day and is of varying duration.

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The Siderial Day

Because of the relative proximity of the earth to the sun, attempts to measure the
length of the day (one revolution of the earth) are contaminated by the movement of
the earth in its orbit relative to the sun.

To solve this problem, a fixed point in space is chosen which is so enormously distant that
the movement of the earth in its orbit relative to this point is basically zero. This point in
space is called the Siderial point or the first point of Aries.

The Siderial day then, is defined as two successive transits of the Siderial point at the same
meridian. The Siderial day is of constant duration : 23 hours 56 mins 4 seconds.

The Earth rotates on its axis from West to East. It is more convenient to imagine the Earth
stationary with the Sun rising in the East and setting in the West.

At the Greenwich Meridian the sun is rising at 06:00 LMT.
At 90E the sun is overhead at 12:00 LMT.
At 180E/W the sun is setting at 18:00 LMT.
At 90W it is midnight 24:00 LMT on the 5
th
LD Local Date or 00:00 LMT on the 6
th
LD.
The Local Date changes at midnight and also at the International Date Line.

ARC TO TIME

The Earth rotates through 360 in 24 hours. 90 in 6 hours, or 15 per hour, there is a direct
relationship between Longitude and LMT. The Conversion of Arc to Time table is available
in the Navigation Tables booklet provided in the examination.

The first six columns are degrees of Longitude on the left with the corresponding time in
hours and minutes on the right.

10 0:40 15 1:00 134 8:56 314 20:56

The right hand column gives the time equivalent for minutes of Longitude.

10' Long 40 seconds 16' Long 1 minute 04 seconds

131 16'E Arc to Time 131 = 8:44 16 long = 1 minute 04 seconds 131 16 = 08:45:04
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UNIVERSAL CO-ORDINATED TIME (UTC)

UTC is the LMT at the Greenwich Meridian and is used as the standard reference from time
keeping for aviation. UTC is the same as GMT (Greenwich Mean Time).

CONVERSION OF
LMT TO UTC
LONGITUDE EAST

UTC LEAST
LONGITUDE WEST UTC BEST

(Tables used for these following questions start on page 65)

Example 1. At position A (N 45:05 E 065:30) it is 13:15 LMT on 23
rd
March.
The UTC at this position is :-

A 13:15 LMT 23 March
E 065:30 Arc to Time 4:22
A 08:53 UTC 23 March

Longitude East - UTC Least UTC must be an earlier time than LMT

Example 2. The time is 06:45 UTC on 21
st
May GD (Greenwich Date).
At position B (S 28:37 W 092:20) the LMT is :-

B 06:45:00 UTC 21May GD
W 092:20 Arc to Time 6:09:20
B 00:35:40 LMT 21" May LD

Longitude West - UTC Best UTC must be a later time than LMT

Example 3. If the UTC is 15:30 on the 22
nd
June GD and the LMT at position X is
09:45 on 22
nd
June, LD the Longitude of X is :-
15:30 UTC 22
nd
June
09:45 LMT 22
nd
June

Time difference 5:45 Time to Arc = W 086 15' Longitude

Example 4. An aircraft departs C (N 45:35 E 010:15) at 15:30 LMT on 15
th
May LD.
Flight time to D (42:37 E 135:45) is 11 hours 18 minutes.
The ETA in LMT is :-

C ETD 15:30 LMT 15
th
May LD
C ETD 14:49 UTC 15
th
May GD
Flight Time 11:18
D ETA 26:07 UTC 15
th
May GD
ETA 02:07 UTC 16
th
May GD
D ETA 11:10 LMT 16
th
May LD

NOTE: In flight the time standard is UTC. always work in UTC.
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LOCAL STANDARD TIME

As every Meridian has a different LMT, LMT is not suitable for civil time keeping. Durban has
a different LMT to Johannesburg. Each country has its own standard time factor which is
applied to UTC to give local standard time. Standard Time tables appear on page 67
onwards. For GMT (Greenwich Mean Time) read UTC.

List 1 Mainly countries with Easterly Longitude (including Spain & Portugal which are
Westerly Long.)
List 2 Countries normally keeping GMT or UTC.
List 3 Countries with Westerly Longitude

Apply Standard Times in the same manner as LMT (Long East - UTC Least & Long West -
UTC Best) or apply as given at the top of each list. Ignore summer time.

INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE

The International Date Line roughly follows the 180 E/W meridian, with some divergences to
accommodate certain groups of South Sea Islands and regions of Eastern Siberia.

GOING EAST 1 DAY LEAST (lose a day)
GOING WEST 1 DAY BEST (gain a day)

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TIME QUESTIONS

1. An aircraft departs X(S 23:46E 023:45) at 21:00Z on 3 July and arrives at Y(S 29:13
W 066:30) at 05:58 LMT on 4 July. If the distance from X to Y is 4732 nm the average
groundspeed was :-

(a) 353 Kts
(b) 376 Kts
(c) 396 Kts

2. An aircraft departs Ascension (S 07:58 W 014:30) at 22:15 LMT on 15
th
June LD
enroute for Johannesburg (S 26:08 E 028:15). If the flight time is 9 hours 14 minuses
the ETA FAJS is :-

(a) 08:31 SAST
(b) 10:20 SAST
(c) 10:27 SAST

3. An aircraft departs Perth (S31:57 E 115:57) at 0930 LMT on a flight to Mauritius
(S20:26 E 057:40). Distance 3207 nm, average groundspeed 427 kts. The LMT of
arrival at Mauritius is :-

(a) 13:00
(b) 13:07
(c) 13:14

4. At 08:15 LMT on 19
th
Sept Local Date an aircraft leaves A (N27:00 E 035:15). After a
flight of 7 hours 27 minutes the aircraft arrives at B (N32:00 W 028:45). The LMT of
arrival at B is :-

(a) 11:26
(b) 13:21
(c) 15:16

5. An aircraft leaves Prestwick (N55:00 W 005:00) at 1 115 LMT on 23
rd
June LD. Flight
time to San Francisco (N37:30 W 122:00) is 11 hours 15 minutes. The LMT of arrival
at San Francisco is :-

(a) 14:02
(b) 14:22
(c) 14:42

6. An aircraft is to fly from Wellington. New Zealand (S 41:10 E 174:45) to Tahiti. The
Standard Time Factor New Zealand is 12 hours) Arrival at Tahiti (S 17:29 W 149:29)
must not be later than Sunset 1823 LMT on 5
th
March LD. If the flight time is 5 hours,
the latest local mean time and date at which the aircraft must leave Wellington is :-

(a) 10:55 5
th
(b) 11:00 6
th

(c) 11:05 5
th

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7. An aircraft arrived at Vancouver (N49:00 W 123:15) at 1057 LMT on Jan 18 after a
flight of 8 hours 10 mins. It departed X at 2000 LMT on Jan 18. The Longitude of X is
:-

(a) 135E
(b) 137E
(c) 139E

8. An aircraft flies 1952 kilometres on a track of 270 (T) along a parallel of Latitude. If
the LMT of arrival at the destination is the same as the LMT of departure and the
flight time is two hours, the parallel of Latitude which the aircraft followed was :-

(a) 52:37 N/S
(b) 54:09 N/S
(c) 56:15 N/S

9. An aircraft leaves Tokyo (N36:00 E 139:45) at 2100 Standard time on Oct 12
(Standard time factor Japan 9 hours). After a 11 hour flight it arrives at San Francisco
(N37:30 W 122:00) The LMT of arrival at San Francisco is:-

(a) 14:32
(b) 14:42
(c) 14:52

10. An aircraft arrived at A (168W) at 22:08 Standard Time on 2
nd
July. Standard Time
Factor 11 Hr. If the flight time from B (174E) was 7 hours 6 minutes the LMT of
departure from B was :-

(a) 14:26 2
nd
(b) 14:36 2
nd

(c) 13:38 3
rd

11. An aircraft heading 090 (T) crosses the International Date Line at 0600 UTC on 6
th

May GD The local date :-

(a) changes from 6
th
May to the 5
th
May
(b) changes from 5
th
May to the 6
th
May
(c) remains 6
th
May

12. An aircraft heading 090(T) crosses the International Date Line at 1200 UTC on 6
th

May GD. The GMT (UTC) date is :-

(a) changes from 6
th
May to the 5
th
May
(b) changes from the 5
th
May to the 6
th
May
(c) remains 6
th
May

13. An aircraft departs New York at 13:00 LST on 28
th
February 1992 on a 8 hour 30
minute flight to Frankfurt, Germany. The LST of arrival at Frankfurt is :-

(a) 03:30 LST 29
th
Feb
(b) 03:30 LST 1
st
Mar
(c) 02:30 LST 1
st
Mar

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SUNRISE & SUNSET

The time at which the upper limb of the sun is coincident with the horizon. Corrections have
been made for atmospheric refraction.

CIVIL TWILIGHT

The time at which the upper limb of the sun is 6 below the horizon. The degree of
illumination at the beginning of morning and end of evening twilight (in good conditions and in
the absence of other illumination) is such that the brightest stars are just visible, and
terrestrial objects can be easily distinguished.

The rising and setting tables on pages 74 onwards give the UTC at the Greenwich Meridian.
For all places of the same latitude the corresponding phenomena will occur at approximately
the same LMT and this will be approximately the UTC tabulated. since UTC = LMT at
Greenwich. To obtain the UTC of a phenomenon at a particular position the longitude must
be convened into time and applied to the time extracted from the tables. A further correction
for Standard Time Factor must be made for LST (Local Standard Time).

Sunrise LMT Longitude (Arc to Time) =
Sunrise UTC Standard Time Factor =
Sunrise LST

In high latitudes the Sun may be above or below the horizon all day, or civil twilight may last
all night. The following symbols indicate the occurrence of these conditions.

Sun remains continuous above the horizon

Sun remains continuously below the horizon

Twilight lasts all night, the Sun is less than 6 below the horizon and it is always
lighter than at the beginning or end of morning or evening civil twilight.

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Example 1.

The Standard Time of Sunrise at Amsterdam. Holland (N 52:18 E 005:15) on 27 January is:

January 26 27 28 29
54N 0757 (1) 0756 (2) 0754 (1) 0753
52N 0749 (1) 0748 (2) 0746 (1) 0745

NOTE Making the time difference between dates symmetrical (1 - 2 1, 1 - 0 - 1 etc.) will
give a maximum error of 20 seconds which can be ignored.

Interpolation for Latitude, 8 minutes time difference for 2 of Latitude

8 minutes 2 x 0018 (5218N 52N) = 1 min (to nearest minute) = Sunrise 0749 LMT

Sunrise Amsterdam 07:49 LMT
E 005:15 Arc to Time 00:21
Sunrise 07:28 UTC
Standard Time Factor Holland +1:00
Sunrise 08:28 LST

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SUNRISE - SUNSET - TWILIGHT QUESTIONS

1. The Standard Time of Sunrise at Madrid, Spain (N 40:30 W 003:24) on l5 April is:

(a) 0430 LST
(b) 0636 LST
(c) 0536 LST

2. The Standard Time of Sunset at Paris, France (N 48:40 E 002:00) on 7 May is:

(a) 2009 LST
(b) 2015 LST
(c) 2031 LST

3. The duration of morning civil twilight at N 55:45 W 010:15 on 3rd June is:

(a) 38 minutes
(b) 48 minutes
(c) 58 minutes

4. An aircraft is to fly from A (S 12:00 E 022:15) to B (S 10:00 W 063:45). If the Flight
time is 11 hours 15 minutes the latest LMT that the aircraft may depart from A to
arrive at B 15 minutes before sunset on 27 February is:

(a) 0938 LMT
(b) 1251 LMT
(c) 1236 LMT

5. The duration of evening civil twilight at Cape Town (S 33:58 E 018:36) on 6 January
is:

(a) 19 minutes
(b) 29 minutes
(c) 39 minutes

6. Find the ST of sunset at Leningrad Russia CIS (59:46N 030:20E) on local date 22
January.

(a) 16h 49m ST
(b) 09h 36m ST
(c) 15h 49m ST

7. Give the GMT of sunrise at Auckland NZ (36:50S 174:48E) on local date 3 February.

(a) 17h 38m 2 Feb
(b) 17h 38m 3 Feb
(c) 17h 38m 4 Feb

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CHAPTER 5

Navigational computer

VECTOR TRIANGLE (TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES)

Navigation plotting is based around the Vector Triangle which comprises of three vectors.

NOTE

All directions are TRUE DIRECTIONS (measured from TRUE NORTH)

The length of each Vector is the value for ONE HOUR. (TAS 240 = 240 nm)(W/V 340/30 =
30 nm)

The AIR VECTOR (TAS & True Heading) has one arrow and is called the AIR PLOT.

The GROUND VECTOR (True Track & Groundspeed) has two arrows and is called the
TRACK PLOT.

The W/V has three arrows. W/V 340/30 is the direction from which the wind blows at 30 Kts.
In the above sketch the Drift angle is 7 Right. The Wind blows from the Air Vector to the
Ground Vector.

The units cannot be interchanged. The Air Vector is TAS and True Heading only (never TAS
& Track)

If four of the six values are known, the other two can be calculated.
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NAVIGATIONAL COMPUTER

Prior to flight the Heading and GS must be known as well as the fuel required for the flight
and the time intervals between enroute points. This can all be found by using simple
calculations from the flight computer or Whiz Wheel.

There are many wide and varied versions of the Whiz Wheel, but basically they can all do the
same thing in the same way. There are two methods of working with the wind side:

TAS under the grommet (center) wind down.
or
GS under the grommet (center) wind up Jeppesen method.

The first method can solve all 3 common triangle of velocity problems, method 2 can only
solve 2. Therefore method one will be used in this chapter. In this method the wind is
plotted down from the grommet.

WIND EXAMPLES

Example 1

HDG 330
TAS 150kts
W/V 040/25

Find:
Track made good
The groundspeed

Solution:

Step1

Plot wind down, then set HDG 330 under index on top.

Step2

Read off the drift 10 left, the TRK is therefore 320

Step3

Read off the GS 144 kts

Example 2

Required Track 150
TAS 100kt
W/V 360/30

Find the Hdg and GS

Step 1

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Place the W/V on the plotting disk:
Step 2

Move the circular scale to have the Track under
the Index mark.

Step 3

The drift is noted to be 7R, adjust the disk so that
143 (150-7) is under the index. Observe that the
drift has changed and is now 8R. Futher adjust
the disk until the difference between the required
track and the HDG under the index equals the
drift. Note that if this is done correctly HDG 141 is
under the index and the drift will be 9R. The TRK
will equal 150 which is what we require.

Now read off the GS at the end of the wind vector
125 kts.

Example 3

If TAS is 174kt, Track is 290, the wind velocity is 240/40. Find the Heading and GS.

ANSWER: Approx 280, 145kt

Example 4

The in-flight type of problemfinding wind

You know the following figures, find out the Wind Velocity.

HDG 138
TAS 120kts
TRK 146
GS 144kts

Step 1

Place the HDG under index and TAS in
the middle on the whiz wheel:

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Step 2 (diagram to the right)

Now in your head work out the drift,
and its found to be 8 right, so now
draw in a straight line along the 8
right drift. The GS is 144kt, draw a
line along the 144 line so as to
intersect the 8 drift line. Draw a line
from the grommet to the intersection
of 144kt and 8 drift and you have
drawn in the wind vector.

Step 3 (diagram below)

Rotate the grid until the wind
vector blows straight down.

Under the Index mark you can
read the direction, in this case its
360, and from the 120kts under
the grommet at the beginning of
the wind vector to its tail is the
strength of the wind, in this case
its 30kt.

So the answer is 360/30

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THE CALCULATOR SIDE OF THE COMPUTER

This side of the computer can do many weird and wonderful calculations, but we are only
concerned with the GS/Dist/Time and the Fuel Qty/Fuel Flow/Time problems.

In order to make things simple we shall use the whiz wheel in the same manner as you would
a electronic calculator, in that we use the following methods for the equations:

Example 1

If the aircraft has a GS of 154kts, and the Distance for the leg it 77nm, what is the EET for
the leg?

Answer = 30minutes
(found under the Arrow head)

DISTANCE
GS
TIME
TIME
Fuel
flow
Fuel
Qtty
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Example 2

At a GS of 147kt, how far will you travel in 11minutes?

ANSWER 27nm

Example 3

A leg is 25 minutes long, and the fuel flow is 32 lph, what is the fuel burn for this leg of the
flight?

ANSWER = 13.3 litres, say 14 litres..

Example 4

If you burn 24 litres per hour, and the duration of the leg is 88minutes, what will be the fuel
burn?

ANSWER = 35 litres

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MULTIPLE DRIFT W/V USING THE WHIZ WHEEL

Given:- TAS 190Kts Heading 040 + Drift 8 Right
Heading 085 + Drift 8 Right
Heading 355 + Drift 1 Right

Method:

1. Set TAS 190 Kts at the CENTRE.
2. Set HEADING 040 against TRUE INDEX, draw 8 RIGHT DRIFT LINE.
5. Place the intersection of the THREE DRIFT LINES on the CENTRE LINE below the
CENTRE CIRCLE.
6. Read off WIND DIRECTION 348 against the TRUE INDEX.
7. Read off WIND SPEED 30 Kts along the CENTRE LINE

2 3
4

1

5
CPL DOC8
Page 90
TRACK & GROUNDSPEED W/V DOPPLER W/V

Given Heading 126(T) TAS 156Kts
Doppler Drift 10 Right or Track 136 Doppler GS 142 Kts

Method:

1. Set HEADING 126 against TRUE INDEX
2. Set TAS 155 Kts at the centre circle
3. Draw 10 Right DRIFT LINE.
4. Draw arc of GROUNDSPEED 142 Kts.
5. Position the intersection of the DRIFT and GROUNDSPEED lines BELOW the
CENTRE CIRCLE.
7. Read off WIND SPEED 30 Kts along the CENTRE LINE

MULTIPLE DRIFT W/V PRACTICE PROBLEMS

TAS 230 Kts
Heading 195
Heading 257
Heading 332

W/V 135/30

Drift 7 Right
Drift 6 Right
Drift 2 Left

TAS 200 Kts
Heading 045
Heading 090
Heading 340

W/V 313/32

Drift 10 Right
Drift 6 Right
Drift 5 Right

DOPPLER W/V PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Heading
045
225
352
TAS
240
300
420

Drift
10 Right
7 Left
12 Right

Groundspeed
275
285
465
W/V
282/57
289/39
242/103

The DOPPLER DRIFT may be given on one heading and the DOPPLER GROUNDSPEED
on another.
In this case the W/V can only be solved by the manual nav computer.

Given: 1000 z Heading 055 (T) TAS 250 Kts Doppler Drift 10 Right
1012 Z Heading 010 (T) Doppler GS 235 Kts

Method
1. Set TAS 250 Kts at CENTRE
2. Set HEADING 055 at TRUE INDEX
3. Draw 10 Right DRIFT LINE
4. Set HEADING 010 at TRUE INDEX
5. Draw arc of GROUNDSPEED 235 Kts
6. Position the intersection of the DRIFT and GROUNDSPEED lines BELOW the
CENTRE CIRCLE.
8. Read off WIND SPEED 50 Kts along the CENTRE LINE.

CPL DOC8
Page 91

Given: 1800 Z Heading 120 (T) TAS 200 Kts Doppler Drift 12 Left
1812 Z Heading 055 (T) Doppler GS 250 Kts
1825 Z The Groundspeed on Heading 335 is :-

Method:

1. Calculate W/V 232/50 as above
2. Set Heading 335 at TRUE INDEX and TAS 200 Kts at CENTRE
3. Read off DRIFT 13 Right and GROUNDSPEED 218 Kts

MEAN W/V

The following winds are forecast for a climb to cruising altitude:-
045/25 080/45 120/55
The mean W/V for the climb is :-

Method:

Select a vacant area on the chart and start from the intersection of a Meridian and Parallel of
Latitude. This can best be done on normal ruled paper using the lines as reference and a
suitable scale.

Draw the three wind vectors to scale, from head to tail.

Join the end (tail) of the third wind vector to the starting point (head) and measure the wind
direction.

Measure the length of the vector and divide by the number of W/Vs to give the wind speed.

The above method is used to calculate the mean W/V at cruising altitude when several W/V
are given for a route.
091/36.7

CPL DOC8
Page 92
ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION COMPUTERS

TO CALCULATE TRACK & GROUNDSPEED (GS) ON THE PATHFINDER

Given Heading 090 TAS240Kts W/V 010/60

Method:

1. Select WIND function

2. Enter HEADING 090

3. Enter WIND SPEED 60 Kts as GROUNDSPEED

4. Enter TAS 240Kts

5. Enter WIND DIRECTION 010 as CRS (TRACK)

6. Computed W/V 104/237

7. WIND DIRECTION 104 is the TRACK

8. WIND SPEED 237 Kts is the GROUNDSPEED

TO CALCULATE MEAN W/V ON PATHFINDER/SPORTY:

Method:

USE Req TAS function

1. Enter 1
st
W/V in W Dir
W Spd

2. Enter 2
nd
W/V in Crs
GS
Answer

Hdg = Wind Direction ] remember this
TAS = Wind Spd ]

3. Enter 3
st
W/V in W Dir
W Spd

Enter Hdg (from 2) in Crs
Enter TAS (from 2) in GS

ANSWER Mean W/V

Hdg = Mean Wind Direction
TAS = Mean Wind Speed ( by number of winds)
CPL DOC8
Page 93
Mean wind can also be computed on the back of the Flight Computer using the square grid.
Each wind is plotted separately and the resultant wind speed must be divided by the number
of winds.

TAS CALCULATION

Given: RAS 140 Kts. Pressure Altitude 8000 feet. OAT +20C

Using the AIRSPEED WINDOW set pressure Altitude 8000 feet against OAT +20C

Against RAS 140 on the INSIDE SCALE, read off TAS 164 Kts on the OUTSIDE SCALE.

CPL DOC8
Page 94
AIRSPEED COMPRESSIBILITY CORRECTION

ELECTRONIC CALCULATORS

Electronic calculators correct for the compressibility error at high speeds.

Given OAT or Corrected OAT use PLANNED TAS

Given Indicated OAT use ACTUAL TAS

MANUAL FLIGHT COMPUTER

Given: Pressure Altitude 20 000 feet OAT -23C RAS 320kts

Using the AIRSPEED WINDOW set Pressure Altitude 20 000 feet against OAT -23C

Against RAS 320 on the INSIDE SCALE Read off TAS 440 kts on the OUTSIDE SCALE.

RAS 320 and TAS 440 kts are too high due to compressibility, use the correction factor from
the table below.

ALTERNATIVE METHOD (EQUIVALENT AIR SPEED EAS)

RAS 320 x 0.97 = EAS 310.4

Using the AIRSPEED WINDOW set Pressure Altitude 20 000 feet against OAT -23C

Against EAS 310.4 on the INSIDE SCALE Read off TAS 427 kts on the OUTSIDE SCALE.

ELECTRONIC CALCULATORS

If given OAT or COAT use PLAN TAS or PLAN MACH

If given IOAT use ACT TAS or ACT MACH
CPL DOC8
Page 95

CHAPTER 6

LAMBERT'S PLOTTING CHART

The chart used for the South African Commercial Pilot's plotting examination is the Lambert's
Conformal Conic of Southern Africa. Scale 1:5 000 000 with Standard Parallels of S 20:20
and S 33:40.

The Chart Convergency Factor is 0.45 which is the sine of the Parallel of Origin S 27:00.

Straight lines drawn on the chart are considered to be GREAT CIRCLES for all practical
purposes, which is the prime advantage of the chart, especially when plotting radio bearings.

The other main advantage of the chart is that Great Circle tracks can be flown which are
shorter than Rhumb Line tracks. This is useful when using Great Circle navigation systems
such as INS, and GPS .

The main disadvantage of the chart is when Rhumb Line navigation is used (flying constant
headings or tracks). This is overcome by splitting the Great Circle track into short segments
of 200 to 300 nautical miles or perhaps 5 of Longitude and using the MID MERIDIAN
technique.

MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES

USE THE VERTICAL LATITUDE SCALE ONLY TO MEASURE DISTANCES IN NAUTICAL
MILES

1 OF LATITUDE = 60 NM 1 OF LATITUDE HAS 12 INCREMENTS OF 5 NM EACH

Errors in distance measurement can easily occur. It is suggested that every distance is
measured twice as a check.

Each VOR has a feather indicating Magnetic North. There is a warning on the chart that
these feathers should not be used for plotting purposes due to possible inaccuracies.

CPL DOC8
Page 96

MID MERIDIAN TECHNIQUE - GREAT CIRCLE NAVIGATION

Draw the straight line GREAT CIRCLE TRACK from A to B. Select the nearest Meridian to
the mid point along the track, this is the MID MERIDIAN WHERE THE MEAN GREAT
CIRCLE TRACK IS MEASURED.

The usual exam question is -the MEAN MAGNETIC HEADING from A to B is:

Measure the MEAN TRUE TRACK: at the MID MERIDIAN.
Using the TAS and W/V calculate the mean TRUE HEADING.
Apply MAGNETIC VARIATION at the MID MERIDIAN.

Other exam questions are :- the INITIAL or FINAL MAGNETIC TRACK or HEADING from A
to B is:

Measure the INITIAL TRUE TRACK: at the nearest MERIDIAN to A.
Using the TAS and W/V calculate the INITIAL TRUE HEADING.
Apply MAGNETIC VARIATION of the first ISOGONAL along TRACK.
Measure the FINAL TRUE TRACK at the last MERIDIAN before B.
Using the TAS and W/V calculate the FINAL TRUE HEADING.
Apply MAGNETIC VARIATION of the last ISOGONAL along TRACK.

NAVIGATION LOG

A Navigation Log is supplied for the exam. Its use is optional and it is not inspected by the
examiner. Use of the log does help in answering questions.
CPL DOC8
Page 97

BASIC PLOTTING

SYMBOLS

Several lines drawn on a chart become meaningless after a short while. A Navigation Plot
shows the history of a flight. It is a legal document, even if it is in pencil. Every line must
have ARROWS denoting what the line represents. Every symbol must have a time.

ONLY TRUE VALUES MAY BE PLOTTED - NEVER MAGNETIC

AIR VECTOR or TRUE HEADING
The direction that the aircraft: is steering

GROUND VECTOR or TRUE TRACK
The track or path of the aircraft over the ground

WIND VELOCITY W/V
The direction FROM WHICH THE WIND BLOWS (270)

FIX A POSITIVE GROUND POSITION
The aircraft was over the position shown at 1015 Z 1015

AIR POSITION
The Air Position of the Aircraft at 1320 Z + 1320

DR POSITION
The calculated or assumed position of the aircraft at 1550 Z 1550

RADIO POSITION LINE
A bearing from a VOR. VDF or NDB at 1608 Z 1608
The aircraft is somewhere along the position line

TRANSFERRED POSITION LINE
The 1608 Z Position Line transferred to a 1622
Position Line at 1622 Z to give a fix

- AIR PLOT - THE PATH OF THE AIRCRAFT RELATIVE TO THE AIR

- TRACK PLOT - THE PATH OF THE AIRCRAFT OVER THE GROUND

ZERO WIND CONDITIONS

If an aircraft is flying in zero wind conditions navigation would be easy because

HEADING = TRACK & TAS = GROUNDSPEED (GS)

Unfortunately most of the time there is wind (occasionally 200 Kts or more).

CPL DOC8
Page 98
FLIGHT PLAN

Plotting starts from a known point of departure and the initial flight conditions are taken from
a flight plan. Navigation from the point of departure to destination will consist of fixing the
aircraft's position, and if off track, calculating a new heading and ETA for the destination.

TRACK PLOT

An aircraft is to fly from A to B as per flight plan. Some time later, after maintaining a
constant heading a fix is obtained at C.

This is the simple I in 60 rule application that was covered in Navigation General

Track Error u Distance Off 9 run Track Error 5
__________ = _______________ Alter Heading 5 Right to parallel Track
60 Distance Run 108 nm

Track Error | Distance Off 9 nm | = 4
___________ = ________________ Alter Heading a further 4 Right to B
60 Distance To Go 135 nm

The procedure is effective and accurate for short range navigation if the angles are small and
no alteration of heading has been made between A and C.

To make life easier and no calculation required try the following :-

TMG

The Track Error is actually Drift Error when the forecast W/V is in error which is of course
usual. The alteration of heading is made without knowledge of the actual W/V. If the angles
are large then the actual W/V must be found and used to alter heading for B.

CPL DOC8
Page 99

TRACK AND GROUNDSPEED W/V

The Vector Triangle or Triangle of Velocities consists of three vectors, namely

True Heading & TAS

W/V

True TRK & GS

knowing any four of the six values, the other two can be calculated.

Example 1.
TAS 240 Kts Heading 035(T) Track 042(T) GS 275 Kt
The W/V is
By computer WV 260/47 Kts

Example 2.
Sector Track Distance TAS Drift Time
A to B 105124nm 215 8Rt 31 mins
B to C 157 102nm 215

Assuming the W/V remains constant the heading to steer and the elapsed time from B to C
is?
Firstly calculate the W V

TAS 215 Kts Heading 097(T) Track 105 GS 240 Kt W/V 333/40
Then B to C Heading 158(T) GS 255 Kt Time 24 min

Example 3.

An aircraft passes overhead VOR PON at 0915 Z maintaining Radial 123 Heading 132(M)
TAS 220 Kt, Variation 18W. At 0935 Z PON DME indicates 85 nm. The W/V is?

Heading 114(T) TAS 220 Kts Track 105(T) GS 255 Kts W/V 243/51 kts

Drift
Angle
CPL DOC8
Page 100

TRACK & GROUNDSPEED W/V

An aircraft is overhead A at 0900 Z. Heading 082(T), TAS 200 Kts.
A fix is obtained at 0945 Z. Calculate the mean W/V affecting the aircraft.

Heading 082(T) TAS 200 Kts
Measure Track Made Good 090 (at Mid-Meridian)
Measure Distance A to fix 180 nm in 45 minutes. Calculate GS 240
Using the Pathfinder or Nav. Computer enter Heading, TAS. Track & GS
Calculate W/V 304/50

TRACK PLOT

Calculate the Track & GS W/V from 0900 to 0945.

Draw a line from A to the fix (this is the TMG, Track Made Good) and extend for 12 minutes
at GS 240, that is 48 nm to give a DR position at 0957. From the 0957 DR position draw the
new track to B and calculate the new heading and ETA using the W/V found.

CPL DOC8
Page 101
AIR PLOT

With the knowledge of the aircraft's TRUE HEADING, TAS and W/V, an AIR PLOT starting
from the point of departure enables a pilot to calculate the position of the aircraft at any time
regardless of the number of alterations of heading made.

+ AIR POSITION (The position of the aircraft in zero wind conditions)

DR POSITION (The ground position of the aircraft)

1000 Overhead A. Heading 090(T), TAS240kts, W/V 360/40 kts.
1030 Alter Heading for B

1. From A plot Heading 090 (T)
2. Plot the 1030 Air Position 120 nm along the Air Vector (30 minutes of TAS 240).
This is the position of the aircraft in ZERO W/V conditions, but the W/V is 360/40.
3. From the Air Position, plot the Wind Vector DOWNWIND. The Wind is blowing
FROM 360
The length of the vector is proportional to time, 30 minutes of 40 kts = 20 nm.
4. This is the DR DEAD RECKONING (GROUND) position of the aircraft at 1030.
5. Join the DR position to B, measure the track and distance.
6. Compute with TAS and W/V. Determine new Heading and ETA for B.

0900 Overhead X. Heading 090(T), TAS I80 kts, W/V 360/40
0930 Alter Heading 135(T)
0950 Alter heading for Y

X
CPL DOC8
Page 102

NOTE
The AIR PLOT has been running from 2100 to 2224 (I hour 24 minutes). If the W/V is
330/30 the length of the WIND VECTOR will be 42 nm (30 kts for 1 hour 24 minutes).

CPL DOC8
Page 103

AIR PLOT W/V

The information required for an Air Plot is readily available. that is TRUE HEADING
and TAS.

1000 Overhead A, Heading 080(T). TAS 240 kts.
1030 Overhead B.

1030 AIR POSITION

Plot the Heading 080(T) from A using the nearest meridian. This is the AIR VECTOR.
Along the AIR VECTOR plot the AIR DISTANCE flown 120 nm (TAS 240 kts for 30 minutes).

This is the AIR POSITION at 1030, and would be the position of the aircraft in zero
wind conditions.

But the aircraft is overhead B. the reason being the WIND VELOCITY.

Join the AIR POSITION to the FIX. This is the W/V.

Measure the WIND DIRECTION 330 from the nearest meridian. The wind is blowing
from 330.

Measure the WIND VECTOR 25 nm. the Wind has affected the aircraft for 30 minutes
which gives a WIND SPEED of 50 kts. W/V 330/50.

CPL DOC8
Page 104
Further example of AIR PLOT W/V

1315 Overhead C, Heading 080(T), TAS 180 kts.
1355 Alter Heading 120(T)
1430 Overhead D, the W/V is:-

1355 AIR POSITION

From C plot Heading 080(T)

Plot the 1355 AIR POSITION (TAS 180 kts for 40 minutes = 120 nm)

From the 1355 AIR POSITION plot the new heading 120(T) using the nearest meridian.

Plot the 1430 AIR POSITION (TAS 180 kts for 35 minutes = 105 nm)

Join the 1430 AIR POSITION to the FIX.

Measure the WIND DIRECTION 090

Measure the WIND VECTOR 56 nm in 75 minutes = Wind SPEED 45 kts. W/V 090/45

CPL DOC8
Page 105
RADIO BEARINGS

Q CODE

QTE
QDR
QUJ
QDM

TRUE bearing FROM the station
MAGNETIC bearing FROM the station
TRUE track TO the station
MAGNETIC track TO the station


QDM Variation QUJ

180 180

QDR Variation QTE


VDF Apply station Variation, calculate QTE and plot

VOR VOR Radials are Magnetic bearings QDR
RMI Readings are Magnetic tracks to the VOR QDM
Apply station Variation, calculate QTE and plot

RMI BEARINGS (VOR & ADF)

Usually termed RMI READING which is QDM

CPL DOC8
Page 106
ADF BEARINGS

ADF Relative bearings are measured from the Fore and Aft axis of the aircraft.
ADF Relative bearings must be converted into True Bearings (QTE) before they can be
plotted on a chart.

RELATIVE BEARING + TRUE HEADING = QUJ 180 = QTE


CHART CONVERGENCE IS NOT APPLIED TO ADF BEARINGS ON THE SA CHART

Heading (T)+ 057
QUJ 152 (T) TO NDB
180

Heading (T) 318
QUJ 518
Subtract 360
QUJ 158 (T) TO NDB
180

CPL DOC8
Page 107
USE OF SINGLE POSITION LINES

GROUNDSPEED CHECK & REVISED ETA

A Position Line at right angles (80) to track may be used as a Groundspeed check

0800 Overhead A en-route to B, Distance 166 nm,
0824 QTEC180

Measure the distance from A to the position line.

Calculate Groundspeed

Measure the distance from the position line to B and calculate time and ETA.

TRACK CHECK

A bearing from a radio facility that the aircraft has overflown or departed from (Back bearing)
is an indication of the aircraft's track or TMG (Track Made Good)

1205 Overhead ABC, Heading 090(T)
1220 NDB ABC bears 172 Relative

172 Relative + Heading 090 = QUJ 262 - 180 = QTE 082

THIS PROCEDURE IS VERY IMPORTANT AT ALL TIMES
CPL DOC8
Page 108

DRIFT

During the 1939 - 1945 war and for some years thereafter most aircraft were equipped with
drift sights. They were optical devices that protruded through the side of the aircraft and had
a grid that could be aligned with objects on the ground tracking below the aircraft. An
accurate drift angle could be measured.

Although drifts sights are obsolete, drift may be given in an exam question.

1315 Overhead X, Heading 090(T)
1330 Drift 8 Right
1335 QTE CP360

The drift is applied to the Heading to give a Track Made Good and is used as a position line
to give a Fix at 1335. Note that the drift position line at 1330 is not transferred but extended.

MULTI - POSITION LINE FIX

Two or more position lines may be used to construct a fix. The ideal situation is that two
position lines are obtained at the same time, preferably at 90 to each other.

0956 JSVVOR/DME Radial l06 D105nm

CP
x
JSV
CPL DOC8
Page 109
TRANSFER OF POSITION LINES

A position line is usually a bearing of the aircraft from a radio facility. If the radio station were
moved along a track parallel to the aircraft's track and at the same groundspeed. the bearing
of the aircraft from the radio station would remain constant
QTE 340. Track 090. Groundspeed 240 kts.

The aircraft at position A at 0900 Z obtains a QTE of 340 from VDF station X. At 0912 the
aircraft will have flown 48 nm along track to position B. If the VDF station is imagined to
travel from X to Y at the same speed as the aircraft, then XY is equal and parallel to AB and
the line joining Y to B will be an imaginary position line parallel to AX. The distance AB or
XY is known as the run. The line BY drawn through the aircraft's position at 0912 is known
as a transferred position line and has two arrows and no time.

In practice 48 nm is measured forward from where the 0900 position line cuts the track and
the position line redrawn through this point.

CPL DOC8
Page 110
THREE POSITION LINE FIX (RUNNING FIX)

From 1200 to 1230, 120 nm in 30 minutes - GS 240 Kts.
Transfer the 1223 position line 17 minutes at GS 240 Kts = 68 nm along track
Transfer the 1230 position line 10 minutes at GS 240 kts = 40 nm along track

NOTE: If a GS check cannot be made the DR groundspeed may be used.

TRANSFER OF CIRCULAR (DME) POSITION LINES

0810 Overhead A, Track 090(T), Groundspeed 180 kts

0830 JSV DME Range 58 nm

0842 JSV DME Range 125 nm

The transfer of DME circular position lines is achieved by the track & GS method of moving
the DME station along a line parallel to the aircraft's track at the aircraft's GS and re-plotting
the original range from the transferred DME position.

CPL DOC8
Page 111
THREE POSITION LINE FIX (RUNNING FIX) NO POINT OF ORIGIN

The following radials are obtained from TIMBUKTU VOR TIM
Aircraft track 045(T), Groundspeed I50kts.

0815 VOR TIM 288
0824 VOR TIM 321
0835 VOR TIM 348
TIM

As there is no fix from which to start the plot, the 045 track is drawn to cut the three position
lines. It is parallel to the actual track of the aircraft. A groundspeed check cannot be carried
out so the DR groundspeed is used.

Transfer the 0815 P/L 20 mins of GS 180 = 60 nm along track
Transfer the 0824 P/L 11 mins of GS 180 = 33 nm along track

CPL DOC8
Page 112
CONSTANT SPEED (RAS) CLIMB

This is the normal climb technique used by commercial aircraft. Navigation wise the most
important parameter required for a climb to cruising altitude is the mean climb TAS. This will
occur at the mid-point of the climb in TIME and not ALTITUDE. The mid-point of the climb
occurs at approximately two-thirds of the climb for both piston and turbine aircraft.

Example 1.

Climbing from Sea Level to FL 240 at RAS 175 kts and a mean rate of climb of 800 feet per
minute. Temperature is ISA + 10C

24 000 feet x 2/3 = 16 000 feet
ISA at Sea Level +15C
16000ft x 2C/1000 -32
ISA at FL 160 -17C
ISA + 10 +10
OAT - 7C

By computer FL160 OAT-7C RAS 175 kts TAS 227 kts

Example 2.

Climbing from 6000 feet to FL 270 at RAS 225 and a mean rate of climb of 1250 feet/minute.
Temperature Deviation ISA +13C

27 000 feet
6 000 feet
21 000 feet x 2/3 = 14 000 feet
+ 6 000 feet (Initial climb altitude)
20 000 feet Mean Climb Altitude

ISA at Sea Level + 15C
20000ft x 2C/1000 - 40
ISA at FL 200 - 25C
ISA + 13 + 13
OAT - 12C
By computer FL200 OAT-12C RAS 225kts TAS 311 kts

The above calculations were made with an electronic calculator which corrects for
compressibility. If a manual navigation computer is used the compressibility correction must
be made According to the table below.

CPL DOC8
Page 113
THE DESCENT

A CONSTANT RATE OF DESCENT is normally used. The temperature and W/V at the mid
altitude of the descent are used to calculate TAS and Groundspeed.

Example:

An aircraft cruising at FL 370 at GS 495 obtains a fix at 1000 Z which gives a distance of 230
nm to go to destination.

Descent details: Rate of Descent 2000 feet per minute
Mean Descent GS 360 kts

Plan a descent to arrive overhead the destination at FL 90.
The Navigation Log is useful for descent calculations.

AVERAGE WIND COMPONENTS

The average WC is the difference between the average TAS and the average GS.

The average TAS is calculated by the Total Air Nautical Miles flown divided by the
Total Time.

The average GS is calculated by the Total Ground Nautical Miles flown divided by the
Total Time.
GNM ANM
Sector TAS WC GS DIST TIME DIST Average TAS
A to B 150 -10 140 280 2:00 300 780 ANM4:50 = 161 Kts
B to C 160 -20 140 210 1:30 240
C to D 180 -30 150 200 1:20 240 Average GS
690 GNM4:50=143 Kts
690 4:50 780
Average WC 18 Kt HW

ANM can also be written NAM nautical air miles
CPL DOC8
Page 114
GENERAL NAVIGATION QUESTIONS

1. An aircraft is flying from A to B, distance 212 nm. After flying 135 nm the aircraft is
9 nm Left of track. The alteration of heading to fly to B is

a) 8 Right
b) 11 Right
c) 14 Right

2. An aircraft is flying from C to D. track 270(T). distance 345 nm. After flying 135 nm
the aircraft is 14 nm Left of track. The new track to D is

a) 274(T)
b) 276(T)
c) 280(T)

3. An aircraft leaves F heading 041(M) in order to maintain a track of 045(M). After
flying 220 nm the aircraft is 11 nm Right of track. The heading to steer to return to F
is:

a) 257(M)
b) 228(M)
c) 235(M)

4. An aircraft is heading 087(M) to maintain a track of 062(T). Variation 20W.
The heading to fly the reciprocal track is

a) 257(M)
b) 262(M)
c) 267(M)

5. At 0900 Z an aircraft is heading 137(T) to maintain Radial 151 from VOR CDX. TAS
220 Kts Variation 22W. At 0919 Z DME CDX indicates 78 nm The W/V is

a) WV 184/42
b) WV 261/42
c) WV 004/42

6. X to Y, Distance 123 nm. FL 130, OAT -7C. Headwind Component 25 Kts.
The required RAS to fly from X to Y in 42 minutes is

a) 160 Kts
b) 165 Kts
c) 171 Kts

7. An aircraft flies from P to Q. distance 372 nm in 1 hour 50 minutes at TAS 180 Kts. In
order to fly the return trip in 1 hour 45 minutes the TAS should be

a) 215 Kts
b) 225 Kts
c) 235 Kts
CPL DOC8
Page 115

8. Sector Track Distance TAS Drift Time
X to Y 177 153 nm 205 5L 51 mins
Y to Z 127 109 nm 205

Assuming the W/V remains constant the heading to steer from Y to Z is

a) 130
b) 135
c) 140

9. An aircraft is heading 315(M) to maintain a track of 287(T). Variation 20W.
The heading to fly the reciprocal track is

a) 119(M)
b) 127(M)
c) 135(M)

10. At 0900 Z an aircraft is overhead NDB NL heading 145(M), TAS 350 Kts.
At 0920 Z the aircraft is overhead NDB CD. 125 nm from NDB NL and the ADF tuned
to NL reads 172 Relative. The W/V is

(a) 025(M)/56
(b) 257(M)/56
(c) 057(M)16

11. An aircraft heading 115(M) TAS 260 Kts. obtains the following readings from a
VOR/DME
0743 Z Radial 253
0748 Z Radial 208 DME 21 nm
0753 Z Radial 163
The W/V is?

a) 022(M)/25 Kts
b) 039(M)/32 Kts
c) 057(M)/16 Kts

12. After flying on a heading of 040(C) for 2 hours at GS 150 Kts. a pilot discovers that he
has not made allowance for Variation 6E and Deviation 2W The aircraft is off track by

a) 20 nm to the right
b) 20 nm to the left
c) 10 nm to the right
d) 10 nm to the left

CPL DOC8
Page 116
PLOTTING CHART HEADING & ETA QUESTIONS

1. An aeroplane departs CAPE TOWN CTV (S 33:58 E 018:36) on a direct track to
DURBAN DNV(S 29:46 E 031:00), TAS210Kts, W/V 310/45.
The mean magnetic heading to steer is :-

(a) 080 (M)
(b) 087 (M)
(c) 094 (M)

2. An aeroplane departs CAPE TOWN CTV (S33:58 E 018:36) at 1700 Z on a direct
track to MARGATE MG (S 30:52 E 030:20), TAS 220 Kts, W/V 300/55.
The ETA MARGATE is :-

(a) 1928 Z
(b) 1934 Z
(c) 1940 Z

3. An aeroplane departs LADYSMITH LYV (S 28:33 E 029:45) on a direct track to
SUTHERLAND SLV (S32:24 E 020:39), TAS 285 Kts, W/V 320/45.
The mean magnetic heading to steer is :-

(a) 274 (M)
(b) 281 (M)
(c) 286 (M)

4. An aeroplane departs MASERU MZV (S 29:46 E 027:34) at 1615Z on a direct track to
CAPE TOWN (S 33:58 E 018:36), TAS180, W/V 300/50.
The ETA abeam VICTORIA WEST VWV (S31:24 E 023:08) is:-

(a) 1750 Z
(b) 1757 Z
(c) 1804 Z

EAST LONDON ELV(S 33:02 E 027:53), TAS180Kts, W/V 330/45.
The initial magnetic heading to steer is :-

(a) 089 (M)
(b) 094 (M)
(c) 099 (M)

6. An aeroplane departs GEORGE GGV (S 34:00 E 022:22) at 0730 Z on a direct
track to KEETMANSHOOP KTV(S 26:35 E 018:05), TAS180Kts, W/V 225/45
The ETA at the WINDHOEK FIR Boundary (S 27:30) is :-

(a) 0948 Z
(b) 0957 Z
(c) 1008 Z
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7. An aeroplane departs MMABATHO MMV (S 25:51 E 025:30) at 1330 Z on a direct
track to KEETMANSHOOP KTV(S 26:35 E 018:05), TAS 195Kts, W/V 255/40.

The ETA at the WINDHOEK FIR Boundary (E 020:00) is :-

(a) 1526 Z
(b) 1536 Z
(c) 1546 Z

DURBAN DNV (S 29:46 E 031:00).

The true track of the aircraft just before reaching DURBAN is :-

(a) 060 (T)
(b) 063 (T)
(c) 066 (T)

9. An aeroplane departs ALEXANDER BAY ABV (S 28:34 E 016:30) on a direct track to
LADYSMITH LYV (S28:33 E 029:45), FL 130, OAT-5C,RAS 175 Kts. W/V 345/50,
Compass Deviation +2E.

The mean compass heading to steer is :-

(a) 100 (C)
(b) 097 (C)
(c) 093 (C)
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PLOTTING QUESTIONS

1. 1000 Z Overhead BLOEMFONTEIN BLV(S 29:06 E 026:20) on a direct
track to SUTHERLAND SLV(S 32:24 E 020:40)

1100 Z Overhead VICTORIA WEST VWV (S31:23 E 023:08)

The alteration of heading at 1100 Z to reach SUTHERLAND is :-

(a) 8 Right
(b) 13 Right
(c) 19 Right

2. 0930 Z Overhead NEW HANOVER NHV (S 29:21 E 030:33) on a direct
track to GEORGE GGV (S 34:00 E 022:22)

1102 Z Overhead COOKHOUSE CH (S 32:46 E 025:46)

The alteration of heading at 1102 Z to reach GEORGE is :-

(a) 9 Right
(b) 15 Right
(c) 22 Right

3. 1300 Z Overhead VICTORIA WEST VWV (S 31:24 E 023:09) en route
to MARGATE MG (S 30:53 030:19)

1350 Z Overhead BURGERSDORP BDV (S 30:59 E 026:16)

The alteration of heading at 1350 Z to reach MARGATE is :-

(a) 10 Right
(b) 15 Right
(c) 20 Right

4. 1147 Z Overhead KEETMANSHOOP KTV (S 26:34 E 018:08),
FL 210, OAT -20C, RAS 180 Kts, Heading 107 (M).

1312 Z Overhead MMABATHO MMV (S 25:51 E025:31)

The mean W/V since 1147 is:-

(a) 137/30
(b) 317/40
(c) 218/43
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5. 0915 Z Overhead KIMBERLEY KMV (S 28:49 E 024:46)
Heading 281 (M), FL 200. OAT -16C, RAS 207.

1059 Z Overhead ALEXANDERBAY ABV (S28:34 E 16:31)

The mean W/V since 0915 is :-

(a) 332/57
(b) 215/59
(c) 319/53

6. 1343 Z Overhead WOLFKOP WKP (S30:13 E 017:11)
Heading 122 (M), FL230, OAT-23C, RAS162Kts.

1525 Z Overhead COOKHOUSE CH (S 32:46 E 025:45)


(a) 337/50
(b) 057/53
(c) 239/63

7. 0900 Z Overhead ULCO UCV (S 28:24 E 024:20)
Heading 097 (T). FL 230. OAT -17C. RAS 195 Kts.

0955 Z Overhead LADYSMITH LYV (S 28:32 E 029:45)

1007 Z Alter Heading for DURBAN DNV (S 29:46 E 031:00)

The mean magnetic heading to steer at 1007 Z is :-

(a) 181 (M)
(b) 201 (M)
(c) 221 (M)

8. 1520 Z Overhead VICTORIA WEST VWV (S31:24 E 023:07)
Heading 055 (T), FL170. OAT-10C, RAS 160Kts.

1624 Z Overhead MASERU MZV (S 29:26 E 027:34)

1636 Z Alter Heading for HEIDELBERG HGV (S 26:43 E 028:16)


(a) 323 (M)
(b) 347 (M)
(c) 005 (M)
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9. 1235 Z Overhead BISHO BOV (S 32:55 E 027:20), Heading 261 (T),
FL 200, OAT -8C, RAS 175 Kts.

1349 Z Overhead GEORGE GGV (S 34:00 E 022:22)

1401 Z Alter Heading for CAPE TOWN CTV (S 33:58 E 018:36)

The ETA CAPE TOWN is :-

(a) 1429 Z
(b) 1437 Z
(c) 1445 Z

10. 2110 Z Overhead UPINGTON UPV (S 28:24 E 021:15)
FL 330, OAT -42C, Mach 0.82, Heading 066 (M)

2139 Z Overhead MMABATHO MMV (S 25:51 E 024:30)

2145 Z Alter Heading for HOEDSPRUIT HS (S 24:22 E 03 1:02)

The ETA HOEDSPRUIT is :-

(a) 2212 Z
(b) 2220 Z
(c) 2227 Z

11. 1522 Z Overhead PORT ELIZABETH PEV (S 33:57 E 025:35'
Heading 032 (T). TAS 275 Kts. W/V 230/50.

1607 Z Alter heading for MARGATE MG (S 30:53 E 030:20)


(a) 106 (M)
(b) 120 (M)
(c) 128 (M)

12. 1100 Z Overhead KIMBERLY KMV (S 28:48 E 024:46)
Heading 008 (T), TAS310Kts. W/V 235/50.

1125 Z Alter heading for JOHANNESBURG JSV (S 26:09 E 028:14)

The ETA at JOHANNESBURG is :-

(a) 1151 Z
(b) 1201 Z
(c) 1211 Z

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13. 1315Z Overhead DURBAN DNV (S 29:56 E 030:00)
Heading 355 (T), TAS320Kts, W/V 310/45.

1403 Z Alter heading for MAPUTO VMA (S 25:55 E 032:35)

The mean magnetic heading to steer for MAPUTO at 1403 is :-

(a) 092 (M)
(b) 102 (M)
(c) 112 (M)

14. 0900 Z Overhead ALEXANDER BAY ABV (S 28:34 E 016:30)
Heading 042 (T), TAS 285 Kts, W/V 300/40.

0942 Z Alter heading for UPINGTON UPV (S 28:24 E 021:16)

The ETA at UPINGTON is :-

(a) 1012 Z
(b) 1019 Z
(c) 1427 Z

15. 0627 Z Overhead CAPE TOWN CTV (S 33:58 E 018:36)
Heading 067 (M), TAS300Kts. W/V 270/45.

0703 Z Alter heading 127 (M).

0725 Z Alter heading for JAGERSFONTEIN JF (S 29:47 E 025:25)


(a) 017 (M)
(b) 027 (M)
(c) 037 (M)

16. 2200 Z Overhead LADYSMITH LYV (S 28:32 E 029:44)
Heading 282 (M), TAS 300 Kts, W/V 010/55.

2235 Z Alter heading 324 (M).

2310Z Alter heading for UPINGTON UPV (S 28:24 E 021:16).

The ETA at UPINGTON is :-

(a) 2328 Z
(b) 2334 Z
(c) 2342 Z

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17. 2135 Z Overhead MMABATHO MMV (S 25:51 E 025:32)

2213 Z Alter heading 335 (M)

2238 Z Alter heading for DORDABIS DSV (S 22:50 E 017:55)


(a) 285 (M)
(b) 278 (M)
(c) 271 (M)

18. 1530 Z Overhead ORAPA OP (S 21:18 E 025:18)

1624 Z Alter heading 119(M)

1714 Z Alter heading for BEIRA VBR (S19:47 E 034:55)

The ETA at BEIRA is :-

(a) 1817 Z
(b) 1827 Z
(c) 1837 Z

19. 0500 Z Overhead NIEUWOUDVILLE NVV (S 31:21 E 019:02)
Heading 347 (T), TAS 195 Kts.

0542 Z Alter heading 061 (T)

0621 Z Overhead UPINGTON UPV (S 28:23 E 021:17)

The mean W/V since 0500 Z is :-

(a) W/V 295/30
(b) W/V 320/27
(c) W/V 345/25

20. 2213 Z Overhead GEORGE GGV (S 34:00 E 022:22)


2321 Z Overhead VICTORIA WEST VWV (S 31:24 E 023:08)

The mean W/V since 2213Z is :-

(a) W/V 280/39
(b) W/V 300/44
(c) W/V 320/50
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21. 0747 Z Overhead BISHO BOV (S 32:55 E 027:15)


0857 Z Overhead LADYSMITH LYV (S 28:33 E 029:46)


(a) W/V 225/42
(b) W/V 250/35
(c) W/V 282/38

22. 1522 Z Overhead GABORONE GBV (S 24:32 E 025:56)
Heading 337 (M), TAS 220 Kts.

1556 Z Alter heading 012 (M), TAS 240 Kts.

1622 Z Overhead ORAPA OR (S 21:16 E 024:18)


(a) W/V 258/45
(b) W/V 283 40
(c) W/V 327 46

23. 1132 Z Overhead LIVINGSTONE VLR (S 17:46 E 025:49)


1303 Z Overhead CHIREDZI CZ (S 21:00 E 031:30)


(a) W/V 288/40
(b) W/V 265/35
(c) W/V 231/30

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24. 1410 Z Overhead SKUKUZA SZ (S 25:00 E 031:35)


1506 Z Overhead VILANCULOS VI (S 21:58 E 035:18)


(a) W/V 270/50
(b) W/V 290/43
(c) W/V 315/42

25. 1410 Z Overhead UPINGTON UPV (S 28:24 E 021:16) on a direct track
to KROONSTAD KS (S 27:41 E 027:16) Heading 109 (M),
TAS 180kt

1522 Z VRYBURG NDB VB (S 26:59 E 024:42) bears 265 Relative

The revised ETA for KROONSTAD is :-

(a) 1602 Z
(b) 1607 Z
(c) 1612 Z

26. 0415 Z Overhead BUGERSDORP BDV (S 30:59 E 026:17) enroute to
GEORGE GGV (S 34:00 E 022:22). Heading 259 (M), TAS 210

0446 Z COOKHOUSE NDB CH (S 32:46 E 025:46) bears 259 Relative

The revised ETA for GEORGE is :-

(a) 0536 Z
(b) 0539 Z
(c) 0544 Z

27. 1652 Z Overhead EAST LONDON ELV (S 33:02 E 027:53) enroute to
LADYSMITH LYV (S 28:33 E 029:45), Heading 013 (T), TAS190

1736 Z MARGATE NDB MG (S 30:53 E 030:20) bears 098 Relative

The revised ETA for LADYSMITH is :-

(a) 1801 Z
(b) 1808 Z
(c) 1817 Z

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28. 1000 Z Overhead HOTAZEL HZ (S 27:15 E 022:56) TAS 170 to.
On a direct track to LADYSMITH LYV (S 28:33 E 029:44)

1057 Z Overhead WELKOM WM (S 28:00 E 026:42) Increase TAS 195
Kts

The revised ETA for LADYSMITH is :-

(a) 1130 Z
(b) 1138 Z
(c) 1146 Z

29. 1605 Z Overhead PORT SHEPSTON EZTZ (S 30:44 E 030:25) TAS 275
kts. On a direct track to PORT ELIZABETH PEV (S 33:59 E 025:37)

1657 Z Overhead BISHO BOV (S 32:55 E 027:16) Reduce TAS 235 kts.

The revised ETA for PORT ELIZABETH is :-

(a) 1721 Z
(b) 1729 Z
(c) 1735 Z

30. 1725Z Overhead ORAPA OR (S 21:18 E 025:18) TAS 230 kts.
On a direct track to CHIREDZI (S 2l:00 E 031:30)

1752 Z Overhead FRANCISTOWN FT (S 21:13 E 027:29)
Increase TAS 255 kt;

The revised ETA for CHIREDZI is :-

(a) 1839 Z
(b) 1846 Z
(c) 1852 Z

31. 2100 Z Overhead GABORONE GBV (S 24:32 E 025:55) on a direct track
to THORNHILL VTL (S 19:26 E 029:53) TAS 300 Kts.

2139 Z GREEFSWALD VOR GWV (S 22:15 E 029:26) Radial 272

2152 Z GREEFSWALD VOR GWV (S 22:15 E 029:26) Radial 317

The ETA for THORNHILL is :-

(a) 2221 Z
(b) 2228 Z
(c) 2235 Z

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32 2100 Z Overhead ALEXANDER BAY ABV (S 28:34 E 016:29) enroute to
BURGERSDORP BDV (S 30:59 E 026:18). TAS 300 Kts.

2142 Z UPINGTON VOR UPV (S 28:32 E 021:46) Radial 218

2158 Z UPINGTON VOR UPV Radial 163

The position of the aircraft at 2158Z is :-

(a) S 29:50 E 022:26
(b) S 30:12 E 022:41
(c) S 29:30 E 022:05

33. 1515Z Overhead CAPETOWN CTV (S 33:58 E 018:35) enroute to
BURGERSDORP BDV (S 30:59 E 026: IS) TAS 240Kts.

1550 Z GEORGE VOR GGV (S 34:00 E 022:22) QDM 179

1605 Z GEORGE VOR GGV QDM 233

The position of the aircraft at 1605 Z is :-

(a) S 32:58 E 023:05
(b) S 32:40 E 023:15
(c) S 32:07 E 023:31

34. 1617Z Overhead KEETMANSHOOP KTV (S 26:33 E 018:06) on a direct
track to LADYSMITH LYV (S 28:32 E 029:44), GS 255 Kts.

1722 Z UPINGTON UPV (S 28:24 E 021:15) DME124nm

1747 Z KIMBERLEY KMV (S 28:48 E 024:46) DME71nm


(a) S 27:36 E 024:33
(b) S 27:40 E 025:11
(c) S 27:58 E 025:43

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35. 0900 Z Overhead CAPE TOWN CTV (S 33:58 E 018:35) enroute to
BURGERSDORP BDV (S 30:59 E 026:18) GS 240 Kts.

0927 Z GEORGE GGV (S 34:00 E 022:22) DME 105 nm

0959 Z GEORGE GGV DME 105 nm


(a) S 32:17 E 022:50
(b) S 32:30 E 023:22
(c) S 32:13 E 022:14

36. 2119Z Overhead UPINGTON UPV (S 28:24 E 021:16)

2135 Z Observed drift 7 Left

2203 Z KIMBERLEY KMV (S 28:48 E 024:46) Radial 226


(a) S 29:43 E 024:11
(b) S 29:55 E 024:05
(c) S 29:20 E 024:27

37. 1000 Z Overhead MASERU MZV (S 29:26 E 027:34)
TAS 350 Kts, Heading 030 (T), Drift 11 Right.

1025 Z Alter Heading 335 (T). Groundspeed 325 Kts.


(a) 270/90
(b) 327/70
(c) 352/80

38. 1215 Z Overhead LADYSMITH LYV (S 28:24 E 029:44)
TAS 300 Kts, Heading 270 (T), Drift 8 Left.

1250 Z Alter Heading 325 (T), Groundspeed 270 Kts.

The mean W/V is :-

(a) 276/62
(b) 347/40
(c) 008/44

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39. 0625 Z Overhead KIMBERLEY KMV (S 28:48 E 024:46)
TAS 325 Kts, Heading 135 (T), Drift 7 Right.

0630 Z Alter Heading 080 (T), Groundspeed 280 Kts.

The Groundspeed on a Heading of 020 (T) will be :-

(a) 265 kts
(b) 285 kts
(c) 305 kts

40. 0900 Z Overhead POMFRET PF (S 25:51 E 023:31) on a direct track to
VICTORIA WEST VWV (S 31:24 E 023:08)

0940 Z KIMBERLEY KMV (S 28:47 E 024:46) Radial 320
0948 Z KIMBERLEY KMV Radial 293
0958 Z KIMBERLEY KMV Radial 255


(a) S 29:20 E 023:48
(b) S 29:35 E 023:24
(c) S 29:46 E 023:00

41. 1121 Z Overhead NIEUWOUDTVILLE NVV (S 31:22 E 019:03)on a direct
track to KEETMANSHOOP KTV (S 26:34 E 018:06)

1153 Z ALEXANDER BAY ABV (S 28:33 E 016:30) RMI reading 303
1205 Z ALEXANDER BAY ABV RMI reading 279
1216 Z ALEXANDER BAY ABV RMI reading 257


(a) S 27:47 E 017:52
(b) S 27:38 E 018:11
(c) S 27:21 E 018:33

42. The following VOR Radials were obtained from NIEUWOUDTVILLE NVV
(S 31:21 E 019:02). Aircraft track 025 (T), GS 180Kts.

0900 Z NVV VOR Radial 169


(a) S 31:00 E 019:52
(b) S 30:50 E 020:13
(c) S 30:39 E 020:38

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43. The following VOR Radials were obtained from BURGERSDORP BDV
(S 30:59 E 026:18) Aircraft track 337 (T), GS 240 Kts.

1124 Z BDV Radial 221

The position of the aircraft at 1156Z is :-

(a) S 30:40 E 025:30
(b) S 30:30 E 025:07
(c) S 30:20 E 024:45

44. The following VOR Radials were obtained from MMABATHO VOR MMV
(S 25:51 E 025:32), Aircraft track 352(T), GS 350 Kts.

1342 Z MMV Radial 237


(a) S 24:48 E 023:50
(b) S 25:09 E 024:21
(c) S 25:25 E 024:47

45. The following W/V are forecast for a climb to cruising altitude :-

270/25 250/35 210/50

The mean climb W/V is :-

(a) 250/37
(b) 240/40
(c) 235/33

46. The following W/V are forecast for a climb to cruising altitude :-

045/27 070/40 100/55

The mean climb W/V is :-

(a) 080/38
(b) 085/45
(c) 070/43

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47. The following W/V are forecast for a flight from DURBAN to CAPE TOWN

The first third of the route W/V 280/30
The second third of the route W/V 315/45
The last third of the route W/V 350/65

The mean W/V for the route is :-

(a) 307/44
(b) 330/50
(c) 325/42

48. An aeroplane is overhead FAJS at 6000 ft climbing to FL 190 at a mean rate of climb
of 750 feet per minute. RAS 165 Kts. Temperature deviation ISA +12C

The mean climb TAS is :-

(a) 200 Kts
(b) 210Kts
(c) 220 Kts

49. An aeroplane is overhead LANSERIA at 5000 feet climbing to FL 180 at a mean rate
of climb of 600 feet per minute. Temperature deviation ISA +15C. RAS 172 Kts.


(a) 197 Kts
(b) 207 Kts
(c) 217 Kts

50. An aircraft is overhead FABL at 5500 feet climbing to FL 210 at a mean rate of climb
of 800 feet per minute, RAS 185 Kts, Temperature deviation ISA +13C.


(a) 220 Kts
(b) 230 Kts
(c) 240 Kts

51. An aircraft is overhead FAKM at 5000 feet climbing to FL 230 at a mean rate of climb
of 1200 feet per minute.

Mean climb TAS 230 Kts, mean climb W/V 225/30, Track 135 (T).
The distance of the TOC position from FAKM is :-

(a) 52 nm
(b) 57 nm
(c) 62 nm
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52. 1315 Z Overhead PORT St JOHNS enroute to DURBAN, distance 128 nm
FL190, GS235Kts.

A descent is planned to arrive overhead DURBAN at 4000 feet. Mean rate of descent
750 feet per minute, mean descent GS 195 Kts.

The latest time to commence descent is :-

(a) 1331 Z
(b) 1334 Z
(c) 1337 Z

53. 1420 Z Fix JSV Radial 127, JSV DME 195 nm, FL 330, track 307 (M),
GS 455 Kts
A descent is planned to arrive overhead JSV at FL 100
Mean rate of descent 2000 feet per minute, mean descent GS 425 Kts

The latest time to commence descent is :-

(a) 1432 Z
(b) 1435 Z
(c) 1438 Z

54. Heading 120 (T) TAS 350 Kts W/V 045/60

The groundspeed is :-

(a) 330 Kts
(b) 340 Kts
(c) 350 Kts

55. Heading 270 (T) TAS 420 Kts W/V 190/75

The groundspeed is :-

(a) 400 Kts
(b) 414 Kts
(c) 428 Kts

56. An aeroplane is flying from SUTHERLAND SLV (S 32:24 E 020:40) to KIMBERLEY
KMV (S 28:48 E 024:47). Heading 036T.

When the aeroplane is abeam of VICTORIA WEST NDB VW (S 31:23 E 023:08) the
ADF will indicate :-

(a) 081 Relative
(b) 090 Relative
(c) 098 Relative

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57. An aeroplane is flying from KIMBERLEY KLMV (S 28:48 E 024:47) to EAST
LONDON ELV (S 33:02 E 027:53), Heading 156 (T).

When the aeroplane is abeam of COOKHOUSE NDB CH (S 32:46 E 025:45)
the ADF will indicate :-

(a) 082 Relative
(b) 090 Relative
(c) 098 Relative

58. Overhead GROOTFONTEIN GF (S 19:36 E 018:03) on a direct track to BULAWAYO
VBU (S 20:05 E 028:42) TAS 240 kts, W/V 015/45.

The VOR Radial to maintain the outbound track from GROOTFONTEIN is

(a) Radial 096
(b) Radial 104
(c) Radial 107

59. An aircraft is overhead CAPE TOWN CTV (S 33:58 E 018:36) on a direct track to
PORT ELIZABETH PEV (S 33:57 E 025:35)

The Radial from the VICTORIA WEST VOR VWV (S 31:24 E 023:08) that will be
received when crossing the PORT ELIZABETH FIR BOUNDARY at 24 E is :-

(a) Radial 164
(b) Radial 188
(c) Radial 185

60. 0930 Z Overhead SUTHERLAND SLV (S 32:24 E 020:40), TAS 260Kts.

1030 Z Overhead KIMBERLEY KMV (S 28:48 E 024:47)

If the aircraft returns to SUTHERLAND at 1030 Z the ETA is :-

(a) 1130 Z
(b) 1142 Z
(c) 1154 Z

61. 1515 Z Overhead GEORGE GGV (S 34:00 E 022:22),TAS 180 Kts.

1615 Z Overhead VICTORIA WEST VWV (S31:24 E 023:08).

If the aircraft returns to GEORGE at 1615Z the ETA is :-

(a) 1704 Z
(b) 1710 Z
(c) 1715 Z

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62. 2114 Z Overhead EAST LONDON ELV (S 33:02 E 027:53) TAS 220 Kts.

2214 Z Overhead DURBAN DNV (S 29:56 E 031:00)

If the aircraft returns to EAST LONDON at 2214 Z the ETA is :-

(a) 2314 Z
(b) 2322 Z
(c) 2330 Z

63. 1300 Z Heading 050 (T) Drift 9 Right TAS 200 Kts
1305 Z Heading 120 (T) Drift 2 Left
1310 Z Heading 190 (T) Drift 11 Left

The W/V is :-

(a) 288/41
(b) 310/37
(c) 257/43

64. 1000 Z Overhead BURGERSDORP BDV (S 30:58 E 026:18)
Heading 068 (T), TAS 150 kts, Drift 7 Left.

1024 Z MASERU VOR MZV (S 29:25 E 027:35) Radial 200

From the 1048 Z position alter heading for RICHARDS BAY RB (S 28:46 E 032:05)
The ETA RICHARDS BAY is :-

(a) 1143 Z
(b) 1150 Z
(c) 1157 Z

65. 0900 Z Overhead GEORGE GGV (S 34:00 E 022:20)
Heading 045 (T), TAS 210 kts, Drift 8 Right.

0918 Z PORT ELIZABETH VOR PEV (S 33:58 E 025:36) Radial 315

From the 0950 Z position alter heading for NEW HANOVER VOR NHV (S 29:21
E 030:31) The mean magnetic heading to steer for NEW HANOVER is :-

(a) 065 (M)
(b) 072 (M)
(c) 081 (M)

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66. 1600 Z Overhead GEORGE GGV(S 34:00 E 022:22)
Heading 040 (T), TAS 190 Kts, Drift 12 Right.

1700 Z Alter heading 220 (T), Drift 10 Left.

1800 Z Alter heading for GEORGE

The ETA for GEORGE is :-

(a) 1816 Z
(b) 1824 Z
(c) 1832 Z

67. 1200 Z Overhead CAPE TOWN CTV (S 33:58 E 018:36) TAS 360,
Heading 060 (T).

1300 Z Alter Heading 240 (T).

1420 Z Overhead CAPE TOWN CTV


(a) Light and Variable
(b) 240/50
(c) 240/120

68. 1000 Overhead MASERU MZV (S 29:26 E 027:34).
TAS 300 Kts, Heading 030 (T), Drift 11 Left.

1032 Alter Heading 160 (T), Groundspeed 275 Kts.


(a) 100/60
(b) 151/60
(c) 085/50

69. 1500 Z Overhead EAST LONDON ELV (S 33:02 E 027:53)
Heading 180 (T), TAS 480 kts.

1600 Z Alter Heading 360 (T)

1648 Z Overhead PORT ALFRED PA (S 33:35 E 026:52)


(a) 142/45
(b) 163/55
(c) 185/48

CPL DOC8
Page 135
70. 2000 Z Overhead GEORGE GGV (S 34:00 E 022:21) Heading 180 (T),
TAS 420

2100 Z Alter Heading 360 (T)

2212 Z Overhead PLETTENBERG BAY PY (S 34:05 E 023:19)


(a) 275/50
(b) 300/55
(c) 330/45

71. An aircraft flying at FL 270, heading 026M, drift 10R, groundspeed 360 kts. At 1203
the relative bearing of the an island was 330. At 1209 the relative bearing of the
same island 270. If the variation is 10W, what is the bearing and approximate
range to plot to the island from the aircraft at 1209?

a. 106T 30nm
b. 286T 30nm
c. 296T 36nm

CPL DOC8
Page 136

CPL DOC8
Page 137

ANNEX A

SAMPLE EXAMS
CPL DOC8
Page 138
PAPER 1

1. The great circle bearing of X from Y is 072
The rhumb line bearing of Y from X is 259

The great circle bearing of Y from X is:

a) 262
b) 266
c) 270

2. The initial great circle track from A (S28:30 W015:15) to B is 099.
If A and B are on the same parallel of latitude the longitude of B is:

a) W003:37
b) E 012:15
c) E 022:28

3. The shortest distance from A (N75:39 E123:17) to B (N78:27 W056:43) is:

a) 1554 nm
b) 1672 nm
c) 1739 nm

4. An aircraft leaves MOCAMEDES (S15:19 E012:10) at 0627 Z. GS 375 Kts. The ETA
at LUSAKA (S15:19 E028:25) is;

a) 08:37 Z
b) 08:47 Z
c) 08:57 Z

5. On a chart a line 58 centimeters in length represents 365 statute miles. On the same
chart a line 13 inches in length would represent:

a) 170 nm
b) 180 nm
c) 190 nm

6. A radio facility chart has a scale of 1:3 750 000. If two reporting points are 17 cms
apart on the chart the actual distance is:

a) 344 nm
b) 364 nm
c) 384 nm

7. A Mercator chart has a scale of 1:2 500 000 at 20N. The scale at 50N is:

a) 1:1 710 010
b) 1:1 835 000
c) 1:1 972 060
CPL DOC8
Page 139

8. An aircraft heading 031 ( C), Var 20W, Deviation 2, obtains an ADF bearing of
104 relative from an NDB in the Southern hemisphere. If the CA is 1 the bearing to
plot on a Mercator Chart is:

a) 292
b) 293
c) 294

9. On a Lamberts chart the standard parallel of 32N measures 77.5 cms. The other
standard parallel measures 72 cms. The latitude of the second standard parallel is;

a) 37N
b) 38N
c) 39N

10. A Lamberts chart has standard parallels of 30N and 50N. The initial great circle
track from A (32N 63W) to B (45N 15W) is 056 (T).

The longitude at which the great circle track becomes 090 (T) is:

a) W 012:37
b) W 010:06
c) W 008:28

11. An aircraft heading 112 (T) in the Southern Hemisphere receives an ADF bearing of
to plot from the NDB on a Lamberts Chart is:

a) 084
b) 092
c) 096

12. Aircraft A is overhead WY at 1127 Z, groundspeed 235 Kts.
Aircraft B is overhead WY at 1139 Z, groundspeed 320 Kts.

If both aircraft are following the same route B will overtake A at:

a) 1212 Z
b) 1222 Z
c) 1232 Z

13. Aircraft A, GS 245 Kts reports overhead CD 6 minutes ahead of aircraft B.
Aircraft B, GS 375 Kts reports overhead HP 8 minutes ahead of aircraft A.

The distance from CD to HP is:
a) 165 nm
b) 175 nm
c) 185 nm
CPL DOC8
Page 140

14. An aircraft estimates VOR CPL at 0830 Z flying at GS 360 Kts.
ATC requires the aircraft to cross CPL at 0835 Z. In order to comply with the
requests the aircraft reduces GS to 315 Kts at:

a) 0750 Z
b) 0755 Z
c) 0800 Z

15. A to B distance 413 nm, FL 150, OAT +5C, tailwind 35 Kts. The required RAS to fly
from A to B in 1 hour 32 Minutes is:

a) 180 Kts
b) 190 Kts
c) 200 Kts.

16. An aircraft flies from A to B 372 nm in 1 hour 50 mins at TAS 180 Kts. In order to fly
from B to A in 1 hour 45 mins the TAS should be;

a) 205 Kts
b) 220 Kts
c) 235 Kts

17. An aircraft is heading 072 (M) in order to maintain a track of 062 (T) Variation 20W.
The heading to fly the reciprocal track is:

a) 252 (M)
b) 262 (M)
c) 272 (M)

18. An aircraft is flying from A to B, distance 266 nm. At 111 nm from A, a fix is obtained
13 nm left of track. The alteration of heading to arrive overhead B is:

a) 9 right
b) 12 right
c) 15 right

19. At 1015 Z an aircraft is overhead VOR CAR heading 195 (T) to maintain the radial
208 outbound, variation 21W, TAS 245 Kts. At 1032 Z the CAR DME indicates 78
nm. The W/V is:

a) 321/47
b) 347/53
c) 012/38

20. The duration of morning civil twilight at N47:45 E015:37 on May 18
th
is:

a) 32 mins
b) 37 mins
c) 42 mins
CPL DOC8
Page 141

21. The standard time of sunset at Lisbon, Portugal (N 38:42 W 009:30) on June 3
rd
is:

a) 1857
b) 1957
c) 2057

22. TAS 200 Kts Heading 095 (T) W/V 010/45 Kts
The groundspeed is:

a) 191 kts
b) 201 kts
c) 211 kts

23. An aircraft is overhead FAJS at 6500 ft climbing to FL 230 at a mean rate of climb of
850 ft/min. RAS 175 kts, Temperature deviation ISA +13C. The mean climb TAS is:

a) 223 kts
b) 228 kts
c) 233 kts

24. 1732 Overhead BARBERTON BT (S 25:45 E 031:30) TAS 180 kts.
1751 Overhead MHLUME HL (S 26:50 E 031:00) TAS 205 kts.

The ETA at DURBAN DNV (S 29:55 E 031:00) is:

a) 1840
b) 1845
c) 1850

25. 1127 Overhead UPINGTON UPV (S 28:25 E 021:16) TAS 195 kts, on a direct
track to BISHP BOV (S 32:55 E 027:16)

1235 VICTORIA WEST VOR VWV (S 31:24 E 023:10) Radial 063

The ETA at BISHO is:

a) 1335
a) 1342
b) 1351

26. 1508 Overhead CAPE TOWN CTV ( S33:58 E 018:35) Heading 031 (T) TAS
240 kts, W/V 260/55
1553 Alter heading 115 (T)
1637 The mean heading magnetic to steer to reach PORT ELIZABETH (S 33:58
E 025:37) is:

a) 184 (M)
b) 194 (M)
c) 204 (M)
CPL DOC8
Page 142

27. The following RMI readings were obtained from the LADYSMITH VOR LYV (S 28:33
E 029:45) Aircraft track 078 (M) GS 300 kts.

0937 LYV VOR RMI reading 118

The position of the aircraft at 0957 is:

a) S27:00 E030:04
b) S27:28 E029:58
c) S26:39 E030:09

28. 1115 Overhead EAST LONDON ELV (S 33:02 E 027:53) Heading 032 (M), TAS
260KT

1147 Alter heading 070 (M)

1218 Overhead DURBAN DNV (S 29:56 E 031:00)

The mean W/V since 1115 is:

a) 265/55
b) 317/48
c) 003/60

29. 1315 Overhead ALEXANDER BAY ABV (S 28:34 E 016:30) on a direct track to
LANSERIA (S 25:58 E 027:55) TAS 180 kts, W/V 230/45

The ETA at LANSERIA is:

a) 1554
b) 1604
c) 1614

30. The following VOR radials were obtained from Nieuwoudtville NVV, (S 31:21,
E 019:0E). Aircraft track 025(T), GS 180kts.

0900 Z NVV VOR radial 169

The position of the aircraft at 0927Z is:

(a) 31:00S 019:52E
(b) 30:50S 020:13E
(c) 30:59S 020:38E
CPL DOC8
Page 143

PAPER 2

1. The initial great circle track from A to B is 067. The initial great circle track from B to
A is 263. The rhumb line track from A to B is:

a) 059
b) 075
c) 083

2. The position of A is N42:13 W158:24. B is on the same parallel of Latitude.
The Great Circle bearing of B from A is 278. The Longitude of B is:

a) E 177:47
b) W 182:31
c) W 177:47

3. An aircraft departs from C (S 23:07 W 005:13) on a track of 090 (T) RL and arrives at
D (S 23:07) after a flight of 378 nm. The Longitude of D is:

a) E 000:33
b) E 001:38
c) W000:18

4. An aircraft departed George (S 33:59 E 022:23) at 0652Z and arrived at Port
Elizabeth (S 33:59 E 025:36) at 0741Z. The average groundspeed for the flight was;

a) 176 Kts
b) 186 Kts
c) 196 Kts

5. The latitude where the value of convergency is half the value of convergency at 60N
is:

a) 30 00N
b) 27 52N
c) 25 39N

6. A Mercator chart has a scale of 1:2 000 000 at 20N. The latitude where the scale
would be 1:1 500 000 is:

a) N44:11
b) N45:11
c) N46:11
CPL DOC8
Page 144

7. Chart convergency on a Lamberts chart between the meridians of 10E and 10W is
12. If one standard parallel is S 30:20 the other standard parallel is at:

a) S 40:48
b) S 41:52
c) S 43:24

8. Aircraft A is overhead NDB DN at 0900 Z enroute to NDB PY, GS 245 Kts. Aircraft B
is overhead NDB PY at 0920 Z enroute to NDB DN, GS 305 Kts. If the distance
between DN and PY is 485 nm the aircraft will pass each other at:

a) 0942 Z
b) 0953 Z
c) 1004 Z

9. An aircraft in the Southern Hemisphere heading 180 ( C) has a relative bearing of
210 indicated on the ADF. Deviation 2 W, aircraft variation 12E, NDB variation
14E, convergency between the aircraft and the NDB is 4 degrees. The bearing to
plot on a Mercator chart is:

a) 218
b) 222
c) 224

10. A bearing obtained from a NDB is 273 relative. Aircraft heading 330 (T), d.long
between aircraft and NDB is 14, mean Latitude 26S, Parallel of Origin 30S. The
bearing to plot on a Lamberts chart is:

a) 063
b) 070
c) 077

11. A Lamberts chart has Standard Parallels of 30S and 50S. The Rhumb Line
distance from A (50S 010E) to B (50S 010W) is 13.75 inches. The scale at 30S
is:

a) 1:4 092 898
b) 1:4 234 729
c) 1:438 197

12. Aircraft A, GS 240 Kts is 262 nm from BT at 0915 Z. Aircraft B, GS 285 Kts is 298 nm
from BT at 0922 Z. In order to ensure a 50 nm separation at BT, aircraft B must
reduce its groundspeed to 240 Kts at:

a) 0934 Z
b) 0937 Z
c) 0941 Z
CPL DOC8
Page 145

13. The distance between meridians on a Mercator chart 1 apart is 2.7 centimetres. The
scale of the chart at 33 S is:

a) 1:3 247 500
b) 1:3 453 800
c) 1:3 694 400

14. Sector Track Distance TAS Drift Time
A to B 177 153 nm 205 KTS 5L 51 mins

The W/V affecting the aircraft is;

a) 141/30
b) 177/30
c) 213/30

15. What distance in cms would two fixes taken 20 minutes apart appear on a chart
whose scale is 1:1 000 000 if the GS is 180 Kts?

a) 11.12 cms
b) 12.12 cms
c) 13.67 cms

16. An aircraft leaves Tokyo (N36:00 E139:45) at 2100 Standard time on Oct 12
(Standard time factor Japan 9 hours). After a 11 hour flight it arrives at San Francisco
(N 37:30 W 122:00) The LMT of arrival at San Francisco is:

a) 1615 LMT
b) 1537 LMT
c) 1452 LMT

17. The standard time of sunrise at Amsterdam (N 52:15 E 005:15) on 27 June is:

a) 0320
b) 0420
c) 0520

18. Aircraft heading 115 (T) TAS 185 KTS W/V 200/40
The groundspeed is:

a) 186 Kts
b) 177 Kts
c) 196 Kts
CPL DOC8
Page 146

19. 0845 Overhead Cape Town CTV (S 33:58 E 018:35) on a direct track to East
London ELV (S 33:02 E 027:53) TAS 175 kts, W/V 300/35. The ETA at the
Port Elizabeth FIR boundary 24E is:

a) 1005
b) 1011
c) 1017

20. 0915 Overhead Sutherland SLV (S 32:24 E 020:40) TAS 265 kts, W/V 240/50,
Heading 010 (M).

0945 Alter heading 305 (M).

1012 Alter heading for Alexander Bay ABV (S 28:34 E 016:31)

The ETA at Alexander Bay is:

a) 1034
b) 1044
c) 1054

21. 1310 Overhead Victoria West VWV (S 31:24 E 023:09) Heading 355 (T), TAS 310,

1339 Alter heading 268 (T).

1356 Overhead Upington UPV (S28:24 E021:16)

The mean W/V since 1310 is:

a) 190/42
b) 170/32
c) 220/55

22. 1427 Overhead Pomfret PF (S 25:51 E 023:30 on a direct track to Burgersdorp
BDV (S 30:58 E 024:47).

1525 Overhead Kimberley KMV (S 28:49 E 024:47)

The alteration of heading to reach Burgersdorp is:

a) 5 left
b) 11 left
c) 17 left

23. The following W/V are forecast for a climb to cruising altitude:
180/30 225/45 260/60
The mean climb W/V is:

a) 220/47
b) 252/50
c) 233/40
CPL DOC8
Page 147

24. 2213 Fix CPL VOR/DME Radial 287, DME 195nm. FL410, GS465 kts.
Descent details Mean rate of descent 2000 ft/min
Mean descent GS 365 kts
The latest time to commence descent to arrive overhead CPL at 7000 ft is:

a) 2225
b) 2228
c) 2231

25. An aircraft flying at GS 240 kts along track 204 (T) obtains the following bearings
from Maputo VOR VMA (S 25:56 E 032:34);

1020 VMA QDM 141
1031 VMA QDM 110
1043 VMA QDM 085

a) S26:20 E031:22
b) S26:35 E030:42
c) S26:45 E030:11

26. 2115 Overhead Port St Johns PJ (S 31:38 E 029:32) Heading 286 (M), TAS
250 kts.
2243 Overhead Victoria West VWV (S 31:23 E 023:08)

The mean W/V since 2115 is;

a) 337/57
b) 262/48
c) 225/41

27. 1715 Overhead East London ELV (S 33:02 E 027:53) on a direct track to Maputo
VMA (S25:56 E032:34), Heading 023 (T), GS 310 kts.
1752 Durban VOR/DME DNV (S 29:55 E 031:00) Range 65 nm.
1811 Durban VOR/DME DNV Range 65 nm.


a) S29:10 E030:05
b) S28:52 E030:44
b) S28:50 E031:15

28. 1915 Overhead Pomfret NDB PF (S 25:51 E 023:30) on a direct track to
Phalaborwa PHV (S 23:56 E 031:08) Heading 085 (M).
1954 Gabarone NDB GBE (S 24:33 E 025:55) bears 270 Relative.

The ETA for Phalaborwa is:

a) 2047
b) 2057
c) 2116
CPL DOC8
Page 148

29. 1315 Overhead C, Hdg 080T, TAS 180kts, Track 077
1355 Alter heading 120T, GS 144kts
1356 Overhead D, the Wind velocity is?

(a) 070/65
(b) 080/45
(c) 090/45

30. Find the wind velocity affecting the aircraft if:

TAS 230kts
Hdg 195 Drift 7 right
Hdg 257 Drift 6 right
Hdg 332 Drift 2 left

(a) 135/30
(b) 144/24
(c) 125/25

CPL DOC8
Page 149

ANNEX B
ANSWERS
CPL DOC8
Page 150
CHAPTER 1

1 B 14 B 27 A
2 C 15 C 28 C
3 A 16 A 29 B
4 B 17 A 30 A
5 B 18 A 31 B
6 C 19 B 32 C
7 C 20 C 33 C
8 A 21 C 34 A
9 C 22 B 35 B
10 A 23 A
11 A 24 A
12 A 25 A
13 A 26 B

CPL DOC8
Page 151

6. 090RL 099GC CA9 CI8
C = Ch. Long sin Lat
18 = Ch.Longsin2830'
18
_______ = Ch. Long = 37.7233 = 37 43' East of W 015 15'
sin2830' 37 43" Easterly
Longitude E 022 28-

7. C = Ch. Long sin Lat
C = 1 sin 60 = 0.866 - 2 = 0.433 = sin 25 39'

CPL DOC8
Page 152
9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

CPL DOC8
Page 153

14.
C = 1 X sin 20 - 0.342 x 2 - 0.684 = sin 43.1602 = 4309' 37"

15

16

17.

CPL DOC8
Page 154
18

19.

8 = 16 sin Lat 8 = 0.5 = sin 30
16

20.

21

22. W005:15 Departure = Ch. Long x cos Latitude
E 018:29 = 1424 x cos 27:43
_______ = 1260.6 nm
23:44 Ch. Long
14:24 mins Long,

23. Departure = Ch. Long x cos Latitude
456 nm
_______ = 648 mins of Long = 1048' West of E 025:52 - E015:04
cos 45:17
CPL DOC8
Page 155

24. GS478 x 16:35 = 7926.8333 nm = Ch. Long 360 x cos Latitude

7926.8333
_________ = 0.367 = cos 6828'
360 x 60

25. W 081:20 Departure = Ch.Long x cos Latitude
W 016:16 = 3904 x cos 28:32
________ = 3430 nm at GS375 = 9:09
65:04 = 3904 mins of Long = 08:20
ETA = 17:29

26.

E 067:11
E 054:44
ETA 08:17
ETD 06:52

12:27 = Long 747 minutes of 1:25 Flight Time

Departure = Ch. Long x cos Latitude
= 747 x cos 24:23 = 680 nm in 1:25 = GS480Kts

27. Dep = Ch long x cos LAT

1037 nm = Ch.Long x cos Lat 57:42

1037 = Ch long
cos 57:42
= 1941 mins Long
= 3221 West of E 030:15
= W 002:06

28. Departure 425 nm = Ch. Long x cos 46:52

425 nm
_________ = 622 mins Long = 10 22' Change of Longitude
cos 46:52

29. One nautical mile at the Pole 6108 feet
One nautical mile at the Equator 6046 feet

30. N 75:39 to North Pole 14:21 Change of Latitude
North Pole to N 78:27 11:33 Change of Latitude

25:54 Change of Latitude = 1554 nm

CPL DOC8
Page 156
31.

32. Departure = Ch. Long x cos Latitude
= 1 minute Longitude x cos 25 = 0.906308 2 = 0.453154

0.453154 = cos 6303' 14"

33.
34.

CPL DOC8
Page 157
CHAPTER 2

Mercator Questions

1 A 4 C 7 A 10 C 13 A
2 B 5 B 8 A 11 A 14 B
3 B 6 C 9 B 12 B 15 C

DETAILED ANSWERS

1. ABBA A 20N Scale 1:2 500 000 B 50N

2 500 000 x cos 50 = Scale B x cos 20

2 500 000 x cos 50 = 1710100 Scale B 1:1 710 100
cos 20

2.

ABBA A 20N Scale 1:2 000 000 B Scale 1:1 500 000

2000000 x cos B = 1 500 000 x cos20
cos B = 1 500 000 x cos 20 = (0.7048)
COS-1
= 45 11'21" NS
2 000 000

3.

CL 2.7 cms
S = __ = ___________________________ = 1.3 453 802
ED 1 x 60 x cos 33 x 6080 x 12 x 2.54

4. QDM 095 5. QDM 275 6. HDG 267 (T)
VAR 14W VAR 18W ADF 346
QUJ 081 GC QUJ 257 GC QUJ 613 GC
CA -2 180 -360
QUJ 079 RL QTE 077 GC QUJ 253 GC
180 CA -3 CA +2
QTE 259 RL QTE 074 RL QUJ 255 RL
180
QTE 075 RL

CPL DOC8
Page 158
7.

CL 156 millimetres
S = __ = ___________________________ = 1:3 022 286
ED 5 x 60 x cos 32 x 6080 x 12 x 25.4
( Departure )

10. CL 1 3cm
S = ___ __________ = _____________________________
ED 2500000 1 x 60 x cos Lat x 6080 x 12 x 2.54
( Departure )

2 500 000 x 3cms = 1 x 60 x cos Lat x 6080 x 12 x 2.54

2 500 000 x 3 cms
____________________ = Lat = (0.6745)
cos 1
= 47 35' N/S
1 x 60 x 6080 x 12 x 2.54

11. CL 5.75 cms
Ratio = ___ = ____________ = 6.4243 nautical miles to the centimetre
ED 1 x 60 x cos 52
( Departure )

CPL DOC8
Page 159
Lamberts chart questions

1 C 6 B 11 C 16 A 20 B 25 C
2 C 7 A 12 C 17 A 21 B 26 C
3 B 8 C 13 B 18(1) C 22 A 27 A
4 A 9 B 14 C 18(2) A 23 B
5 C 10 C 15 C 19 A 24 A

DETAILED ANSWERS

1. SP 29S & 41S Parallel of Origin 35S

CC = Ch. Long x sin//O
CC = 22 x sin 35
CC = 12.62

2. CC = Ch.Long x sin//O
12 = 20 x sin//O SP 30 20
12 Change of Latitude 632'
= 0.6 = sin 36 52 Parallel of Origin 36 52'
20 SP 30 20' Change of Latitude 6 32'
Change of Lat 6 32" SP 43=24'

3. 77.5 cms 72 cms
_______________ = Scale ________________ = Latitude : 3801'N
Ch. Long x cos 32 Ch. Long x X?X Lat

4. 76.62 cms 1
Scale = _______________________________ = ________ at 20 & 40S
22 x 60 x cos 20 x 6080 x 12 x 2.54 3 000 103

5. 80.5 cms CL
_______________ = Scale = ______________ CL = 103.2 cms
Ch. Long x cos 45 Ch. Long x cos 25

CPL DOC8
Page 160

CPL DOC8
Page 161

10. CC = Ch. Long x sin. // O
12.04 = 14 x sin // O
SP 64 00'
12.04 SP 64 00' Change of Latitude 4 41'
_____ .= (0.86)
SIN-1
= 59 19' Parallel of Origin 59 19'
14 4 41' Change of Latitude 4 41'
SP 54 38'
11.

12.

CPL DOC8
Page 162

13.

15.

CPL DOC8
Page 163
16.

17.

18.

CPL DOC8
Page 164
19.

20.

21. On a Lambert's chart the Great Circle and Rhumb Line tracks are parallel at the mid
meridian between any two positions.

The mid meridian between 10W and 60E is 25E where the track is 124RL And
124GC

CPL DOC8
Page 165
22.

23. SP 15S & 35S // O 25S

Earth Convergency = Ch. Long 22 sin Lat 34 EC = 12.3022
Chart Convergency = Ch. Long 22 sin // O 25 CC = 9.2976
Difference = 3.0046

24. The True Great Circle between two positions on the Parallel of Origin is a straight
line.

The True Great Circle between two positions North of the Parallel of Origin will be a
slight curve concave to the Parallel of Origin or North of the straight line

CHAPTER 3

RELATIVE VELOCITY

Q1 B

Q2 C

Q3 D
CPL DOC8
Page 166
CHAPTER 4

SUNRISE SUNSET TWILIGHT ANSWERS

1. B 2. B 3. C 4. C 5. B 6. A 7. A

DETAILED ANSWERS

1. April 14 15 16 17
45N 0518 0516 0515 0513
40N 0525 0523 0522 0520
Time difference 7 minutes 5 x 0030 = 1 minute = 0522 LMT
Sunrise 05:22:00 LMT
W 003:24 Arc/Time 13:36
Sunrise 05:35:36 UTC
Spain ST Factor +1
Sunrise 06:35:36 LST

2.
May 6 7 8 9
50N 1924 1926 1927 1929
45N 1910 1911 1912 1913

Time difference 15 minutes 5x 340 = 11minutes= 1923 LMT
Sunset 19:23 LMT
2E Arc/Time 8
Sunset 19:15 UTC
France ST Factor +1
Sunset 20:15 LST

3.
Twilight N 55:45
June 1 2 3 4
56N Sunrise 0323 0320
Twilight 0225 0221
Difference 58 58 59 59
54N Sunrise 0335 0333
Twilight 0244 0241
Time difference 7 minutes 2 x 145 = +6 minutes
58 minutes twilight
4
Sunset S 10:00 W 063:45
February 24 26 27 28
10S 1823 1823 1822 1822

Sunset 18:22 LMT
W 063 :45 Arc/Time 4:15
Sunset 22:37 UTC
15 mins before SS 15
ETA 22:22 UTC
Flight time 11:15
ETD 11:07 UTC
E 022:15 Arc/Time 1:29 ETD 12:36 LMT
CPL DOC8
Page 167
5.
Twilight S 33:58
January 5 6 7 8
30S Sunset 1905 1906
Twilight 1933 1933

50S Sunset 1918 1918
Twilight 1947 1947

Duration of evening civil twilight 29 minutes

6. 20 22 23
N60 1543 1548 1550
N59:46 1550
N58 1556 1600 1602
1550 LMT
-0201 30:20E
1349 UTC
+0300
1649 ST

7. 1 3 4
S35 0519 0521 0522
S36:50 0517
S40 0508 0511 0512
3 FEB 0517
-1139 174:48E
2 FEB 1738 UTC

Time Questions

1 A 3 B 5 C 7 A 9 C 11 A
2 C 4 A 6 B 8 B 10 C 12 C
13 A

DETAILED ANSWERS

1. Y ETA 05:58 LMT 4 July
W 066:30 Arc to Time 4:26
Y ETA 10:24 UTC 4 July
X ETD 21:00 UTC 3 July
Flight Time 13:24
Distance 4732 nm
Groundspeed 353 Kts

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2. Ascension ETD 22:15 LMT 15 June
Ascension ETD 23:13 UTC 15 June
Flight Time 9:14
FAJS ETA 08:27 UTC 16 June
SA Standard Time Factor 02:00
FAJS ETA 10:17 SAST 16 June

3. Distance 3207 nm GS 427 Kts Time 7:30:38
Perth ETD 09:30 LMT
E 115:57 Arc to Time 07:43:48
Perth ETD 01:46:12 UTC
Flight Time 07:30:38
Mauritius ETA 09:16:50 UTC
E 057:40 Arc to Time 03:50:40
Mauritius ETA 13:07:30 LMT

4. A ETD 08:15 LMT 19
th
D
A ETD 05:54 UTC 19
th
GD
Flight Time 7:27
B ETA 13:21 UTC 19
th
GD
W 028:45 1:55
B ETA 11:26 LMT 19
th
LD

5. Prestwick ETD 11:15:00 LMT 23
rd
LD
W 005 Arc to Time :20
Prestwick ETD 11:35:00 UTC 23
rd
GD
Flight Time 11:15
San Francisco ETA 22:50:00 UTC 23
rd
GD
W 112 Arc to Time 8:08
San Francisco ETA 14:42-00 LMT 23
rd
LD

6. Tahiti Sunset ETA 18:23:00 LMT 5
th
LD
W 149:29 Arc to Time 9:57:56
Tahiti ETA 28:20:56 UTC 5
th
GD
Flight Time 5:00
Wellington ETD 23:20:56 UTC 5
th
GD
E 174:45 Arc to Time 11:39
Wellington ETD 34:59:56 LMT 5
th
LD
ETD 10:59:56 LMT 6
th
LD

7. Vancouver ETA 10:57:00 LMT 18
th
LD
Vancouver ETA 19:10:00 UTC 18
th
GD
Flight Time 8:10
X ETD 11:00:00 UTC 18
th
GD
X ETD 20:00:00 LMT 18
th
LD
Time Difference 9:00:00 = 135E
CPL DOC8
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8. If the LMT of arrival at a destination is the same as the LMT of departure then the
aircraft has flown at the same speed as the sun. that is 15S cos Latitude per hour.

1952 Kms in 2 hours = GS976Kms - GS527Kts

Departure = Ch. Longitude x Cos Latitude
527 = 15 x 60 x Cos Latitude
527
___ = (0.5856)
COS-!
= 54:09:28 N S
900

9. Tokyo ETD 21:00 LST 12
th
LD
Standard Time Factor 9:00
Tokyo ETD 12:00 UTC 12
th
GD
Flight Time 11:00
San Francisco ETA 23:00 UTC 12
th
GD
122W Arc to Time 8:08
San Francisco ETA 14:52 LMT 12
th
LD

10. A 168W ETA 22:08 LST 2
nd
LD
Standard Time Factor 11:00
A ETA 33:08 UTC 2
nd
GD
Flight Time 7:06
B ETD 26:02 UTC 2
nd
GD
174E Arc to Time 11:36
B ETD 37:38 LMT 2
nd
LD
B ETD 13:38 LMT 3
rd
LD

11. See sketch on page 4. An aircraft flying heading 090(T) is passing from Easterly
Longitude to Westerly Longitude. The local date will change from the 6
th
to the 5
th

whilst the Greenwich date will remain the 6
th

12. At 1200 UTC all Longitudes will be 6
th
May.
At 17959' E the LMT will be 23:59:56 on 6
th
May
At 17959' W the LMT will be 00:00:04 on 6
th
May

13 New York ETD 13:00 LST 28
th
Feb
St Factor New York 5:00
New York ETD 18:00 UTC 28
th
Feb
Flight Time 8:30
Frankfurt ETA 26:30 UTC 28
th
Feb
ETA 02:30 UTC 29
th
Feb
St Factor Germany +1
Frankfurt ETA 03:30 UTC 29
th
Feb

NOTE If the year is divisible by 4 it is a Leap Year
1992 4 = 498 = Leap Year
1993 4 = 498.25 not a Leap Year

CPL DOC8
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Chapter 6

Heading and ETA questions

1 A 4 B 7 A
2 A 5 B 8 C
3 A 6 A 9 C

FOR DETAILED ANSWERS SEE NAVIGATION LOG ON NEXT PAGE

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Plotting Questions

1 B 23 C 45 C 67 B
2 B 24 C 46 A 68 A
3 A 25 C 47 C 69 A
4 C 26 C 48 B 70 C
5 B 27 B 49 C 71 B
6 A 28 B 50 C
7 B 29 B 51 B
8 C 30 A 52 A
9 C 31 B 53 B
10 A 32 A 54 B
11 C 33 B 55 B
12 A 34 B 56 C
13 A 35 A 57 A
14 A 36 C 58 C
15 C 37 A 59 C
16 B 38 C 60 C
17 A 39 C 61 A
18 C 40 A 62 C
19 A 41 C 63 A
20 B 42 B 64 B
21 B 43 C 65 B
22 B 44 A 66 C

Detailed Answers

1.

Method:

Plot required track BLOEMFONTEIN to SUTHERLAND.
Plot TMG (Track Made Good) BLOEMFONTEIN to VICTORIA WEST and extend.
Join VICTORIA WEST to SUTHERLAND (new track).
Place protractor over VICTORIA WEST with 360 aligned with the TMG.
Measure the alteration of track, 13 Right.
Alter Heading 13 Right

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Question 1

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Question 24

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Question 25 Question 26

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Question 27 Question 28

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Question 29

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Question 30

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37
1. Set the 1000 Z Heading 030 (T) against the True Index of the Nav. Computer.
2. Set TAS 350 kts at the centre.
3. Draw the 11 Right drift line.
4. Set the 1025 Z Heading against the True Index.
5. Draw an arc of Groundspeed 325 kts to intersect the drift line.
6. Bring the intersection of the drift line and GS arc to the centre line below the centre.
From the centre to the intersection is the Wind Velocity.
7. Read off Wind Direction against the True Index 268
8. Read off Wind Speed 90 kts (length of vector).

W/V 268/90

Question 38

Similar to the above

W/V 008/44

Question 39

Similar to the above.
After calculating the W/V set Heading 020(T) with TAS 325 kts at the centre.
The OS 305 kts appears under the intersection of the drift line and GS arc.

GS 305

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Question 48

19 000 feet
6 000 feet
_________
13 000 feet x 2/3 = 8 667 feet
+6 000 feet
14 667 feet mean climb altitude

14 667 feet @ 2/1000 feet - 29 C colder than MSL
+ 15 C ISA at MSL
- 14 C ISA at 14 667 feet
Temperature Deviation ISA +12 C
OAT - 2 C

Altitude 14 667 feet OAT-2C RAS165kts TAS210 kts

Question 49

18 000 feet
5 000 feet
13 000 feet x 2/3 = 8 66 7 feet
+ 5 000 feet

+15 C ISA at MSL
- 12 C ISA at 13 667 feet
Temperature Deviation ISA +15 C
+ 3 C

Altitude 13 667 feet OAT+3C RAS172kts TAS 217 kts

CPL DOC8
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Question 50

21000 feet
5500 feet
15 500 feet x 2/3 = 10 333 feet
+ 5 500 feet

+ 15C ISA at MSL
- 17C ISA at 14 667 feet
Temperature Deviation ISA + 13 C
OAT - 4 C

Altitude 15 833 feet OAT - 4 C RAS 185 kts TAS 240 kts

Question 51

23 000 feet - 5000 feet = 18 000 feet @ 1200 feet/minute = 15 minutes

Mean Climb TAS 230 kts
Track 135 (T)
Mean Climb W/V 225 30 kts
Mean Climb GS 228 kts for 15 minutes ~ 57 nm

Question 52

GMT OBSERVATION GS DIST TIME ETA Place

1315 Port St. Johns 235 63 16 1331 TOD

1331 TOD Top Of
Descent
195 65 20 1351 DEST

Question 53

GMT OBSERVATION GS DIST TIME ETA Place

1420 JSV DME 195nm 455 113.5 15 1435 TOD
195
1435 TOD Top Of
Descent
425 81.5 11.5 1446.5 DEST

CPL DOC8
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Question 54

Using the Pathfinder or similar Nav. computer :-

GS 339 kts

Select W/V
Enter HDG 120
Enter Wind Direction 045 as CRS
Enter TAS 350 kts
Enter Wind Speed 60 kts as GS

Compute W/V 130/339

Wind Direction 130 is the Track
Wind Speed 339 kts is the GS

Question 55

Using the Pathfinder or similar Nav. computer :-

GS 414 kts

Select W/V
Enter HDG 270
Enter Wind Direction 190 as CRS
Enter TAS 420 kts
Enter Wind Speed 75 kts as GS

Compute W/V 280/414

Wind Direction 280 is the Track
Wind Speed 414 kts is the GS

Question 56

Measure QTE VWV when abeam = 314 - 180 = QUJ 134

Relative Bearing + Heading (T) = QUJ
Relative Bearing = QUJ Heading (T)
Relative Bearing = 134 - 036 = 098 Relative

Question 57

Measure QTE CH when abeam = 058 + 180 = QUJ 238
Relative Bearing Heading (T) = QUJ
Relative Bearing = QUJ Heading (T)
Relative Bearing = 238 - 156 = 082 Relative

Question 58

Initial Track from GROOTFONTEIN to BULAWAYO is 095 (T), Variation 12W,
Radial 107

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Question 59

The QTE of the point along track at 24 E is 164, VWV Variation 21W, Radial 185

Question 60

093 OZ Overhead SUTHERLAND SL TAS 260kts
1030 Z Overhead KIMBERLEY KMV

Distance SL to KMV 304 nm in 1 Hour = GS 304 kts

SL KMV TAS 260 kts Wind Component 44 kts Tailwind GS 304 kts
KMV SL TAS 260 kts Wind Component 44 kts Headwind GS 216 kts

KMV SL GS 216 kts Distance 304 nm Time 1:24 ETA 1154Z

Question 61

1515 Z Overhead GEORGE GGV TAS 180 kts
1615Z Overhead VICTORIA WEST VWV

Distance GGV to VWV 161 nm in I Hour GS 161 kts

GGV-VWV TAS 180 kts Wind Component 19 kts Headwind GS 161 kts
VWV GGV TAS 180 kts Wind Component 19kts Tailwind GS 199 kts

VWV-GGV GS 199 kts Distance 161 nm Time 0:49 ETA 17:04 Z

Question 62

2114 Z Overhead EAST LONDON ELV TAS 220 kts
2214 Z Overhead DURBAN DNV

Distance ELV to DNV 246 nm in 1 Hour = GS 246 kts

ELV - DNV TAS 220 kts Wind Component 26 kts Tailwind GS 246 to
DNV ELV TAS 220 kts Wind Component 26 kts Headwind GS 194 kts

DNV ELV GS 194 kts Distance 246 nm Time 1:16 ETA 23:30 Z

Question 63

Multiple Drift wind by nav. Computer W/V 288/41

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Question 66

If an aeroplane, in zero wind conditions, flies a heading of 040(T) for one hour, and
then flies the reciprocal heading 220(T) for one hour at the same TAS it will return at
its point of departure.

This question involves a strong wind, but with an Air Plot the Air Position will be
overhead GEORGE at 1800 Z. The W/V is calculated by the multiple drift method.

Heading 040 (T) Drift 12 Right Heading 220 (T) Drift 10 Left
W/V 333/40 kts

The aeroplane will be 2 hours of the W/V 333/40 DOWNWIND from GEORGE. That
is on a bearing of 153 (T) at a distance of 80 nm from GEORGE.

Track to GEORGE 333 (T) Drift zero Heading 333 (T)

TAS 190 kts WC 40 kts HW GS 150 kts Distance 80 nm Time 0:32 ETA1832Z

Question 67

Similar to the above question.

1200 Z Heading 060 (T) for I hour at TAS 360 kts. The Air Position is 360 nm from
CTV.

1300 Z Heading 240 (T) for I hour 20 minutes. The Air Position is 480 nm on a
bearing of 240 from the 1200 Air Position, that is 120 nm on a bearing of 240 from
CTV and is the Wind Vector.

120 nm in 2 hours 20 minutes = Wind Speed 51 kts W/V 240/51

Question 68

same as numbers 37 38

W/V 100/60

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Question 71
026M
+ 270 relative
296 QDM
- 16W
286 QUJ The distance need not be worked out, but by construction will be 26 nms.
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CHAPTER 6

ANSWERS TO GENERAL QUESTIONS
1. B 2. C 3. C 4. A 5. B 6. B
7. C 8. B 9. A 10. B 11. C 12. A

11.
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PAPER 1

1. B 2. C 3. A 4. C

5. B 6. A 7. A 8. A

9. B 10. B 11. B 12. A

13. A 14. B 15. A 16. C

17. C 18. B 19. A 20. B

21. C 22. B 23. C 24. A

25. C 26. C 27. B 28. B

29. B 30. B

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PAPER 2

1. B 17. B
2. A 18. A
3. B 19. A
4. C 20. B
5. C 21. A
6. B 22. B
7. C 23. C
8. C 24. A
9. A 25. B
10. B 26. C
11. A 27. B
12. C 28. C
13. B 29. C
14. C 30. A
15. A
16. C

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