Chapter 19 Reproductive System

The What Do You Already Know Activity!

1) How many chromosomes does a sperm cell or an egg cell have before fertilization (normally)?

2) Under normal circumstances, how many chromosomes does a human fetus have? Male Reproductive Organs: 3) What are the purposes of the male reproductive system?

4) Primary sex organs vs. accessory sex organs: one includes the internal and external reproductive organs, one consists of the gonads (testes) that make sperm cells and hormones. Which is which?

-Testes:

Males normally have two (testis/teste is singular). Each testis is enclosed by a white, fibrous capsule; the connective tissue extends into the testis and formed septa, separating the testis into about 250 lobules. Each lobule contains 1-4 highly coiled seminiferous tubules which connect to form a complex network of channels that give rise to ducts 2

that eventually join in one to become the epididymis the epididymis coils on the outer surface of the testis and becomes the vas deferens. The seminiferous tubules also contain the cells that are specialized to give rise to sperm cells (spermatogenic cells) and those that produce and secrete male hormones (interstitial cells). Sperm cells: -Produced by the spermatogenic cells with help from the supporting cells (Sertoli cells) for regulation and nourishment. -Sperm cells are TINY. Really tiny. 0.06 mm long. 5) How many sperm cells can fit on the head of a pin?

-The head contains the nucleus and the 23 chromosomes while the acrosome secretes enzymes to help the sperm cells penetrate the egg; the midsection contains a spiral of mitochondria; the tail is powered by the mitochondria and the ATP produced. -Sperm is formed by the process of spermatogenesis. In a male embryo, the sperm cells are undifferentiated and contain 46 chromosomes each. Embryonic spermatogonia go through 3

mitosis during development, but then at puberty they are stimulated to undergo meiosis. 6) What happens during meiosis to the number of chromosomes in a mature sperm cell? Why?

-Internal Accessory Organs: Epididymis: about 6 m long; coils along outer surface of testes down and then up; sperm cells are immature when they first reach the epididymis but due to peristaltic movement they are moved along the tube and mature. 7) What is the name of the covering of the testes?

Vas deferens: muscular tube about 45 cm long, connected to the end of the epididymis; joins with a duct from the seminal vesicle to form an 4

ejaculatory duct that passes through the prostate gland and empties into the urethra.

Seminal vesicle: near the base of the bladder; secretes a slightly alkaline fluid to regulate the pH of the semen that includes fructose and prostaglandins. Prostate gland: surrounds the proximal end of the urethra; enclosed in connective tissue; secretes a milky fluid that is alkaline neutralizes the acidity of the fluid from metabolic wastes produced by the movement of the sperm. Bulbourethral glands: (also called Cowpers glands) inferior to the prostrate; network of tubes secrete a mucous-like fluid to prepare the end of the penis for sex. Semen: fluid the sperm travels in; sperm cells begin to swim when mixed with accessory gland secretions. -External Organs:

8) What is the purpose of cutting the vas deferens as in the above diagram?

Scrotum: pouch of skin and subcutaneous tissue that protects the two testes; medial septum divides the scrotum into two chambers, one teste to each chamber; serous membrane protects and lubricates each teste, also regulates temperature; too hot or cold disrupts sperm production.

Penis: cylindrical organ that conveys urine and semen through the urethra to outside environment; the body has three columns of erectile tissue pair of dorsal corpora cavernosa and a single ventral corpus spongiosum; enclosed by connective tissue and skin; the glans penis is the enlarged distal end of the penis, is very thin and is full of nerve endings for sexual stimulation. 6

-Erection: the accumulation of blood in the penile tissue as well as the interactions between the tissue fibers of the corpus cavernosa and the corpus spongiosum. -Orgasm: the culmination of physical and psychological stimulation and release. -Emission: the movement of sperm cells from the testes and the mixture of secretions from the prostate and seminal vesicles. -Ejaculation: the pressure inside the erectile tissue due to contractions stimulated by the nervous system increases until the semen is forced out of the urethra. When sexual stimulation or arousal begins, arterial blood rushes into the penis and the arteries dilate, while the veins constrict to keep blood inside the erectile tissue as long as needed. Male Hormones: -All hormones in males are secreted by the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary gland, and testes. 9) Testosterone is a form of a large group of hormones called ____________________________.

-Both sexes share all hormones to a certain extent. Males tend to have more testosterone, females tend to have more estrogen. -Gonadotropins: leutinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). LH: also called interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH); stimulates development of testicular interstitial cells. FSH: stimulates the supporting cells of the seminiferous tubules to respond to the effect of testosterone; in the presence of both stimulates spermatogenic cells to undergo spermatogenesis. -Testicular interstitial cells produce androgens most of the time, but some are secreted by the adrenal cortex. -Testosterone is the most abundant androgen, and has many effects. 8

Secretions begin in fetal development once the sex chromosome has stimulated the growth of male genitalia, continues for weeks after birth, but rapidly decreases during childhood until puberty, a phase of rapid development. T. stimulates male secondary sex characteristics: -increased body hair growth -enlarged larynx and vocal folds -thicker skin -increased muscular growth -strengthening of bone -not a sex characteristic, but T does stimulate increased production of red blood cells hence why men tend to have more Female Reproductive Organs: -Ovaries: Women normally have two, one on either side of the body. Made up of an inner medulla (consist of blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerve fibers) and an outer cortex (compact tissue with granular appearance). -Primordial follicles: These are special cells that form during prenatal development several million in fact. Each primordial follicle consists of a single large cell called a primary oocyte surrounded by epithelial cells called follicular cells. The oocytes begin meiosis I development, but halt the process until puberty of the female. No new primordial follicles form after this point. Of the millions available in the embryo, only about 400,000 are formed at puberty, and between 400 to 500 are actually released. Oogenesis: -The process of egg cell formation. 9

-Once meiosis starts again, the dividing cells dont come out equal chromosome wise they all have 23 (baring nondisjunction problems) but the cytoplasm doesnt divide equally, leaving the large egg cell and smaller polar bodies. -The polar bodies have very little function and soon disintegrate. Their purpose is to concentrate the organelles and the cytoplasm into one cell.

Ovulation: -The release of the secondary oocyte and the first polar body. -The oocyte bursts from the ovarian walls due to hormone triggering the follicle around it to swell as it matures. -The oocyte is pushed into the uterus, and if it is not fertilized it will disintegrate. If it is fertilized, it will release a second polar body and form a zygote. -Uterine (fallopian) tubes: Each oviduct opens near the ovaries. Near the ovary the tube expands, forming a funnel-shaped infundibulum, partially enclosing the ovary. Finger-like projections called fimbriae line the boundary of the infundibulum.

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-Uterus: The uterus receives the embryo (fertilized ovum) and sustains it during development. The shape changes greatly during pregnancy (go figure). 10) How many times its normal size can the uterus expand?

The uterine tubes enter the top of the body of the uterus, with the lower third narrowing can becoming the cervix. The tubular part extends further into the upper portion of the vagina. The uterine wall is thick, with three layers: -Endometrium: inner mucosal layer; covered with columnar epithelium. -Myometrium: thick, muscular layer; largely bundles of smooth muscle; during menstruation and pregnancy the endometrium and myometrium contract and change drastically. 11) What is the name of a disorder where the uterus contract too much or too hard during a girls period?

-Perimetrium: outer serous layer, covers the body of the uterus and part of the cervix.

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-Vagina: Fibromuscular tube about 9 cm long that conveys uterine secretions, receives the erect penis during heterosexual intercourse, and provides the channel for birth. Hymen: thin membrane of connective tissue that partially covers the vaginal opening; varies in shape and size. Three layers to the wall: inner mucosal layer, middle muscular layer, outer fibrous layer. 12

-Labia: Two: Majora and Minora. Labia majora enclose and protect other external reproductive organs; correspond to scrotum in males; made of folded adipose tissue. Labia minora flat folds between the labia majora; vascularized connective tissue; anteriorly they converge to cover and protect the clitoris while posteriorly they merge with the labia majora

-Clitoris: Small projection at anterior portion of vulva (all structures surrounding the urethra and the vaginal opening) that corresponds to the penis in males. Same as the penis, a mass of erectile tissue forms a glans, a richly supplied nerve tissue. -Vestibule: Space enclosed by the labia minora; vestibular glands that correspond to the bulbourethral glands in males lie on either side of the vaginal opening. Vestibular glands supply much of the female lubrication during arousal or sexual intercourse. 12) Why dont females have one opening the way males do?

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Female Hormones: -The hormone females have more of belong in the estrogens category males still have some level of an estrogen. Estradinol is the most abundant. -E.s stimulate enlargement of accessory organs during development and maintain female secondary sex characteristics: development of breasts and mammary glands increase in adipose deposits in the breasts, thighs, and buttocks increased vascularization of the skin -Progesterone primarily comes from the ovaries promotes changes in the uterus during normal reproductive cycles and mammary glands. -Two cycles are going at the same time: normal accumulation of a ling on the wall of uterus (resulting in a period at a one month or so period) and the ovarian cycle.

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-Menarche: a females first reproductive cycle In the first week of the cycle, E.s concentrations are rising, progesterone a little behind thicken the uterine lining. By day 14 a follicle appears on the ovary surface and releases the oocyte. Meanwhile E.s inhibit LH from being released by the pituitary gland but LH is stored in the gland. On day 14 the pituitary releases the stored LH ovulation! The contents of the follicle change what used to be blood and follicular fluid clots, forming a temporary structure called the corpus luteum. 15

Follicular cells secrete progesterone in increased doses. If a sperm cell does fertilize the egg cell, the corpus luteum begins to disintegrate on day 24, sparking a decline in E.s and progesterone; the luteum is secreted out of the female body by menstruation. Soon FSH and LH levels increase, stimulating a new cycle to begin. -Menopause: when a female no longer has a menstrual cycle or an ovarian cycle for over a year; caused by aging; structures become less sensitive to hormones and may shrink. Mammary Glands: -Accessory organs specialized to secrete milk following pregnancy.

-Found in the breasts, they overlie the pectoralis major muscle. -The nipple near the tip of each breast, surrounded by pigmented skin called the areola. -15-20 lobes that contain glands and ducts that lead to the nipple. 16

Birth Control: -Any method used to avoid pregnancy. -Coitus interruptus withdrawal of the penis from the vagina before ejaculation; not very effective as some sperm cells can be secreted before ejaculation; difficult for males to accurately time. -Rhythm method avoiding coitus a few days before and after a females ovulation; very difficult to time and results in high pregnancy rate. -Mechanical barriers a device that prevents sperm from entering the vagina after ejaculation; male condoms, female condoms, diaphragms, cervical caps; fairly cheap and effective. -Chemical barriers chemicals that create an unfavorable environment for sperm; creams, spermicides, foams; easy to use, but high rate of failure when used alone. -Hormone contraceptives: for female use to trick the body into thinking its already pregnant (a new oocyte wont latch onto the uterine wall); pills, injections, uterine rings, patches; oral contraceptives are by far the most effective if used properly, but can cause nausea and tenderness. -Intrauterine devices: implanted directly into the uterine cavity to interfere with an oocyte from implanting on the wall; the uterus may spontaneously reject the IUD and it may cause discomfort or bleeding. -Surgery: vasectomy (cut and ligated vas deferens sperm cells may already exist further along the vas deferens so the sperm count may not reach 0 for weeks) and hysterectomy (cut and ligated uterine tubes sperm cannot reach the egg, no more eggs can leave the ovaduct); vasectomy can be reversed, hysterectomy cannot.

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