Role of Infrastructure For Sustainable Development

Twenty-eighth National Convention of Civil Engineers
& National Seminar on
Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development
www.groupexcelindia.com
Twenty-eighth h Nationa al Conven ntion of Civil C Eng gineers

& Nat tional Semi inar on
Role of Infrastruct ture for r Sustai inable Develo opment t
Editors s
S.K. Sing S gh M Parida M. a V V.K. Gupta Aja ay Chourasia
Or rganised by
TH HE INST TITUTION N OF EN NGINEER RS (INDI IA) Roork kee Local Centre IIT Roorkee R C Campus, e247667 (Uttarakh hand) Roorkee
EXC CEL IND DIA PU UBLISH HERS N Del New lhi
First Impression: 2012 The Institution of Engineers (India), Roorkee Local Centre, Roorkee Twenty-eighth National Convention of Civil Engineers and National Seminar on Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development
ISBN: 978-93-82062-61-5
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Preface
In the last two decades there has been unexpected motivation and enthusiasm to undertake infrastructure development in the country. Civil engineering acts at the core of infrastructure development. Sustainable Infrastructural Development is a new paradigm for improvement in quality of life and economic growth of nation, India in particular. Due to exponential growth in population and economy, engineers are playing vital role in development of sustainable technology for future generation with optimal utilisation of materials, energy and capital. There is an increasing focus on planning & designing of infrastructure which takes full account of its own impact and its operational needs and uses. Furthermore, rehabilitation, reuse and optimisation of existing infrastructure are required to be consistent with the principles of sustainable development. This encompasses infrastructure renewal, long-term economic analysis of infrastructure, energy use and reduced infrastructure costs, the protection of existing infrastructure from environmental degradation, material selection for sustainability, quality, durability and energy conservation, minimising waste and materials, the redesign of infrastructure in light of global dynamics, and remediation of environmentally damaged resources. Need of the hour is to set a responsible standard of sustainable design in both short & long term. Anthropogenic activities have a significant impact on the world around and each of us has responsibility for protecting future generations. Engineers and planners have a great responsibility to set design standards from societal and environmental view point. Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying capacity of infrastructure and social challenges. This Twenty-eighth National Convention of Civil Engineers and National Seminar on Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development is an opportunity to researchers, technocrats, scientists, academicians, planners to put forward their views and formulate an action plan. The Convention and Seminar being organised by Roorkee Local Centre under the aegis of Civil Engineering Division Board of the The Institution of Engineers (India). Encompassing the set objectives, this Convention & Seminar covers: Shri C.R. Alimchandani, Eminent & Renowned Engineer and Past President, IEI delivering Dr. K.L. Rao Memorial Annual Lecture on Some World Records in Structure Design for India/Overseas; Prof. Mahesh Tandon, Eminent Bridge Expert and INAE-AICTE visiting Professor at IIT Roorkee & Kanpur will talk on Infrastructure Projects for Commonwealth Games, 2010 as State of Art Lecture. About 13 Keynote lectures and 82 research papers have been selected for presentation in the seminar. The seminar covers following Sub-themes: Sustainable Infrastructure Planning and Construction Green Building Construction and Green Retrofitting Advances in Construction Materials and Technologies Tall Building and Special Structures Design and Construction for Extreme Loads Repair and Rehabilitation of Structures Tunneling, Underground Construction and Ground Improvement Transport Infrastructure System Water resources and Management Waste Utilisation Environmental Aspects of Infrastruture Development
vi Preface
During three days of deliberation, research papers presentation in two parallel sessions on above themes shall be addressed. It is expected that all participants shall be greatly benefited and will transform subsequently towards sustainable development while undertaking infrastructure development in real life. On this occasion, The Institution of Engineers (India) is also felicitating Eminent Engineer Award for the country to Shri B.N. Singh, Member (Projects), NHAI, New Delhi; Dr. Shailesh Kr. Agrawal, Executive Director, BMTPC, New Delhi; Er. D.V. Singh, Director (Technical.), THDC India Ltd.; and Er. P.Y. Manjure, Director, Freyssinet Pre-stressed Concrete Co. India Ltd., Mumbai for their immense contribution in the field of Civil Engineering. Similarly Dr. Pradeep Kumar T.V., Resident Consultant, Tandon Consultants Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore; Dr.. Bappaditya Manna, and Dr. Dipti Ranjan Sahoo, Asst. Professor, Deptt. of Civil Engg., IIT Delhi will also be awarded as IEI Young Engineers Award 2012-13 in the field of Civil Engineering Division. We express our sincere thanks to all Keynotes speakers, Authors and Professionals for their valuable contribution in sharing R&D thoughts. We express our gratitude to our Patrons, Members of National advisory Committee and Organising Committee for their continuous support. Financial assistance provided by the Sponsors and the Co-sposors is gratefully acknowledged. We also acknowledge our gratitude to IIT Roorkee, CSIR-CBRI Roorkee, NIH, Roorkee and BEG & C, Roorkee for their support from time to time to make this event successful. We place on record our appreciation to editorial team and production staff of Excel India Publishers for their support in publishing proceedings volume for the Seminar. We are confident that the efforts of this Twenty-eighth National Convention of Civil Engineers and National Seminar would be useful for the cause of sustainable development in the infrastructure scenario of India.
Editors
S.K. Singh M. Parida V.K. Gupta Ajay Chourasia
National Advisory Committee

Patrons Prof. Pradipta Banerji
Director, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Prof. S.K. Bhattacharyya, FNAE Director, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee Chairman Er. S.L. Garg, FIE
President, The Institution of Engineers (India), Kolkata
Co-Chairman Er. Ashok Basa, FIE

Chairman, CVDB, The Institution of Engineers (India), Kolkata
Members Padmashree Prof. A.S. Arya Prof. A.K. Jain

Head, CED, IIT Roorkee Dr. Arun Goel, FIE Member, CVDB, IEI Er. Anoop Singh, FIE Member, CVDB, IEI Er. A.V. Shivapur, FIE Member, CVDB, IEI Former National Seismic Adviser
Er. Jose Kurian

Chief Engineer, DTTDC, New Delhi Ms J.C. Deshpande, FIE Member, CVDB, IEI Er. K.P. Tripathi, FIE Chairman, IEI, Dehradun
Er. L.K. Jain

Past President, IEI, Nagpur
Dr. S.R. Wate

Director, CSIR-NEERI, Nagpur
Director, Thaper Tech. Univ., Patiala Mr. Arup Roy Choudhury, FIE Member, CVDB, IEI Er. Archan Kusum Majumdar, FIE Member, CVDB, IEI Er. A.K. Dutta, FIE Member, CVDB, IEI
Prof. Abhijeet Mukherjee
Dr. Shailesh Kr. Agrawal

Executive Director, BMTPC, N Delhi
Er. Dig Vijay Setia

Brigadier, BEG & C, Roorkee Er. Sisir K. Banerjee, FIE Member, CVDB, IEI Er. S.S. Rathore, FIE Member, CVDB, IEI Prof. S.K. Kaushik, FIE Past-President, ICI, Chennai Er. L.M. Patra, FIE Member, CVDB, IEI
Prof. B. Bhattacharjee
CED, IIT Delhi, New Delhi
Er. S.K. Mittal

DG, CPWD, New Delhi
Prof. C.V.R. Murty

CED, IIT Madras, Chennai
Prof. D.N. Trikha

Former Director, CSIR-SERC (GZB)
Er. Mangu Singh

CMD, DMRC, New Delhi
Prof. D.K. Paul

Deputy Director, IIT Roorkee
Prof. Mahesh Tandon

MD, TCPL, New Delhi
Dr. G.M. Sabnis

Sabnis Inc, USA
Prof. Mukhesh Khare

CED, IIT Delhi, New Delhi Er. M.K. Jadav, FIE Member, CVDB, IEI
Er. H.C.S. Berry, FIE

Member, CVDB, IEI
Er. H.O. Thakare, FIE

Member, CVDB, IEI
Er. Narendra Singh, FIE

Member, CVDB, IEI
viii Committees
Dr. Nagesh R. Iyer

Director, CSIR-SERC, Chennai Prof. Prem Krishna, FNAE Vice President, NAE Er. P.G. Gopalakishnan, FIE Member, CVDB, IEI Er. P.R. Seshadri, FIE Member, CVDB, IEI Er. Qazi N. Ahmad, FIE Member, CVDB, IEI
Er. R.K. Rathore, FIE

Member, CVDB, IEI Er. R.D. Soni, FIE Member, CVDB, IEI
Dr. S. Gangopadhyay
Director, CSIR- CRRI, New Delhi
Prof. Sudhir K. Jain

Director, IIT Gandhi Nagar Er. S.P. Londhe, FIE Member, CVDB, IEI
Er. Ravidass
E-in-C, MCD, New Delhi
Dr. S. Nagabhusana Rao, FIE

Member, CVDB, IEI Dr. U.P. Waghe, FIE Member, CVDB, IEI Er. V. Dhanraj, FIE Member, CVDB, IEI Er. V.K. Gupta, FIE Member, CVDB, IEI
Dr. R.D. Singh

Director, NIH, Roorkee
Prof. R.K. Jain

Chairman, R&D Committee - IEI
Er. R.S.T. Sai

C.M.D., THDC, Rishikesh
Dr. R. Jagadish
Past President, ICI, Chennai
Convener Prof. V.K. Gupta, FIE

Professor in Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Co-Convener Prof. M. Parida, FIE

Professor in Civil Engineering & Head, CTRANS, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Treasurer Dr. B.R. Gurjar, FIE

Honorary Secretary, The Institution of Engineers (India), Roorkee Local Centre
Organizing Committee
Organising Chairman Prof. Satya Prakash, FIE
Chairman, The Institution of Engineers (India), Roorkee Local Centre
Organising Secretary Er. S.K. Singh, FIE

Principal Scientist, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee
Co-Organising Secretaries Er. Ajay Chourasia

Principal Scientist, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee
Dr. Umesh K. Sharma

Asstt. Professor in Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Committees ix
Members Dr. A.A. Kazmi IIT Roorkee, Roorkee Dr. Achal Mittal CSIR-CBRI, Roorkee Dr. A.K. Minocha CSIR-CBRI, Roorkee Dr. A.K. Lohani NIH, Roorkee Dr. A.K. Pandey CSIR-CBRI, Roorkee Ar. Ashok Kumar CSIR-CBRI, Roorkee Dr. Bhupinder Singh IIT Roorkee, Roorkee Dr. B.K. Rao CSIR-CBRI, Roorkee Prof. Devdas Menon IIT Madras, Chennai Dr. Dharmendra Singh IIT Roorkee, Roorkee Prof. H.R. Wason IIT Roorkee, Roorkee Prof. M.N. Viladkar IIT Roorkee, Roorkee Prof. Mahendra Singh IIT Roorkee, Roorkee Prof. N.M. Bhandari IIT Roorkee, Roorkee Prof. N.K. Samadhiya IIT Roorkee, Roorkee Ar. Neeta Mittal CSIR-CBRI, Roorkee Er. N.K. Sharma UK Irrigation Deptt. Er. Neelesh Shah NBCC India Ltd., New Delhi Prof. Pradeep Bhargava IIT Roorkee, Roorkee Prof. Praveen Kumar IIT Roorkee, Roorkee Prof. P.K. Garg IIT Roorkee, Roorkee Dr. R.K. Goel CISR-CIMFR, Roorkee Centre Prof. Rajesh Chandra IIT Roorkee, Roorkee Dr. Rajesh Deolia CSIR-CBRI, Roorkee Dr. Rajeev Goel CSIR-CRRI, New Delhi Prof. S.S. Jain IIT Roorkee, Roorkee Dr. Satyendra Mittal IIT Roorkee, Roorkee Dr. Shishir Sinha IIT Roorkee, Roorkee Prof. S.K. Jain IIT Roorkee, Roorkee Prof. S.P. Singh NIT, Jalandhar Dr. Sanjay Jain NIH, Roorkee Er. Sandesh Aterkar Soilex Consultants P. Ltd., Roorkee Dr. S.R. Karade CSIR-CBRI, Roorkee Prof. V.K. Agrawal IIT Roorkee, Roorkee Dr. Yogendra Singh IIT Roorkee, Roorkee Er. Y.P. Kajale BG Shirke Const. Tech. Ltd., Pune Dr. Zulfequar Ahmad IIT Roorkee, Roorkee
x Committees
Sub Committees
Sub Committee Technical Members Prof. V.K. Gupta*, Dr. R.K. Goel, Prof. M. Parida, Prof. Renu Bharagava, Dr. A.K. Minocha, Dr. Satyendra Mittal, Dr. V.A. Savant, Dr. A.K. Pandey, Ar. Ashok Kumar, Dr. S.R. Karade, Er. S.K. Singh Prof. Satya Prakash*, Prof. V.K. Gupta, Prof. M. Parida, Er. S.K. Singh, Dr. B.R. Gurjar, Dr. Shishir Sinha Prof. Rajesh Chandra, Dr. A.A. Kazmi, Dr. Achal Mittal, Ms. Mansa Swami, Ms. Tarannum Meraj Dr. A.K. Minocha*, Dr. R.P. Maheshwari, Dr. Umesh K. Sharma, Er. Anmol Anand Dr. Dharmendra Singh*, Er. R.D. Diwedi, Er. Malwinder Singh, Sh. Arvind Sharma Prof. M. Parida*, Dr. J.K. Mohnot, Dr. G.D. Ransinchung R.N., Dr. B.K. Maheshwari, Dr. L.P. Singh, Er. M.K. Goyal, Er. Yogesh Shah
Finance Reception Registration Catering Venue Management
Accommodation Dr. Shishir Sinha*, Er. Harsh Verma, Dr. A.K. Lohani, Er. P.K. Azad, Er. Mickey Mecon D. Publication Souvenir Press Publicity and Media Stage Decorations Paper Presentations Transportation Cultural Exhibition Ladies Programme Er. S.K. Singh*, Prof. M. Parida, Prof. V.K. Gupta, Er. Ajay Chaurasia, Dr. B.R. Gurjar, Dr. Satyendra Mittal Dr. B.R. Gurjar*, Dr. Munish K. Chandel, Er. Ajay Chourasia Dr. Satyendra Mittal*, Dr. Achal Mittal Dr. Sanjay Jain, Er. S.K. Singh, Er. Koushik Pandit Ajay Chourasia*, S.K. Negi, S.Y. Kulkarni, Neeta Mittal Dr. J.K. Mohnot*, Dr. Yogendra Singh, Dr. Anil Swarup, Dr. S.R. Karade, Er. Naveen Kumar Dr. Umesh K. Sharma*, Er. Harsh Verma, Er. Sandesh Aterkar, Er. Nikhil Agrawal, Dr. Satyendra Mittal*, Er. Ajay Chaurasia, Prof. M.L. Sharma Ar. Ashok Kumar*, Prof. Rajesh Chandra, Er. Venketesan J., Ms. Riya Bhoumik Ar. Neeta Mittal*, Ms. Ilona Prakash, Ms. Anjul Garg, Ms. Vandana Mittal, Dr. Leena Chaurasia, Ms. Preeti Singh, * Convener of Sub Committee
Contents
Preface Committees v vii
Dr. K.L. Rao Memorial Annual Lecture

1. Some World Records in Structures Designed for India/ Overseas C.R. Alimchandani 1
State of the Art Lecture

2. Infrastructure Projects for Common Wealth Games 2010 Mahesh Tandon 12
Keynotes
3. Non Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering S.K. Kaushik 4. Sustainability in Concrete Recycling T. Noguchi 5. Prospective Housing Technologies for Mass Housing in India Shailesh Kr. Agrawal, J.K. Prasad, S.K. Gupta and Dalip Kumar 6. Sustainability and Service Life of Concrete Structures Exposed to Tropical Conditions B. Bhattacharjee 7. Role of Transportation Development S. Gangopadhyay Infrastructure for Promoting Sustainable 81 27 46 64
75
8. Prefab Building Technology for Sustainable Development: A Concrete Approach in India Yogesh P. Kajale 9. Bharat and IndiaSkewed to Equitable Development Padmashree Anand S. Arya 10. Sustainable Infrastructure Planning, Development and Construction Alpana Mitra 11. Water Resources: Indian Scenarios R.D. Singh
94 110 113 118
Section A Sustainable Infrastructure Planning and Construction

12. Global Warming and Sustainable Cement Concrete-based-infrastructures Rakesh Kumar 13. Sustainable Infrastructure in the Area of Buildings and Roads Shivika Singla and R.R. Singh 133 140
xii Contents
14. Green Street System for Eco-friendly Environment Neeta Mittal 15. Sustainable Transport Strategies for Mega Cities Pooja Singh, P.S. Chani and M. Parida 16. Sustainable Development in Building Materials J.S. Chauhan 17. Physical Infrastructure Planning and Administration for Sustainable Development: A Case Study of Ramtek Kalpana R. Thakare (Kawathekar) and Raju M. Thakare 18. Un-Organized Building ConstructionA Case Study of Gwalior, MP (India) Archana Tiwari and Dinesh Swarnkar 19. Role of Infrastructure towards Determining Urban Efficiency and Prosperity in Future Shweta J. Raut and Raksha V. Bongirwar 20. Use of Precast Technology for Low Cost Housing K.D. Sadhale, K.A. Sahakari and N. Dias 21. Strategies for Hilly Roads and Transport S.K. Negi, V. Srinivasan and R.K. Garg
145 152 161
169
177
184 191 199
Section B Green Building Construction and Green Retrofitting

22. Comparative Analysis of Building Sustainability Assessment Tools and Identifying Key Attributes for Green Retrofits Ashok Kumar, P.S. Chani and Rajesh Deoliya 23. Evaluation of an Institutional Building using GRIHA Tool: Case Study of IIT Roorkee Anu Singh 24. Green Building Materials - Quantification of Embodied Energy of Houses Deepak Bansal 25. Sustainable Building Design Techniques S.K. Deshmukh and A. Gupta 209
221 230 237
Section C Advances in Construction Materials and Technologies

26. Hybrid Fibre Reinforced ConcreteA Review S.K. Singh, Ajay Chourasia, M.M. Dalbehera and S.K. Bhattacharyya 27. Behaviour of Steel Fibre Reinforced Self Compacting Rubberised Concrete Beams under Monotonic Loading N. Ganesan, Bharati Raj and A.P. Shashikala 243
253
Contents xiii
28. An Experimental Investigation on Confinement of Concrete with PolyVinyl Chloride Pipes P.K. Gupta, N. Lakumalla, G. Ramesh, A.K. Ahuja, P. Bhargava and S.K. Agrawal 29. A Study on Suitability of Concrete Filled UPVC Pipes as Columns P.K. Gupta, G. Ramesh, N. Lakumalla, A.K. Ahuja, P. Bhargava and S.K. Agrawal 30. Analytical Study of Concrete-Filled Tubes in Axial Compression P.K. Gupta and Heaven Singh 31. Influence Fibers on Impact of Ferrocement Slabs Reinforced with PVCCoated Weld Mesh P.B. Sakthivel, A. Jagannathan and R. Padmanaban 32. Polypropylene and Polyester Fiber Reinforced ConcreteA Performance Study Raghunandan V. Kadaba, R. Nagendra and K.R.S. Narayan 33. Experimental Investigation on Behavior of SFRC Beam Column Joints with Haunch Effect A. Murugesan and G.S. Thirugnanam 34. Performance of Hybrid Fiber Reinforced ConcreteRecron 3s Polyester Fibers & Dramix Steel Fibers A.S.S. Sekar, D. Kesavan and K.R.S. Narayan
259
266 274
281
291
299
306
Section D Tall Buildings and Special Structures

35. Measurement of Different Wind Characteristics in Wind Tunnel and Comparison with Codal Values Nikhil Agrawal, V.K. Gupta and Achal K. Mittal 36. Large Deformation Curl out Study on Geometrical Shell Models Ram Ranjan Sahu and Pramod Gupta 37. Influence of Cross-Sectional Shape on Wind Loads on Tall Buildings Ritu Raj, Ashok Kumar Ahuja and Anupam Chakrabarti 38. Estimation of Along-Wind Loads of a Tall Buildings by Equivalent Static Wind Load Method K.R.C. Reddy 39. Construction of Large Shankh Shaped Ferrocement Structure: A Case Study P.C. Sharma, Rajeev Goel, S.K. Singh and Suraj Parkash 317 325 334
339 347
Section E Design and Construction for Extreme Loads

40. Behaviour of Hybrid Fibre Reinforced Concrete Exposed to Fire S.K. Singh, M.M. Dalbehera and S.K. Bhattacharyya 359
xiv Contents
41. Analytical Methods for Determining Fire Resistance of Reinforced Concrete Members Hitesh Lakhani, Tarvinder Singh, G.R. Reddy and K.K. Vaze 42. Behavior of Corroded Reinforced Concrete Beams under Flexure-Numerical Simulation Vinay Mahadik, Akanshu Sharma, Y.M. Parulekar, G.R. Reddy and K.K. Vaze 43. Passive Confinement to Enhance Ductility and Compressibility of Concrete Ziyad A. Khaudhair, P.K. Gupta and A.K. Ahuja 44. The Indian Oil Corporation Ltd (IOCL), Jaipur Explosion and FireLessons Learned R.K. Sharma and B.R. Gurjar
372
380 386
393
Section F Repair and Rehabilitation of Structures

45. Failure Analysis of Structures: Case Studies Ajay Chourasia, S.K. Singh and S.K. Bhattacharyya 46. Rehabilitation of Non-Ductile Reinforced Concrete Building using Steel System S.H. Makade 47. Health Assessment of Building using Vibration Characteristics Ajay Chourasia, S.K. Singh and Jalaj Parashar 48. Optimum Design of FRP Sandwich Core Bridge Deck Tushar Kanti Dey, Anupam Chakrabarti and Umesh Kumar Sharma 49. Shear Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Elements with FRP Franklin F.R. Frederick and V.K. Gupta 50. Corrosion Control Sustainability S.R. Karade in Steel Reinforced Concrete Structures for 433 438 401
409 413 420 427
51. Corrosion Monitoring of Reinforced Concrete Structures D.V.M. Bhaskar and S.R. Karade
Section G Tunnelling, Underground Construction and Ground Improvement

52. Excavation and Ground Improvement Techniques for Tunnels and Underground Structures D.G. Kadkade 53. Effect of Quarry Dust on Strength and Compaction Properties of Expansive Soils T.R. Naveen and Muttana S. Balreddy 54. Closure Behaviour of Tunnels under Squeezing Conditions R.D. Dwivedi, M. Singh, M.N. Viladkar and R.K. Goel 447
457 463
Contents xv
55. Pillar Design Practices in Coal Mines Koushik Pandit, Ajay Chourasia and S.K. Bhattacharyya 56. Underground Horizontal Directional DrillingA Trenchless Technology S.K. Panigrahi, Narendra Kumar and Sameer 57. Underground Vertical Cuts with Nailing Meenal Gosavi, Satyenda Mittal and Swami Saran 58. Behaviour of Soil-Tire Mixed Composite Soil Satyendra Mittal and N. Muni Kumar 59. Effect of Sub-Zero Temperature on Foundation Design Satyendra Mittal, B. Ganjoo and P. Manrai
476 485 491 503 510
Section H Transport Infrastructure System

60. GPR Data Preprocessing Requirements and Techniques S.S. Jain, D.C. Bala and R.D. Garg 61. A Methodology for Dynamic Characterisation of Mixed Traffic on Arterial Roads in India D.H. Vagadia and G.J. Joshi 62. Role of Bus Rapid Transit System in Promoting Sustainable Transportation Gautam Raj G., Ch. Ravi Sekhar, S. Velmurgan and Purnima Parida 63. Prioritization of Maintenance and Rehabilitation Strategy for Multilane Highways Kunal Jain, S.S. Jain and M.P.S. Chauhan 64. Applications of GIS in Enhancing Urban Pavement Management System Yogesh. U. Shah, S.S. Jain, Devesh Tiwari and M.K. Jain 65. Bayesian Methodology in Highway Crash Analysis C. Naveen Kumar, M. Parida and S.S. Jain 66. Genetic Algorithm for Transit Route Network Design Amita Johar, S.S. Jain and P.K. Garg 67. Sensor Based Vehicle Collision Avoidance Techniques using Geospatial Data Vivek Singhal and S.S. Jain 68. Road Safety Audit and Audit Review of National Highway Corridors in Gujarat Mansha Swami, Sunny Deol G., Rakesh K. Singh and M. Parida 69. Effect of Binder and Aggregate on Optimum Binder Content of Bituminous Mixes Praveen Kumar and Maninder Singh Maintenance 557 568 577 521
531 541
551
584
592
600
xvi Contents
70. Influence of Crushing Size of the Aggregates on Bituminous Mix and its Mechanical Properties Archana N. Shagoti and K.M. Mallesh 71. Port and Road Developments-Roast & Boost for Privatization R. Ramakrishnan 72. Use of Expanded Poly-Styrene Geofoam for Construction of Road Embankment Vivek U. Pathade and Sumedh Mhaske 73. Excavation Techniques for Development of Road Infrastructures in Hilly Terrain H.K. Verma, A. Thapliyal, D. Singh, A. Verma, R.K. Goel and V.V.R. Prasad 74. Studies on Use of Modifiers in Bituminous MixesA Review Praveen Kumar, G.D. Ransinchung R.N. and Sharad Kumar
606 611
623
628 638
Section I Water Resources & Management

75. Coefficient of Discharge for Side Orifices in Open Channel Flow A. Hussain, Z. Ahmad and C.S.P. Ojha 76. Two-Tier Walls for Forebay of Maneri Bhali Hydropower Project Stage-II Rajendra Chalisgaonkar, Mukesh Mohan and Sanjay Singh 77. Application of Information Technology in Hydrological Data Analysis A.K. Lohani and Manoj Goel 78. Flooding Hazards, Prediction and MitigationEmerging Issues Rajendra Chalisgaonkar, Mukesh Mohan and Sanjay Singh 79. Applying Traditional Knowledge of Water Management for Construction Poorva M. Kulkarni 80. Rainfall Trend Analysis in Saharanpur District of UP State-Agricultural Context Pankaj Garg, Gopal Krishan, M.S. Rao, C.P. Kumar and Rajesh Aggarwal 81. Implementation of Decision Support System for Integrated Water Resources Development and Management A.K. Lohani, Rakesh Kumar and R.D. Singh 82. Assessing the Dynamics of Glacier Lake Outburst Flood and its Impact on Hydro Power Projects A.K. Lohani, Sanjay Jain and R.D. Singh 651 658 663 673 680
691
699
708
Section J Waste Utilisation

83. Construction and Demolition Waste ManagementA Case Study of Pune Vaishali Anagal, Geeta Nagarkar, Kanchan Atnurkar and Anisha Patel 717
Contents xvii
84. Use of Solid Waste Generated at Oxide Production Facility of Zirconium Complex, Pazhayakayal, Tuticorin in Preparation of Clay Bricks K. Ganesan, M. Palavesam, S.K. Jain and G. Kalyanakrishnan 85. Application of Industrial and Agricultural Waste Materials for Highway Construction Praveen Kumar, G.D. Ransinchung R.N. and Aditya Kumar Anupam 86. Properties of Recycled Concrete Aggregate and its Use in Buildings and Other Structures Surya Maruthupandian, V.V.L. Kanta Rao and Lakshmy Parameswaran 87. Recycling of PavementsAn Approach Suitable Development T. Anil Pradyumna, Abhishek Mittal and P.K. Jain 88. Utilization of Ceramic Ware Waste in Construction K.L. Chhabra and Rajeev for Sustainable
733
737
748
753 760
Section K Environmental Aspects of Infrastructure Development

89. Prediction of Hourly Surface Ozone Concentrations at Major Traffic Intersection using Artificial Neural Network Approach Chandrrasekar, Bhola Ram Gurjar and C.S.P. Ojha 90. Development of Car RealWorld Driving Cycle for Sustainable Development: A Case Study Bagul Tushar Rajendra, Shingare Vilash Rajendra and Rakesh Kumar 91. Advance Treatment Technologies for Pharmaceutical Effluents Vijayalakshmi Gosu and B.R. Gurjar 92. Indian Coal Fired Power Plants: Sustainable Technologies P.P. Walvekar and B.R. Gurjar 93. Environmental Clearance for Infrastructure Projects in India Niraj Sharma, Rajni Dhyani, Sumi Biswas and Anil Singh AUTHOR INDEX 767
772 778 785 790 799
Twenty-eighth NCCE & National Seminar on Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development The Institution of Engineers (India), Roorkee Local Centre, IIT Roorkee Campus
Dr. K.L. Rao Memorial Annual Lecture
Some World Records in Structures Designed for India/ Overseas

C.R. Alimchandani
Chairman & Managing Director, M/s Stup Consultant Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, India; chairman@stupmail.com
INTRODUCTION
A good conceptual design requires an inventive mind, an excellent grasp and understanding of the main parameters which have to be optimized in order to achieve the best results whilst conceiving a structure. The best results are obtained when the structure fulfills its function at the minimum initial cost, minimizes carbon emission, has low maintenance cost, has the required durability of around a 100 years (with normal maintenance), has good aesthetics and utilizes technology which maximizes the use of less expensive local resources. The construction environment in the developing countries of Asia and Africa varies considerably from that of developed countries. On the one hand we have the South Asian sub-continent and China with cheap and abundant labour, technicians, engineers and enterprising contractors, who aspire to take up work involving new technology, but need to be trained to utilize the same. These contractors in the South Asian Subcontinent have a comparatively low capital base and therefore need to be equipped with affordable specially designed enabling equipment which is in harmony with their construction environment. On the other hand we have the oil rich countries of West Asia where everything requires to be imported including labour, engineers, materials, and equipment - the high cost of personnel results in the adoption of more mechanized techniques, local contractors are however often new in this business, and the principal task is to train their labour and technical personnel. In South Asia the ratio of cost of labour and machinery to materials is respectively, 30%: 70%, (on some projects 35%: 65%) while in West Asia it is similar to Europe, that is, 60 %: 40%. The South East Asian environment lies somewhere between that of South Asia and West Asia. Africa presents especially difficult problems arising from a less developed construction industry and local administration, except in South Africa and Zimbabwe and some countries in North Africa Indian Engineers have to make very light designs i.e. with the minimum consumption of cement and steel. If the world has now come to seriously worry about reducing these materials to reduce carbon emissions please come to inspect the works of some of our most innovative designers in India, who continue to economize on materials because these materials still remain the most important component of construction cost (about 30 years ago the cost of labour to materials was 25%: 75% and the minimum mechanization was used). The level of construction activity of India, which will within a few decades becomes the largest in the world, already throws up before the Indian Engineer challenging sizes of individual structures which might be the longest, largest or tallest in the world. I am going to speak to you on a few achievements of this type which have occurred over 49 years which our Company M/s STUP Consultants Pvt. Ltd. (STUP) had to design and get constructed.
2 Twenty-eighth NCCE & National Seminar on Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development
INDIAN AIRLINES CARAVELLE AND BOEING 707 HANGAR ROOF

The roof of the Caravelle and Boeing 707 hangar for Indian airlines in Mumbai has a prestressed concrete stayed folded plate roof. It has two stayed cantilevers of 204-6" (62.3 m) span on either side of the 90 (27.4 m) wide Central Service Complex. The stayed cantilever roof held and possibly still holds a world record for cantilever span for this type of construction.
View 1: Roof of the Caravelle and Boeing 707 hangar for Indian Airlines, Mumbai
View 2 shows a typical cross section and a longitudinal section of the hangar. The roof proper consists of very thin folded plates of 25 (7.6 m) module with webs inclined at 45. For the greater portion of the cantilever roof the thickness of flanges and webs of the folded plate are 4 (10.80 cm) and 3 (8.25 cm) respectively.
View 2: Typical Cross Section and a Longitudinal Section of the Hangar
The continuous folded plate roof is stayed by prestressed concrete ties as shown. The overall economy and great slenderness of the structure becomes apparent, if one converts the total concrete used for the folded plate roof and Prestressed Concrete Stays in the cantilever portion into a uniformly thick slab covering the same area, this works out to 8" (20 cm) average thickness, which corresponds to the concrete usually consumed by a 12 (3.6 m) canopy at the entrance of a building. The forward portion of the roof beyond prestressed Stays is in R.C.C. and has a length of 57-6" (17.5 m). The inclined struts supporting the P.C. stays are provided with Freyssinet hinges at the junctions with the roof in order to permit free rotations. The stays are anchored in inclined cross diaphragms provided for this purpose. The continuous length of each module is 499 (152 m) and each module is supported on two columns spaced 90 (27 m) apart through Freyssinet Concrete Hinges and which in turn are supported on RCC columns transmitting the load on internal columns running down the faces of the Central Service Complex and resting on pile foundations.
Some World Records in Structures Designed for India/ Overseas 3
View 3 shows the front view from the outside of the hangar with one Airbus 300 and one Caravelle (although there was space for 4 of the latter being serviced simultaneously). Aircraft of M/s Air India, however, used this hangar for servicing one Airbus 300 on each side as they purchased these wide-bodied jets instead of the Boeing 707s and the length of both these Aircraft was the same and requested STUP to modify one of the folds on each side of the hangar to accommodate the taller tails of the Airbus 300 on each side of the stayed cantilever portion which was also very challenging work.
View 3: Outer View of the Hangar with One Airbus 300
The clear space between the side walls is 300 ft (91.4 m). An expansion joint at the center divides the roof into two units of 150 (45.5 m) each. The tip of the cantilever is expected to deflect by 11" (28 cm) under maximum wind effects plus maintenance and crane loads running over the width of the hangar and the safe movement of the door is ensured by the provision at the roof tip of a concrete channel section of adequate depth. Due to its long span and extreme lightness, the roof has a fundamental period of oscillation of 1 second. In consequence, the design of the structure had to cater for the dynamic effect of wind gusts during cyclonic winds touching speeds of 100 m.p.h (160 kmph). The hangar can be widened as required, as the side walls are independent of the roof. View 4 shows a view of Prestressed Concrete Stays taken from the roof. Each Folded Plate module of 25 (7.5 m) is supported by two prestressed concrete stays of 13 (33.5 cm) dia. provided with 9 Nos. 127 mm cables and cast to a slight parabolic profile to minimize bending effects in the ties. The picture also shows thin prestressed concrete transversal ties provided at the level of the top flange of the folded plate in order to reduce spans of the edge beams.
View 4: Prestressed Concrete Stays from the Roof
The roof of this hangar was designed for M/s Indian Airlines Corporation by STUP and constructed by B.E. Billimoria & Co.this complex hangar was their maiden venture in prestressed
concrete and was achieved in co-ordination with the construction Assistance Department of STUP. The hangar was completed in 1972.
AIR INDIA 747 JUMBO JET HANGARS

View 5 shows the cross section of the First hangar for Jumbo Jets designed for Air India at Mumbai. The roof is a giant structural steel cantilever truss suspended by structural steel ties, struts and backties. The overhang of the cantilever is 257 (78 m) and its total is 317 (96.5 m) which is believed to be a world record for this type of structure.
View 5: Typical Cross Section of the First Hangar for Jumbo Jets, Mumbai
Apart from the dimensions of the roof, this hangar is notable for the very interesting use of epoxy coated prestressed rock anchor cables for providing structural stability to this un-balanced cantilever. Each frame of the roof is connected at the rear to the reinforced concrete service building through cast steel bearings which are held in position by prestressing. In a vertical sense, since the weight of the building is inadequate, two sets of 3 Nos. 248 mm prestressing cables descend through the columns and are anchored in rock up to a depth of 50 (15.2 m) below rock level to anchor each cantilever at its rear end. Anchorage is also required at the support on the inner face. A typical section through a 248 mm rock anchor at its lower end is shown in View 6. The anchor length is 15 ft (4.5 m) and the free portion above the plug is enclosed in a PVC duct filled with non-corrosive grease for protection. A water-tight epoxy plug is provided at the bottom of the PVC duct. The anchor portion of the cables is treated with a special epoxy coating completed by adding powdered quartz on the last coating when it is still tacky to improve its bond with grout in the anchor portion. The use of ungrouted cables permits periodic monitoring of prestressing forces in cables. These have been tested every year over 20 years, which is more than adequate to be sure of the quality of the anchorage system. View 7 shows the completed hangar housing a Boeing 747. The hangar was commissioned on 10th July 1973 and gives the worlds the longest stayed cantilever roof and the worlds oldest epoxy coated rock anchorage system with epoxy grout to anchor such a roof. The largest steel cantilever was adopted because there were smaller existing hangars below the same and the lease for these hangars would expire and the small Hangars could be demolished only 3 months before the Air India Hangar had to become functional. There was no way of constructing this hangar without making it a stayed cantilever anchored to the Stores Building. The tip of the cantilever roof was very deformable H 2.4" (0.74 m) in service and doors had to be engineered to accommodate the same with a 1.5 factor of safety. The Hangar was designed to accommodate the future Boeing SSTs to compete with the Concorde. But the Boeing SST never got built because of the rapid rise in cost of Hydrocarbons at the beginning of the decade commencing 1970.
View 6: Rock Anchor
View 7: Outer View of the Hangar
The hangar was designed for Air India by STUP and built by the Engineering Construction Corporation Ltd.
MADRAS ATOMIC POWER PROJECT I & II

In the second generation of nuclear containments (1967), near Madras, MAPP I & II, and India achieved a quantum leap in safety by pioneering the concept of a double containment (View 8). The inner prestressed concrete containment provides a leak tight environment which can withstand the internal pressures and temperatures it is designed for. The outer wall provides a second barrier and additional horizontal radiation protection. The annular space between the containments is constantly maintained at below atmospheric pressure (-0.2 Atmospheres) to aspirate any leakage occurring during an accident. The outer wall of the reinforced masonry also protects the inner containment from rain, wind and sun, reduces the risk of corrosion and provides a barrier for external objects such as collision with enemy fighter aircraft, missiles and wind borne objects in cyclones.
Rajasthan Atomic Power Project I & II
Madras Atomic Power Project I & II
View 8: Double Nuclear Containment
The dousing tank was no longer required because the prestressed containment can take much higher pressures. However an interesting safety aspect was the division of the reactor into two volumes by a horizontal slab so that during maximum / critical accidents, the initial pressure and temperature rise in the upper volume results in hot gases and steam being forced downwards through vent pipes to bubble through a pressure suppression pool at the bottom of the Reactor Buildinga cheap and trouble free device which brings down temperatures and pressures rapidlythis has become a feature of all subsequent designs. Another interesting aspect of this reactor is the roof surfacing. Instead of rock wool insulation with aluminum cladding as in the first 2 reactors built at Rajasthan near Kota, an inexpensive design using local materials was adopted; brick aggregate in lime concrete, faced with china mosaic. The painstakingly hand rammed brick bat concrete resulted in an excellent waterproof and insulating layer and the china mosaic provided a reflective surface which also helped distribute cracks to minimize the danger of seepage of rain through the China mosaic (View 9). Note that there is extensive use of stone masonry in this structurethe entire outer containment is of reinforced masonry. This is because excellent granite is readily available in the area, a lot of which came out of the excavation for the Reactor Building itself. The outer containment is unique in that it is the only instance of a 35 m. tall, 71 cm. thick, free standing cylindrical shell made of reinforced masonry. This was possible because the local workmen are very skilled in stone work and were available at a very low cost per man day.
View 9: Insulation & Water Proofing with Locally Available Material
8 km away on the same shore, a temple in dry granite masonry, still stands against the sea wind and rain, since 12 centuries View 10.
View 10: View of Temple in Dry Granite Masonry
Apart from their greatly enhanced quality and reliability, the MAPP 1 & II Reactor buildings were 25% cheaper than the modified RAPP 1 & II. This project is an example of improved performance and cost optimization obtained by utilising an advanced design approach combined with development of construction technology suitable to the local environment. The double wall innovation has been adopted in all French and Indian reactor buildings constructed since 1967. It has also thereafter been adopted by all the countries in the world. India has 20 Reactor Buildings owned by the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) and all of them have been engineered by STUP in close cooperation with the owners Scientists and Engineers. India plans to add forty 1000 to 1650 MW Nuclear Power Stations running on imported Uranium, so that India produces clean Nuclear Energy in place of dependence on Hydrocarbons which will emit various pollutants.
Worlds Tallest Natural Draught Cooling Tower-202m Tall in High Wind Velocity Zone in India
Two Natural Draught Cooling Towers of 202m height are under construction for the 2x600 MW Kalisindh Thermal Power Station at Jhalawar, in Rajasthan. The thermal sizing has been done by M/s GEA Cooling Tower Technologies (India) Limited and BGR Energy Systems Limited (BGRESL) are constructing the NDCTs. M/s STUP Consultants P. Ltd. (STUP) are doing the complete structural, civil and detailed electronic, electrical and lightning protection engineering of the NDCTs for BGRESL.
The shell of one tower is complete. This is how it looks from the ground (view 11).
View 11: 202 m High Natural Draught Cooling Tower, Jhalawar, Rajasthan
The construction of the second tower is in progress. The sizes of the buildings in the background are dwarfed due to the large size of the Cooling Tower, which was photographed by ascending to the top of the 275 m high chimney view 12.
View 12: Construction View of Cooling Tower
Each tower is designed for circulation of water at the rate of 75,000 cum/hr. The circulating water has turbidity more than normal water. The area is prone to high winds and the towers are designed for a wind speed of 181 kmph corresponding to a return period of 100 years. The size of the Cooling Towers can be judged from the dwarfed size of Buildings around them. Enhancement of the wind load due to the adjacent cooling tower and all power plant structures shown here are based on wind tunnel tests carried out at the National Wind Tunnel Facility at the Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur. A simplified layout of the plant containing all structures taller than 20m is presented here view 13.
View 13: Wind Tunnel Test of Cooling Tower
View 14: View Showing the Shells Inside the Wind Tunnel
It is interesting to observe that one of the tower models was an Aero-elastic model provided with strain gauges which confirmed the tensions and compression which occurred on the outside of the shell while it was in service view 15.
View 15: Another View Showing the Shells Inside the Wind Tunnel
The shape and dimension are selected so as to be highly economical in consumption of cement and steel and therefore in cost to the contractor. The contractor observed that we had saved 30% cost as compared to their own structural design. For the 202 m tall Cooling Towers, the ratio of height to sill diameter is 1.353 and the ratio of throat diameter to sill diameter is 0.583. The corresponding ratios in India are normally 1.2 and 0.50. The Aero-elastic model test carried out showed conclusively the safety of the shells under the enhanced wind loads plus the deadweight of the shell and thermal stresses view 16.
View 16: Thermal Stress View of Cooling Tower
The salient dimensions are: Total height of tower above finished ground level Total height of tower above bottom of the foundation Height above finished ground level at throat level Diameter at sill level Diameter at throat level The last two dimensions are at the centerline of shells. The structural analysis indicated that load combinations including earthquake forces are not governing as compared to wind load combinations. Critical design forces under wind load are determined as follows: : : : : : 202.0 m 212.0 m 150.0m 149.35m 87.00m
1. Analysis of tower considering wind load of 181 kmph as per Indian code IS 875. 2. Determination of critical wind pressure by conducting wind tunnel test with adjacent structures around.
The enhanced pressures are applied on the detailed FEM model of the NDCT using NISA and SAP-2000 software and the analysis is performed. The tension and compression on strain gauges fixed to the outer side of the Aero-elastic shells confirmed the design values.
Some World Records in Stru uctures Designe ed for India/ Ove erseas 11
Mini imum factor r of safety of f 5.0 has bee en used agai inst local as well as snap p through bu uckling of the shel ll. Local bu uckling is ch hecked as per p BS: 4485. Vertical and horizon ntal reinforce ement is calculate ed for the wo orst wind loa ad case and provided p alo ong the full ci ircumference e. The foundation of the tower is an open n annular fou undation of 8.50 m widt th at 10.00 m below finished ground leve el. The uplift of the found dation under r wind is che ecked as per BS: 4485 an nd it was decided that the foundation shal ll be enginee ered for uplift t within a seg gment of 30 degrees in plan. p The total hei ight of the to ower from bo ottom of foun ndation is 212 m view 17 7.
View 17: Typical View of f Foundation n
The fo ollowing dura ability measu ures are taken for the sev vere environm ment at site:
1. Minimum conc crete grade M 30 2. Minimum cem ment content 360 kg.cum. 3. Minimum cove er to reinforc cement 50mm m for shell and 75mm fo or foundation ns.
n generatio on of NDCT Ts with highe er ratio of tot tal height These NDCTs are good examples of a new a and smalle er curvature in i the merido onal plane fo or better econ nomy of mat terials. to sill dia The thermal sizin ng of these towers t (prese ently done by y M/s GEA on o the insiste ence of the owners o of the Pow wer Station) could have been optim mized to redu uce overall size s of the t tower as che ecked by STUPs thermal desi ign team.
CONCL LUSION
Challeng ges in Concr rete Structur res arrive in Developed Countries or o Developin ng Countries within a short tim me after each h other in the e current Wo orld which is becoming a Global Villag ge. In Cooling C Tow wers, the cha allenges will be larger for r India due to smaller T Thermal App proaches; Challeng ges are also greater in India because the Design Engineer, E in addition, to innovation has h to do more to lead contrac ctors and wo orkers to build such struct tures. In th he current World W atmosp phere of tryin ng to reduce e carbon emi issionsthe b best Indian Engineers E have som mething to contribute c to the Develop ped World.
State of the Art Lecture
Infrastructure Projects for Common Wealth Games 2010

Mahesh Tandon
Managing Director, Tandon Consultants Pvt. Ltd, India INAE-AICTE Distinguished Visiting Professor, IIT Kanpur & IIT Roorkee; tandon@tcpl.com
INTRODUCTION
The 19th Common Wealth Games (CWG 2010) were held in Delhi from 3 to 14 Oct 2010. About 6500 athletes and officials representing 71 Common Wealth nations and dependencies competed in 17 sports disciplines and 272 events. This was the largest sports event ever held in India. It was also the first time that Common Wealth games were held in the country. Holding an event of this magnitude is an expensive exercise with the enhancement of the host countrys image being the main motivation. The hosting of such a mega event requires the development of games village, sporting venues and ofcourse large infrastructure projects. The infrastructure projects in the city had to be planned on an ambitious scale as mobility within Delhi was perceived as difficult and congested and evaluated as a risk area. Major flyovers, traffic interchanges and metro (MRTS) structures contributed significantly in uplifting the image as well as the visual quality and character of the city of Delhi. Archeological monuments in the city of Delhi had to be specially catered to in the concept, design and construction of these infrastructure projects. It is proposed to give a brief exposure to the major traffic interchanges, elevated road, elevated corridor and MRTS structure which constituted the landmark projects of the games. These projects employed a variety of techniques and were constructed in an incredibly short time. Tandon Consultants Pvt Ltd acted as the Design Consultants for six of these projects while they were proof checkers for the seventh. The projects include: 1. Three Level Grade Separator at Ghazipur Intersection on NH-24 2. Barapulla Elevated Corridor: The fast-track Village to Venue project. 3. Badarpur Elevated Corridor to connect Delhi to Haryana 4. Mukarba Chowk Grade Separator to disperse traffic at Delhi Border 5. Flyover at Intersection of NH-24 and Bund Road near Commonwealth Games Village 6. Underpass at Rotary Near Domestic Airport Along Road Connecting to Dwarka 7. Extardosed Bridge at Moolchand Intersection for Delhi Metro
UNDERLYING CONCEPTS
The most important elements constituted the concepts related to the enhancement of environmental performance of these infrastructure projects. These elements are identified below:
Infrastructure Projects for Common Wealth Games 2010 13
Evolving structural shapes that would be aesthetic and enhance the quality of the environment Developing concepts that would result in a reduce period of construction. Conservation of natural resources Conservation of Archeological monuments and heritage structures Utilising the space occupied by the citys landfill and garbage dump for socially relevant purposes Minimising structures and maximising ground level roads and embankments to reduce costs and environmental impact Use of fly ash and geogrids in embankments thereby enhancing sustainability Use of blast furnace slag cement thereby utilizing industrial by-product Encouraging pedestrians, cyclists and public transportation in preference to personal motorized vehicles Signalfree junction for movements of traffic in all directions thereby reducing pollution from stationary vehicles Integrating existing structures, facilities and water bodies as part of the overall design concept Delhi falls in Seismic Zone IV and all the structures cater to the requirement of earthquake resistant design.
Identification of Innovative Technologies

Precast segmental superstructure where practical for speedy construction Diaphragm wall for speedy, safe and traffic friendly construction of under ground structures using top-down techniques Segment lifter employed for the first time in country for speedy construction and no disturbance to existing traffic for some of the balanced cantilever construction spans Integral structure bridges for enhanced seismic performance, durability and safety during construction Elastomeric bearings as seismic dampers Mechanised slip formed crash barriers for speedy and well finished construction.
The Infrastructure Projects of CWG 2010 in Brief

How some of the ideas discussed above were translated into the projects of CWG 2010 is discussed in the remaining part of this paper
Three Level Grade Separator of Ghazipur Intersection at on NH-24

The 3-level grade separator on the critical intersection of NH-24 & Road no.56 in East Delhi (Fig 1) was constructed for the Commonwealth Games 2010. A flyover is aligned along NH-24 and an Underpass perpendicular to it. The existing rotary at ground level was retained but modified to suit the functional requirements (Fig 2). The 800m long flyover consists of 2 separate carriageways of 4 lanes each. The twin-leaf substructure is monolithic to the superstructure to constitute an integral bridge. Cast-in-situ balanced cantilever construction was adopted to yield 4-span and 3-span modules. The 680m long Underpass (Fig 3) is constructed using diaphragm walls along its periphery in the longitudinal direction. Tension piles were used with the base slab to counteract uplift due to the high water table. The portion of the Underpass crossing the rotary was covered with a deck slab cast into the diaphragm walls.
Pedestrian bridges (3 nos.) consisting of steel arch with a span of 70m suspending the walkway were incorporated for crossing major arterial roads at Ghazipur, Delhi (Fig 4). Other interesting features relate to the integration of all modes of transportations (cars, buses, trucks, twowhelers, three-wheelers) as well as pedestrians into the scheme. The overall landscaping is awe-inspiring with the existing water body forming a very pleasing feature of the same.
Fig. 1: Google Map of the Location
Fig. 2: Completed Structure Enhancing Environment
Fig. 3: Integration of Cycle Tracks in Underpass
Fig. 4: Ghazipur Intersection on NH-2460m: Arch FOB
Barapulla Elevated Corridor: The Fast-Track Village to Venue Project

Commissioned by the PWD Government of Delhi for the Commonwealth Games (CWG 2010), the elegant design of Barapulla Elevated Corridor (Fig 5) was envisaged as a dedicated signal-free access to transport participants from the Games Village to the Main Venue (Jawahar Lal Nehru Stadium). Located along the existing Baraulla Nallah drain, the 4.5 km long viaduct consisting of 2 separate structures of 10m width each for the up and down traffic has an important legacy value for the city for the east-west traffic, Fig 6.
Fig. 5: Barapulla Elevated Corridor: Layout and Completed Structure
The innovative design concept was geared for high speed construction (time available: 20 months) using precast prestressed segmental techniques (no. of segments 3000) for most of the alignment including obligatory spans (upto 85.0 m), employing Balanced Cantilever construction. Standardisation was the key to cost-optimisation while decreasing the expansion joints in the deck led to increased riding comfort. Flexibility in design for accommodating modifications in alignment, span arrangement and foundation configuration contributed greatly in avoiding relocation of underground and overhead utilities during construction. Delhi is a city of archeological monuments and a highly sensitive approach is required to be taken for their preservation. Each of the major crossingspresented difficult challenges. For instance, the block-time for the Northern Railway tracks was limited to a mere 2 hours on alternate days, (Fig 7), while the deck level had to be raised to 20m to provide an uninterrupted view of the Khan-iKhana Tomb on Mathura Road (Fig 8). Sharp curvatures and skew crossings characterised the alignment to avoid crossings above the ancient Barapurlla Bridge and to ensure that the elevated corridor can be built without slowing on shutting down traffic.
Fig. 6: Segmental Construction over Lala Lajpat Rai Crossing
Fig. 7: The Railway Crossing under Construction
Fig. 8: Barapulla Planning: View of Khan-i-Khanas Tomb from Mathura Road
Badarpur Elevated Corridor, New Delhi

Constructed as a part of the Golden Quadrilateral under NHDP on BOT basis this 4.4km long 2x3 lane elevated highway is located on Delhi-Agra Section of NH-2. It crosses 5 major intersections and has 2 toll plazas. It is characterized by spectacular geometrics, which has earned for itself the nick name of jalebi chowk, Fig 9. Apart from several vehicular and pedestrian underpasses the project also caters to interchanges and ramps to provide for a seemless signal-free ride. Precast prestressed concrete segmental construction (2200 nos. segments) was the predominant technique used for the spans varying from 28m to 46m and carriageway width of 11.8m, Fig 10. The governing weight of the segment was 60t. Design innovations could ensure simplicity of construction techniques and eventually reduced maintenance in service conditions resulting in considerable economy for the concessionaire. The project completion schedule of 24 months was cut short to 23 months, which accrued to the advantage of the public as well as the concessionaire. The flexibility in the design concept permitted modifications in span arrangement required during construction when unchartered utilities were encountered. Highlights of the design included minimum disturbance to existing traffic at ground level during construction and the creation of an outstanding visually arresting concrete structure. The sharp curvatures required to fit the structure to the alignment introduced complexities in segmental construction that were successfully addressed by the designer and the contractor.
Fig. 9: Badarpur Elevated Highway: JALEBI CHOWK
Fig. 10: Precast Segmental Construction in Progress
Fig. 11: Clear Lines Demonstrating Quality of Construction and Landscaping for Enhancing Environment
Mukarba Chowk Grade Separator to Disperse Traffic at Delhi Border

The path-breaking 8-lane main flyover (Fig 12) consists of a continuous steel box girder with a composite concrete slab (Fig 13). The superstructure has been widened to 10-lanes to incorporate bus-stops at deck level that caters to facilities like ramps, stairs and escalators for vertical movement and under-bridges for cross-overs for passengers, Fig 14. The aesthetically designed slip road and loop structures (Figs 15, 16) are integral concrete bridge construction, allowing for the elimination of bearings and expansion joints. The structures have specially designed features for earthquake resistance (Fig 17) as well as those that cater to poor soil conditions that have a high liquefaction potential. The Mukerba Chowk intersection which was conceived as a green project threw up design challenges in the form of the citys garbage dump and several nallahs at the site. Use of flyash, blast furnace slag cement, segregation of motorized vehicles from cyclists and pedestrians, integrating the existing features at site, Fig.18, (archeological monument, burial ground, and sub-station) and creation of innovative and aesthetic structural designs were some of the highlights of project.
Fig. 12: Model of Mukerba Chowk Traffic Interchange
Fig. 13: Continuous Stell Box Girder with Composite Concrete Slab
Fig. 14: Example of Ramp Leading to Pedestrian Subway
Fig. 15: Cross Road Leading to Loops
Fig. 16: Mukarba Chowk Grade Separator: Main Flyover and Loops
Fig. 17: Seismic Restraints
Fig. 18: Existing Features at Site
Flyover at Intersection of NH-24 and Bund Road Near Commonwealth Games Village
This 750m long flyover constitutes a vital link to and from the CWG Village. It is located at the junction of Bund Road and NH-24. The superstructure comprises precast beam cast-in-situ slab type of construction, Fig 19. Four modules of 25m+30m+25m of continuous decking ensured minimizing of expansion joints and better riding quality In order to ensure stability of precast PSC girders during erection, they were temporarily anchored to the pier caps using special stabilizing arrangements (Fig 20). The 30m long (67t) and 25m long (54t) post-tensioned girders were erected on to the pier cap by two cranes, one from each end. Adjoining girders were also interconnected for stability. These arrangements were removed only after casting of deck slab and diaphragms. Aesthetically pleasing shape of piers and pier caps are the highlights of visually arresting features where landscaping enhanced the quality of environment. The poor sub-strata proposed difficult problems for the foundations. Special features of design include tackling the problem of liquefaction of upto 8.0m depth. The pile diameter had to be increased from 1.2m to 1.5m in order to provide adequate rigidity to the structure under liquefaction condition for the 28m deep piles. Forces due to post earthquake event termed lateral spreading had also to be accounted for in the design.
Fig. 19: Flyover Near Commonwealth Games Village: Completed Structure
Fig. 20: Flyover Near CWG Village: Stabilizing Arrangement of PSC Girders
22 Twen nty-eighth NCCE E & National Se eminar on Role of o Infrastructure e for Sustainable e Development
Underp pass at Rot tary Near Domestic D A Airport alo ong Road Connecting C g to Dwark ka
Heavy traffic t conges stion existed at the Rota ary outside th he Domestic Airport, Del lhi. It was fo ound that majority y of the cong gestion was due d to the lar rge traffic vo olume plying between De elhi & Gurga aon going towards Dwarka. A one way 600m long und derpass from m Delhi (Dha aula Kuan) a and Gurgaon n towards Dwarka, , below the existing e Rota ary was thus s concerned (Fig 21). Th his was a mo ost fortunate selection as an elevated e stru ucture in the e vicinity of the termina al building would w have spoilt the cityscape. c Sometim mes it is infin nitely better to o be unobtru usive and subtle in matte ers of infrastr ructure. This was one such occ casion. A co ombination of o Diaphragm m Wall (D-W Wall) and Ret taining Wall was w made to o find an opt timum of construc ction time and a cost an nd yet feasi ible construction. Fig 22 2 shows d diaphragm wall w with tempora ary bracing which w was re equired before casting of f base slab fo or the perma anent conne ection. At certain places, p unde erlying rock is compara atively shallo ow, though still below t the base sla ab of the underpa ass. A specia alized design detailing ha ad to be pre epared to tac ckle such loc cations. The covered portion below the ro otary is 120m m long. Ade equate arrangements for drainage of f the underp pass have m by wa ay of installin ng several submersible s pumps (wit th 50% redu undancy), controlled been made, through logical contr roller and ful lly backed up p with DG Sets. Spec cial highway y geometrics were requir red to merge e NH-8 with the underpa ass due to th he limited land ava ailability at th he Dhaula Ku uan end.
Fig. 21: Un nderpass at Rotary R Near Domestic D Air rport: At Ent try into Cover red Portion
Fig. 22: Construction St tage Showing g Junction of f Diaphragm Wall and Re etailing Wall
Extrdosed Bridge at Moolchand Intersection for Delhi Metro

The Extradosed Bridge of Delhi Metro at Moolchand on the Central Secretariat-Badarpur line is an important crossing over Ring Road. It has a span arrangement of 51.0m+65.5m+51.0m making a total length of 157.5m with a curved alignment (R=100m), Fig 23. The 2.0m deep 10m wide box girder deck accommodates two tracks and was constructed by precast segmental construction (Fig 24) it has axial suspension of stay cables from the 8.0m high pylons. No disturbance of traffic was permitted during construction at this heavily trafficked junction adjacent to which a flyover and underpass already exist. An iconic structure in the middle of city was aptly justified by the low heightstructure which would not unnecessary protrude into the existing city skyline. Some of the highlights of the structure were small height of pylons above the deck, reduced girder depth to match the neighbouring spans and elimination of bearings and expansion joints.
Fig. 23: Extradosed Bridge at Moolchand Intersection for Delhi Metro
Fig. 24: Precast Segmental Construction Extradosed Bridge Crossing Ring Road
Keynotes
Non Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering

S.K. Kaushik
Former Professor & Head, CED, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; kochharatul@ymail.com
AbstractQuality of a civil engineering structure depends on good construction practices. On the other hand, continues repair and maintenance preserve the quality of construction. Non destructive evaluation and testing (NDET) provides relevant meaning for periodic inspections in order to maintain the quality of constructed facilities. In this paper, common NDET methods and their applications in concrete, piles and steel structures have been discussed. The present paper also deals with some new NDET techniques in civil engineering.
INTRODUCTION
The conventional methods adopted for controlling the quality of concrete are by testing standard specimens upto failures. These methods are not intended for determining the in place strength of concrete, since they make no allowance for the effects of placing, compaction, curing, weathering and loading conditions in which the specimens are cast and cured in the laboratory. The concrete in flexural and prestressed members are subjected to a large percentage of their design loads before and developing its 28-days strength. Whereas, in place friction and bored piles in the majority of cases fail because of the loss of integrity of piles in shaft concrete. The routing vertical load tests carried out on working piles do not provide direct information on structural integrity of piles. Also in view of the limited number of tests (0.5%) it is not possible to assure structural qualities of piles. For these reasons, non destructive tests which have also been called in-place tests are needed to determine the concrete strength at critical locations in a structure and at times when crucial construction operations are scheduled. The need of such strength information is emphasized by several construction failures which could have been prevented if in-place testing had been used [7, 26]. Non destructive evaluation is also widely employed is also widely employed for inspecting the condition of metal structures. The application of non destructive testing techniques for concrete and piles is at a stage of infancy mainly due to the heterogeneous nature of the material and lack of information on potential uses of NDT methods. That is why as attempt is made here to explain various NDT methods in civil engineering. Non-destructive techniques, which are less time consuming and relatively inexpensive, can be useful for the following purposes: 1. Test on actual structures rather than on a companion sample 2. Tests at several locations 3. Tests at various ages 4. Quality control of actual structures 5. Assessment of uniformly of concrete 6. Backup for compliance of materials and workmanship with specification 7. Assessing whether forms can be safely removed, curing discontinued, prestress applied, loads imposed etc. 8. Location and assessment of the extent of cracks, voids, honey combs
9. Monitoring progressive changes in the condition of reinforcement in concrete 10. Confirmation of location of suspected distress or deterioration due to overloading, fatigue and chemical attack 11. Measurement of elastic modulus of concrete and so on 12. Assessment of partial durability 13. Integrity testing of piles In view of limitation of each method of non-destructive testing, it is essential that results of tests obtained by one method should be complemented by other tests and each method should be adopted carefully [6, 14, and 15]. The results of non-destructive tests are most useful when supplemented by a limited number of destructive test procedures [1,2].
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

The objective of a non destructive test is to obtain as estimate of properties of material by measuring certain quantities which are empirically related to it. To make a strength estimation, it is necessary to know the relationship between the result of the non destructive test and strength of material as given as Fig. 1. The accuracy of interpretation of results depends directly on the correlation between strength of material and measured quantity. Thus, the user of NDT should have an understanding of what quantity is measured by the test and how this quantity is related to the strength of material. Test methods range widely in reliability and complexity. Hence, appropriate experience is necessary in selection of the proper tests and corrects interpretation. The following tests are generally employed in the field of civil engineering: 1. Non-destructive tests on concrete elements and structures 2. Non-destructive tests on piles 3. Non-destructive tests on metallic components and structures
Non-destructive Testing of Concrete Elements and Structures

The available non-destructive evaluation methods that may be used in the field or in the laboratory to assess the properties and physical condition of structural materials are briefly explained along with its advantages as well as its advantages and limitations [8, 9, 10, 11, 29]. Some of the most common tests are discussed in details.
Rebound Hammer
The operation of rebound hammer (also called Schmidts hammer a Swiss hammer) is illustrated in Fig. 2. When the plunger of rebound hammer is pressed against the surface of concrete, a spring controlled mass rebounds and the extent of such rebound depends the surface hardness of concrete. The rebound distance is measured on a graduated scale and is designated as rebound number (a rebound index). From a fundamental point of view, the test is complex-problem of impact loading and stress wave propagation. Basically, the rebound distance depends on the value of kinetic energy in the hammer, prior to impact with the shoulder of the plunger and how much of that energy is absorbed during impact. Part of the energy is absorbed by concrete which enables one to use the rebound number as an indicator of concrete properties. The energy absorbed by the concrete depends on the stress-strain relationship of concrete. Thus, a low strength, low stiffness concrete. Thus, a low strength, low stiffness concrete will absorb more energy than high strength, high stiffness concrete will give a lower rebound number. The impact energy required for rebound hammers for different applications is given below [15].
Non Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering 29
Table 1
Application For testing normal weight concrete For light weight concrete or small and impact sensitive parts of concrete For testing mass concrete Approx. Impact Energy Required for Rebound Hammers (N-m) 2.25 0.75 30.00
IS: 13311 Pt.2-92 [15] explains the standard procedure for test and correlation between the compressive strength of concrete and the rebound number. A typical calibration chart is shown in Fig. 3. The point of impact on the specimen must not be nearer an edge than 20 mm and should not be less than 20 mm and should not be less than 20 mm away from each other. The same points must not be impacted more than once. In rebound hammer testing, only the concrete in the immediate vicinity of the plunger influences the rebound value. Hence, the test is sensitive to local conditions where the test is performed. To account for these, ASTM C805 [3] requires that 10 rebound numbers be recorded whereas IS: 1311 Pt. 2-92 [15] requires that six rebounded numbers be taken for a test. If an individual reading differs by more than seven units from the average, that reading should be discarded and a new average computed [1]. The various factors which affect the rebound numbers are given below [1, 3, 27, and 15].
Type of Cement
It affects rebound number significantly, hence calibration is required for a particular type of cement used.
Type of Coarse Aggregate

The aggregate type has an effect on the stiffness of the concrete, which is why it is necessary to develop the strength relationship of concrete made with the same materials that will be used for the concrete in the structure.
Surface and Internal Moisture Condition

A dry surface will give higher rebound number than for the moist interior concrete. It has been reported that well cured air dried specimens tested under saturated surface dry condition, show lower rebound number when tested dry [25] as given in Fig.4.
Type of Form
Slightly absorptive oiled plywood can absorb moisture from the concrete and produce a harder surface layer than concrete cast against steel forms.
Presence of Surface Carbonation

It can result in the higher rebound number which is not indicative of the interior concrete. In older concrete, these effects are more severe and increase the rebound number upto 50%.
Curing and Age of Test Specimens

Curing conditions have a greater effect on the strength of surface concrete than several concrete than several from the surface. It has been also reported that the gain of surface hardness of concrete is rapid upto the age of 7 days and after that, there is little or no gain in surface hardness.
Surface Texture
Rough textured concrete indicates lower value due to local crushing under the plunger.
Orientation of Instrument
It affects the rebound distance. Hence, strength relationship must be developed for the same instrument orientation as well as used for inplace testing.
Advantages
Rebound hammer test is very simple in operation, speedy and inexpensive. The user needs to be aware of above mentioned factors which affect the test results when evaluating the quality of the concrete.
Limitations
Rebound hammer has its own limitations. If all factors are taken into consideration the strength of concrete in a structure may determined with in an accuracy of +15%. When little information is available about concrete then the possible error may be upto +25% [15]. It gives the compressive strength upto a limited depth from the surface. Hence, a rebound number may not be representative of the interior concrete.
Applications
1. Determining of concrete uniformity. 2. Strength development monitoring. 3. In-situ strength estimation. 4. Assessment testing in precast concrete industry. 5. Assessing the relative quality of structural members. 6. Acceptance testing in precast concrete industry.
PENETRATION RESISTANCE
In the penetration resistance techniques, one measures the depth of penetration of a rod probe a pin that is forced into the hardened concrete by a driver unit. The probe penetration technique involves the use of specially designed gun to drive a hardened steel probe into the concrete (the commercial test system is known as Windsor Probe given in Fig.5). The initial kinetic energy of the probe is governed by a smokeless powder charge used to propel the probe, location of probe in gun and frictional losses. The exit velocities of probes should not have a coefficient of variation greater than 3% [3]. The probe penetrated into concrete until its initial kinetic energy is completely absorbed by the concrete. The general shape of fractured zone in which most probe is absorbed is as given in Fig. 6. The strength properties of both the mortar and the aggregates influence the penetration distance. This contrasts with the behavior of normal strength concrete in a compression test, where the mortar strength has a predominant influence on the measured compressive strength. Thus, an important characteristic of the probe penetration test is that the type of coarse aggregate has a strong relationship between concrete strength and probe penetration, as given in Fig. 7. For equal compressive strengths, the concrete with the soft aggregate results in greater probe penetration than the concrete with the harder aggregate. Because the probe penetrates into the concrete, test results are usually not affected by local surface conditions such as texture and on Performance Monitoring of Structures, a harder surface layer, as would occur in trowel fishing, can result in low penetration values and excessive scatter of data. In addition, the direction of penetration into the concrete is unimportant provided that the probe is driven in presence of reinforcing bars within the zone of influence of the penetrating probe. Thus, the location of the reinforcing steel should be determined prior to selecting test locations.
The exposed length of the probe is measured by a calibration depth gauge. However, the fundamental relationship is between concrete strength and depth of penetration. Therefore, when assessing the variability of test results, it is preferable to express the coefficient of variation in terms of penetration depth rather than exposed length. A pin penetration test device (PNR Tester), which requires less energy than the Windsor Probe system, is given in Fig. 8. A spring loaded device is used in this system to drive a pointed 3.56 mm diameter hardened steel pin into the concrete. The penetration by the pin creates a small indentation (or hole) on the surface of the concrete. The pin is removed from the hole, the hole is cleaned with an air jet, and the hole depth is measured with a suitable depth gauge. The penetration depth is used to estimate the compressive strength from a previously established strength relationship. In the current test system, the maximum penetration is limited to 7.6 mm. The kinetic energy delivered by the PNR Tester is estimated to be about 1.3% of the energy delivered by the Windsor Probe system. Because of the low energy level, the penetration of the pin is reduced greatly if the pin encounters a coarse aggregate particle. Thus, the test is intended as a penetration test of the mortar fraction of the concrete. A pin becomes blunted after use and hence requires a new pin for each penetration test. It has been found that the sensitivity of the pin penetration to changes in the compressive strength decreases as the concrete strength increases above 28 MPa. Therefore, the pin penetration test system is not recommended for testing concrete having a compressive strength above 28 MPa.
Advantages
Penetration resistance method is quick and relatively insensitive to operator techniques and factors such as moisture content, cement type and curing. This may be particularly valuable in situations where access is poor. This method provides excellent means for determination of relative concrete strength in the same structure or in different structures without extensive calibration.
Limitations
It should not be expected to yield absoluble concrete strength values. Damage in the form of cracking may be caused to slender members. A minimum edge distance and member thickness of 150 mm are required [6]. Estimation of the strength with an accuracy more than +20% may be possible.
PULL OUT (LOK) TEST

This test (1, 6, 9, 16, 27, 33) is generally used for determining appropriate time for formwork stripping and transfer of prestressing force. It measures the ultimate load required to pullout an embedded metal insert with an enlarged head from a concrete specimen or structure. The pulling load is applied by a tension jack or centerhole ram, which reacts against the concrete surface through a reaction ring concentric with the insert (Fig 9). As the insert is pulled out, a roughly cone shaped fragment of the concrete is also extracted. The compressive strength, which is considered as indicator for the quality, is obtained from the calibration curves. These curves are prepared after carrying out laboratory/field tests on concrete cubes and pullout samples cast with various grades of concrete. In the test assembly the embedment depth and the head diameter must be equal, but there is no requirement on the magnitude of these dimensions. The inner diameter of the reaction ring can be any size in the range of 2.0 to 2.4 times the insert-head diameter. The apex angle of the conic frustum defined by the insert-head diameter and the inside diameter of the reaction ring can vary between 54 to 70 degrees. This is close to the angle of friction of concrete, which is 37 degrees. Since the difference is small the force can, therefore, be considered as proportional to the compressive strength. The reliability of the test is reported to be good.
The pullout strength is governed primarily by that portion of the concrete located adjacent to the conic frustum defined by the insert head and reaction ring. Commercial inserts have embedment depths of the order of 25 to 30 mm. thus, only a small volume of the concrete is tested, and because of the inherent heterogeneity of concrete, the typical average within-batch coefficient of variation of these pullout tests has been found to be in the range of 7 to 10 percent, which is about two to three times that of standard cylinder compression tests.
Advantages
Pullout test produces a well defined failure in the concrete and measures a static strength property of concrete. This test is not affected by type of cement and aggregate by type of cement and aggregate by type of cement and aggregate characteristics upto 38 mm max. size. The equipment is simple to assemble and operate. It is superior to the rebound hammer and Windsor probe test because of greater depth and volume of concrete tested.
Limitations
The two main limitations to the test are the preplanned usage and nature of the surface zone. Special care is also required at the time of placement of inserts to minimize air voids below the disc. Simple cost effective Pullot test equipment was developed at the Material Science lab of SERC Ghaziabad in 1995. Extensive lab and field Tests carried out 1995 to 1998 proved the efficient working of the equipment. A Patent was proposed to be filed in Name of Mr. P.C. Sharma and Mr O.P. Thakur.
PULL OFF TEST

The pull off test us near to surface method in which a circular steel disc is glued to the surface of concrete with an epoxy or polyester resin adhesive. The force required to pull this form the surface, together with an attached layer of concrete, is measured. A Simple mechanical hand operated loading equipment has been developed for this purpose. Partial coring may be used, if necessary, to eliminate the surface skin effects. In this method a 50 mm diameter disc is generally used. It is reported that a good correlation exists between the compressive strength and pull off strength.
Advantages and Limitations

This method directly measures a strength related property and requires only one exposed surface. It is suitable for use on members with a small section. There is insufficient evidence available to enable detailed guidance to be given on the accuracy of the method under site conditions. Test results are limited to the surface zone of concrete with fracture occurring approx. 5 mm below surface unless partial coring is used.
Applications
It is used in quality control, long term monitoring and insitu strength assessment (particularly of high alumina cement concrete and carbonated concrete using partial coring).
BREAK OFF TEST

Break off test determines directly the flexural tensile strength in plane parallel to the concrete surface at a specified distance below the surface. The break-off strength also correlates well with the compressive strength. A schematic of the break off test is shown in Fig. 10. For new construction, the core is formed by inserting a plastic sieve into the surface of the fresh concrete. The sleeves can also be attached to the
sides of formwork and filled during concrete placement. Alternatively, the test specimens can be prepared in hardened concrete by using a special core bit to cut the core and the counter-bore. Thus, the break off test can be used to evaluate the strength of concrete in both new and existing construction. When the in-place compressive strength is to be estimated, the sleeve is removed, and a special loading jack is placed into the counter bore. A hand-operated pump is used to supply hydraulic fluid to the jack which applies a horizontal force to the top of the core as shown in Fig. 10. The reaction to the horizontal force is provided by a ring which bears against the counterbore. The force on the core is gradually increased by operating the pump until the core ruptures at its base. The hydraulic fluid pressure is monitored with a pressure gage having an indicator to register the maximum pressure achieved during the test. The maximum pressure gage reading in units of 0.1 MPa is referred to as the break-off number of the concrete. The break-off test is not recommended for concrete having a maximum nominal aggregate size greater than 25 mm. There is evidence that variability of the break-off number increases for large aggregate size. Sleeve insertion must be performed carefully to assure good compaction around the sleeve and a minimum of distance at the base of the formed core. It is reported that the beam strength for practical purposes may be approximately 78% of the break-off strength. In more recent applications of method [1, 3], break off number is related directly to the compressive strength. It has been also reported that the computed flexural strength based on break off test is about 30% greater than the modulus of rupture obtained by standard tests of beams. This difference is probably due to different specimen sizes in the break off and modulus of rupture tests.
Advantages and Applications

It is handy, very rapid, easy to operate and results are little affected by local shrinkage and local shrinkage and temperature forces and the method gives satisfactory correlation with strength. It is used in quality control of concrete pavements and estimation of in-place compressive strength. The method is also used to evaluate bond strength between concrete and overlay materials.
RESONANT FREQUENCY METHOD

This method is based upon the determination of the fundamental resonant frequency of vibration of a specimen, the continuous vibration being generated electro mechanically. The equipment essentially consists of vibration generating section and vibration sensing section. This method is used to determine the dynamic modulus of elasticity, which is given by: Ed = constant x density of concrete x (frequency) 2 It is also used in detecting voids and delaminations. This method is applicable only on laboratory specimens.
ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY

The ultrasonic velocity test (1,3,6,14,24,27,28,32,33) determines the propagation velocity of a pulse of vibrational energy through a concrete member. The operational principle of modern testing equipment is illustrated in Fig. 11. A computer system of stress waves has been developed which includes longitudinal, transverse and surface waves. The receiving transducer detects the onset of the longitudinal waves which is test. The transducer contact with the surface of concrete is made with grease or petroleum jelly to avoid any entrapped air, thus causing loss of accountcal energy at the interface. The time of travel (T) between the initial onset and reception of the pulse is measured in different ways (Fig. 12) electronically. The average velocity (V) of wave propagation can be established as
V = L/T; Where L = Path-length traveled by the waves T = Time of travel between the transducers The zero setting of the apparatus must be done before starting any test. This setting is obtained by spreading a thin layer of jelly on the smooth surface of the two probes and coupling them with a slight pressure, so that they stick together perfectly. The instrument must now indicate the value 000.0. For a correct gauging, use the calibration bar supplied with the apparatus (32). A suitable type of transducer operating within a frequency range of 20 KHz to 150 KHz may be used as given below: The underlying principle of assessing the quality of concrete is that comparatively higher velocities are obtained when the quality of concrete in terms of density, homogeneity and uniformity is good. In case of poorer quality lower velocities are obtained. It has been well established that the relation between ultrasonic pulse velocity and concrete strength is, in general, not reliable enough for practical purposes. Nevertheless, the method has been used for over four decades.
Factors Affecting the Pulse Velocity Surface Condition and Moisture Content
For most concrete surfaces, the finish is usually sufficiently smooth. To ensure good acoustical contact, use a coupling medium. In case surface is very rough, use the point probes [32]. As the moisture content of the concrete increases from air dry to saturated conditions, it is reported that the pulse velocity may increase upto 5 percent [1], whereas, according to 15:13311-92 [14] it may increase upto 20%.
Temperature of Concrete
There is no significant variation in pulse velocity between temperatures 5 to 30C. But it reduces by 50% with increase in temperature from 20 to 60. At 4C an increase in velocity up to 7.50% is observed.
Micro Cracks in Concrete

The development of micro cracks in the concrete due to abnormal high stress or other reason may reduce the pulse velocity. This influence is more predominant if the pulse path is normal to the micro cracks.
Water Cement Ratio

The pulse velocity is far less sensitive to changes than the compressive strength, if water cement ratio is altered. For instance strength of concrete drastically decreased by increase in w/c ratio that is concrete strength is highly dependent upto the micro-porosity of concrete. In contrast, little change is observed in pulse velocity with increasing micro porosity [31].
Age of Concrete
At later ages, the pulse velocity of concrete is not sensitive to the gain in strength. This is due to the presence of micro cracks when concrete tends to dry.
Presence of Steel Reinforcement

The pulse velocity through steel is about 40% greater than through concrete. Hence, pulse velocity through heavily reinforced concrete member may be greater than through one with little reinforcement. This is especially troublesome when reinforcing bars are oriented parallel to the direction of pulse propagation. The pulse may be refracted into the bars and transmitted to the received at the pulse velocity in steel.
Table 2
Path Length (mm) upto 500 500700 7001500 above 1500 Natural Frequency of Transducers for Different Path Lengths [14] Natural Frequency of Transducer (Khz) Min. Transverse Dimensions of Members (mm) 150 25 >60 70 >40 150 >20 300
Aggregate Type, Content and Size

These of concrete mix have a much greater effect on the pulse velocity than on the strength. Calcium chloride and air entrainment are also affecting factors. IS-13311-92 recommends min. path length 100 mm and 150 mm for max. Aggregate size up to 20 mm and 20-40 mm respectively. The test results are relatively insensitive to the normal heterogeneity of concrete. For this reason, the test method has been found to have an extremely low within batch coefficient of variation. However, this does not mean that the strength predictions are necessarily highly reliable. The velocity criterion for concrete quality in terms of uniformity, absence of internal flows, and segregation etc. is given below [13].
Table 3
Pulse Velocity (km/sec.) >4.5 3.5-4.5 3.0-3.5 >3.0 Excellent Good Medium Doubtful Concrete Quality
TEST CORES
The main purpose of measuring the strength of concrete test specimens is to estimate the strength of concrete in the actual structures. The emphasis is on the word estimate, and indeed it is not possible to obtain more than an indication of the strength of concrete in a structure as this is dependent, inter alia, on adequacy of compaction and curing. The strength of a test specimen depends on its shape, proportions and size so that a test result does not give the value of the intrinsic strength of the concrete. Nevertheless, if two sets of similar specimens made from two concretes, one set is stronger (at a statistically significant level), it is reasonable to conclude that the concrete represented by this specimen is stronger too. There exist some methods of determining the strength of concrete in situ, but the limitations on the interpretation of test results must be remembered. If the strength of the compression test specimens is found to be below the specified minimum then either the concrete in the actual structure is too weak too, or else the specimens are not truly representative of the concrete in the structure. The latter suggestion is often put forward in disputes on the acceptance, or otherwise, of a doubtful part of the structure: The test specimen may have been disturbed while setting, they may have been exposed to frost before they hardened sufficiently or have otherwise been improperly cured, or simply the result of the crushing test are doubted. The argument is often resolved by testing a sample of concrete taken from the suspect member. This is the test to determine the potential strength of the concrete mix used so that corrections for the actual conditions have to be applied. Cores can also be cut in order to determine the actual strength of concrete in the structure. Usually, a core is cut by means of a rotary cutting tool with diamonds bits. In this manner, a cylindrical specimen is obtained, sometimes containing embedded fragments of reinforcement, and usually with end surfaces far from plane and square. The core should be soaked in water, capped, and tested in compression in a moist condition according to the British Standard BS 1881: Part 4: 1970 or ASTM Standard C 42-77 but on the other hand, the American Concrete Institute recommends testing dry. Japanese tests indicate that testing in a dry state yields strength values typically some 10% higher than when the cores are tested wet.
The influence of the height/diameter ratio of the core on the recorded strength was considered in failure of compression specimens. If the strength of the cores is to be related to the strength of the standard cylinders (height/diameter ratio of 2) then in the core this ratio should be near 2. When cubes are the standard test specimen, there is some advantage in using core with a height/diameter ratio of 1, as cylinders with this ratio have very nearly the same strength as cubes. For values of the ratio between 1 and 2, a correction factor has to be applied; recent work shows that the factor is the same for wet and dry-tested cores, but is lower than specified by ASTM Standard C 42-77 (See Table 3). Cores with height/diameter ratios lower than 1 yields unreliable results, and BS 1881: Part 4: 1970 prescribes a minimum value of 0.95. This limitation must be observed but in practice the length of the core may be governed by the thickness of the concrete. Glueing cores which are too short are possible. The same standard specifies the use of 150 mm or 100 mm cores; however, cores as small as 50 mm have been successfully used in Switzerland and are permitted in Swiss and German Standards; the latter assumes that a 50 mm core with a height/diameter ratio of unity has a strength of 10 percent higher than a 200 mm cube. Very small cores exhibit more variability than larger ones and their use is not recommended but-if unavoidable, a triple number of small cores should be used compared with the number judged adequate for 100 mm or 150 mm cores. It is sometimes argued that cores taken from concrete many months old should have a higher strength than at 28 days. This appears not to be the case in practice (Figs. 16, 17) and there is evidence that in situ concrete gains little strength after 28 days. For this reason, the Concrete Society recommends no age allowance in interpreting the strength of cores. On the other hand, Petersons suggests that, for average conditions, the increase in strength over that at 28 days is 10 percent at three months and 15 percent over the age of six months. The effect of age is therefore not easy to deal with but, in the absence of definite moist curing, no increase in strength should be expected. A further factor in the strength of cores is the position of the cut-out concrete in structure. Cores usually have the lowest strength near the top surface of the structure, be it a column, a wall, a beam, or even a slab. With an increase in depth below the top surface, the strength of cores increases, but at depths greater than about 300 mm there is no further increase. The difference can be 10 percent or even 20 percent. In the case of the slabs, poor curing increases this difference. Compressive and tensile strengths are affected to the same degree. The direction of drilling also affects the strength of cores, those drilled horizontally having a strength lower by, typically, 8 percent. From the above discussion it is apparent that it is not easy to interpret the strength of cores in relation to specified 28-days strength. Various reports suggest that, even under excellent conditions of placing and curing, the strength of cores is unlikely to exceed 70 to 85 percent of the strength of standard test specimens. This view is supported by the American Concrete Institute, which considers that concrete in the area represented by a core test is adequate if the average strength of cores is equal to at least 85 percent of the specified strength and if no single core has strength lower than 75 percent of the specified value. It should be noted that, according to the American Concrete Institute, the cores are tested in a dry state, which would lead to higher strength than when tested to ASTM or British standards so that the requirements given above are fairly liberal. In other countries, too, the core strength is not expected to be more than a certain percentage of the strength of standard specimens: 85 percent in Germany, 90 percent in Denmark, and 70 percent in Norway. For all these reasons, dogmatic conversions of core strengths into notional cylinder or cube strengths must not be made: core results are merely a basis for a rational evaluation.
CORE TESTING
Cores (5, 13, 33) are cut from in place concrete for a variety of reasons, almost all of which in the final analysis are associated with the assessment of the integrity of structures. The most common requirement for core testing is when the results of standard specimen fail to comply with the specified strength and in the case of old structures under investigations. The provisions specified in codes (13, 33) tend to be very cautious in requiring the core diameter to be not less than 100 mm or preferably 150 mm and a slenderness ratio 2. Cores can also be used to detect segregation or honeycombing or to check the bond at construction joints.
PULSE ECHO METHOD

Pulse echo method (Fig. 13 and 14) has been used with success in detecting very large structural cracks in concrete dams, piles, caissons and piers, to locate honey combed concrete and ungrouted metal ducts. The method is based on the principle that internal defects and boundaries of the object will reflect incident stress waves and the reflected waves will travel back to the surface. In this method, a transient stress pull is introduced into a test object by a point impact. At the opposite face they get reflected and propagate back in the test object. Thus, a transient resonance condition is set up by multiple reflections of waves between the top surface and internal flaws or external boundaries. A displacement transducer located close to the impact point is used to monitor the surface displacement caused by the arrival of these reflected waves. The frequency of P-wave arrivals is determined by transforming the recorded time domain displacement waveform into the frequency domain using FFT technique.
Limitations
1. High degree of experience required 2. A thorough knowledge of interpretation of results required 3. Very sophisticated time measuring device required
ACOUSTIC EMISSION TECHNIQUE

An acoustic emission (AE) is a localized rapid release of strain energy in a stressed material. This energy release causes stress waves to propagate through the specimen. These AEs can be detected at the specimen surface and analyzed to deduce the nature of damage such as micro-cracking, progression of freeze thaw, alkali-aggregate reaction etc. the method is useful in monitoring progressive cracking.
FIBRE OPTIC SENSOR TECHNIQUE

Fiber optics sensor methodology has matured to the point where the impact of this new technology is now evident. Unfortunately, these have not been fully employed in the condition monitoring of civil structures. Fiber optic sensors offer a number of advantages over conventional sensors including increased sensitivity, reduced weight and size, immunity to electromagnetic interference, lightening and adverse environment. It can be configured in many different ways for use in specific applications and senses acoustic, magnetic, temperature, rotation, strain, curing and long term health of civil structures. Embedded fiber optic crack opening displacement sensors are shown in Fig. 15. The circular geometry provides an optimum configuration for sensing internal displacement by an optical fiber.
TESTING OF CONCRETE BY MATURITY METHOD

Maturity is an arbitrary parameter based on measurements of the internal temperature of a body of concrete throughout the setting, hardening and subsequent strength development stages. Maturity measurement may be related to strength development for a particular concrete mix and are especially valuable when combined with other non-destructive methods. This technique may be useful when attempting to monitor performance in terms of in-situ concrete strength development for timing of safe formwork or prop removal, application of loading (including pre-stress) or some similar purpose.
Table 4: Plowmans Coefficients for Maturity Equation
Strength after 28 Days at 18C (Maturity of 19800C Ch) B MPa < 17 17-35 35-52 52-69 Psi < 2500 2500 5000 5000 7500 7500 10000 68 68 54 46.5 Coefficient A for Ch 10 21 32 42
Maturity Measurement
Strength development is a function of time and temperature and for a particular concrete mix and curing condition this may be related to the maturity, which is defined as the product of time with temperature above a predetermined datum. Maturity is commonly calculate as M(t) = (Ta-To) t Where M(t) is maturity is degree hours or degree-days t is time interval in hours or days T a is average concrete temperature during time interval 6t To is datum temperature The datum temperature is reckoned from an origin found experimentally to be between -12 and 10C. This is because at temperature below the freezing point of water and down to about minus 12C concrete shows a small increase in strength with time but the low temperature must not be applied, of course until after the concrete has set and gained sufficient strength to resist damage due to the action of frost; a waiting period of 24 hours is usually required. Below -12C concrete does not appear to gain strength with time. The temperature during curing controls the rate of progress of the reactions of hydration and consequently affects the development of strength of concrete. This is shown in Fig. 18. Maturity is measured in C-hours or C days. Fig. 19 and Fig. 20 show that compression and tensile strength plotted against the logarithm of maturity give a straight line. It is, therefore, possible to express strength at any maturity as a percentage of strength of concrete at any other maturity; the latter is often taken as 19800Ch, being the maturity of concrete cured at 18C for 28 days. The ratio of strength, expressed as percentage, can then be written asA + B log10 (maturity x 10-3) Strictly speaking, the linearity applies only above a certain minimum maturity, as shown in Fig. 21. The values of the coefficient A and B depend on the strength level of concrete; those suggested by Plowman Ref. 39, Table 4. It can be seen that the strength-maturity relation depends on the properties of the cement and on the general quality of concrete and on the general quality of concrete, and is valid only within a range of temperatures. This is apparent; for instance, from Ref. 40 obtain by Klieger who tested ordinary Portland cement concrete with a water cement ratio of 0.43
and an air content of 4.5 percent, cured at 23C from the age of 28-days onwards. A further complication arises from the fact that the effects of a period of exposure to a higher temperature are not the same when this occurs immediately after casting or later in the life of the concrete. Specifically, early high temperature leads to a lower strength for a given total maturity then when heating is delayed for at least a week or is absent. This is of interest in connection with steam curing. Nevertheless, the maturity rule applies fairly when the initial temperature of concrete is between 16 and 27C (although probably a much lower minimum is acceptable) and no loss of moisture by drying takes place during the period considered. It is these limitations that have prevented a more widespread acceptance of the maturity rule in concrete practice, especially in the United States, although recently the Federal Highway Administration has investigated the use of the maturity rule in the determination of the potential strength of concrete from early tests. Equipment for these measurements may be constructed in many forms. Two commercially available types are: rubber hammer (1/4 kg) is used to produce a light tap (from height of 15 to 30 cm) on top of the pile (close to the centre). The shock traveling down from the toe of the pile, recorded through a suitable transducer (also held on the top as close to the centre as possible) on to a computer disc or diskette for later analysis. The shock wave which travels down the length of the shaft is reflected from the toe by the change in density between the concrete and substrata. However, if the pile has any imperfection or discontinuities within its length these will set up secondary reflections which will be added to the returning signal. By a careful analysis of the captured signal and knowledge of the condition of the ground, age of concrete etc, a picture of the locations of such problems can be built up. Some systems filter down the signals i.e. the secondary reflections are filtered out while the signal is being recorded. There are other systems which use an unfiltered signal and this is advantageous as it allows for a greater degree of flexibility in the analysis and using fast fourier transform (F.F.T) enables the high and low frequencies to be separated with the necking, intrusions, cracks and bulging causing these located. Additional recordings should be taken for piles showing anomalies. The above procedure is repeated for all piles to be tested. Additional recordings should be taken for piles showing anomalies. The above procedure is repeated for all piles to be tested. As soon as possible after site testing a full report of findings should be produced by experienced personnel and made available for immediate action.
SONIC ECHO TEST

The sonic echo test is a variation of the transient shock method and the main difference lies in filtering of the signal obtained. This can be done by using a special transducer responsive to low frequency signals or these are filtered in the computer itself. Due to the filtering of the high frequencies the extraneous effects have been deleted allowing the response of the pile to become easier to understand. This is repeated for each pile, and the stress waves stored on a Disk or Diskette for future computer analysis. Additional recordings should be taken for piles showing anomalies. As in the pulse echo test the tests are repeated for all the piles to be tested and a full report of findings, produced by experienced personnel, made available for immediate remedial action.
FREQU UENCY RE ESPONSE

In this method m a variable frequ uency vibrat tor is fixed to a plate on o top of a pile. In ad ddition, a transduc cer clamped d on top of the plate measures m pile e head resp ponse as the e head is vi igorously vibrated d at frequenc cy varying between b 20 and a 5000 Hz. H The results of the pil le head resp ponse for each fre equency are e obtained and a analyse ed by comp puter aided transformati ion techniqu ues. This process is fairly lengt thy and time e consuming and is rarely y employed.
SONIC C CORING
Since th his method requires r the use of thre ee cast in tu ubes or three e full length h cores it makes this expensiv ve. It is used d on large dia ameter piles, , but not nor rmally on pil les less than 1 meter in diameter. d The test is based on measuring the t propagat tion time of a signal betw ween a sonic c emitter and d receiver placed in adjacent tu ubes. Of the e systems described abov ve the first tw wo are the m most commo only used both from an econom mic and time e considerati ion.
COMPL LEMENTA ARY TESTS S

There ar re three tests s that may be e used as com mplementary y tests to the integrity test t methods de escribed: 1. Ul ltrasonic Puls se Velocity Test T 2. Pe enetration Te est 3. De ensity Testing of Cast Cu ubes In or rder to deter rmine the de ensity of conc crete used each cube sh hould be mea asured for de ensity by weighing g in air and water w and us sing the follo owing calcula ation: Weigh ht in air in kg g x 1000 =
3 Density in kg/m k
(Weight in air-weight in n water) kg/m m3
DYNAM MIC LOAD D TESTING G

This method (as in Fig. F 22) is use ed in determ mining the be earing capaci ity of an insta alled founda ation pile. It can al lso give the information about the in ntegrity of th he pile shaft of the load o of the same order as the desig gned load.
Fig. 1: Relationship betwee en Strength and d NDT Value
Fig. F 2: Schem matic Diagram m of Operatio on of the e Rebound Hammer
Non De estructive Testin ng in Civil Engineering 41
Fig. 3 3: Cube Com mpressive Stre ength in N/m mm2 P Plotted Again nst the Rebou und Number
Fig. F 4: Calibr ration Curves s Obtained with w Schmidt Rebound R Ham mmer Type N (Hammer r in Horizont tal Position)
Fig. 5: 5 Windsor Pr robe
Fig g. 6: Approxi imate Shape of Failure Zo one in Concrete Du uring Probe P Penetration Test T
Fig.7: Effect of Agg gregate Type e on Relation nship be etween Conc crete Strength h and Depth of Pro obe Penetrat tion
Fig g. 8: P.N.R. T Tester
Fig. 9: Sche ematic of Pu ullout Test
Fig. 10: Sc chematic of B Break-off Tes st
Fig g. 11: Schem matic Sketch of o to Measure U Ultrasonic Pu ulse Velocity y Apparatus
. 12: Method ds of Propaga ating and Rec ceiving Fig. Pulses
Fig. 13 3: Schematic Diagram of Apparatus A Used to Make a Pulse Echo o Test
4: The Readou ut on the Oscilloscope In ndicates Fig. 14 the t Type of Defect D Inside e the Concret te
Non De estructive Testin ng in Civil Engineering 43
Fig g. 15: IS Sch hematic Diag gram for Crac ck
Fi ig. 16: Devel lopment with h Time of Stre ength of Concrete Co ores Made with Type III Cement C Ex xpresses as a Percetage o of 28-days Str rength of o Standard Cylinder C (38 M MPa). A-stan ndard Cy ylinder; B-wel ll Cured Slab b, Core Teste ed Dry; C-w well Cured Sl lab, Core Tes sted Wet; D-p poorlyCured C Slab, Core C Test Dr ry; E-poorly-c cured Sla ab, Core Test te Wet
Fig. 17(a): Influence e of the Heig ght/ Diameter r Ratio Fig. 17(b): Gener ral Pattern of o Height f Influence of o the Appare on ent Strength of a Cylinder r Diamete er Ratio on th he Apparent for Different Strength h Levels Str rength of a Cylinder
Fig. 17 (c): Relat tive Strength h of Cylinders s of Differ rent Height/ Diameter D Ra atios with Var rious Type es of Packing g between the e Plates and the Specim men (Strength h of Cylinder r with h/d=2a and no Packin ng as 1.0), A-no Packing; B- 8mm Soft t Wall Board; C-25 mm Plast tic Board
ig. 18: Ratio of Strength o of Concrete Cured C Fi at Different Temperature T es to the 28-d days Strength S of Concrete C Cure ed at 210 (W Water/ Cement Ratio=0.5; R th he Specimens s Were Cast, C Sealed and Cured at the Indicated I Tem mperature)
Fig. 19 9: Relation between b Loga arithm of Maturity and Compre essive Strength of Cubes
Fig. . 20: Relation n between Lo ogarithm of Maturity M and Splitting Str rength (Tests s Carried out t at 2,13 and 23C up to 4 42 Days)
Fig. 21 1: Relation between b Com mpressive Stre ength of Ord dinary Portlan nd (Type I)), Cement Con ncrete a and Maturity
Fig. 22: Dyna amic Load Test Arrangem ment
In th his method, two identica al sensors are e connected to the side of o the pile op pposite to ea ach other near the e pile head. A heavy, guided g block is dropped onto the sp pecially prep pared pile he ead. The generate ed compression wave tra avels down the t pile and reflects from m the pile toe e upward. Th he waves which ar re picked up p by the sens sors are proc cessed and st tored in the field by the F FPDS-2 com mputer. A pile driv ving hammer r as well as a drop weig ght can be used u to apply y a dynamic c load. TNO also has available e a range of f drop weigh hts which vary in mass from fr 200 kg to 20,000 k kg and these e may be used in load l piles wi ith a capacity y upto 20 MN N. To assess a the sta atic performa ance by this method, it is s necessary to t establish a correlation between the static and dynam mic pile perf formance. When W the results of some e integrity tes sting on a pile p cause c t competen the nce of that pile p to carry its design lo oad, this pile e can be sub bjected to doubts concerning dynamic c load testing g. It is reliable method for comparing the piles.
CONCL LUSION
A review w of Methods, has been presented, th hat can be used u to ascer rtain the qua ality and dur rability of concrete e in long ter rm. On the basis of exp periments, it is well esta ablished that NDET meth hods are advanta ageous in determining th he in place strength, s inte egrity and re elative perfor rmance of st tructures. Each te echnique me easures spec cific propert ties which correlate c wit th the streng gth, having its own limitations. Hence applying a mo ore than one e NDET me ethod at the e same time tends to gi ive more timates. The e user must t consider th he relative importance of each method in reliable strength est selecting g the most ap ppropriate te echnique for a particular application.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The help rendered by Er. Sanjeew Kumar Singh, Principal Scientist, CSIR-CBRI, Roorkee and Dr Awadhesh Kumar, DTU, New Delhi in compiling this report is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] ACI Committee 228 (1993), in-place Method to Determine Concrete Strength, February, Draft. ACI Committee 364 (1993), Guide for Evaluation of Concrete Structures Prior to rehabilitation, ACI Material Journal, 90, No. 5, pp. 479-493. ASTM (1988), Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM, Philadephia. BS: 4408 Part 5 (1974), British Standard Institution, London, U.K. BS: 1881 part 120 (1983), Method for Determining of the Compressive Strength of Concrete Cores, BSI, London, pp. 6. BS: 1881 Part 201 and 202 (1986), Testing Concrete, Guide to the Use of the Non-destructive Methods of Tests for Standard Concrete, BSI, London. Casino, N. J. et al. (1983), Review of sky Line Plaza Collapse, Concrete International: Design and Construction, 5, No. 7, pp. 35-42. Casino, N. J. and Snsalone, M. (1990), Impact Echo: A New Method for Inspecting Construction Materials, Non-Destructive Testing and Evaluation for Manufacturing and Construction, Henringe, L.M. Dos. Reised., Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, New York. Casino, N. J. and Malhotra, V. M. (1991), Hand Book of Non-Destructive Testing of Concrete, CRC. Clifton, T.R. et al. (1982), In-place Non-destructive Evaluation Methods for Quality Assurance of Building Materials, U.S. Army Corp. AECRL, Technical report M-305. Clifton, J.R. (1985), Non-destructive Evaluation in Rehabilitation and Preservation of Concrete and Masonry Materials, Rehabilitation, Renovation and Preservation of Concrete and Masonry Structures, SP-85, ACI, Detroit, pp. 19-29. Fleming, W. G. K. (ed.) (1992), Piling Engineering, 2nd Edition, Blackie and Son Ltd., London. IS: 1199 (1959), Methods of Sampling and Analysis of Concrete, BSI, New Delhi. IS: 13311 Part 1 (1992), Non-destructive testing of Concrete Methods of Test, Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity, BIS, New Delhi. IS: 13311 Part 2 (1992), Non-destructive testing of Concrete-Methods of Test, Rebound Hammer, BIS, New Delhi. Jaegermann, C. (1989), A Simple Pull-out Test for In-situ Determination of Early Strength of Concrete, Magazine of Concrete Research, No. 149, pp.235-242. Kaushik, S. K. et al (1986), Report on Structural Testing of Reinforced Concrete Framed Industrial Structures at Hoshiyarpur, Punjab, Deptt. of Civil Engg., University of Roorkee, Roorkee. Kaushik, S. K. et al (1987), Report on Assessment of Health of Ammonia Horton Sphere Structure and Foundation, Deptt. of Civil Engg., University of Roorkee, Roorkee. Kaushik, S. K. et al (1987), Report on Assesment of Health of Ammonia Horton Sphere Structure and Foundation, July, Deptt. of Civil Engg., University of Roorkee, Roorkee. Kaushik, S. K. et al (1988), Non-destructive Testing of 2-15 MV Turbo-Generator Foundations in Captive Power Plant at National Fertilizer Limited, Bhatinda, Deptt. of Civil Engg., University of Roorkee, Roorkee. Kaushik, S. K. et al (1990), Non-destructive Testing of 13.5 KV Turbo-Generator Foundations at Jhalawar, (Sponsored by J. K. Tech. Ltd., New Delhi), January, Deptt. of Civil Engg., University of Roorkee, Roorkee. Kaushik, S. K. et al (1991), Agra Heritage Project: Investigation of Related Research Studies, Vol. II, March, Deptt. of Civil Engg., University of Roorkee, Roorkee. Kaushik, S. K. et al (1994), Report on Investigation of Fire Damage to Allahabad Bank Building, 17, Parliament Street, New Delhi, May, Deptt. of Civil Engg., University of Roorkee, Roorkee. Kaushik, S. K. et al. (1994), Ultrasonic Testing of Plain and Reinforced Concrete Members, National Seminar on civil Civil Engineering Beyond 2000, ASCE, Madras, pp. 84-98. Kishor, K. (1987), Testing of Hardened Concrete by Surface Hardness, ICI Bull., No. 20, Spetember. Lew, H.S. (1980), West Virginia Cooling Tower Collapse Caused by Imadequate Strength, Civil Engineering-ASCE, 50, No. 2., pp. 62-67. Limaye, R.G. and Chandrashekhar, M. P. (1990), A Review on Different Non-destructive Methods Testing of Concrete, ICI Bull., No. 52. Limaye, R.G. and Chandrashekar, M. P. (1991), A Study on the Effect of Path Length on Pulse Velocity Measurements and Utility to Establish Uniformity in Concrete, ICI Bull., No. 36. Malhotra, V. M. (ed.) (1976), Testing Hardened Concrete: Non-destructive Methods, Monograph No. 9, ACI detriot. Muenow, A. and Randall, A. (1986), Pulse Echo Testing, Reprint from Concrete Construction, USA, February, ICI Bull., No. 15, pp. 31-33. Non-destructive Testing of Concrete Elements and Structures, (1992), Edited by Farhad Ansari and Steinsture, ASCE, New York. RMU Testing Equipment, In Accordance with ASTM, AASHTO, BSI, UNI, DIN, NF, ISO. Bergania, Italy. Thakar, O.P., Caharwar, S. S., and Sharma, P. C. (1993), Non-destructive Testing for Concrete Structures; Suitable techniques for Indian Conditions, ICI Bull, No. 45, Oct.-Dec. Specialist Course on Non-destructive Testing of R. C. Structures, 9-11 Oct., 1995, Edited by S. K. Kaushik and J. N. Chhauda. Neville, A. M., Properties of Concrete, Longman Scientific and Technical, Longman Group U. K. Limited, England, 1977. Bungey, J. H., The Testing of Concrete Structures, Second edition, Surrey University Press, Distribution in the USA by Chapman and Hall New York. Naik, T. R., Concrete Strength Prediction by the Maturity method, Proc. ASCE, 1980, 106, EM3, 465-480. Petersen, C. G. and Hansen, A. J. (1982), Timing of loading determined by pull-out and maturity tests. In: proc. Int. Conf. on concrete at early ages, RILEM, 1, 173-175. Plowman, J. M. (1956), Maturity and the Strength of Concrete, Mag. Concrete Res., 8, No. 22, pp. 13-22 Klieger, P. (1958), Effect of Mixing and Curing Temperature on Concrete, Jr. of American Concrete Institute, 54, pp. 1063-81.
[41] Klieger, P. (1956), Discussion on: Maturity and Strength of Concrete, Mag. Concr. Res., 8, No. 24, pp. 175-178.
Sustainability in Concrete Recycling

T. Noguchi
Associate Professor, Department of Architecture, The University of Tokyo, Japan; noguchi@bme.arch.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp
AbstractProviding excellent performance as a structural material, concrete has long been deemed essential for modern civilization and recognized as a material that will continue to maintain and support the development of human society. The sheer amount of concrete in use and in stock compared with other building materials brings up the issue of the enormous amount of waste generated when concrete is disposed of. Besides, aggregate resources are beginning to be depleted at a high speed. Concrete has conventionally been regarded as being difficult to recycle. The construction industry has addressed these problems and carried out research and development regarding the recycling of concrete since the 1970s. Recycling technology has been shifting from simple crushing into scrubbing with some preparations to produce high-quality recycled aggregate for structural concrete, and recycling of concrete in a completely closed-loop has now become technically feasible. This paper profiles various concrete related problems from the viewpoint of resource recycling, reviews the development history of concrete recycling in Japan from the viewpoint of the properties of recycled aggregate concrete and the environmental impact caused in life cycle. Then the paper proposes a design concept for closed-loop recycling and presents the outline of completely recyclable concrete, with which closed-loop circulation of component materials is realized. The paper also introduces a newly developed technology realizing sustainable resource recycling with low energy consumption in concrete structures. Keywords: Aggregate resource depletion, Aggregate surface modification, Closed-loop recycling, CRC, Concrete waste, Energy consumption, Microwave heating, Recycled aggregate
INTRODUCTION
The development of material civilization and industrialization since the Industrial Revolution have caused various environmental problems on a global scale, such as global warming, ecosystem disruption, resources depletion and waste accumulation. Since the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol, the reduction of CO2 emission to curb global warming is a crucial task for all industries. Urgent measures are required particularly for construction-related industries, whose CO2 emission in the production and transportation of materials, the execution of constructions, the operation of buildings, etc. accounts for around 40% of the total as shown in Fig. 1 (1).Production of 1m3 of concrete, a primary construction material for forming modern nations, needs approximately 330kg of portland cement. As portland cement, which is made from limestone, is decarbonized during incineration, the production of 1 ton of portland cement generates approximately 0.75 to 1.0 ton of CO2(2),which is caused by decarbonation of limestone (60%) and fossil fuel combustion (30%) in the process of clinker production. Therefore manufacturing 1m3 of concrete generates approximately 0.25 ton of CO2 from the cement production and additionally 0.1 to 0.2 ton of CO2 from the aggregate production, the transportation of materials and the concrete production (3). 20 billion ton of concrete is produced annually worldwide and consequently concrete-related industries emit approximately 7 to 10% of global manmade CO2 according to a White Paper on the Environment published by the Ministry of the Environment (4), the total material input of Japan ranged from 2.0 to2.2 billion tons annually in recent years. Nearly 50% of the total material input is accumulated every year in the form of buildings and civil structures in Asian countries (5). It indicates the enormous consumption of resources by the construction industry compared with other industries. The production of concrete accounts for nearly 50% of the annual resource consumption of the construction industry (5). In other words, concrete accounts for nearly 25% of the total material input while steel and wood is far less consumed than concrete. Concrete structures are generally expected to last for decades or more than a century. However, most of them built in the past in Japan have been demolished and removed
Sustainability in Concrete Recycling 47
much earlier than their intended service lives. Why? Of course, this is mostly attributed to such reasons as the outdated design, the limitations in the space renewability, and the technical problems including performance degradation of the equipment and the structural bodies. Recycling of concrete rubbles, which account for 30 to 40% of the total construction-related waste as shown in Fig.2 (1), for road bottoming has particularly been promoted as a national policy. Nevertheless, reductions in the length of new road construction in recent years have undermined the demand for road bottoming, requiring increased efforts to seek technical and social solutions for reducing the amount of concrete rubbles to be disposed of. The scarcity of the residual capacity of final disposal areas in Japan, which has become increasingly serious in recent years, also alerts us to formulate a resource-recycling society.
Housing construction 5%
Japans total CO2 emission 1.2 billion tons
Other industries 64%
Commercial building construction Building 6% repair 1% Energy for housing operation Energy for 11% commercial building operation 13%
Fig. 1: CO2 Emission in Construction/ Operation of Buildings in Japan (1)
Mixed Wood Sludge
Others
Total in 2005 77mt/year
Asphalt concrete
Concrete 32mt/year
Fig. 2: Construction Waste in Japan (1)
As stated above, concrete accounts for large percentages of both resource input and CO2 emission. Considering natural resource conservation and prevention of global warming, resource recycling system which does not generate extra CO2 emission should be urgently established in concrete-related industries. This paper profiles various concrete related problems from the viewpoint of resource recycling, reviews development history of concrete recycling. Then it proposes a design concept for closed-loop recycling and introduces a new technology realizing sustainable concrete society.
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS IN CONSTITUENT MATERIALS AND COCNRETE Environmental Aspects of Cement

The materials of portland cement include limestone, clay, silicious stone, iron oxide materials, and gypsum, most being domestically available. Approximately 85% of the fuel for producing cement is coal imported from countries including China, Australia, Russia, and Indonesia, while 10% and 3% are petroleum coke and industrial waste fuel, respectively. Heavy oil accounts for only 1% of the fuel. In 2000, the amounts of raw materials and energy consumed for producing 1 ton of normal portland cement are given in Table 1, showing Japans production technology boasting the highest level of energy efficiency thanks to the energy conservation measures taken during the period between 1970 and 1990, which lead to the smallest CO2 emission in the world to produce 1 ton of cement as shown
Table 1: Raw materials and Energy for 1 Ton of Normal Portland Cement
Raw Materials (kg) Limestone Clay Silicious stone Iron Ore Gypsum Total 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 Australia & NZ S. and L. America Rep. of Korea Former USSR Middle East W. Europe E. Europe SE. Asia 1,093 203 76 30 34 1,436 Fuel (kg) [Coal Equivalent (6, 200 kcal/kg)] Electric Power (kwh) [including co-generation] Energy 105
99
Unit-based CO2 emissions (kg-CO2/kg-cement)
Canada
Japan
China
Fig. 3: Unit-based CO2 Emission in Cement Manufactures (3)
In Fig. 3(6). Industrial waste and by-products including slag and coal ash have long been utilized as cement materials, as these contain significant amounts of major ingredients of cement. Combustible waste including waste tires and waste plastics has also been used as fuels for cement production. Recently, sewage sludge and incineration ash from municipal solid waste have been actively utilized as raw materials and fuel for cement, because (1) the high temperature safely decomposes hazardous materials including dioxins; (2) no new waste is generated; (3) this requires no additional incineration facilities; and (4) it extends the service lives of final disposal sites. Fig.4 shows the waste and by-products utilized by the cement industry in Japan. Fig.5 shows the changes in the cement production by type over time. The cement production increased as the construction projects for buildings and infrastructures swelled during the high economic growth period, hitting an all-time peak of 99,270,000 tons in 1996. Amid the decreasing tendency of cement production
Africa
India
USA
thereafter associated with the reductions in construction projects, the ratio of blended cement production has been gradually increasing. Its increasing trend is expected to continue in view of the fact that the expected increase in the number of thermal power plants will increase the amount of resultant coal ash; that the crude steel production tends to increase affected by the construction rush in economically buoyant China; and that blast-furnace slag cement and fly ash cement were designated as green procurement products by the Law on Promoting Green Purchasing in 2001. Currently, however, blended cement has not been widely used for buildings, which are composed of thin members, as concrete made using blended cement requires a sufficient moist curing period.
Fig. 4: Utilization of by Products from other Industries for Cement Production
12000
Production (x10,000 t) t
10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0
Fly Ash Cement Slag Cement Portland Cement
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Fiscal Year Fig. 5: History of Cement Production
SiO O2 23-4 46 20-2 25
Al A 2O3 13 3-29 3-5 3
Fe2O3 4-7 3-4
SO3 1-4 2-3 (Unit: %)
Fig. 6: Raw w Materials of f Ecocememt t and Chemic cal Composit tions of Incin neration Ash
Eco ocement made m using in ncineration ash a from mu unicipal solid d waste and sewage slud dge as its main an nd secondary y materials, respectively, r was recently y developed d and the rela ated Japan Industrial I Standard d, JIS R 5214 (Ecocement) was established in 2002 in n Japan. Th he raw mat terials of Ecocement and che emical comp positions of incineration n ash are shown s in Fi ig. 6. Its pr roduction processe es are basica ally the same as those for normal cem ment but are characterized c d as follows: 1. Since dioxins completely c d decomposed at a high tem mperature ar re rapidly co ooled to below 200C ower, they are a captured in a bag filt ter and an active a coke-p packed tower r without in a cooling to be eing re-synth hesized. 2. Tr race heavy metals m contai ined in incin nerated ash are a recovered, concentra ated and delivered to no onferrous me etal factories for separatio on of copper r, lead, zinc, etc., for recy ycling.
Environ nmental Aspects of Aggregate A

Similarly y to cement, the product tion of aggre egate soared d during the period of hi igh economi ic growth when th he constructio on projects for f buildings and infrastr ructures incre eased, recording an all-t time high of 949 million m tons in i 1990 as sh hown in Fig. .7(7). In rece ent years, cru ushed stone and crushed d/pit sand have be ecome major r coarse and d fine aggreg gates, respec ctively, as go ood quality river sand and a river gravel have h become e depleted. The T use of sea s gravel and sea sand d for concret te began in the mid1960s, initially i with insufficient desalination d from time to o time, leadi ing to prema ature deterio oration of concrete e structures particularly p in n western Ja apan. Since th he enforcem ment of a tota al chloride re egulation, sea grav vel and sea sand have been b thorou ughly washed d before use e, but the ex xtensive use of these aggregat tes caused exposure e of bedrock on n the bottom m of the Seto o Inland Se ea, while cau using the erosion of embankm ments and en ndangering sand spits and a fishing grounds. g The e deterioratio on of the e t was so serio ous that an absolute a ban n on the colle ection of sea a gravel and sea sand coastal environment from the e Seto Inland Sea is bei ing impleme ented. Regula ations on cru ushed stone collection have h also been tig ghtened from m the aspect of natural landscape l pr rotection. With W this as a background d, readymixed concrete (RM MC) plants in the metropo olitan coastal l area have been b receivin ng crushed li imestone estern Japan and had als so received river sand fro om China inc cluding Taiw wan in large amounts, a from we giving rise to wide-ar rea transfer of o aggregate over the reg gions and bo orders. Aggregate, which occupies 70% 7 by volu ume of concrete, is anticip pated as a re ecipient of waste w and her industrie es, with vario ous types of aggregate be eing develop ped as given in Table by-products from oth ever, such recycled r aggr regate still accounts a for only a sma all fraction o of the total aggregate a 2. Howe producti ion for concr rete.
Crushed River Gr ravel Hill Gravel P Gravel Pit Sea Grav vel Others
1000 900 ( t) ) Production (million 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1963 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Year
Fig g. 7: Change in Aggregate e Production (7)
Table 2: Various Types of Aggregates Made from Industrial Waste

Type Blast furnace slag aggregate Ferronickel slag aggregate Copper slag aggregate Electric arc furnace oxidizing slag aggregate Melt-solidified slag aggregate for concrete derived from municipal solid waste and sewage sludge Fly ash calcined light weight aggregate Standard JIS A 5011-1 JIS A 5011-2 JIS A 5011-3 JIS A 5011-4 JIS A 5031
Environmental Aspects of Concrete

The distribution of ready-mixed concrete plants and development of concrete pumping technology at construction sites enhanced the productivity and place ability of concrete, contributing to the rapid increase in the construction projects for buildings and infrastructures during the rapid economic growth period. As shown in Fig. 6, the production of concrete, 60% of which is RMC, peaked at nearly 600 million tons in fiscal 1990, in which RMC shipment was 198 million m3. The RMC shipment then decreased to 123.74 million tons in fiscal 2003, which is less than two-thirds of the peak value, and is expected to continue to decrease due to reductions in investment in new construction of buildings and civil structures.
Returned Concrete Mixer Agitator Truck Washing Water Waste Recovered Water Supernatant Water Sludge Water
Sludge Solid
Sludge Cake
Final Disposal
Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate
Mixing Water
Road Subbase
Fig. 8: Waste and by Products Generated from RMC Plants
As shown in Fig. 8, waste and by-products generated from RMC plants include returned concrete brought back from job sites as excess concrete and wash water resulting from the cleaning of concrete mixers and agitating trucks. Aggregate in wash water is recovered and reused for concrete. Recovered water is divided into supernatant and sludge in sedimentation tanks, and the supernatant is reused as mixing water for concrete as it is. Sludge water is also used as mixing water for concrete if the solid percentage is 3% or less of cement. The sludge solid is dewatered and dumped as sludge cake or used as road bottoming. Returned concrete and sludge cake resulting from 1m3 of ready-mixed concrete amount to 0.009m3 and 5.88kg, respectively, on national average.
HISTORY OF CONCRETE WASTE AND RECYCLING IN JAPAN Political Measures

With the aim of solving the construction waste problem, the Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MLIT, formerly the Ministry of Construction) formulated Action Plan for Construction By-products in1994, which called for halving the amount of final disposal of construction waste by 2000, and Promotion Plan for Construction Waste Recycling in1997. Thanks to such active and continual policies, construction waste discharge began to decrease, with the recycling ratio of concrete rubbles exceeding 95% in 2000 as shown in Fig.9. In view of the still low recycling ratios of waste woods, lime, and mixed waste generated by construction, the MLIT then enforced Basic Law for Establishing a Recycling-based Society, Construction Material Recycling Act, and Law on Promoting Green Purchasing.However, concrete rubbles, which boasted a high recycling ratio, were entirely destined for bottoming and grading adjusters for arterial high-standard highways, urban expressways, and general roads designated by the Road Bureau of the MLIT. The quality of recycling
was therefore completely different from that of asphalt concrete rubbles, for which level-cycling was accomplished. It was expected that an enormous amount of demolished concrete rubbles would be generated in the future from concrete structures mass-constructed during Japans rapid economic growth being, which were doomed to demolition due to durability problems. Moreover, it was expected that road construction would decrease and the method of repair would shift from replacing to milling and applying an overlay. These trends would lead to an imbalance between the supply of demolished concrete and the demand for road bottoming. Also, the population reduction and the extension of the service life of the existing stock by increased succession, utilization, and conversion would keep on reducing the amount of new construction of structure sand concrete production. Accordingly, these aspects would culminate in the need to recycle aggregate into aggregate for concrete, and it was no exaggeration to say that recycled aggregate could account for the greatest part of future aggregate for concrete(8). It was therefore vital to convert recycling from quantityoriented to quality-oriented recycling as proposed in Promotion Plan for Construction Waste Recycling 2002 formulated by the MLIT in2002. In other words, it was necessary to find optimum recycling methods with due consideration to the material balance, while promoting the production and supply of high-quality recycled aggregate.
1990
Recycle
Disposal
1995
2000
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Concrete rubbles (mt) Fig. 9: Recycling of Concrete Rubbles
STANDARDIZATION
After a three-year study aiming at using demolished concrete as recycled aggregate for concrete, the Building Contractors Society established Draft standard for the use of recycled aggregate and recycled concrete in 1977. This standard required that the oven-dry density and water absorption of recycled coarse aggregate be not less than 2.2g/cm3 and not more than 7%, respectively, and those of recycled fine aggregate be not less than2.0g/cm3 and not more than 13%, respectively. This was followed by researches and developments under some projects promoted by the Ministry of Construction (1981-1985 and 1992-1996) or semi-public research institutes, through which standards for recycled aggregate have been established. Table 3 gives the quality requirements, showing the progressive improvement in the qualities of recycled aggregate achieved by advances in the technology for producing recycled aggregate, finally reaching a level comparable to natural aggregate. The Recycled Aggregate Standardization Committee was set up in the Japan Concrete Institute in 2002, which was tasked with formulating Japan Industrial Standards for recycled aggregate for concrete. The committee established three standards as follows: JIS A 5021 (Recycled aggregate for concrete. ClassH, hereinafter RA-H) JIS A 5022 (Recycled concrete using recycled aggregate for concrete, Class M, hereinafter RA-M) aggregate, Class M, with Annex (Recycled
JIS A 5023 (Recycled concrete using recycled aggregate for concrete, Class L, hereinafter RA-L)
aggregate, Class L, with Annex (Recycled
Three types of recycled aggregate are classified by water absorption and oven-dry density, each being recommended for concrete structures and segments as given in Table 4. This classification urges a shift to a design system that permits the use of each class for suitable structures and segments. High-quality recycled aggregate is suitable for structures and segments requiring high durability and strength, while middle- to low-quality recycled aggregate, which can be produced with minimal cost and energy or powdery by-products, is suitable for other structures and segments.
Table 3: History of Quality Requirements for Recycled Aggregate
Year Formulator and Name of Standard Coarse Aggregate Density Absorption (g/cm3) (%) 2.2 or more 7 or less 2.5 or more 3 or less 5 or less 7 or less 3.0 or less 7 or less 2.5 or more 2.3 or more 3.0 or less 5.0 or less 7.0 or less 2.5 or more 3.0 or less 2.5 or more 2.5 or more 2.2 or more Fine Aggregate Density Absorption (g/cm3) (%) 2.0 or more 13 or less 2.5 or more 5 or less 10 or less 3.5 or less 10 or less 3.5 or less 7.0 or less 13.0 or less 3.0 or less
1977 1994
1999 2000 2005 2006 2007
Building Contractors Society Draft standard for the use of recycled aggregate and recycled concrete Ministry of Construction Type 1 Provisional quality standard for Type 2 reuse of concrete by-products Type 3 Building Center of Japan Accreditation criteria of recycled aggregate for building concrete Ministry of International Trade and Industry TR A0006 (Low quality recycled aggregate concrete) Japan Industrial Standards JIS A5021 Committee (Class H) Recycled aggregate for concrete JIS A5022 (Class M) JIS A5023 (Class L) Japan Industrial Standards Committee JIS A5005 (Crushed stone and manufactured sand for concrete)
Table 4: Physical Properties Requirements for Recycled Aggregate

RA-H Coarse Fine not less not less than 2.5 than 2.5 not more not more than 3.0 than 3.5 not more not more than 1.0 than 7.0 No limitations are put on the type and segment for concrete and structures with a nominal strength of 45MPa or less RA-M Coarse Fine not less not less than 2.3 than 2.2 not more not more than 5.0 than 7.0 not more not more than 1.5 than 7.0 Members not subjected to drying or freezing-and-thawing action, such as piles, underground beam, and concrete filled in steel tubes RA-L Coarse Fine
Oven-dry density (g/cm3) Water Absorption (%) Material passing 75 m sieve (%) Scope of application
not more not more than 7.0 than 13.0 not more not more than 2.0 than 10.0 Backfill concrete, blinding concrete, and leveling concrete
The JIS A 5021 includes the following policies and requirements: RA-H is the high-quality aggregate used for JIS A 5308 (ready-mixed concrete) in a similar way to natural good-quality aggregate. Demolished concrete rubbles usually contain considerable amount of brick, tile, plaster, plastics, etc. The amount of deleterious substances in RA-H is tested through comparison of the RA-H thus produced with several confirmatory samples that include each deleterious substance. The limits of deleterious substances are shown in Table 5. The minimum rate of sampling and testing and the criteria of alkali-silica reactivity of RA-H are dependent on whether the attribute of original aggregates is identified. Unless it is identified, the produced RA-H must be sampled and tested at frequent intervals and treated as an aggregate that has potential alkali-silica reactivity.
The RA-H must be produced in a plant where the quality of produced RA-H and the producer's production control are assessed and surveyed by an approved inspection body and then certified by an approved certification body.
Table 5: Limits of Amount of Deleterious Substances in RA-H and RA-M
Category A B C D E F Total Deleterious Substances Tile, Brick, Ceramics, Asphalt Concrete Glass Plaster Inorganic substances other than plaster Plastics Wood, Paper, Asphalt Limits (Mass%) 2.0 0.5 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.1 3.0
A quality control system for construction materials has been established, to ensure that materials, particularly JIS products and products conforming to JIS, are supplied with constant qualities that meet the specifications under strict quality control, so that contractors and citizens can carry out construction and use the resulting structures with peace of mind. While it is essential to establish such a system for promoting the wide use of recycled aggregate, a distinctive difference exists between crushed stone/sand for concrete and recycled aggregate with regard to material procurement. Whereas crushed stone/sand that is deemed uniform to a certain extent can be procured in large quantities, the grading, density, water absorption, alkali-silica reactivity, etc., of demolished concrete may naturally vary from one lump to another, particularly when the recycled aggregate production plant is located away from demolition sites (offsite plant) and accepts demolished concrete from various structures. To promote recycled aggregate as JIS products or JIS-conforming products, it is therefore necessary to (1) produce recycled aggregate from only specific structures at onsite plants; (2) carry out material control by separately storing concrete rubbles from each structure at offsite plants; or (3) carry out quality control by substantially increasing the frequency of acceptance inspections and product inspections at offsite plants.
RECYCLING TECHNOLOGY
The uses for concrete rubbles to be recycled are determined by the qualities of the recycled material, such as density and water absorption, which vary depending on the percentage of cement paste contained within or adhering to the surfaces of original aggregate, and the quality of recycled aggregate depends on the production method. Fig.10 shows general methods for producing recycled road bottoming, recycled aggregate for leveling concrete (low-quality recycled aggregate), and recycled aggregate having qualities comparable to those of natural aggregate and used for structural concrete (high-quality recycled aggregate). Single toggle-type jaw crushers are generally used for the primary crushing of demolished concrete into pieces 40 to 50mm in size regardless of the ultimate quality of recycled aggregate. While the material is carried to the next process on a belt conveyor, foreign particles such as wood/plastic chips and reinforcing steel/nails are removed manually and with a magnetic separator, respectively. The materials then undergo various treatments according to their uses. Impact crushers are used for secondary and tertiary crushing when producing middle- and low-quality recycled aggregate. While the quality of recycled aggregate produced by using such equipment is improved as the number of treatment processes increases, the recovery percentage of recycled aggregate decreases with increased
Demolished Concrete rubbles Jaw crusher Impact crusher Vibratory sieves Road bottoming, Backfilling Vibratory sieves Cone crusher Vibratory sieves L-class recycled coarse aggregate Road bottoming L-class recycled fine aggregate Heating tower Aggregate scrubber Vibratory sieves M- or H-class recycled coarse aggregate M- or H-class recycled fine aggregate Powder
L-class recycled aggregate
M- or H-class recycled aggregate
Fig. 10: General Methods for Concrete Recycling
Amounts of powder by products as the aggregate itself is crushed as shown in Fig. 11. Other equipment in practical use for producing middle- and low-quality recycled aggregate includes selfpropelled or vehicle-mounted jaw crushers and impact crushers that save the energy normally expended to haul the demolished concrete. Special equipment is therefore necessary for efficient production of high-quality recycled aggregate in order to minimize the adhering cement paste. Efficient equipments for producing high-quality recycled aggregate have been developed in recent years and put into practical use. Figs.12 to 14 shows representative types. The first is a technique called mechanical-scrubbing, in which concrete rubbles are scrubbed by one another using an eccentric tubular vertical mill(9)or a screw mill to produce recycled coarse aggregate by removing adhering cement paste. Fine aggregate is then produced similarly from the recycled aggregate smaller than the specified size. Trial runs revealed that recycled aggregate conforming to high-quality standard is obtained. On the other hand, the percentage of recovery widely varied depending on the type of original aggregate, and slight difficulty in producing highquality recycled fine aggregate was found. Virgin fine aggregate is therefore considered necessary when applying recycled aggregate produced by this method to structural concrete. The use of recycled coarse aggregate produced by this method is not classified as down cycling, as the quality of structural concrete is assured.
Water absorption (%) 5-10mm Not less than 10mm
Recovery percentage (%) Recycled fine aggregate Aggregate Size of supplied Concrete Rubbles
Recycled coarse aggregate
Gravel Sand Cement Paste
Powder
No
1st
2nd 3 Number of Crushing Treatment
rd
No 1st 2nd 3rd Original Concrete Crushing Treatment
Fig. 11: Relationship between the Number of Crushing and the Quality and Recovery Percentage of Recycled Aggregate
Concrete rubbles Scrubbing Eccentric tubular mill External cylinder Motor
Recovery
Transmission gear
Fig. 12: Mechanical-Scrubbing Equipments (Eccentric Tubular Mill Type)

Input Cylinder hollow Middle cone Ejection cone
Rotary blade
Outlet
Fig. 13: Mechanical-Scrubbing Equipments (Screw Mill Type)
The second technology is called heated-scrubbing (10), in which concrete rubbles is charged in a heating furnace and subjected to hot air to make the cement paste brittle and weak. It is then scrubbed in a mill to separate cement paste from aggregate. The heating temperature is around 300C. The quality of recycled aggregate attains the high-quality level, while the percentage of recovery is sufficiently high. The qualities of concrete made using this aggregate are virtually the same as the original concrete. Though this technique has acquired certain track records in the construction of actual structures, it requires the availability of infrastructures that economically provide the heat Sources necessary for heating. Though the problems of the thermal-energy-induced environmental impact and cost increase currently remain unsolved, this technique assures the quality of structural concrete, avoiding down cycling, while forming a closed-loop in terms of there source circulation of concrete materials. It should be noted that the above two techniques recover recycled aggregate, or a material, having the same quality as natural aggregate from waste concrete. Though a significant amount of energy is input at the stage of treatment in the production system, recycled aggregate is produced in a condition usable as parts for the same product or for other products for which the same or higher performance is required. When this condition is ensured, the material is in a condition that can be circulated (i.e. recyclable) in a closed system.
Heating device filled with concrete rubbles
Recovery of coarse aggregate
Recovery of fine aggregate
Bug filter
Sieve Tube mill Tube mill
Fine aggregate
Coarse aggregate
By-product powder
Fig. 14: Heated-Scrubbing Equipments
COMPLETELY RECYCLABLE CONCRETE (CRC) Concept of CRC

The time has come when establishment of a new design concept for complete recycling of structural concrete is definitely necessary. The principle of complete recycling is that the concrete is subject to material design to reduce waste generation and facilitate resource circulation in a closed system. Development technology based on such material design is regarded as proactive technology. The materials of concrete should be used as parts of concrete during the service life of concrete and remain usable after demolition as parts of similar or other products without quality deterioration, continuing circulation in various products as the media. This is defined as a performance called resource conserve ability. If concrete produced with due consideration to the resource conserve ability at the stage of material design is applied to structures, then the components of the concrete can be completely recycled at the time of demolition. What should be done in the future is to introduce material design that permits complete recycling for at least the components of concrete, i.e., aggregate and cement materials, to ensure the material conserve ability in concrete as the medium and then to achieve high strength and high durability of structures.
Cement Recovery-type
Cement recovery-type CRC was defined as concrete whose materials are entirely usable after hardening as materials of cement, since all the binders, additions, and aggregate are made of cement or materials for cement(11). After the most basic cement recovery-type CRC (e.g., using normal portland cement, crushed limestone, and crushed limestone sand) was crushed, the obtained sample was subjected to ingredient adjustment to make it the material for cement. This material was subjected to processes including calcination in an electric oven, gypsum addition, and crushing, to produce reprocessed cement. This cement had the same qualities as one available on the market and no problem was observed in fresh and mechanical properties of the concrete made using this cement as shown in Table 6.Blast-furnace slag, fly ash, etc., generated as by-products from industries other than construction have been actively reused as materials for cement and cementitious materials for concrete. Since these contain adequate amounts of SiO2, Al2O3, andFe2O3 that are necessary for materials of cement, concrete containing several types of these industrial by-products in combination achieves complete recyclability as clinker material after demolition without adding any other ingredients. This CRC with no need for ingredient adjustment contributes to the global environment from the standpoint of effective use of industrial by-products as well. Cement recovery-type CRC can
formulate a semi-closed-loop circulation material flow as shown in Fig.15.Conversion from conventional concrete to CRC will substantially mitigate the environmental problem of concrete waste generation and CO2 emission during cement production, while permanently preserving and storing the limestone resource in the form of structures. When conventional concrete is converted to CRC, the problems of concrete waste generation and CO2 emission during cement production are drastically improved. Meanwhile, limestone resources are permanently stored and accumulated in the form of structures. Fig.16 shows the simulation of waste concrete amount and CO2 emission under a condition that 5% of conventional concrete is replaced with the prototype CRC (using crushed limestone and crushed limestone sand) every year (11). Fig. 16 reveals that the waste concrete peaks 50 years later and then rapidly decreases thereafter and that CO2 emission progressively decreases beginning 30 years later. Accordingly, CRC greatly contributes to the reduction in the load on the environment while permitting sustained construction investment.
Table 6: Properties of Recycled Cement and Recycled Concrete
Recycled Cement Recycled concrete Density (g/cm3) 3.13 W/C 0.58 Specific Surface Area(cm2/g) 3,340 Compressive strength at 28 days 35.2 MPa Setting Time Compressive Strength at 28days (MPa) Initial Final 2h-00m 2h-50m 43.0 Modulus of elasticity at 28 days 39.0 GPa Crushing & Milling
Demolition
Operation Semi-closed-loop
Calcination
Clinker Construction Gypsum Recycled Cement Aggregate Production of CRC
Fig. 15: Cement Recovery-Type CRC

200 200
CO2 Emission Dumped concrete
150
CO2 Emission Dumped concrete
150
100
100
50
50
0 0 50 100 150 Elapsed year 200 250
0 0 50 100 150 Elapsed year 200 250
(1) As it is
(2) Production of CRC
Fig. 16: Changes in CO2 Emissions and Quantity of Dumped Concrete (11)
Sustainability in Concrete Rec cycling 59
Aggreg gate Recove ery-type

Aggrega ate recovery-type CRC was w defined as a concrete in which the e aggregate s surfaces are modified without excessively reducing the e mechanica al properties of the concr rete, in order r to reduce the t bond between n aggregate and a the matr rix, thereby permitting p ea asy recovery of original a aggregate(12). It can also form m a closed circulating c material flow as a shown in Fig.17. In order o to achie eve 100% ci irculation of concr rete in a clos sed system, a structure is s necessary as a an aggrega ate-supplier in addition to t one as a cemen nt material su upplier. By building b a sto ock of structu ures keeping g such an app propriate balance, all cement and aggrega ate can be ex xploited from m built structu ures in the fu uture. In agg gregate recov very-type CRC, aggregate a su urfaces can be modified d by two methods: m ch hemical trea atment and physical treatmen nt (13). Che emical treatm ment is a method m in which w format tion of cement hydrates s on the aggregat te-paste inte erfaces is che emically restr ricted due to o the coating g by mineral oil coating, whereas physical l treatment forms a film m of a wate er-soluble sy ynthetic resin emulsion to smooth the fine irregular rities on the interfaces, thereby t redu ucing the me echanical fric ction. Modification treatm ment can be carrie ed out simply y and econo omically by either method d. Experimen nts were carr ried out to in nvestigate the mec chanical pro operties of concrete an nd the aggr regate recov verability. Tw wo types of o coarse aggregat tes with diffe erent particle e shapes, i.e e. gravel and d crushed sto one, were tre eated chemic cally and physical lly and concr rete specime ens were fab bricated by adopting a two levels of wa ater-to-cement ratios, i.e. 40% % and 60%. The compre essive strengt th and modu ulus of elasti icity were measured at an a age of 28 days.
n Demolition Crushing & Sievi ing Calci ination Cl losed-loop
O Operation
Recy ycled aggr regate
Clinker
C Construction
Recycled d cement
Pr roduction of CRC
Surface mod dified aggregate e
Chemical C treatm ment
Ph hysical treatme ent
F Fig. 17: Aggr regate Recov very-type CRC C No treatme ent 90 80 70 60 50 40 Crushed stone Gravel Chemic cal W/C=6 60% Physica al Recovery ratio (%) No treatment 90 80 70 60 50 40 Crus shed stone Gravel Chemic cal W/C= =40% Physical
Recovery ratio (%)
Fig. 18: Recovery Ra atio of Origin nal Aggregate e in Aggregat te Recovery-t type CRC
No treatment 60 Strength (MPa) 50 40 30 20 10
Chemical W/C=60%
Physical Strength (MPa)
No treatment 60 50 40 30 20 10
Chemical W/C=40%
Physical
Crushed stone
Gravel
Crushed stone
Gravel
Fig. 19: Compressive Strength in Aggregate Recovery-type CRC
Concrete was crushed in a two-phase process to grasp the recovery ratio and evaluate the quality of recycled aggregate. The primary crushing was carried out using an improved jaw crusher having a mechanism that slightly scrubs aggregate particles. The entire amount of the crushed aggregate was charged into a ball mill and subjected to scrubbing. The aggregate recovery ratio of concrete containing crushed stone was increased by aggregate surface modification regardless of the strength as shown in Fig.18. The effect of chemical treatment was particularly evident. On the other hand, the effect of aggregate surface treatment was less evident in concrete containing round aggregate, particularly in high strength concrete. The surface treatment realizes recovery of high quality recycled aggregate with little adhering paste from demolished concrete by a simple crushing technique. The compressive strength of concrete made with surface modified aggregate decreased regardless of the water-cement ratio as shown in Fig.19. Concrete with angular crushed stone and lower water-tocement ratio exhibited more decrease in compressive strength due to higher effect of surface modification than that with round gravel and higher water-to-cement ratio. It was because surface modification causes the crack propagation zone to be predominantly formed in the weak portions at aggregate-matrix boundaries, leading to failure at a lower stress. Based on the experiments, the tradeoff relationship between the mechanical properties of concrete and the aggregate recoverability still remained unresolved.
Advanced Aggregate Recovery-type

An advanced technology was developed by Tsujino et al.(14)to ensure compatibility of the performances in a trade-off relationship between mechanical properties of the concrete and aggregate recoverability. The proposed new technology consists of two technologies as shown in Fig.20, i.e. concrete strength enhancement technology and aggregate recovery technology. The former involves, differing from conventional technologies, aggregate surface modification to increase the bonding force between the coarse aggregate and the mortar by coating a binder evenly on the surface of the coarse aggregate. Silica fume and by-product powder were contained in the binder expecting to enhance chemical and physical bonding force due to pozzolanic reaction and mechanical friction. The latter aims at recycling aggregate with low energy, which involves inclusion of dielectric material in the binder. When applied with microwave radiation, the dielectric material on the surface of the aggregate is heated and the interface between the aggregate and mortar matrix is weakened locally and thus the separability of the aggregate and mortar matrix is improved. Crushed sandstone (surface-dry density: 2.66g/cm3, water absorption: 0.70%) was used as a coarse aggregate to apply the modification, in which low viscosity epoxy resin was used as an adhesive agent to attach silica fume and by-product powder (absolute density: 2.35g/cm3, specific surface area: 1,877cm2/g) to the aggregate surface. The mixing ratios of the silica fume and the by-product powder are shown in Table 7. Each powder was applied to the adhesive agent after it was coated on the aggregate and before it hardened. Compressive strengths at the ages of 3, 7 and 28 days and modulus of elasticity at the age of 28 days are shown in Fig.21. Both silica fume and by-product powder are used in the range of silica fume content of 10-20% such as specimen SP80 and SP90, the strength of the concrete will be increased by 20% or more compared to that of normal aggregate concrete. Assuming that the increase in the strength of the specimen P is only due to the increase in the mechanical friction force,
the increase in the chemical bonding force due to pozzolanic reaction served the increase in the strength by 30%. This suggests that the combination of the increase in the mechanical friction force and the increase in the chemical bonding force results in drastic increase in strength of concrete. The modulus of elasticity was however smaller than that of the normal aggregate concrete by 10% due to the formation of the epoxy layer by applying this technology. Considering attenuation of the microwave within the concrete, the concrete was heated for 90 seconds with microwave radiation at the power of 1,800W. The specimens used were those cured for 28 days in water, with a dimension of 50100mm.After heated with microwave radiation, the specimens were roughly crushed with a jaw crusher, and subjected to a rubbing treatment with the Los Angeles Abrasion Machine to remove cement mortar. The aggregate recovery rate was measured for the specimen O prepared using normal aggregate and the specimen SP80 that showed high strength. The heating conditions are shown in Table 8. For the specimen prepared using normal aggregate, both the microwave heating and the conventional electric oven heating were applied. The recovery ratio of the recycled coarse aggregate is shown in Fig.22. The specimen O1 (not heated) contains much cement paste in spite of undergoing rubbing treatment. With respect to the specimenO2 heated by microwave radiation and O3 heated in the electric oven, more cement paste is removed than that without heating, but it is not so much compared to that of specimen undergone heated-scrubbing as reported in the past papers. The aggregate recovery rate of the specimen SP80 heated by microwave radiation was around 93%, indicating small amount of the paste and fine aggregate remained, proved a high quality of the recycled coarse aggregate. The CO2 emission during the treatment of 1 ton of waste concrete mass is shown in Fig.23. The CO2 emitted using the microwave heating is extremely small compared to that from the aggregate production process based on the heated-scrubbing. When compared to the mechanical-scrubbing that could produce moderately high quality aggregate, CO2emission was almost the same. Considering the extremely high quality of recycled aggregate obtained by the new technology, it seems highly advantageous than conventional ones.
In use Demolition Recycling
Enhancement of bonding force Chemically Pozzolanic reaction Physically Mechanical friction
External stimulus Microwave radiation Dielectric material Selective heating
Improved separability Weakened interface Crushing
Original aggregate Smart material +Powder +Pozzolan +Dielectlic material Complete compatibility + Concrete strength enhancement + Aggregate recoverability + Low energy consumption
Aggregate
Fig. 20: Concept of the New Technology for Aggregate Recovery-type CRC
Table 7: Mixing Ratios of Silica Fume and By-Product Powder

Symbol O N SP70 SP80 SP90 P Silica Fume (%) 0 0 30 20 10 0 By-product Powder (%) Epoxy Resin & Dielectric Material 0 Not applied 0 Applied 70 80 90 100
3days
7days
28days
Modulus of elasticity
Strength (MPa)
50 40 30 20 10 O N SP70 SP80 SP90 P
30 25 20 15 10
Fig. 21: Compressive Strength and Modulus of Elasticity in Advanced Aggregate Recovery-type CRC Table 8: Heating Conditions
Symbol O1 O2 O3 SP80 Dielectric Material Not applied Microwave Heating 2.45GHz, 1800W, 90sec 2.45GHz, 1800W, 90sec Electric Oven Heating 300 , 60min -
Applied
Original coarse aggregate
Fine aggregate
Paste
Recovery ratio (%)
120 100 80 60 40 20 0 O1 O2 O3 SP80
Fig. 22: Recovery Ratio in Advanced Aggregate Recovery-type CRC
Modulus of elasticity (GPa)
60
35
Fig. 23: CO2 Emission in Concrete Recycling Process
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] Noguchi, T. (2009): Outline of recommendations for environmentally conscious practice of RC buildings published by AIJ. Proceedings of the fib Symposium; Concrete 21st Century Superhero; Building a Sustainable Future, London, UK. World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2002): Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry Sub study 8: Climate Change, Battelle. Sakai, K. (2009): Towards environmental revolution in concrete technologies. Proceedings of the fib Symposium; Concrete 21st Century Superhero; Building a Sustainable Future, London, UK. Ministry of the Environment 2003 (in Japanese): White paper on recycling society. Noguchi, T. (2008): Resource recycling in concrete: Present and future. Stock Management for Sustainable Urban Regeneration, Springer Japan, Japan. Sakai, K (2007): Contributions of the concrete industry toward sustainable development. Proceedings of International Conference on Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies, Coventry, UK. Japan Crushed Stone Association (2004): Changes in demand and supply of aggregate (in Japanese). Tomosawa, F. et al. (2005): The way concrete recycling should be. Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, JCI, Vol.3, No.1, pp.3-16. Yanagibashi, K. et al. (2004): A new recycling process for coarse aggregate to be used for concrete structures. Proceedings of RILEM International Symposium on Environment-Conscious Materials and Systems for Sustainable Development, Koriyama, Japan. Shima, H., et al. (1999): New technology for recovering high quality aggregate from demolished concrete. Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on East Asian Recycling Technology, Japan. Tomosawa,F. and Noguchi, T. (1996): Towards completely recyclable concrete. Integrated Design andEnvironmental Issues in Concrete Technology, E & FN SPON, pp.263-272 Noguchi, T. and Tamura M. (2001): Concrete design toward complete recycling. Structural Concrete, Vol.2, No.3, pp.155-167. Tamura, M. et al. (2002): Life cycle design based on complete recycling of concrete. Proceedings of the 1st fib Congress, Osaka, Japan. Tsujino, M. et al. (2008): Completely recyclable concrete of aggregate-recovery type by using microwave heating technology. Proceedings of the 3rd ACF International Conference, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam.
Prospective Housing Technologies for Mass Housing in India

Shailesh Kr. Agrawal1, J.K. Prasad2, S.K. Gupta3 and Dalip Kumar4
2Chief
Director, Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council, MoHUPA, Government of India, New Delhi (Building Materials), Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council, MoHUPA, Government of India, New Delhi 3Dy. Chief (IDE&IC), Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council, MoHUPA, Government of India, New Delhi 4Sr. Fielf Officer (DC&E), Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council, MoHUPA, Government of India, New Delhi
1Executive
INTRODUCTION
The continuous exodus towards urban area in India has led to the rise of urban population from 286.1 million as per 2001 Census to more than 377 million as per 2011 Census and it would continue to grow. With this pace of urbanization, our cities are facing a daunting task of providing adequate shelter to one and all. As per planning commission estimates for the 10th Plan beginning in 2002, the urban housing backlog was 8.8 million units and the total requirement was 22.44 million dwelling units. As per the report of the Technical Group on estimation of urban housing shortage constituted by the Ministry of Housing & Urban Poverty Alleviation, Government of India, in the context of preparing 11th Five year plan document, the total housing shortage as on 2007 was 24.71 million and 99% of this shortage pertains to economically weaker section and the lower income group of the society. The total urban housing shortage at the end of the 11th Five Year Plan period (2007-2012) is estimated to be of the order of 26.53 million units. In order to fill the gap through technological intervention, it is important that quicker ways of construction other than conventional in-situ concrete construction are resorted to without sacrificing the quality and structural sufficiency. The National Urban Housing and Habitat policy 2007 by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, inter-alia, lays emphasis on using technology for modernizing the housing sector for enhancing energy and cost efficiency, productivity and quality especially to meet the housing needs of the poor. It encourages use of prefabricated factory made building components so as to achieve speedy, cost effective and better quality construction. There are several centrally sponsored schemes and also state-specific schemes in each state to provide housing to poorest of the poor. However, it has been found that most of the projects run into cost and time over-runs which in turn affect the quality of the project. This calls for urgent review of our construction practices and study of emerging technologies so as to introduce best technologies and practices suiting Indian conditions for construction of housing stock in different parts of the country. BMTPC has been promoting cost-effective, environment-friendly, energy-efficient and disaster resistant technologies developed in India. With fast depleting natural resources; need for environment protection to protect greenhouse effect; need for bringing more speed, durability and quality in construction; it is prudent to widen the horizon to look for alternate cost effective technologies within and outside the country. BMTPC took an initiative to study/select emerging and alternate cost effective technologies suitable to Indian geo-climatic conditions and advocate these technologies to the State Govt. so as to initiate pilot projects in different parts of the country.
BMTPCS INITIATIVE
BMTPC invited Global Expression of Interest (EOI) from Construction System/Technology Developers/Providers for introducing emerging and alternate cost effective housing technologies. The Council received the expression of interest from the 12 agencies for different technologies and systems from all over the world. A Technology Advisory Group (TAG) was constituted by BMTPC for
Prospective Housing Technologies for Mass Housing in India 65
identification, evaluation and selection of the suitable technologies/systems, comprising of eminent experts from Government, R & D laboratories of India, academic and private agencies. Based on the information given by the bidders through their individual presentations before the TAG for their respective technologies/systems with respect to material and structural details, status of evaluation, actual construction carried out in India or elsewhere and their performance, economic scale of construction, status of transfer of the technology to India, suitability for mass construction in urban areas, durability & speed of construction, cost effectiveness, innovation in technology, ease of working & adaptability in Indian condition, etc., the following broad parameters were considered for evaluation of technology/ system: 1. Structural stability 2. Material specification and its durability 3. Green concept 4. Joints and connections specially for prefabricated system 5. Cost effectiveness of the emerging technologies vis--vis conventional construction system (RCC and masonry construction) 6. Speed of construction and quality 7. Sanitation 8. Suitability to Indian climatic and hazard conditions 9. Scale of minimum number of houses 10. Adoptability of Services. 11. Expected life span of the proposed system 12. Maintenance scheme for the system 13. Resistance of the system against fire, blast, etc. 14. Users feedback and certification, wherever possible. 15. Compatibility and adherence of the system to BIS 16. Any shortcoming of the system Based on the above broad parameters, the TAG short listed following seven technologies/systems for further evaluation:
Table 1
Technology/System Panel building system using steel mesh, polystyrene core and chipping concrete Technology using expanded steel mesh panels, polystyrene beads & alleviated concrete Pre-stressed precast prefab technology using hollow core slab, beams, columns, solid walls, stairs, etc. Monolithic concrete system using plastic formwork Monolithic concrete construction using aluminium formwork Precast concrete panels system using concrete, welded mesh and plates, polystyrene core Industrialized 3-S system using cellular light weight concrete slabs & precast columns.
INTRODUCED TECHNOLOGY/ SYSTEM Panel Building System using Steel Mesh, Polystyrene Core and Chipping Concrete
The panel Building system is a load bearing wall construction which is seismic resistant and thermally insulated. It is reported that buildings of any typology or architectural structure, ranging from most simple to the most complex one, could be constructed. The base element of the building system is a modular panel composed of two electro-welded galvanized steel meshes , reciprocally joined by connectors , in the middle of which is a suitably shaped foam polystyrene plate. High resistance steel
meshes composed of bars having dia. 2.5 to 5 mm. are made in factory. Panels could be supplied with meshes having different dia. and different geometrical characteristics. Polystyrene is selfextinguishing foam polystyrene suitably shaped, used both as a disposable form and as an insulating layer. The EPS is made of carbon, hydrogen and for 98% air. Thickness, shape and density of the polystyrene core may change according to specific requirements. The minimum density normally used is equal to 15 kg / m3. Once the panels are installed, they are anchored and finished with the application of light concrete on both of their sides. Thus, buildings with load bearing walls consisting of two reinforced concrete plates are made integral by a thick network of connectors, with an insulating core. Single panel is finished, by applying on each a layer of chipping concrete having characteristic resistance of 30 Mpa at least. As load bearing element, the double panel and the floors are finished during the installation with concrete of suitable grade placed into the slab ribs as well. Should the panels carry out a non-load bearing function, a concrete plaster , even a pre mixed one , is applied for a thickness of at least 25 mm.
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Materials Used
Meshes manufactured using high resistance steel bars of dia. 2.55mm, Self-extinguishing Polystyrene core (min density 15 kg / m3), Chipping Concrete having characteristic strength 30 Mpa
Salient Feature
Good heat and sound insulation properties, versatility in construction, lightweight but strong, resistance to seismic, hurricane/tornado forces including blast explosion of 50 psi, fire rating of 60 min, cost effective building system utilizing local raw materials and labour force, speed of construction (30% less than conventional construction system), environment friendly being, CFC free and nontoxic, energy efficient
Evaluation
Wind projectile resistance testWind Science and engineering, Texas Tech University, Texas; Fire resistance test-Centro Technologico De La Madera, spain; Dynamic TestsRITAM-ISRIM-Universita Di Perugia- CSM; Sound insulation test- SIRIM QAS International Sdn. Bhd, Malaysia
Technology Using Expanded Steel Meshes Panels, Polystyrene Beads & Alleviated Concrete
The system is entirely a on-site construction process, not based on prefabricated, pre cast or preassembled elements and is a most spectacular, versatile and efficient construction system. The houses are entirely, including the roof, made up of structure panels assembled with Beams. Alleviated concrete, a special mix of concrete and expanded polystyrene beads, hence incorporating both the thermal and the sound insulation, is injected into a steel structure made of panels reinforced with beams (galvanized steel wire studs/ steel rods).
The Concrete base and the foundations of the houses are prepared in a conventional manner. They can be made from regular, poured, heavy concrete, but more generally the use of alleviated concrete or at least of one more layer of alleviated concrete, will provide good thermal insulation and good comfort from the ground also. Prior to the pouring of the concrete of the base, the panels are tied to the soldered wire mesh and to the iron rods in the base and in the foundations and assembled in accordance with the design of the house. They are then, held together by special made galvanized steel wire studs, which fit one into the other, horizontally and vertically, to form the complete skeleton of the construction, roof included.
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The assembled panels form a rigid, extremely robust, self-supporting steel skeleton, comprising the outside walls and all other bearing walls and partitions, the floors and ceilings, including the roof. Doors and walls are then simply cut out, using steel scissors or other steel cutters. Cut-offs is recovered and re-used. Templates of doors and windows are positioned. Instead of using framework, both sides of each panels are then simply covered with a galvanized wire mesh/fencing mesh/Chicken mesh, which is clipped to the panels, and will serve as a frame when the alleviated concrete injected. Alleviated or light concrete is then injected with a special concrete pump. This pump can operate from a distance of 60 meters and to a height of up to 60 meters (almost 20 floors). The alleviated concrete is a custom-made mixture of cement, fiber, sand and Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) beads (1 to 4 mm), resulting in a low-density concrete (50-700 kg/m3) and hence incorporating thermal and sound insulation. The injected walls are then finished / leveled / smoothened from both sides. The concrete-injected then forms a true and quasi-homogeneous composite with incomparably better properties than plain steel reinforced concrete; Offers excellent thermal and phonic insulation; has walls that breathe; is completely resistant to fire; Offer complete protection against earthquakes and hurricanes and; is immune to termites and other insects.
Materials Used
Expanded steel type of galvanized steel mesh panels, cast and expanded in continuous process from a 1.6 mm thick and 30 cm wide galvanized steel sheet coil and Alleviated concrete made up of cement; fiber; sand and expanded polystyrene beads(1-4 mm).
Salient Features
Well insulated, earthquake/hurricane/tornado resistant, fire and termite resistant, built on site in less time, minimal manpower, equipment and logistics, high quality and durability, cost effective, sound, safe, healthy, energy efficient, environment friendly, architectural flexibility, higher strength of walls and roof, wires and pipes embedded in the walls, no forms, shuttering frames or casings. The system is composed of tri-dimensional panels, realized without welding in one piece, without any loss of materials by special cutting process and using galvanized steel plates. It is made of two sides of longitudinal ribs which are linked together at the knots by jambs. The layout of jambs in relation to the ribs defines the sides.
Evaluation
Thermal, sound and structural certification by GINGER-CEBTP, France; fire resistance certification by EFECTIS, France; Certification by CSTB, SOCOTEC, VERITAS Pre-stressed precast prefab technology using hollow core slab, beams, columns, solid walls, stairs, etc.
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Pre-stressed precast RCC technology using hollow core slabs, beams, columns, solid walls, stairs etc. are designed and manufactured in factory, shipped and erected at site. Multi-storey precast concrete frames are constructed with columns and beams of different shapes and sizes, stair and elevator shafts and floor slabs. The joints between the floors elements are executed in such a way that concentrated loads are distributed over the whole floor. This system is widely used for multi storey buildings. The structural frame is commonly composed of rectangular columns of one or more storeys height. The beams are normally rectangular, L-shaped or inverted T-beams. They are single span or cantilever beams, simply supported and pin-connected to the columns. Hollow core floor slabs are by far the most common type of floor slabs in this type of structure.
Materials Used
Cement concrete, steel strands, reinforcing steel.
Salient Features
Saving in Cost: Precast Prefab buildings can be constructed in less than half the time it takes to construct using conventional construction. This results in huge financial savings. Material Savings: Precast pre-stressed technology results in 40% reduction in slab weight. This reduces in building weight, material & foundation cost resulting in direct cost savings. Savings in Exterior Painting & Finishing: All exterior surfaces can be provided with aggregate or other such colored finishes which require no additional painting over the life time of the building. Alternatively the walls are made with a very smooth mirror like finish saving in plastering costs. Increased Carpet Area: Because of the high strength of the concrete structure small sized walls can be used in lieu of thicker ones. This results in the increased carper area for a similar construction of in-situ buildings.
1. Energy Savings: Hollow core slabs act as a natural insulator & thereby result in savings in air conditioning cost. Additionally, walls can have in-built foam insulation resulting in increased savings. 2. Environmental Benefits: Prefab concrete can have fly ash as a ingredient in the concrete mix. This results in higher strength concrete while at the same time utilizing an otherwise waste product. 3. Long Life Cycles: As buildings components are manufactured & cured in controlled conditions the resulting elements have better strength & durability. This results in buildings having much longer life cycles than conventional in-Situ construction 4. Water Savings: Water requirement for curing of elements is minimal as compared to in- situ construction. Also in the factory the water is recycled thereby saving this precious commodity.
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Monolithic Concrete Technology using Plastic/ Aluminium Composite Formwork

In the monolithic concrete technology, Walls and slabs are cast in one operation in specially designed light weight form/ moulds in concrete. Concrete is poured in the forms & forms are removed after the setting of concrete takes place, resulting in box like cubical structure of required architectural design. The pre-designed formwork also acts some sort of assembly line production and enables rapid construction of multiple units of repetitive type.
Materials Used
Primarily M20 grade concrete walls, slabs & HYSD reinforcement of Fe 415/ Fe500 grade.
Specification
1. Foundation: Strip footing based on SBC of soil. Foundation & plinth wall to be 150 mm thick. 2. Work above Plinth: load bearing cement concrete of M20 Grade walls with single layer of vertical & horizontal reinforcement. 3. Slab & Staircases: 100 mm thick M20 Grade concrete slabs. Plain soffit staircase with concrete/masonry riser. 4. Reinforcement: HYSD reinforcement of Fe 415/ Fe500 grade 5. Shuttering/Form works : PVC-Aluminium Formwork with minimum propping
6. In addition, IPS/Ceramic Tile flooring in rooms dado in WC & bath. Metal doors for main & internal walls, PVC doors for bath & WC etc. 7. As indicated, the specifications/items are indicative & can be changed to suit the needs of users as per local conditions/practices.
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Evaluation
CEPT University, Ahmadabad
Monolithic Concrete Construction using Aluminium Formwork

In the Monolithic concrete construction with aluminium forms system, Concrete walls and slabs are cast monolithically at one pour. The system allows reduction in thickness of concrete members below the minimum value than the conventional construction, thus reducing the consumption of natural resources. Single floor with built up area of about 300 sqm. can be completed in two days using the aluminium formwork system. The technology reduces the cost of repair and maintenance compared to conventional system.
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Materials Used
Cement, aggregate, sand, steel and aluminium formwork
Salient Features
Structurally sound, safe, durable against earthquakes, cost effective technology, resistant to fire etc.
Evaluation
Wind Engineering Research Deptt., Texas Technical University, USA
Precast Concrete Panels using Concrete, Welded Mesh and Plates, Polystyrene Core
Pre-cast concrete load bearing panels are made of reinforced concrete with a polystyrene insulated core that varies in size from 40mm to 200mm depending upon the insulation requirements. The reinforced concrete panels are moulded in specially designed steel moulds under controlled factory conditions. Then the panels are removed from the moulds and stacked vertically for curing. Power and water conduits are installed in the panels during production. The buildings and houses can be designed to suit any geographical position or environment and can withstand wind speed in excess of 285km/hr. The system does not impose any design restrictions and can be used for any kind of architectural and aesthetic design as these panels are custom designed and manufactured. The panels have smooth surfaces. However, any kind of texture can be added on to the panel surface. Due to cohesive structural design, the system requires only strip foundation for most buildings. Concrete panels can be designed with strength of 5000 psi. These results in stronger panels than concrete blocks or most poured concrete walls but are thinner and light weight. The panels are of good quality and uniformity as they are cast and cured in controlled factory environment. The panels can be installed in fraction of time. The foundation takes two hours to prepare and the panels are set in three hours.
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Materials Used
Cement, aggregates, sand with additives, Welded mesh and plates, polystyrene core
Salient Features
Reduced labour cost due to quicker/easier assembly, in some cases no mason is required; tornado/hurricane damage resistance, fire, termite and dry rot resistance; requires less insulation; low maintenance and improved sound proofing; can be erected in cold temperature, preventing concrete pour delays; buildings constructed using the system are resistant to earthquakes measuring up to 6 on Richter Scale; save air conditioning energy; higher upfront cost, requires on-site crane including certified installer sometimes; offers a 10 year warranty on the structure using the technology.
Evaluation
Building Research Association of New Zeeland (Fire Rated and structural load testing), Structural Engineering Research Centre, Chennai and Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad.
Industrialized 3-s System using Cellular Light Weight Concrete Slabs & Precast Columns
The industrialized total open prefab construction technology is based on factory mass manufactured structural prefab components conforming to norms of IS standards and BIS Certification mark. In this system Dense Concrete hollow column shell of appropriate size are used in combination with pre cast dense concrete rectangular T Shape/L shape beams and lightweight reinforced autoclaved cellular concrete slabs for floors and roofs. The hollow columns are grouted with appropriate grade of insitu concrete. All the connections and jointing of various structures are accomplished through in situ concreting along with secured embedded reinforcement of appropriate size ,length and configuration to ensure monolithic continuous resilient ductile behavior.
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Materials Used
Concrete, Cellular light weight concrete Slabs, Precast column
Specification
As per relevant Indian Standards; IS 2185-Part 3 specification for autoclaved cellular concrete blocks, IS 6041 construction of autoclaved cellular concrete block masonry, IS 6072SP autoclaved reinforced cellular concrete wall slab, IS 6073 autoclaved reinforced cellular concrete floors and roof slab.
Evaluation
Stanford University, USA; IIT, Mumbai; CBRI, Roorkee; SERC, Chennai; TSRF, Bangalore. It is mentioned that all the above Institutions have concluded that the 3 S prefab System satisfies all the technical parameters, codal requirements and most suitable for mass housing projects. In addition to the above emerging technologies, the Council has also evaluated GFRG/ Rapid wall Building System technology under its Performance Appraisal Certification Scheme (PACS) and is one of alternate technology having potential for mass housing projects. The details of technology are as under:
GFRG/ Rapid Wall Building System Technology

Glass Fibre Reinforced Gypsum (GFRG)/ Rapid wall is a building panel product, made essentially of gypsum plaster, reinforced with glass fibres. This product, suitable for rapid mass-scale buildings construction, was originally developed and used since 1990 in Australia. GFRG is of particular relevance to India, where there is a tremendous need for cost-effective mass-scale affordable housing, and where gypsum is abundantly available as an industrial by-product waste. The product is not only
eco-friendly or green, but also resistant to water and fire. GFRG panels are presently manufactured to a thickness of 124 mm under carefully controlled conditions to a length of 12 m and a height of 3 m. The panel can be cut to required size. Although its main application is in the construction of walls, it can also be used in floor and roof slabs in combination with reinforced concrete.
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The panel contains cavities that may be filled with concrete and reinforced with steel bars to impart additional strength and provide ductility. The panels may be unfilled, partially filled or fully filled with reinforced concrete as per the structural requirement. Experimental studies and research have shown that GFRG panels, suitably filled with plain reinforced concrete, possess substantial strength to act not only as load-bearing elements, but also as shear walls, capable of resisting lateral loads due to earthquake and wind. It is possible to design such buildings up to ten storeys in low seismic zones (and to lesser height in high seismic zones). However, such construction needs to be properly designed by a qualified structural engineer. Manufacture of GFRG panels with increased thickness (150 mm, 200 mm) with suitable flange thickness can facilitate construction of taller building. GFRG panels can also be used advantageously as infills (non-load bearing) in combination with RCC framed columns and beams (conventional framed construction of multi-storey buildings) without any restriction on the number of storeys. Also, GFRG panels with embedded micro-beams and RCC screed (acting as T-beams) can be used as floor/roof slabs. GFRG panels can be unfilled when used as partition walls, but when used as external walls, need to be suitably designed (with reinforced concrete filling) in order to resist the design wind pressures. For single-storey construction (suitable for mass low-cost housing), unfilled GFRG panels can be used for walls as well as roof (which may be pitched suitably), with local reinforced concrete filling at the joints between walls and between the roof and walls. It is mandatory to provide embedded RCC horizontal tie beam over all the walls below the floor slab/roof slab.
Materials Used
Gypsum plaster reinforced with glass fibres.
Salient Features
Substantial reduction in the structural weight of the building, no plastering requirement for walls and ceiling, increased speed of construction with less manpower, saving of cement, steel, river sand, burnt clay bricks/concrete blocks and hence saving of energy and reduced CO2 emissions, contributing to environment protection and mitigate climate change, use of reprocessed/recycled industrial by product, waste gypsum, to manufacture GFRG panel, helping to abate pollution and protect the environment. GFRG building systems can be constructed only with technical support or supervision
by qualified engineers and constructors, based on structural designs carried out in detail to comply to prevailing standards; this is applicable even for low-rise and affordable mass housing, to provide for safety against natural disasters (such as earthquakes and cyclones).
Evaluation
IIT Madras and SERC Chennai, Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC), New Delhi. Detailed design manual has been developed for construction of buildings using GFRG panel.
ROAD AHEAD
To propagate the shortlisted technologies, a brochure has been prepared by the council and it is being widely circulated to all the stakeholders of construction industry. Besides, council organizes sensitization programmes, seminars, expositions wherein the technology providers are given opportunity to display their product either in form products or by way of construction a full-scale prototype structure. To see further application actually in the field, demonstration construction is must and the efforts are being made to initiate a few pilot projects. This would instill confidence in the mind of users and will also give an opportunity to examine the finer points, if any, of the construction. Some of the technologies identified, however, require setting up of manufacturing units and transfer of technologies. Such types of technologies need a big market for sustainability. It would also be necessary to develop specifications, code of practices based on Indian conditions and analysis of rates. Since these technologies are unique in themselves, suitable methodologies would be required to be developed for their selection by government agencies in their projects. It is hoped that identification of such technologies which help in reducing time, enhancing quality, bringing in durability, sustainability would not only provide strong base to the construction industry which is already grappling with economic slowdown but also help in tiding over the huge housing shortage, currently exists in social mass housing sector.
Sustainability and Service Life of Concrete Structures Exposed to Tropical Conditions

B. Bhattacharjee
Professor, CED, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India; bishwa@civil.iitd.ac.in
AbstractIn this article, the issues related to sustainability of concrete are explained followed by a discussion on role of service life in the context of sustainability of concrete. The role of moisture in deterioration of concrete is briefly illustrated. Climatic zones of India are considered and its influence on service life of exposed concrete elements is highlighted. Mechanisms of moisture ingress and relevant fundamental equation of unsaturated flow through concrete is discussed to establish the importance of climatic condition in service life and sustainability of concrete.
INTRODUCTION
Concrete is the most popular construction material in the world because of its several advantages. Currently concrete can be proportioned for compressive strength ranging from 5MPa to 200 MPa or more (RPC 800). It is mouldable and can be self-compacting without any vibration or may be compacted with large effort using heavy road roller depending upon requirements. The popularity of concrete can be judged from the fact that cement the main ingredient of concrete is the second most consumed material on earth only after water. However, to continue to be popular construction material, concrete must be sustainable. In this paper issue of concrete sustainability is discussed in the beginning including role of durability in sustainability. The influence of climatic condition on durability is the highlighted.
CONCRETE SUSTAINABILITY
The factors governing concrete sustainability are: a) the lifecycle energy implications, b) lifecycle green-house gas contribution, c) Contribution to natural resource depletion other than those used as fossil fuel. The life cycle energy implications encompasses 1) the embodied energy of concrete used in initial construction and the embodied energy of the repair materials used for the concrete during its life cycle. 2) The second important energy implication involves relative contribution of concrete towards operational energy saving especially in buildings. Consumed energy whether embodied or otherwise, may be obtained from fossil fuel directly or indirectly, which again contributes to greenhouse emissions in the form of CO2 gas, and; also leads to depletion of natural resources. Energy obtained from direct solar energy, geo-thermal energy or nuclear fission does not result in CO2 emission although may result in depletion of natural resources (Buchanan and Honey, 1994). Thus energy implication can be expressed in terms of equivalent CO2 emission or carbon equivalent (Bhattacharjee, 2010). The energy used in production and transportation of materials is called embodied energy. Embodied energy per unit mass for concrete is lower compared to steel or aluminum. However, the volume of concrete used is much greater than any other manmade material. As a result, total embodied energy of concrete in buildings, bridges and other structure is higher than all other materials used in construction. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) has been used in the concrete making for many years. Calcinations of limestone in Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) manufacture results in CO2 emission. Further, production of OPC requires large amount of energy for heating of lime stone and clay. Considering the CO2 emission from fuel used in OPC production as well, on an average, for each ton of OPC production, equivalent amount i.e. one ton of CO2 is emitted in to the atmosphere (Harrison, 2006). As regard to green-house gas contribution, manufacture of OPC is only next to fossil fuel burning contributing to anthropogenic CO2 emissions
(5-10%) to the atmosphere. Proportioning of ingredients for concrete making is done on the basis of mean strength, while structure is designed considering minimum acceptable strength. For same minimum acceptable strength, higher variability in concrete necessitates proportioning for higher mean strength, resulting in more cement consumption. Better quality control ensures less variation; hence lower would be the cement consumption. Use of appropriate admixture can also result in lower cement consumption by reducing the water requirement at a constant w/c ratio for given strength. The depletion of lime stone resources is also another concern. The other major raw materials used in making of concrete are aggregations of stones and fine sand or crushed stone powder, commonly referred to as aggregates. The mining and quarrying of these materials have started posing serious environmental problem and threat to sustainability. Thus judicious use of natural aggregates and reduction in their use may lead to sustainability. The uses of recycled and artificial aggregates are the other possibilities to improve sustainability of concrete. While concrete is more durable compared to many other materials, being a material produced at the expense of energy is by no means maintenance free. With better durability, repair cycle time can be extended and lesser frequency of repair would help in preserving raw materials and energy, contributing to sustainability. The operational energy consumed in building during its life cycle is many times more than the embodied energy, thus insulation quality, thermal mass and albedo of surface can play a major role in overall sustainability concern for concrete. Obviously there are many facades of sustainability of concrete and evaluation of sustainability of concrete shall take account of all the relevant factors.
SUSTAINABILITY AND DURABILITY

Concrete being a manmade material produced with expense of energy cannot be stable and would have tendency to undergo changes due to increased chemical potential. The changes lead to deterioration and loss of functional performance resulting in repair and maintenance. During repair, fresh new materials are put in with additional embodied energy. This embodied energy contributes to life cycle embodied energy of the structures. Thus life cycle embodied energy input to the system needs consideration. The energy again can be converted in to equivalent carbon emission. The repair cycle of concrete is important in the context of sustainability. Life cycle embodied energy would depend upon repair cycle or service life. Service life is defined as the time at which the structural element reaches the durability related serviceability limit. Durability is ability to maintain the performance against aggressive environment that results in deterioration, hence, loss of durability. Most of the physical and chemical deterioration in concrete is initiated by ingress of harmful agent through cover concrete. The service life with respect to deterioration is related to loss of protection capacity of the cover concrete. As a result often patch repairs are under taken where by cover concrete is replaced completely by fresh material which again may be similar to original material. The number of such repair required would be the ratio of intended design life to repair cycle or the service life. Concept of the sustainability index for concrete had been proposed by the author earlier (Bhattacharjee, 2010, Bhattacharjee, 2010) and the proposed index also takes life cycle embodied energy in to consideration, and is discussed as follows. Assuming that concrete up to cover depth is replaced on both sides, the ratio of quantity of repair material to original material will be same as the ratio of 2 times cover depth to depth of the section. This is an over estimation as in many elements only one face would be exposed to deterioration and would need repair. However, adopting a conservative approach the above estimate is reasonable. Thus the embodied energy of the repair materials (EER) can be approximately estimated in terms of the initial embodied energy (IEE) of the concrete as follows:
EER =
2 d c til IEE ds t sl
In equation 1, dc, ds are the cover depth and depth of the section respectively. til and tsl are intended design life and service life of concrete respectively. With current level of knowledge, service
Sustainability and Service Life of Concrete Structures Exposed to Tropical Conditions 77
life of concrete can be estimated only approximately and accurate model for prediction of service life is limited (Sarja and Vesikari, 1996). However, deterioration of concrete is largely governed by ingress of detrimental chemicals in to the concrete through its interconnected pore system, mostly in water dissolved state in solution phase. Thus estimation of tsl invariably involves consideration of moisture ingress in to concrete from external source.
CLIMATIC ZONE AND DURABILITY

For exposed concrete most common external source of water is atmospheric humidity and wind driven rain. Thus one may consider the relevant climatic zones in tropical climates. The temperature, the relative humidity and rainfall pattern govern the moisture conditions and reaction rates in exposed structures. Such conditions would depend upon climatic zones, namely, hot-dry climate as in Jodhpur or Bikaner, warm humid climate as in Kolkata or Chennai and composite monsoon climate of Delhi or Kanpur. The climatic zone map of India is given in Fig.1. A concrete exposed in warm humid climate is likely to have a conducive-moist condition for deterioration for a longer period of time with its longer duration of rainy season annually compared to that in hot-dry desert climate where rainy season is for short duration as shown in Fig.2. Geographical location and geological conditions again are the other considerations those shall go in to exposure classification. Exposure in coastal areas as shown in Fig. 1 indicated with thick dark outline would be different than locations away from cost. There again, the surface facing sea may be more conducive for deterioration compared to opposite face. Analysis of current deterioration pattern may not always provide reliable answer to above requirements. Quite often concrete structures in north India had been constructed with chloride ridden ground water resulting in early corrosion distress (Bhattacharjee, 2005). Thus analysis of current distress would indicate most of the northern India being rebar corrosion prone due to chloride, there by leading to erroneous inferences.
Fig.1: Climatic Zones of India
Chennai (Warm & Humid)
431.8 247.9
41.1
Jan
5.7
Feb
5.4
Mar
8.8
Apr
52.6
May
67.8
97.7
117.9
156.2
138.3
Jun
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
New Delhi (Composite)

20.9 Jan 21 Feb 14.4 Mar 10.7 Apr 14.1 May 66.3
198.4
206.5 130.3 20.8 3.9 Nov 8.8 Dec
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Bikaner (Hot & 11.9 7.8 5.7 6.3Dry)

Jan Feb Mar Apr
15.9 May
33 Jun
91.1 Jul
82.6 Aug
40.8 Sep
10.1 Oct
1.9 Nov
3 Dec
Fig. 2: Typical Average Monthly Rainfall (mm) During the Year in Three Climatic Zones
RAIN INDUCED MOISTURE INGRESS

The driving force for vapor phase moisture ingress is vapor pressure difference and as vapor pressure difference is related to difference in relative humidity, the relative humidity differential causes moisture ingress in vapor phase. The driving force for liquid water ingress is capillary suction. Hygroscopic moisture content is usually small for concrete compared to capillary water content, hence main driving force for moisture ingress in concrete is capillary suction. Concrete exposed to atmosphere is often subjected to wind driven rain during monsoon period and thus water ingress would occur under capillary suction. Such an wetting process would generally be followed by a drying process when outside temperature increases and relative humidity becomes lower. In tropical climates, a wetting-drying cycle is typically constituted by a period of rainfall followed by subsequent evaporative drying. Wetting involves the absorption of water from the surface exposed to rain and a resulting increase in the degree of saturation of the porous medium. The ingress of water continues to take place as long as the rain pursues. Drying, on the other hand, involves gradual reduction in degree of saturation of the medium on account of evaporative losses. Moisture loss during drying occurs in two distinct stages. During the initial stage, the rate of dying remains practically constant, while in the subsequent stage the rate of drying gradually reduces with time (Azehna et el 2007; Dhir et el, 1998) Thus, a typical wetting-drying cycle can be divided into the following four distinct stages, namely; 1) Moisture ingress under unsaturated surface condition, 2) Moisture ingress under saturated surface condition, 3) Constant rate drying and finally 4) Falling rate drying. During moisture ingress under unsaturated surface condition initial absorption of water by concrete surface under the incidence of rain flux takes place. The duration of this stage depends upon the intensity of the
Sustainability and Service Life of Concrete Structures Exposed to Tropical Conditions 79
incident rain flux and on the hydraulic diffusivity of concrete and lasts until the attainment of surface saturation. The rain flux depends on oblique rain intensity and is referred to as the Wind Driven Rain (WDR) (Hall etel,1982). A semi empirical model used to calculate the WDR intensity using commonly available meteorological data and is given by the expression after Lacy (Hall et el, 1982)
V0 = 0.222 WR 0.88
Where, V0 (mm/h) is the WDR intensity, W (m/s) is the wind speed and R(mm/h) is rainfall intensity. In next stage of wetting, after the concrete surface attains saturation, all of the incident rain flux does not ingress into the concrete member. In fact, only a fraction of it does and the rest flows away as surface run off. Stage 2 prevails as long as the state of surface saturation is maintained which can be approximately considered to last as long as the rain prevails. Stage 3 corresponds to drying unhindered by the solid matrix. The period of constant rate drying starts soon after the end of rainfall. During this stage, the capillary water in the concrete skin flows to the wet surface, from where it evaporates at a constant rate depending on the ambient relative humidity, wind velocity and dry bulb temperature. The capillary water flowing towards the evaporation front during the drying process is referred to as the funicular water (Toei.1996) The rate of flow depends upon hydraulic diffusivity and a higher magnitude of the same causes a relatively quicker capillary flow. As a result, the interconnection of the remaining capillary water may sometimes cut off from the surface. The water then remaining at the surface is referred to as the pendular water, which evaporates instantaneously instead of gradually drying out (Toei.1996). The average moisture content of the medium at the instant when only pendular water is left at the surface is referred to as the critical moisture content (Toei.1996). This stage therefore prevails, either up to the attainment of critical moisture content in the medium or until the gradual drying out of the surface. The falling rate drying stage corresponds to drying constrained by the solid matrix. In this stage of drying, the evaporation front gradually recedes away from the exposed surface dividing the medium into a dry and a wet zone. The temperature of dry concrete rises beyond the wet bulb temperature after the arrival of the evaporation front. In course of time, the interface temperature asymptotically approaches the ambient temperature as the evaporation front gradually recedes into the medium. The evaporation front remains stationary at any point till the moisture left at the point either attains a pendular state or gradually reduces to zero. The attainment of pendular state of moisture at any point is ascertained by applying the concept of critical moisture content.
UNSATURATED FLOW AND EXTENDED DARCYS LAW

The phenomena of isothermal liquid flow in an unsaturated porous medium, during the wetting and drying stages is governed by the extended Darcys law,
= (D(( ) t
For a one dimensional problem in space, the above equation reduces to,
= D( ) t x x
where, t and x are the space and time variables respectively and is the moisture content. D() is moisture content dependent hydraulic diffusivity. The above equation is a non linear parabolic partial differential equation of second order in space and first order in time and hence requires the prescription of two boundary conditions and an initial condition for solution. A boundary condition may either be specified as the value of moisture content (Dirichlet condition) or as the value of moisture flux (Neumann condition). Usually, the moisture flux at a boundary is specified as
D()(/x)=-V0, or, D()(/x)=J, where, V0 is the incoming rain flux and J is the outgoing evaporation flux in the direction of normal to the surface, as described earlier. The initial condition on the other hand is described by an initial moisture profile. A solution of this equation provides with the moisture state within the concrete material.
MOISTURE PROFILE AND CLIMATIC ZONES

Thus moisture profile within the concrete is likely to exhibit seasonal variations with deeper progress of moisture during monsoon relatively dry condition during other seasons. This profile variation again would depend upon the climatic zone of the location of the structure. Reactions leading to degradation of concrete occur only in conducive moisture condition and are likely to occur in a cyclic manner with yearly cycle. Reactions would occur only for some period of the year and remain dormant during remaining period in a year. Thus, while in warm humid climate degradation reaction may occur for a longer period of time during the year, in hot-dry desert climate the same may occur for a shorter period. In composite monsoon climate it may be different than either of the above case. Therefore, climatic conditions cannot be ignored while considering service life and repair cycle of concrete structure. Hence sustainability of exposed concrete structure depends on climate.
SUMMARY
The present exposure conditions given in IS 456:2000 needs reconsideration. Exposure classification shall take account of climatic zones also. The current prescriptive practice recommended in IS 456:2000 are inadequate in the context of sustainability. Properties such hydraulic diffusivity carbon dioxide diffusivity etc. which are used as parameters of degradation models needs closer looks. Determination of these properties involved in models would require consideration of micro structure and their relationship with permeation and diffusion properties. Attempts have been made to relate these properties to micro parameters such as pore size parameters and mix factors as well (Kumar et el, 2003; Pradhan et el 2005). The cover depth, tensile strength of cover concrete, elastic modulus of cover concrete etc., has a strong role in intended maintenance free service life, and may specified accordingly.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] AZENHA M., MAEKAWA K., ISHIDA T. AND FARIA R. (2007), Drying Induced Moisture Losses from Mortar to the Environment. Part I: Experimental Research, Materials and Structures; 40(8): 801-811 BHATTACHARJEE, B. (2011), Sustainability Performance Index for Concrete. International Concrete Sustainability Conference, Boston, MA, USA. http://www.nrmcaevents.org BHATTACHARJEE, B. (2011), Performance specifications of concrete with reference to sustainability. National Seminar on Performance Specification of Concrete, New Delhi, India,. ICI New Delhi centre. (Proceedings in electronic form). BHATTACHARJEE, B. (2005), RCC structures distressed due to rebar corrosion-some case studies. Civil Engineering Today (Journal of ASCE- India Section), 3. pp. 3-12. BHATTACHARJEE, B. and KRISHNAMOORTHY, S. (2004), Permeable porosity and thermal conductivity of construction materials. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE., 16, No.: 4, pp. 322-330. DHIR R.K., HEWLETT, P.C. AND DYER, T.D. (1998), Mechanisms of Water Retention in Cement Pastes Containing a Self Curing Agent, Magazine of Concrete Research; 50(1): 85-90. GAHARWAR, S.S. and BHATTACHARJEE. B. (1998), Moisture Diffusion and Service Life prediction of concrete Structures. Proceeding of International Symposium On Innovative world of Concrete-98. Indian Concrete Institute. pp 1.99-1.106. HALL C. AND KALIMERIS A.N. (1982), Water Movement in Porous Building Materials-V. Absorption and Shedding of Rain by Building Surfaces, Building and Environment; 17(4): 257-262. KUMAR, R. and BHATTACHARJEE, B. (2004), Assessment of permeation quality of concrete through mercury porosimetry. Cement and Concrete Research,.34(2), pp.321-328. KUMAR, R. and BHATTACHARJEE, B. (2003), Porosity, pore size distribution and in situ strength of concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, 33(1), pp.155-164. KONDRAIVENDHAN. B and BHATTACHARJEE, B. (2010), Effect of age, w/c ratio on size and dispersion of pores in OPC paste ACI materials journal. 107, No. 2. pp. 147-154 PATIL, S.G. and BHATTACHARJEE, B. (2008), Size and volume relationship of pore for construction materials. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE.20, No.: 6, pp. 410-418. PRADHAN, B., NAGESH, M. and BHATTACHARJEE, B. (2005), Prediction of hydraulic diffusivity from pore size distribution of concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, 35(9), pp.1724-1733. SARJA, A. and VESIKARI, E. (1996), Durability design of concrete structures, E & FN Spon. TOEI, R., Theoretical Fundamentals of Drying Operation, Drying Technology 1996; 14(1): 1-194.
Role of Transportation Infrastructure for Promoting Sustainable Development

S. Gangopadhyay
Director, CSIR, Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, India; director.crri@nic.in
AbstractIn recent years there has been a growing recognition of the need to promote sustainability, sustainable development, and sustainable transport in planning improvements in transport systems and policies. Sustainable development is a holistic practice that includes efforts to mitigate negative effects on every part of the road infrastructure and transportation system. Sustainable systems are capable of describing the function for the foreseeable future without collapse or depletion of the resources on which they depend. Infrastructure is normally seen as an assemblage of physical assets, which are defined as the fundamental facilities and systems serving the country, city, or area, as transportation systems. These infrastructure elements are mainly two folds one is long-term capital Intensive infrastructure developments and short term soft options of development. Long-term infrastructure development cover investment and infrastructure provisions to mitigate ill effects of the transportation system level problems. On the other hand, soft options are short term and covers non infrastructural management plans. Measures for sustainable transportation system require that the system measures be integrated with social, economic and environmental measures to ensure that all the aspects of sustainability are addressed. This paper is reviewed various sustainable transportation system measures and also discussed various activities pursued by India in relation to sustainable transportation development. The future requirements for promotion sustainable transportation systems were disused. Keywords: Transportation Infrastructure, Sustainable Transportation System
INTRODUCTION
Safe and efficient transport system promotes economic growth of any country and this system enhances mobility and improves physical access to resources and markets. In recent years there has been a growing recognition of the need to promote sustainability, in planning improvements in transport systems and policies. Sustainable development is a holistic practice that includes efforts to mitigate negative effects on every part of the road infrastructure and transportation system. Traditional transportation system planning mainly focus on the current demands and this would not be able to cope up with the dynamic changes in the system. Whereas sustainable systems are capable of describing the function for the foreseeable future without collapse or depletion of the resources on which they depend. The current trend of infrastructural development in India has led to increased number of private vehicles and reduced trips of public transport demonstrating that priority setting for sustainable modes and road infrastructure has not been considered effectively. Sustainable transportation attempts to address economic development, environmental stewardship, and social equity of current and future generations. Sustainability systems support a paradigm shift in transport planning leading to reduction in congestion, air pollution, and simultaneous cost benefits along with other positive impacts. Transport infrastructure plays vital role in promoting sustainable transportation system. The need to plan for sustainable transport is evident since global warming poses significant challenges for all the nations. The transport sector alone accounts for 24% of CO2 emissions worldwide. The energy consumption by road transport sector is about 75 to 80% of the total and about 10% share in it is of the Indian transport sector which is recording an exponential growth. Previously, transport systems were evaluated primarily in terms of mobility (physical movement), but increasingly it is also being evaluated in terms of accessibility (peoples ability to obtain desired goods and services). Many factors affect accessibility, including mobility, land use factors (such as the location of activities) and mobility substitutes (such as telecommunications and delivery services).
Accessibility-based planning expands the range of solutions that can be applied to transport problems especially urban related; for example, congestion can be reduced by improving land use accessibility or telecommunications, in addition to accommodate more vehicle traffic. Active transport which includes trips for walk, cycle and cycle rickshaws has high potential towards achieving a sustainable transport system and with suitable road infrastructure shift to these modes can be encouraged. Since the planning of sustainable transport systems involves these important parameters focusing on mitigating all the negative impacts associated with usual transport systems, it is clear that the Indian cities necessarily require such systems to attain maximum benefits socially, economically and environmentally. The objective of this paper is to discuss the issues in sustainable transportation, areas of actions their importance, infrastructure and other interventions required to achieve sustainable transportation. In addition, a set of indicators reviewed from the literature and some measures for assessing the progress of achieving a sustainable transportation system are suggested
INFRASTRUCTURE ELEMENTS FOR SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION SYSYTEM

Infrastructure is normally seen as physical assets, which are defined as the fundamental facilities and systems serving the country, city, or area, as transportation systems (Leong, 2004). While infrastructure alone can achieve economic and/or social development, the environmental aspects are sometimes compromised for the sake of achieving the first two objectives. In order to achieve sustainability, decision makers have sometimes adopted policies. Infrastructure supports growth and sustainable development by providing services as inputs to other productive processes and as outputs going directly to final demand. Sustainable transport provides economically viable infrastructure and operation that offers safe and secure access for both persons and goods whilst reducing short and long term negative impacts on the local and global environment. The key infrastructure elements for promoting sustainable transportation system are mainly two-fold one is large and long term capital intensive infrastructure development and the other is comprises soft options such as improved transport management, linking multimode multimodal transport options, provision of active transport, optimum scheduling and capacity development etc (Sergio 2012). These two main infrastructure elements were discussed briefly in the following paragraphs.
Sustainable Transportation System
Soft options Large and long-term capital Intensive in infrastructure Development Improved Transportation Management Linking Multimode transport options, Active Transport, Optimum scheduling, Capacity development etc.
Fig. 1: Infrastructure Elements for Sustainable Transportation System
Long Term Capital Intensive Infrastructure Development

Large and long term capital intensive infrastructure development in terms of introducing sustainable transportation modes are the most suitable for achieving sustainability when the authorities have sufficient funds to implement these modes, which can cater high volumes of passengers with high
Role of Transportation Infrastructure for Promoting Sustainable Development 83
speeds and low environmental affects. On the implementation of these projects the economic returns are also high which in turn make these projects economically viable as well. Transportation systems like Mass Rapid Transit (MRT), Light Rail Transit (LRT), and Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) fall under this category. Consideration of Mass transit system is depends on the capacity to be handle for the system. The capacity of can be estimated in Passenger per Hour per Direction (PPHPD). The capacities, time for construction of each Mass transit system are discussed in Figure 2. Further MRT, LRT and BRT systems are discussed bellow
Fig. 2: Economic of Mass Raid Transport Systems (Economic Times)
Mass Rapid Transit System (MRT)

Transportation systems, especially mass transit, are an important component in cities and their expansion. MRT is an alternative to an extensive road transport system with many highways as the rapid transit system have a a higher capacity with lesser land requirement, lesser environmental impact, and a lower cost. As of now 184 cities in the world have built Mass rapid transit systems. Figure 3 presents the number of cities operating MRTS in chronological order. First Metro rail was operated in London in the year 1863. As of now the highest daily ridership is observed in Tokyo metro rail is about 8.63 millions per day. The largest metro rail network is operating in shanghai is about 423 km. New York metro network is the largest metro stations among all metro stations in the world ( World Metro Data base) From Figure 3, it can be observed that most of the cities in the world realized the necessity of MRTS only from the year 1970 onwards. The capital cost of metro construction is high, as there risk of cost overrun and benefit shortfall. Public financing is normally required. Elevated or underground systems in city centres allow the transport of people without occupying expensive land, and permit the city to develop compactly without physical barriers. Highways often push down nearby residential land values, but proximity to a rapid transit station often triggers commercial and residential growth, with large office and housing blocks being constructed. One of the major advantages of the metro rail systems is that it is an inherently low carbon mode of transport requiring only 1/5th of the energy per passenger km required by a road based system (Verma, 2008). Besides, rail as a mode of transportation is more reliable, comfortable and safer than road based systems and reduces journey time by anything between 50% and 75% depending on the road conditions.
Light Rail Transit System (LRT)

Light rail transit is defined as an electric railway system characterized by its ability to operate single or multiple cars along exclusive rights-of-way at ground level, on aerial structures, in subways or in streets and ability to board and discharge passengers at station platforms or at street, track, or carfloor level and normally powered by overhead electrical wires. (TCRP Report 155) LRT service that carries a lower volume of passengers than heavy rail, the type of service that typically operates in very large cities using long trains of 6-10 cars in fully exclusive corridors, often underground in dense areas. Nonetheless, LRT would be expected to carry more people than Bus Rapid Transit (BRT). Currently driverless LRT lines are also operating in 34 cities in the world (World Metro data base).
This type of system first introduced in Kobe city of Japan and is operational since 1981 (Figure 4) .This system is a fully automated, driverless, grade-separated transit system in which vehicles are automatically guided along a "guide way". The vehicles are rubber tired, but other systems including steel wheels, air cushion and maglev systems have also been used in experiments. The guide way normally provides both physical support, like a road, as well as the guidance. In the case of fixedroute systems, the two are often the same just like that a rail line provides both support and guidance for a train. For systems with multiple routes, most Automatic Guide way Transit (AGT) systems use smaller wheels riding on the guide way to steer the vehicle using conventional steering arrangements like those on a car. AGT covers a wide variety of systems, from limited people mover systems, like those commonly found at airports, to more complex mass transit systems.
Fig. 3: Operation of MRTS in the World Upto Year 2010 (Metro Database)
Automated Guided Track
(a) Light Rail on Guideway
(b) Automated Guided Track Kobe Portliner
Fig. 4: First Urban LRT in the world, Kobe Port liner, Kobe, Japan
Bus Raid Transit System (BRTS)

BRT systems around the world are now considered very efficient in all economic, engineering and environmental prospective. BRT systems are bringing out more equitable allocation of road space among the road users rather the vehicles on the road. With the rapid increase in the automobiles leading to traffic congestion, urban sprawl, air pollution and other such ill effects there is an immediate need for improving the transportation systems around the urban cities in the world. These problems gave rise to the idea of BRTS in Latin America and after following its great success there, idea gained greater momentum in cities across the world. There is no precise definition of BRT, however, Levinson et al. (2003) defined BRT as a flexible, rubber-tired rapid-transit mode that combines stations, vehicles, services, running ways and Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) elements into an integrated system with a strong positive identity that evokes a unique image. The
main components of BRT consist of exclusive running ways, bus stations, vehicles, route structure, fare collection, ITS, integration and institutional set up. There are two types of BRT systems in the world viz. Open BRT systems and Closed BRT systems. Closed systems are those in which the stations are enclosed and there is a special fleet of buses that run only on this corridor. Curitiba, Bogota and Quito BRT systems are examples of closed BRT system. Open BRT systems on the other hand are the ones in which the bus stations are not enclosed and there is no special fleet of buses assigned to the BRT corridor. Any bus intended to go in a particular route where BRT System. Table 1 presents the effects of BRT exclusive Running ways and Figure 5 presents the typology of various forms of typical BRTS.
Table 1: Generalized Effects of BRT Exclusive Running Ways
Travel Time Savings Decrease in congestion delay Reliability Identity and Image Reduces risk in recurring A special treatment for congestion and the buses accidents Safe and Security Segregation of buses reduces the risk of hazards Capacity Increases the capacity due to increased road space for buses
Infrastructure is one of the most important elements in the BRTS. The exclusive running ways, bus stations, exclusive flyovers for buses, tunnels, cycle tracks, footpaths, subways and foot over bridges for pedestrians, etc are decide based on the various engineering parameters like speed, ridership, travel time and delay in the corridor. It is observed from literature that the average scheduled speed of the buses in the corridors is can be as high as 80 kmph in Adelaide, averaging about 60 kmph in Brisbane and a substantial 35 kmph in Sydney. The main reason for this high speed is due to the presence of high infrastructural facilities in these BRT corridors. The provision of adequate infrastructural facilities in the BRT corridor improves the traffic flow and speed in the corridor.
Fig. 5: Typology of various Forms of Typical BRTS
Soft Options Transportation System Management

Transportation System Management (TSM) techniques, are generally low-cost, short term and are designed to maximize the efficiency of the existing transportation system, reduce travel demand and dependence on single occupant vehicles, improve air quality, and reduce or eliminate the need for new and expensive transportation infrastructure. Transportation Systems Management (TSM) is often used interchangeably with Transportation Control Measures (TCMs) and Travel Demand Management (TDM) to describe a series of techniques designed to maximize the efficiency of the existing transportation system by reducing dependence on single occupant vehicles.TSM techniques also include restriping roadways for channelization, ramp metering, establishment of freeway auxiliary lanes, and freeway service patrol. TDM strategies are designed to influence an individuals
travel behaviour by reducing the demand for single occupant vehicle travel, especially during peak commute periods. TCMs are geared towards reducing air pollution through techniques such as alternative fuel vehicles. According to 2005 Urban Mobility Report prepared by the Texas Transportation Institute, using 2002 data for Sacramento, about 48 percent of daily travel occurs in congested conditions, resulting in 40 hours of delay per traveller per year at a total congestion cost of $739 per traveller per year. These problems are generally dealt using the TSM, TCM and TDM.
Linking Multimode Transport Options

Conventional transportation planning refers to current practices for making transport policy program and investment decisions. Multi-modal planning refers to decision making that considers various modes included walking, cycling, personal mode, public transit, etc. and connections among these modes so each can fill its optimal role in the overall transport system. There are several specific types of transport planning for reflecting different scales and objectives. In recent years transportation planning has expanded to include more emphasis on automobile modes and more consideration of factors such as environmental impacts and mobility for non-drivers. One indication of this shift is that over the last two decades, many highway agencies have focused related to environmental analysis and non-motorized planning. Transportation modelling techniques are improving to account for a wider range of options (such as alternative modes and pricing incentives) and impacts (such as pollution emissions and land use effects). Figure 6 presents the conceptual transport network plan of linking Multimode transport options.
Fig. 6: Conceptual Network Plan of Linking Multimode Transport Options
A multimodal transport system integrates different geographical scales from the global to the local. With the development of new modal and intermodal infrastructure, urban regions have a growing accessibility to the international market and hence several parameters of regional transportation are transformed, or at least significantly modified. The above figure represents the regulation of movements of a corridor within a multimodal transportation system composed of a set of competing hub centres where regional and local transportation networks converge. Depending on the geographical scale being considered, the regulation of flows is coordinated at the local level by distribution centres, commonly composed of a single transport terminal, or at the global level by articulation points, composed of major transport terminals and related activities.
Active Transport
Active transport is a non-motorized mode of transport including bicycle and cycle rickshaw. Bicycle transport is the main component of NMT cwhich can be onveniently used for shorter trips. Bicycles
are low purchasing and maintenance cost and also require less cost to build infrastructure such as cycle tracks when comapred to the carriageway for the cars. Particularly in European countries the percentage of cycle trips is more. Figure 7 shows the international trend of bicycle trips. The perceived car drivers about barrier of cycling is dangerous, net work is incomplete and cannot able to carry heavy things and where as perceived barriers of cyclist is incomplete network, high speed car drivers and lack of secure parking. Table 2 presents Perceived Barriers and attractors of car drivers and cyclist.
Fig.7: International Trend of Bicycle Share of Trips (Pucher and Buehler, 2008) Table 2: Perceived Barriers and Attractors of Car Drivers and Cyclist (EU Research Project)
Road Users Car drivers Barriers for Cycling The cycling network is incomplete Cannot transport heavy things Depend on the weather Cycling is dangerous The cycle network is incomplete High speed of car drivers Lack of secure parking Car noise and fumes Attractors for Cycling Cycling is environment-friendly Cycling is healthy
Cyclists
Cycling is environment-friendly You feel flexible and independent Cycling are fast
Optimum Scheduling
Flexibility of scheduling and operation of any mode of transportation is important towards sustainability of transportation systems. Based on link travel times and travel demand, the frequencies, departure times and even routes (in case of availability of real-time data) of the vehicle fleet can be optimized leading to higher energy and cost savings. In addition to vehicle scheduling, driver scheduling is also important as it involves the construction of a legal set of shifts, including allowance of overtime, to cover the blocks in a particular vehicle schedule. Such an optimization requires that local and national labour rules must also be considered (Wren and Rousseau, 1995). The optimum scheduling for a network thus consists of a host of multi-objective problems. These problems can be solved by applying several mathematical, heuristic, neighbourhood search and evolutionary algorithm approaches (Valrie and How, 2008).
Capacity Development
Capacity building is become a core goal of technical assistance provided by any Nation. To make urban transport sustainable there is a need for capacity development, Capacity is defined as ability to deal witrh problems in efficient and effectiveways. Capacity building encompasses the countrys human, scientific, technological, organisational, institutional and resource capabilities. A fundamental goal of capacity building is to enhance the ability to evaluate and address the crucial questions
related to policy choices and modes of implementation among development options ( UNEP Report 2012). Capacity development in developing countries follows Actor-Factor approach (Matsuoka 2006). Actors for capacity development in urban transport consisists of Government and Public sector, Private sector and Households/individual. Factors for capacity development consists of policies and measures human and organisational resourecs and knowledge and techjnology( Senbil et al 2008). Deloping countries can be considered the developed nations expertise for capacity development in case the local expertise is not available. Nevertheless, training of local employees is an essential element of capacity enhancement measures as they are the ones who have to manage the systems so developed. This has big implications for secondary, technical and tertiary education systems, which need to be able to train local people in all the skills required and hence education planners should also be a part of the transport planning process from the early stages.
Indicators for Measuring Sustainable Transportation System

Decision-making increasingly incorporates sustainability concepts, such as consideration of long-term economic, social and environmental impacts. However, it is not enough just to learn about the importance of and approaches for achieving a sustainable transportation system. A mechanism is needed to determine if the transportation system is progressing towards sustainability. As a result, there is a growing demand for suitable planning tools, such as sustainable transportation indicators. Indicators are the variables selected and defined to measure progress towards and objective. Indicators may reflect the decision-making process (the quality of planning), responses (travel patterns), physical impacts (emission and accident rates), effects these have on people and the environment (injuries and deaths, and ecological damages), and their economic impacts (costs to society due to crashes and environmental degradation) (Litman, 2008). The indicators for sustainable transportation which measures the sustainability of transportation should not be discrete indication but rather continuum, which represent various degrees of sustainability. The indicators transform the data and information into succinct information which can be used by engineers. The identification of the appropriate performance measures is a very important task because poor performance measure can lead to poor decision and outcomes. The table 3 gives the glimpses of the goals and their corresponding performance measures. Different goals and objectives for performance of the transportation system can be summarized as improved safety, reduced congestion, economic opportunity, improved air quality, reliable mobility, and system preservation, accelerated project delivery, economic viability and increased value of transportation assets. All these above quantified goals and objectives are used to support the decision making process with regard to system performance, project selection, impact assessment and agency or program performance. The various goals for good performance of the system mentioned earlier have to be measured using a performance measure.
ACTIVITIES OF INDIA IN SUSTAIANABLE TRANSPORTATION DEVELOPMENT

Indias major population has customarily resided in rural centres. However, the scenario has been evolving with steady increase in urban population post-independence due to increase in urban areas, migration of rural population to urban areas etc. (Figure 8). Especially in the last decade, as per the provisional data released for Census of India 2011, it has been observed that for the first time since independence the absolute increase in population is more in urban areas than in the rural areas. So while the level of urbanization has increased from 27.81% in 2001 Census to 31.16% in 2011 Census, the proportion of rural population has declined from 72.19% to 68.84% in the same period. As per current figures, the urban population of India is growing at a rate of 32% per annum. The result of this rampant urbanization is that to accommodate the urban population, India will need about 500 new cities in the next 20 years. This definitely puts extreme pressure on our urban systems related to transportation, public safety and energy etc.
Table 3: Some of Performance Measures Sustainable Transport Measures

Dimension Social Goal Reduce Congestion and Improve Travel Time Reliability Enhance Safety Performance Measures Travel Time Index Planning Time index Buffer Time Index Annual severe crashes per Km Percentage of lane-miles under Traffic Management Center (TMC) Truck Throughput efficiency Capacity addition within right of way
Economic
Environmental
Improve Road Based-Freight Movement Increase the Value of Transportation Assets Reduce Green House gas Emission CO2 Emission Improve Air Quality Daily oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), and volatile organic compounds (VOC) emissions in grams per lane mile
Fig. 8: Decadal Growths in Rural and Urban Population of India (Census Data, India 2011)
Particularly, the steep rise in demand for urban mobility in coming future would severely test our transportation systems. The increase in vehicular population will correspondingly increase the demand for energy required. However, this model of development is bound to be unsustainable especially in view of the diminishing natural resources that are required for energy production and infrastructure creation. Recognizing the above challenges and learning from the examples world-wide, the Indian government has also taken several steps lately to introduce such modes of mass transportation that have proven to be highly sustainable as well. Different modes of urban transport like Mass Rapid Transit (MRT), Light Rail Transit (LRT), Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), etc are available as different sustainable options for implementation. The funds available and the capacity to be carried mainly decide the mode to be implemented in a city. MRT is one of the best solutions for carrying large number of people between different places in the urban areas. LRT is one of the solutions if the space available for new transport apart from local/metro buses is minimal and the volume of people to be carried is more. Both MRT and LRT modes of transport require heavy initial cost of investment and maintenance costs. This problem has lead to the evolution of Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS) in the developing countries of Latin America. As discussed in earlier sections BRT systems are able to carry large volume of people comparable to LRT system at a very low cost of initial investment and maintenance. Some of these initiatives taken in India are briefly discussed below
Mass Raid Transit Systems Delhi Metro Rail Corporation

The city of Delhi is the ideal case for the implementation of a metro system. Delhi experienced phenomenal growth in population in the last few decades. Its population increased from 5.7 million in 1981 to around 16.7 million in the year 2011 and is expected to increase to 24.4 million by 2021.
For want of an efficient mass transport system, the number of motor vehicles also correspondingly increased from 0.54 million in 1981 to 6 million in 2009 and is increasing at a compounded annual growth rate of 7.52% per annum. 94% of these vehicles consist of private vehicles such as cars and two-wheelers. As against a national average of 8 cars per 1000 population, Delhi has 85 cars per 1000 population (Environment and Forests Report, 2010). The number of motor vehicles in Delhi is now more than that of Mumbai, Calcutta, Chennai put together. The result of this unbridled motorization is extreme congestion on Delhi roads, ever slowing speeds, increase in road accidents, fuel wastage and environmental pollution with motorized vehicles alone contributing to about two thirds of the atmospheric pollution. In view of the above issues, a Mass Rapid Transit System was considered must in Delhi. Though the proposal for such a system was mooted way back in 1984, the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC), a joint venture of Government of India and the Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi was formed only in 1995. Also, the first metro line was opened only in 2002. However, the Delhi Metro has since never looked back and has achieved laurels for its exceptional performance world-wide. The Delhi metro rail has harnessed the advantages of metro railways to the fullest and hence the United Nations has certified it as the first metro rail and rail-based system in the world to get carbon credits for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and helping in reducing pollution levels in the city by 630,000 tons every year(The Hindu, 2011). As per the cited source, this has been achieved by removing over 91,000 vehicles from the roads in the city daily . Delhi metro trains make 2,700 trips per day carrying 1.6 million passengers, who on an average travel a distance of 17 kilometres each. The network has a very high carrying capacity of 60,000 80,000 PPHPD in peak hour. The Delhi metro has thus been hailed as a pioneering work in the field of urban mass transportation systems and sets an example for the metro systems being developed in other cities of India.
Bangalore Metro Rail

Bangalore city is the capital city of Karnataka occupies and important position not only in the state but also in the country. The city has taken distinction of being the fastest growing metropolis in the country. Hence the disadvantages of rampant urbanization are omniscient in the city of Bangalore. The vehicular population has been increasing tremendously leading to traffic congestion and uncertainties in travel time of the commuter. To mitigate these problems an urban mass transportation system for Bangalore was envisaged under the flagship of Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation Ltd (BMRC) for its implementation. The Bangalore metro, christened as Namma Metro, thus became operational in September 2011. Since the system is still in its early days, there is time till the exact picture regarding its impact would become clear. However, it would be topical to discuss a number of environmental benefits envisaged to be ushered in by the system. The Bangalore Metro has been designed for a capacity of 40000 PPHPD for Peak Hour. The number of passengers expected to travel on the metro everyday is estimated at 1.2 millions in 2013 and 1.9 millions in 2021. Also, the Environment Impact Assessment report for the project estimates 6.9 million liters of fuel savings per day in wake of implementation of the project. Moreover, it estimates a reduction of 309 metric tons (MT) of air pollutants per day. Also, noise reduction and improvement of landscape are expected to be other major advantages. In view of the expected all-round benefits to the environment and society as whole with the onset of metro rail operations, it can be safely said that the Namma Metro is expected to be an overall sustainable system.
Bus Rapid Transportation System

The usage of public transport is substantially high in our Indian cities despite, the fact that the level of service in terms of comfort, safety, reliability and security is low. With the growth of the Indian cities being rapid, keeping the socio economic profile and growth pattern in view there is decline in the demand for the public transportation in the India. Bus systems are hence a viable option if designed
properly and can be very efficient mode of transport at a fraction of cost of the rail system. The first idea of BRTS system was mooted in Delhi, capital of India. This recommendation was a part of the report Delhi on the move submitted to the CPCB. This has led to the implementation of BRTS corridors in the cities of Pune and Delhi in the years 2006 and 2008 respectively. Following the implementation in these two cities it was then implemented in Ahmedabad in the year 2009 which has became a success in India as well as around the world. BRTS is operation currently in only two cities of Delhi and Ahmadabad and as many as seven more cities are under planning stage and are likely to open BRT systems in few years. Table 4 shows the details of Indian BRT system characteristics.
Table 4: Details of Indian BRT System Characteristics
City Delhi Ahmedabad Pune Surat Jaipur Indore Bhopal Visakhapatnam Vijayawada Rajkot Type of BRT Open Closed Open Closed Hybrid Open Hybrid Initially Open then Closed Open Closed Total Planned (km) 426 88.8 117 125 138 106 44 105.7 42.45 63 Length Executed or Under Construction (km) 5.6 (operating) 25 (operating) 17 10.2 7 11.5 21.7 20 14.5 10.7 Bus lane Width (m) 3.3 3.5 3.3 3.5 3.3 3.3 3.3-3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5-3.75
The Operational BRT corridors such as Delhi BRT and Ahmedabad BRT are briefly discussed in the following paragraphs
Delhi BRT
Taking cue out of the various BRT experiences worldwide, GNCTD incorporated Delhi Integrated Multi-Modal Transit Systems Limited (DIMTS), in April 2006 to implement various Multi-modal Transit Projects of which BRT was a part. Eventually, the above BRT initiative undertaken by GNCTD was realized as a pilot project spanning for a length of 5.8 Km in the city and became operational on April 20th 2008. This corridor is at present functional from the junction of signalcontrolled Mehrauli-Badarpur Road (near Ambedkar Nagar) and runs on J. B. Tito Marg in South Delhi and ultimately terminating before Moolchand Hospital Intersection on the Inner Ring Road. This BRT system consisted of single median lanes for buses with physical segregation integrated with double platform bus stops located close to the intersections. It also includes provision of two lanes for other motorized traffic coupled with the provision of cycle tracks and sidewalks on both directions of travel. The salient aspects of the pilot BRT project in operation on J. B. Tito Marg are listed The Peak Ridership 12,500 PPHPD (CRRI, 2012)
Ahmedabad BRT
In Ahmedabad, the BRT corridor is located at an area which, unlike congested south Delhi, is running connecting the one major township namely Mani Nagar connecting with major commercial and industrial developments. Moreover, traffic volume there is one-third of Delhi, coupled with the fact that the system is a closed system, wherein buses do not go out and other buses are not allowed in. The central island bus stops are located 200 meters before intersections and have platform screen doors operated by sensors to prevent people from getting hit by buses. The doors open when a bus arrives, and all buses stop in perfect alignment with the shelters. Ahmedabads BRT system, began with a mere 12.5-km stretch in October 2009. Two years later, it now is 45km long, with buses running on four routes catering to about 1,25,000 passengers every day. The Ahmedabad Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS) has been hailed as the best mass transit system in the country and providing a way for sustainable transportation in the Ahmedabad city.
Future Directions
To accommodate the vast segment of the urban population of India the need is to choose innovative urban mobility approaches and make infrastructure decisions accordingly. In India this has started lately by providing metro rails, BRT systems, monorail-based systems etc. But a significant obstacle in holistic achievement of the promises that these innovations hold is the lack of integration amongst these systems. Integration is required where a system is made up of several parts and the elements need to complement each other so that the whole system can work more efficiently. Integration has been touted as an important means in achieving sustainability in transportation systems (Givoni and Banister, 2010). Dodgson, 2009 studied the public transport systems in Edinburgh, UK and found that the integrated transport systems had a high Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR) of 4.97. Another study by NEA et al. (2003) studied the impacts of integrated public transport systems in Europe and found that in all of the schemes considered the BCR was above 2. They also showed that in cities such as Hamburg, Stockholm and Vienna where the integrated systems have been in vogue since a long time there is still a long-term increase in the public transport volumes of up to 25%. Givoni and Banister (2010) compile several other studies that illustrate the advantages of integrated transportation systems. Integration of the transportation systems is also not a straightforward task and requires the aid of some other schemes such as Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). The IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Society (ITSS) defines ITS as those systems that utilize synergistic information and communication technologies and systems engineering concepts to develop and improve transportation systems of all kinds. All types of vehicles, users and related infrastructure come under the ambit of ITS. Technologies such as In-Vehicle Public Information Systems, Variable Message Signs, Automatic Fare Collection, Electronic Toll Collection, GPS for location identification, Traffic Signal Control systems etc. have become indispensable for successful operation of urban mass transportation systems. ITS technologies not only help improve the performance of a system but also lead to a higher sustainability. A 2005 study of a model ITS deployment in Tucson, Arizona, that consisted of 35 technologies costing $72 million, estimated that the average annual benefits to mobility, the environment, safety, and other areas would total $455 million annually resulting in a BCR of 6.3 (Ezell, 2010). Smart technologies are enabling Stockholm to reduce inner city traffic congestion by 25% and emission by 15%. A new public safety system in Chicago allows real time video surveillance and faster responses during emergencies (Amitabh, 2012). India, though, has taken a few initiatives in the direction of adopting the above schemes. The National Urban Transport Policy (2006) has envisaged the establishment of quality focused multimodal public transport systems that are well integrated, providing seamless travel across modes. Also, introduction of ITS for traffic management is one of the prime objectives of NUTP, 2006. However, ground implementation of these schemes is the real challenge before the country.
CONCLUSION
Sustainable development is a holistic practice that includes efforts to mitigate negative effects on every part of the road infrastructure and transportation system which are generally ignored in traditional transportation system planning. Sustainable transportation system will consider the interconnection with the social, economy and environment. The need to plan for sustainable transport is evident since global warming possesses significant challenges before cities. Considering these issues symbiotic design of transportation infrastructure provision of sustainable and integrated mass transportation system and sustainable non-motorised system applying appropriate ITS technologies are proposed. The results of this would have wide impact on the environment and would help reduce the carbon foot print of the countries. Increased share of NMT trips which results in lower fuel consumption this will lead to all the benefits related to environment. NMT provides much more liveable city increasing safety, social gathering, freedom for movement and better quality life. The outcome of the study would finally lead to increase in GDP of the country from the huge savings in construction cost, energy, traffic congestion, emissions, accidents etc.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] Amitabh Kant (2012) Article on The age of Urbanization- India must modernize its cities, Time of India, 27th Sep 2012 Census of India (2011) In Provisional Population Totals,http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-provresults/paper2/data_files/india/paper2_1.pdf, accessed on 28th September, 2012 CRRI Study Report (2012) Evaluating the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) Corridor Performance from Ambedkar Nagar to Moolchand, Delhi, July 2012 Dodgson (2009) Rates of Return on Public Spending on Transport, RAC Foundation Report 09/103. RAC Foundation, London. http://www.bmrc.co.in/about_us.htm Economic Times (2012) Article on Only mass rapid transit solutions can provide India's urban commuters with efficient mobility, 23rd February 2012 Environment and Forests Report (2010) State of Environment Report for Delhi, Department of Environment and Forests Government of NCT of Delhi, New Delhi. EU Research project WALCYNG, Proceedings, Velo-city 97 Barcelona 15-19 Sept 1997 Ezell Stephen (2010) Explaining International IT Application Leadership: Intelligent Transportation Systems, The information technology & innovation foundation, January 2010 Givoni, M and Banister, D., (2010). Integrated transport: from policy to practice. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. Leong, K. C., (2004). The Essence of Asset Management A Guide. Published by United Nations Development Programme, EROPH and APIGAM. Matsuoka, S, Murakami K Ayoma N, Takahashi Y and Tanaka K (2006) Social Capacity development for Environmental management and International development, Hiroshima International center for Environment co-operation, Hiroshima University Japan National Urban Transport Policy (2006), Ministry of Urban Transport Government of India, New Delhi. Pucher and Buehler (2008) Cycling for Everyone: Lessons from Europe, Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Number 2074, pp 58-65 Senbil M. Akimasa Fuziwara, Junji Zhang (2008) Capacity development for sustainable Urban Transportation in developing countries, Journals of International development and cooperation, Vol 14 No.3 Special issue, PP 57-69. Sergio Sanchez (2012) The Role of Infrastructure in Promoting Sustainable Development, G-20 Development Working Group International Seminar on the G-20 and the Development Agenda: Infrastructure, Food Security and Green Growth accessed from http://participacionsocial.sre.gob.mx/docs/g20/infraestructura_2_070512.pdf The Hindu Article on Delhi Metro gets UN certification. Article published in The Hindu on 26th September, 2011 Todd Litman (2011) Introduction to Multi-Modal Transportation Planning Principles and Practices, Victoria Transport Policy Institute Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) Report 155 Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit, Transportation Research Board , Washington DC Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) Report 17 (1996) Integration of Light Rail Transit Into City Streets. Washington: National Academy Press, Transportation Research Board , Washington DC Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) Report 90 (2003) Bus Rapid Transit, Volume 1: Case Studies in Bus Rapid Transit, Transportation Research Board , Washington DC. UNEP Report (2012) Centre on Energy, Climate and Sustainable Development, 2011. Technologies for Climate Change Mitigation Transport Sector. TNA Guidebook Series. http://tech-action.org/, accessed on 28th September, 2012. Valrie Guihaire and Jin-Kao Hao. (2008) Transit network design and scheduling: A global review. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice 42 (10) World Metro Data base, accessed from http://mic-ro.com/metro/table.html, accessed on 28th September, 2012. Wren, A. and Rousseau, J.M. (1995) Bus Driver Scheduling- An Overview, University of Leeds Report 93.31, 1993, ComputerAided Transit Scheduling, pp. 173-187
Prefab Building Technology for Sustainable Development: A Concrete Approach in India

Yogesh P. Kajale
Vice-President (Engg., Plg. & Desg), BG Shirke Const. Tech. Pvt. Ltd., Pune, India; ypkajale@shirke.co.in
AbstractIn order to meet the pace of urbanization with sustainable development, proven prefab system for mass housing construction is the best possible solution. This article highlights the features of the prefab system viz. 3-S prefab building system; which is being used at DDAs EWS prefab housing project; undertaken at Dwarka, Rohini & Narela. The sustainability aspect of building construction vis-vis the prefab system of industrialize housing construction is elaborated. The system studied and described here uses prefab elements to a maximum possible extent with connections facilitated through certain level of cast-in-situ concrete at project sites. The building system has been evolved and perfected to cater to the seismic requirements as well as typical conditions prevailing in India. Keywords: sustainable, mass housing, prefabrication, 3-S system, precast, reverse cyclic load, performance evaluation, and autoclaved lightweight cellular concrete.
INTRODUCTION
Largest consumer of natural resources such as water, sand, crushed rock, gravel, minerals, timber etc. is the construction industry. The demand for housing units, energy, clean water & air, safe & rapid transport etc. is increasing tremendously with the growing population, urbanization and industrialization. On the other hand, available natural resources are limited in quantum and also becoming scares day by day. Construction Industry is primarily dependant on certain manufacturing industries such as cement, steel and aluminum; which are amongst the most energy intensive apart from major consumer of scares natural resources. Adoption of environmentally friendly and sustainable technology in the construction is of paramount importance. The rocket pace of urbanization, population leads to growing infrastructure needs. Such growing needs will required to be balanced against equally important human and species need of preserving life-sustaining environment on entire earth; which is being threatened by uncontrolled use of natural resources leading to its depletion and increasing pollution. Necessity to adopt Sustainable Building Technology is therefore of vital importance to overcome the threat to our standard of living and more importantly to the entire fabric of life support system on which the planet earth is dependent. As the population grows, enormous demand is put on natural resources and on the supply of construction materials to build new infrastructure needed to support humans basic necessities i.e. food shelter clothing. Recently, China has reported the highest rate of construction activity of any country in the world and it is forecasted that the Pearl River Delta region (comprising Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Zhuhan and Macau) alone could become the worlds largest megacity. In India, Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai and Kolkata are also on the verge of such disproportionate surge of development needs in near future. Such development will require an enormous amount of infrastructure and therefore will create tremendous pressure on resources and the environment. Engineers, as highly respected designers of the infrastructure, are in a unique position to influence such developments to be SUSTAINABLE, thereby resulting into Green Future.
Prefab Building Technology for Sustainable Development: A Concrete Approach in India 95
SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION
Sustainable construction can be defined as the one which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The sustainable technology of construction therefore requires maintaining the harmony of the earths eco-system. The building i.e. The Shelter protects the mankind from natures extremes such as cold, heat, rain and snow. These building structures affect our environment too, since it consumes enormous amounts of energy, water, material and creates large amounts of waste. The concept of sustainable building construction is to incorporate construction technology that result in environment protection, water conservation, energy efficiency, usages of recycled products and renewable energy. Such technology ensures that waste is minimized at every stage during construction and operation of the building, resulting in low costs. Apart from being environmentally responsive and profitable, the buildings constructed by adopting Sustainable Technology look for creation of a healthy place to live and work in. The prerequisites for sustainable construction can therefore be as under. 1. Judicial use of construction materials there by requiring lesser materials i.e. products that conserve natural resources 2. Use of products that avoid toxic or other emissions 3. Reduction in wastage of materials during construction of buildings & utilizing wastes to make construction materials 4. Reducing emissions during the production of construction materials 5. Using more durable materials in buildings thereby requiring lesser maintenance cost 6. Use of energy efficient building materials and products that save energy or water i.e. the materials requiring low energy for their production as well as will consume lesser energy during life cycle of building due to its use 7. Use of products that contribute to a safe, healthy built environment 8. Use of materials which can be recycled 9. Use of construction system minimizing air, water and noise pollution during construction Prefab building techniques can certainly be able to fulfill many of the above and hence could be one of the most preferred choices for building construction. The adopted prefab building construction system at DDA EWS housing project is elaborated here under w.r.t. above parameters.
PIONEERING EFFORTS IN INDIA

In India, apart from some experiments by few organizations, one private organization has done a yeomens service in the context of implementing Prefab Building Technology for mass housing by promoting the concept of Industrialization of Civil Engineering. Eminent civil engineer and Industrialist, Late Padmashri B.G. Shirke, was a lone torch-bearer of this concept from the private sector. One such prefab product factory was set up in India way back in the 1970s to implement this concept into reality. It was possibly the first bold attempt from a private sector company from India [1]. From a modest beginning of manufacturing prefab lightweight building elements, the company later diversified into providing a total industrialised solution of products and services for the housing / construction sector including the equipment required for mass housing like concrete batching and mixing plants, transit mixers, cranes, etc. In the process, the company developed and perfected prefab 3-S system utilizing factory produced precast reinforced concrete structural elements.
PREFAB TECHNOLOGYA SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE

The 3-S prefab system has been used substantially in various mass housing schemes of housing boards and it is reported that about 200 thousand housing units have been constructed in buildings of Ground plus three storey to Ground plus twenty four storey by using this prefab technology for different clients over past four decades. The prefab system being subjected to time testing, therefore is evaluated here in this paper in the context of Sustainability since it is found to be one of the system fulfilling majorities of the prerequisites of energy efficient building.
Fig. 1: Isometric View of 3-S Prefab Building System
3-S prefab solution (Ref Fig. 1) for the housing sector includes following elements. 1. Precast RCC dense cement concrete slabs or Autoclaved light-weight energy efficient cellular reinforced cement concrete slabs for floor and roof. 2. Autoclaved light-weight energy efficient cellular cement concrete building blocks. 3. Precast reinforced dense cement concrete structural components e.g. columns, beams, stairs, etc. 4. Galvanised powder coated press metal / MS angle iron frames for doors & windows. 5. The above elements and the prefab system have been developed and perfected over past four decades taking into consideration the local conditions and by resorting to mechanisation in the construction process to deliver the quality goods within the shortest time frame.
HIGHLIGHTS OF THE 3-S PREFAB CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM

An engineered 3-S system has been developed and perfected to achieve Speed, Strength, Safety and life cycle economy. The said prefab system comprises of all structural building components which are manufactured in factories / on-site casting yard under objective quality control. 3-S system differs from many other available prefab building systems particularly in respect of the connections since 3S system utilizes cast in-situ wet connections extensively for jointing of various prefab structural elements. The 3-S system involves following activities for construction of building:
1. Cast in-situ sub-structure including foundations, stem columns, plinth beams, and plinth masonry, 2. Manufacturing of prefab elements such as columns, beams, slabs, lintels, chajjas, stairs, and masonry blocks etc. 3. Erection of precast components, jointing of these components using cast in-situ self compacting concrete with appropriate reinforcement, 4. Laying of reinforced cast in-situ screed over slab panels, construction of walling flooring, plastering, water-proofing, etc.
ELEMENTS OF 3-S PREFAB SYSTEM
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Fig. 2: Elements of 3-S Prefab Building System
The 3-S prefab system utilizes Precast Dense Concrete Hollow Column shell of modular design size in combination with precast dense concrete Rectangular/'T' shape/'L' shape beams and reinforced precast concrete slabs for floors and roofs (Ref. Fig. 2 and Fig. 4). The hollow cores of precast columns are concreted with appropriate grade of in-situ self compacting concrete once they are erected in position. All the connections and jointing of various prefab elements are accomplished through in-situ concreting along with secured embedded reinforcement of appropriate size, length and configuration. The reinforcement provision is determined analytically considering rigid joint behavior and the structural detailing is made as per applicable BIS provisions/ International practices; as described here under. Foundation to Column and Column to Column Joint: Dowel bars of appropriate size are provided with required development length in the foundation; over which the stem is cast and hollow column shell is then erected, followed by in-situ concreting of hollow core with appropriate mix of self compacting concrete. Column to column joints are also made in the similar manner with provision of dowel bars / continuity bars as in the case of foundation to column. Column to Beam Joint: Appropriate notches are provided in the shell of hollow columns wherein the precast concrete beams are placed. Mechanical anchorages are provided for the bottom
reinforcement of beams as per the requirement of structural design. Design reinforcements are placed at the top surface of beam passing through the protruding rings of precast beam and anchored into core of hollow columns. The top portion of beam is then concreted along with column core concreting. Beam to Beam Joint: This is accomplished through precast miter joint of appropriate size and reinforcement getting embedded into in situ concrete. Beam to Slab Joint: Precast reinforced concrete slabs are placed in between the beams over their flanges with adequate bearing. The precast slabs units are fitted sidewise with tongue and groove joints. Reinforcement mesh is placed over the slabs; which is suitably anchored into peripheral beams. Deck concrete of 40mm thickness is then poured on top of slabs.
Fig. 3: L-section of 3-S Column-Beam
Self-compacting concrete is used for column cores and beam tops concreting operations. Details of 3-S system as adopted by manufacturer are illustrated in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4.
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Fig. 4: Isometric View of 3-S Column-Beam Assembly
The continuity and rigidity of various joints in 3-S prefab system is achieved as per the design norms by joining the individual members through in-situ concrete with additional reinforcement as required in the structural design. This prefab building system has the following distinct advantages, which rank it as one of the technology for Sustainable Precast Construction.
Time-tested Technology
It is reported that various evaluations, reviews, static and cyclic tests have been carried out by different experts at various universities and government bodies like IIT Bombay[2], Stanford University[3], Tor Steel Research Foundation in India[4], and CIDCO[5] etc. to ascertain the design parameters and to validate the 3-S prefab system. It is observed from the findings of these reports that obtained results are in good agreement with the required performance criteria / provisions. Recently, Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee (CBRI) had carried out reverse cyclic lateral load test on full scale 3-S prefab frame structure model (Ref Fig.5) at their building dynamics laboratory to ascertain the behavior of the joints and connections under seismic loading.
Fig. 5: Photograph and Finite Element Model [6] of 3-S Full Scale Structure
From the observations of the recent full scale reverse cyclic load test [7] it is seen that structure behaved in the elastic mode and withstood more than 6 times cyclic lateral load corresponding to DBE value for Seismic Zone IV. Even at this loading; no collapse mechanism was observed and the structure responded in well to reverse cyclic loading; which indicates that the 3-S prefab structure having precast reinforced slab panels has adequate ductility and can withstand even more lateral load. Although cracks were observed in the test structure at full test load; the same disappeared at no load conditions in the cyclic behavior of loading. The diaphragm comprising of panels of precast reinforced concrete having 40mm thick nominally reinforced in-situ deck concrete was effective in reverse cyclic lateral load transfer mechanism and no opening of panel joints were observed. All joints and connections observed intact even under high magnitude cyclic lateral applied loading. The adopted detailing for the 3-S prefab structural elements and connections therefore conformed to the performance requirements. The experimental results on Full-Scale Building Structure established the desired performance and behavior of 3-S prefab building system under all design load conditions including Seismic Zone IV for High Rise Buildings.
Other Benefits of using Prefab Building System Effective Use of Eco-Friendly Materials and Existing Land
1. The construction materials used in this system are precast RCC columns, beams, precast reinforced cement concrete slabs, lightweight autoclaved cellular un-reinforced masonry blocks, metal frames for doors / windows and metal shutters for windows. 2. The use of these materials totally eliminate requirement of timber and agricultural soil in construction. 3. Moreover, due to factory manufacturing, lesser quantity of water is required since advance curing methods like sprinkler/ autoclaving is resorted for curing and the entire process is a controlled one. 4. The prefabrication process yields very high repetition of form-work (i.e. steel moulds); thereby resulting into very minimal consumption of raw material for false work. 5. Similarly, the construction raw material requirement is much less due to production of lesser density materials having high ratio of strength/weight i.e. having higher strength for lesser weight. 6. The building elements of the system have low energy cost since these are concrete, cellular concrete, cement and steel. The energy consumed for various construction materials [8] is shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6: Embodied Energy for Various Construction Materials
7. The system utilizes autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) material for walling; which has very low energy consumption in its production [9] (Ref. Fig.7).
Fig. 7: Embodied Energy for Various Masonry Units
8. Industrial waste such as fly ash is utilised in production of un-reinforced cellular concrete as well as self-compacting concrete thereby contributing to further ecological relief. 9. Use of AAC also results into yielding more volume for given input of raw materials as seen from the Fig.8.
Fig. 8: Consumption of Raw Materials for 1 Cum of Product
10. Table 1 shows the comparisons of major material inputs for one typical three storey building with this system and with conventional system; both designed for seismic zone IV.
Table 1
Major Construction Materials Concrete requirement PCC RCC AAC Total 3-S Prefab System of Construction (AAC Block Walls) 0.045 Cft/Sft 1.000 Cft/Sft 0.218 Cft/Sft 1.263 Cft/Sft 3.85 Kg/Sft 21.88 Kg/Sft 136.98 Kg/Sft 0.81 Conventional System of Construction (Concrete Block Walls) 0.083 Cft/Sft 1.253 Cft/Sft 0.000 Cft/Sft 1.336 Cft/Sft 4.25 Kg/Sft 24.63 Kg/Sft 176.94 Kg/Sft 0.78
Steel requirement Cement requirement Weight of building Ratio of carpet area to built-up area
11. Due to reduction in dead loads, for the same bearing capacity of the strata, the number of floors can be increased, thus enabling consumption of the available floor area ratio (FAR) on lesser ground coverage. 12. In metropolitan areas, where the land is scarce, it is extremely important to optimize the utilization of FAR to the maximum allowable extent without increasing the ground coverage, thus making effective use of existing landscape. The above comparison reveals that 3-S prefab system facilitates saving in scarce, costly natural resources and materials, which are the national assets.
Providing Good Indoor Air for Human Comfort

Due to high insulating properties of lightweight autoclaved cellular concrete masonry blocks, the solar heat transfer within the building is much less thereby making the inside spaces more comfortable[10]. Fig.9 shows the inside temperature for AAC construction.
Fig. 9: Outside vs. Inside Temperature for AAC Construction Table 2: Thermal Efficiency for Walls with Different Construction Material [11]
Thermal Transmittance (U) in W/(m2K) FOR External Wall Burnt Brick Wall Solid Concrete Block Wall 150 200 1.155 1.155 AAC Block Wall
Thickness of Walling Unit in mm 150 230 150 200 Thermal conductivity of walling material in W/(mK) 0.811 0.811 0.188 0.188 Internal surface resistance {Considering inside film coefficient at still 0.107 0.107 0.107 0.107 0.107 0.107 air = 9.36 W/(m2K)} Outside surface resistance {Considering outside film coefficient at 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050 an air velocity of 8.0km/h as 19.86W/(m2K)} 12 12 12 12 12 12 Internal plaster resistance {Considering thermal Thk. (mm) conductivity of 0.721W/(mK)} Resistance 0.017 0.017 0.017 0.017 0.017 0.017 22 22 22 22 22 22 External plaster resistance {Considering thermal Thk. (mm) conductivity of 0.721W/(mK)} Resistance 0.031 0.031 0.031 0.031 0.031 0.031 Walling material resistance Resistance 0.185 0.284 0.130 0.173 0.798 1.064 Total resistance 0.389 0.488 0.334 0.378 1.002 1.268 Thermal transmittance (U) in W/(m2K) 2.57 2.05 2.99 2.65 1.00 0.79 Maximum permitted value of Thermal transmittance (TI) (As per IS: 2.56 for 'Hot Dry', 'Hot Humid' zones and 2.91 for 'Warm 3792) Humid' zone Thermal efficiency for 'Hot Dry' & 'Hot Humid' zones (Considering 100% 125% 86% 97% 257% 325% 100% for TI of 2.56) Thermal efficiency for 'Warm Humid' zones (Considering 100% for 113% 142% 97% 110% 292% 369% TI of 2.91)
Thermal efficiency of 150mm thick light weight autoclaved cellular Siporex block masonry is two to three times more than that of conventional masonry units like bricks / concrete blocks. All building designs which have to take account of energy conservation need to consider the effect of the thermal capacity of the building cladding / roofing. Calculations which take into account only the thermal insulation of the fabric assume steady-state conditions which do not occur in practice. Autoclaved lightweight cellular concrete provides useful thermal capacity combined with good thermal insulation properties. This combination reduces the extremes of temperature experienced in the building, compared with buildings made of lighter structures (e.g. metal-framed which have minimum thermal capacity) or heavier structures (e.g. solid brickwork / concrete block work which provides less thermal insulation).
During the warm season the thermal capacity of an autoclaved lightweight cellular concrete structure of normal thickness works in such a way that inside the building the rise of temperature due to solar radiation is delayed by approximately 5-6 hours, counted from the time of day when the effect of solar radiation is at its maximum. After this period, the effect of radiation decreases considerably. The structure then emits its accumulated heat during the cooler part of the day. This reduction in heating and cooling load requires less capacity from the heating or cooling equipment, wherever used. Thus, by use of autoclaved cellular concrete, the air-conditioning load is reduced substantially thereby reducing the capital investment towards AC installation. The recurring cost of electricity bills are also considerably reduced for the buildings constructed using 3-S system.
Fire Resistance
Autoclaved lightweight cellular concrete is non-combustible. Its low thermal conductivity and its equilibrium moisture content, both due to closed cellular micro structure (as seen in Fig.10) make it well suited to protect other structures from the effects of fire [12]. The heat migration takes place at a much slower rate due to higher fire resistance offered by Siporex than in dense concrete.
Fig. 10: Closed Cellular Micro Structure for AAC
Properties and Functions of AAC Used for Walling in the 3-S System
Some of the functions which are fulfilled in 3-S prefab building due to use of AAC are as under. 1. It has high degree of thermal insulation. 2. It has high degree of fire protection. 3. It has degree of thermal capacity sufficient to reduce day-night variations of temperatures. 4. It has moisture capacity to reduce variations of relative humidity of indoor air. 5. It has durability exceeding the normal lifetime of a building. 6. It is light weight that reduces seismic forces and loads on supporting structure / foundations. 7. It does not require thick surface treatment under certain circumstances. 8. It can be used as base for various types of surface treatments or claddings. 9. It lends itself easily to future changes to a building. 10. It satisfies high requirements of sound insulation. If left without surface treatment it is slightly more sound absorbent than hard materials like concrete and steel. In combination with other material and special shaping, it is sound absorbent to a high degree. 11. The material can be easily cut and shaped and fixings are easily made. This makes the provision / execution of concealed services running on the wall simpler and faster. 12. It being cellular material having close cavities, capillary action is very less, hence offers better resistance to water penetration.
Fig. 11: Masonry Joints for Conventional Blocks and for AAC Blocks
13. Due to large sizes of AAC masonry blocks of 650mm long X 240mm high (as seen in Fig.11), number of joints for given area of wall are less, resulting into considerable saving in cement mortar and construction water. Construction time is also reduced considerably. Apart from the system being time-tested and proven over past four decades, it can be seen from the above that it certainly meets with requisites of Sustainable Technology.
STATISTICS OF CONSTRUCTION SECTOR IN INDIA

The statistical study is highlighted at Table-3, Table-4 and Table-5, which is in respect of energy consumption, projected demand and energy in transportation of few construction materials in India.
Table 3: Volume and Energy Consumption of Building Materials in India (2003) [13]
Material Bricks Cement Aluminium Structural steel Production Volume Per Annum (2000) 150 x 109 Nos 96 x 106 tonnes 0.8 x 106 Nos 11 x 106 Nos Thermal Energy (MJ per kg) 1.40 4.20 236.8 42.0 Total Energy (GJ) 630 x 106 403 x 106 189 x 106 462 x 106
Table 4: Projected demand for building Material [13]

Material Bricks (Nos) Cement (Tonne) Structural steel (Tonne) Rebars (Tonne) 2020 246 x 109 255 x 106 30 x 106 15.3 x 109
Table 5: Energy in Transportation of Building Material [13]

Material Bricks (Cum) Sand (Cum) Cement (Tonne) Structural steel (Tonne) Energy (MJ) for 100 km Transport 200 175 100 100
On the other hand, In India, urbanization is growing at a rapid speed. Urban Population [14] is likely to be at 360 Million in 2010; 468 Million in 2020 and 533 Million in 2025. Urban housing shortage as on 2007 is shown in Fig. 12.
Urban Housing Shortage in India

Source: National Building Organisation
2001
2007
Tamil Nadu
Jharkhand
4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
Housing Shortage (Mn)
3.72 2.82
2.38
2.04
1.95
1.66
1.63
1.29
1.13
0.76
0.69
0.59
0.52
0.47
0.36
0.5
0.31 Assam
Fig. 12: Urban Housing Shortage in India
NEED FOR SWITCHOVER TO SUSTAINABLE ALTERNATIVES

Steel, cement, glass, aluminium, plastics, bricks, etc. are energy-intensive materials, commonly used for building construction. Generally these materials are transported over great distances. Extensive use of these materials can drain the energy resources and adversely affect the environment. It is therefore essential to adopt energy efficient innovative materials and prefab technology to meet the ever-growing demand for buildings. There is an immediate need for optimum utilization of available energy resources and raw materials to produce simple, energy efficient, environment friendly and sustainable building alternatives and techniques to satisfy the increasing demand for buildings. Some of the guiding principles in adopting the sustainable alternative building technologies can be summarized as follows: Energy conservation; Minimize the use of high energy materials; Concern for environment, environment-friendly technologies; Minimize transportation; Decentralized production and maximum use of local skills; Utilization of industrial and mine wastes for the production of building materials; Recycling of building wastes, and Use of renewable energy sources. Time-tested prefab building technologies like 3-S, meeting these principles could only be sustainable and will facilitate sharing the resources especially energy resources more efficiently, causing minimum damage to the environment. There could be inherent resistance amongst developers and engineers to the use of new, innovative technology, and prefab building systems etc. due to lack of awareness. Engineers should promote the study of economics which considers more realistic life cycle analysis and costing methods rather than the presently used lowest bid option and market costing. It is our professional duty as engineers to create awareness amongst clients, the public and fellow engineers, not just about the current building codes and laws, but also about the long term benefits from using new environmentally-friendly time-tested technology and higher quality, durable designs. Overall, a special responsibility devolves on engineers to develop a world view in problem solving which considers the effects of infrastructure decisions on the earth and on all living things. Sustainable development takes into consideration the environment, society and economy. 3-S Precast building construction techniques inherent properties make it a natural choice for achieving sustainability with todays modern buildings. Locally manufactured using local products (lower transport costs) in reuseable moulds, precast produces minimal waste and most manufacturing waste is recycled. Recycled materials can be included in the concrete mix, such as slag, flyash, aggregate, steel and water. Exact elements are delivered to site meaning fast construction, less site trades on site and less waste on site (less transportation and disposal of waste). When incorporated into passive
Chhatisgarh
Uttaranchal
Delhi
Maharastra
Karnataka
Madhya
Rajasthan
Haryana
Gujarat
Andhra
Orissa
Punjab
Uttar
West
Kerala
Bihar
0.18
solar design, the high thermal mass of precast concrete can provide effective use of daylight to reduce cooling costs. Precast concretes low water-cement ratio means precast is extremely durable. Its long life offers minimal maintenance and reuseable, recyclable structures which contain less concrete and steel and absorb CO2. Structures are also fire resistant and perform well acoustically.
Energy Efficient: Thermal Mass Benefits

1. High thermal mass of precast concrete enables it to absorb, store and later radiate heat. 2. Using precast concrete in passive solar designs allows natural heating in winter and cooling in summer, thereby reducing the need to rely on artificial heating and cooling.
Improved Internal Building Amenity

1. Use of precast concrete can even out internal diurnal building temperatures. 2. 3-S Prefab technology having light-weight cellular concrete elements for walling can improve indoor air quality, providing comfortable temperature inside the home.
Durable, Long Life, Reuseable, Low Maintenance Structures

1. With a long life expectancy owing to dense concrete structural elements, 3-S precast structures are durable. 2. 3-S Precast structures can be extended internally. Structures do not need to be demolished and can simply be renovated internally conserving resources, reducing waste and landfill. 3. 3-S Precast is easy to keep clean, requiring minimal maintenance. 4. 3-S Precast is tough and can withstand wear and tear, requiring minimal repairs. 5. 3-S Precast concrete gains strength as it ages, wont shrink, distort or move and will not deteriorate with exposure to climatic change. 6. 3-S Precast concrete construction is seismic resistant, offering protection against earthquake hazards.
Locally Supplied
1. Materials used in 3-S precast construction are all supplied locally. This reduces haulage and fuel costs and also diverts resources from landfill. 2. 3-S Precast elements are all locally manufactured and supplied to sites meaning reducing haulage and fuel costs. 3. Local highly skilled erection crews erect 3-S precast concrete elements safely on site.
Uses Less Concrete, Cement and Steel

1. Less concrete and steel are required for 3-S precast concrete because of its higher quality and lightweight. 2. Less concrete is used in 3-S precast walling systems due to use of lightweight cellular concrete. 3. Precast allows reduced levels of cement in the concrete mix due to higher quality manufacturing processes and also due to substantial reduction in dead loads. 4. Foundation work i.e. excavation and concreting is reduced to a substantial extent due to reduction in dead loads of the structure.
400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
Conservation of water in construction
Liters/Sqm of BUA
Due to accelarated steam curing
Due to controlled w/c ratio
Due to controlled use & recirculation
Due to reduced mortar joints in masonry
Fig. 13: Conservation of Natural Resource-Water
Minimizes Waste during Manufacture and on Site

1. Manufactured in reusable moulds. 2. Most waste during manufacture is recyclable. 3. Exact elements are delivered to site. 4. Less site air pollution, noise and debris.
Reuses Waste Resources and Recycled Materials

1. Waste materials (such as slag and fly ash) which would otherwise be used in landfill are incorporated into the precast mix design. 2. Recycled aggregate/ manufactured sand is incorporated into the precast mix design thereby avoiding use of natural sand.
Recyclable Precast Elements

Precast concrete elements can be crushed and reused as aggregate for road bases or construction fill, providing economic and environmental savings.
Faster Construction
1. 3-S Precast construction allows other trades to begin work more quickly, speeding the construction time and saving costs. 2. Fast construction on site means fewer disturbances for surrounding properties. 3. Precast elements can be delivered just in time for erection, reducing unnecessary handling and equipment use.
Acoustic Performance
The high thermal mass of precast concrete assists with sound insulation to reduce noise and absorb noise impact.
Fire Resistant
1. 3-S Precast concrete is non-combustible, does not melt and therefore does not require additional fire-proofing applications. 2. 3-S Precast concrete does not emit toxic fumes under fire and can limit smoke spreading in buildings.
Total
Conventional System
3. The 3-S Precast building structures possesses high resistant to fire due to use of cellular concrete materials in walls and floors.
Environmental Benefits
1. 3-S Precast concrete element is an inert substance which does not emit or give off gases or compounds. 2. Precast does not attract mould or mildew. 3. Precast concrete absorbs CO2. 4. Being termite proof means the unlikelihood of requiring chemical spray to reduce termites and vermin which is safer for the environment.
OHS Benefits
1. Less trades on site means safer sites with less equipment, workers and materials. 2. Reduced congestion - construction sites are cleaner and tidier, with minimal waste on site. 3. 3-S Precast floors can provide a safe immediate working platform for the erection crew as well as for other trades.
Environmental Sustainability of 3-S Prefab

1. Reduces Air Pollution at Construction sites because of site activity is minimal to erection and jointing 2. Use of fully "Cured" and "Matured" components considerably reduces water consumption 3. High thermal insulation results in achieving energy efficiency 4. Raw materials as well as energy requirement in manufacturing is considerably less 5. Production utilizes fly-ash to a great extent 6. Manufacturing process is non-toxic and environmental friendly which does give off any harmful emissions during production 7. No waste generated in the production process due to reuse of waste material 8. Water used for curing and making steam is re-circulated to minimize the water wastage 9. Reduces wastages considerably owing to better quality / process controls and repetitive task 10. Low workability mixes can be designed with lesser w/c ratio as well as lesser fine aggregate contents 11. Exact concrete consumption can be controlled 12. Very minimal requirement of water for construction 13. Non-generation of construction debris 14. Conservation of wooden material - Elimination of use of timber / wooden scaffolding by use of pressed steel door windows & steel shuttering & scaffolding 15. Conservation of Natural resources- Optimum use of scarce natural resources like sand and aggregates 16. Conservation of cement and reinforcement- Substantial saving in quantity of cement & reinforcement steel, coarse & fine aggregates due to reduction in dead weight of structure 17. Environment friendly, Energy efficient GREEN BUILDING Construction 18. Safe & durable structure Sustainable Design Solutions: Specific Examples where Sustainable Designs using 3-S Precast Construction can make a Considerable Environmental Impact.
Prefab Building Technology for Sustainable Development: A Concrete Approach in India 109 Sustainability Issue The use increases the effectiveness of the building mass as an energy store and serves as heat exchangers between rooms and spaces having different temperatures. Use precast concrete design for structural elements supporting 3-S Precast concrete allows the designer to create optimum lightweight AAC walls spans, using less material which than does conventional design. Use SIPOREX block masonry with appropriate thickness in walls Excellent thermal insulation properties of SIPOREX provide energy benefits that exceed the benefits of mass or insulation alone in most climates. Use precast as sustainable design for fire resistance 3-S Precast concrete and SIPOREX is non-combustible and does not require additional fire-proofing applications as both possesses high fire resistant properties. Maximizes the benefit of re-use of moulds Steel moulds have long life span providing thousands of re-uses and also reduces waste. Use of same precast elements for multiple functions Efficient use of materials due to combining structural, thermal and acoustic functions. Use finishes for precast elements Eliminates ceiling plaster due to form finish soffit of slabs and reduces maintenance. Also, finishing thickness on other elements is substantially reduced due to dimensional accuracy and controlled surfaces of precast elements. Use self-compacting concrete Minimizes the energy used to place concrete. Use AAC materials Design Strategy
CONCLUSION
The Prefab technology for sustainable building movement is advancing at a rapid pace in other parts of the world and is yet to take accelerating start in India. Considering the tremendous technological and ecological benefits that such prefab buildings can result in, visionary progressive organization like DDA has decided to adopt precast construction system to fulfill their commitment for providing houses to various sections of the society to ensure conducive environment for its occupants. By adopting prefab building technology, using light weight building materials such as AAC to the extent possible, cement replacement materials such as fly ash in concrete, designing for durability as well as undertaking life cycle analysis of construction projects, it is possible to direct the construction industry, and particularly the concrete building industry down a more sustainable path. As highly regarded professionals, DDA engineers are in a position to be in the drivers seat of this process. And by doing so, DDA engineers have an opportunity to influence the course of human history beyond the realm of technology.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] Shirke, B. G. (1998), The Crusade, 125-150. Buragohain D.N., Limaye R.G., Ranganathan R. (1992), Evaluation of Design and Testing of 3-S Joints. Shah C.H (1991), Structural Design Calculations for HIG-III (S+7) Buildings for Powai-Mass Housing for MHADA (BH&ADB), BOMBAY Department of Civil Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford. Vishwanatha C.S. (1995), Full scale load test on assembly of R.C. Precast units of M/s B.G. Shirke Construction Technology Pvt. Ltd., being used at National Games Housing Project, Koramangala, Bangalore Tor Steel Research Foundation in India, Bangalore. Ramesh C.K. (1986), Performance Evaluation Test on G+3 Building subjected to the simulated loading representing the actual real life loading Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay. Mukherjee A, Manik Kumar, Kwatra N. (2010), Finite Element Modelling and Reverse Cyclic Analysis of 3-S System Model using ATENA Thapar University, Patiala. Chourasia Ajay, Singh S.K., Parashar Jalaj (2010), Testing and Evaluation of 3-S Prefabricated System to Establish Behavior of Various Joints under all Design Loads including seismic (Zone IV) on Full Scale Building Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee. Atlas Environment du Monde Diplomatique (2007); Federation of Natural Stone Industries (SN Roc); CTBA, L, Essentiel sur le bois (2001). W. Marm and J. Seeberger; AAC data from Dr. Briesemann und Dr. Frey (1997). CEB (1987), Autoclaved Aerated Concrete, CEB Manual of Design and Technology, The Construction Press, Lancaster. IS: 3792, Guide for Heat Insulation of Non-Industrial Buildings, BIS, New Delhi. Jain R.K., Asthana K.K., Gupta Manorama (1989), Evaluation of Anticorrosive Treatment on Steel Reinforcement in SIPOREX Concrete Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee and Sharma T.P., Lal B.B. (1997), Fire Performance Evaluation and Upgradation of SIPOREX Slabs, Blocks and Panels Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee. Reddy Venkatarama B.V. (2004), Sustainable building technologies Current Science, Vol. 87, NO. 7. National Buildings Organization (1990), The Handbook of Housing Statistics Part 1, New Delhi, India.
Bharat and IndiaSkewed to Equitable Development

Padmashree Anand S. Arya
FNA, FNAE, FIE, Professor, Emeritus, Earthquake Engineering Dept., Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee & Formerly National Seismic Advisor, Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt. of India; asarun3155@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Our Prime Minister has told ministerial colleagues in a meeting specially convened to review the status of infrastructure projects. The attempt was unique and estimated an investment requirement of Rs. 55 lakh Crores for the next five years to maintain GDP of 9% or so. As a first step, the PM has allocated Rs 2 lakh for the following six infrastructure sectors in 2012-13. Ports: 42 new projects including 2 new ports in Andhra and West Bengal. Civil Aviation: New domestic airports in Navi Mumbai, Goa, and Kanpur and International airports in Lucknow, Gaya and Coimbatore. Roads: 9,500 km new roads and highways. Railways: Dedicated freight corridor to start, and Mumbai-Ahmedabad bullet project. Power: To add 18,000 MW including 2000MW from Kudankulam Atomic power plant. Coal: Coal India Ltd. to dispatch 470 m.t, a hike of 8.8% to all sectors, especially for power sector. No doubt this would boost the overall growth in power, industry, employment and construction. There will also be great opportunity for civil engineering in general, a happy situation for all us present here.
IMPORTANCE OF INFRASTRUCTURE IN INDIAN ECONOMY

In the face of the global financial crisis and the economic downturn in India, infrastructure sector plays an important role to counter-balance against slowing economic activity and lower consumption. The infrastructure sector currently accounts for about 27% of Indias industrial output and thus remains a useful component to balance the economy. Moreover, infrastructure is the lifeline of any business activity, and adequate infrastructure increases this activity manifold. Out of the proposed 31,755 km by the National Highways Development Programme, completion achieved is just 28 percent or 9,165 km. There is huge gap and filling this gap will provide huge opportunity for the companies engaged in highway building sector. According to experts, infrastructures, including roads, power, highways, airports, ports and railways have emerged as an asset class with long term growth that can provide stable returns to the Indian economy. In terms of investment attractiveness in the future, a study has ranked power as the most sought after segment among investors in the future (83%), followed by roads and highways (72%), ports and logistics (66%), railways (43%), airports (43%) and shipping (35%). An interesting segment indentified as offering a strong growth potential was urban infrastructure, especially areas such as water management, waste-water management, sewerage system and solid-waste management. The survey concludes that if governments can overcome regulatory procedures, delays in project implementation and severe unplanned cost escalations (e.g. corruption in high places), then Infrastructure industry as a whole has a great potential in India.
Bharat and IndiaSkewed to Equitable Development 111
SKEWED ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Question arises, whether the economic development benefits, when achieved will be shared between Urban India and Rural Bharat. Or, rural Bharat to urban India migration will continue as of now, further increasing the poverty of rural area on one hand and creation of more and more slums in the urban area. Will the achievement continue furthering the economic divide between the rich and the poor. The following are some opinion in this regard. Despite the growth witnessed sometime in GDP, the majority of people presently face severe concerns arising from the increasing gap between the per-capita income of the rich and the deprived, between the demand of the needy and the supply of essentials of life, pollution and environmental decay. The poor and the immigrant labour actually end up paying a poverty penalty. It is cited that the needy communities in Mumbai slums pay five to twenty five times more for basic needs like water and medicine than the urban rich. There has been an asymmetry between urban areas given the fact that it is the urban areas which are the seat of large companies and politics, where the better amenities like education and health care and a good life are seen to be necessarily established. There is a definite evidence of economics of scale present in the urban contest. Wealth begets more wealth and a higher economic and industrial activity begets stronger economics and better employment. Thus the gap between the prosperous urban India and the rural Bharat is increasing. It is seen that rural India suffers from huge power shortage, which affects its productivity and prevents it from effectively employing its core-competence. A large portion of the available limited power is given to the urban areas depriving the rural India of its essential energy needs. It is personal experience also in my own village. This question has now been, seriously considered by our thinker past President. Sh. A.P.J Abdul Kalam who has suggested PURA as an appropriate approach to the solution. It is PURA.
PURA
PURA stands of Provision of Urban Amenities in Rural Areas. These Amenities will include education and health care facilities, communication and transportation facilities, developed market facility, livelihood generating industries and businesses, and the like. Dr. Kalam, who had earlier given his Vision of India 2020 identifies five areas where India has core competencies for integrated action- (1) Agriculture and food processing, (2) Education and health care, (3) Information and communication technology, (4) Good quality infrastructure in the form of reliable and quality electric power, (5) Surface transport and waterways for all parts of the country and self-reliance even in the critical technologies. With their proper harnessing, India can achieve food, economic & national security. Dr. Kalam further suggests To achieve such a profile of development, we need to have a framework which is integrated and, at the same time, totally customizable to accommodate a variety of stakeholders, beneficiaries, investors, initiatives and technologies, which can make the Indian rural sector a vibrant forerunner for national growth during this decade. Dr. Kalam finally concludes that, PURA is indeed the model for a sustainable development system that will generate Crores of empowered citizens, healthy family members and the citizens of India who will aggressively contribute to human growth and thus PURA will be the tool that will lead to the evolution of a happy, peaceful and prosperous world.
Gram Swaraj
Arvind Kejriwal in his book titled Swaraj in Hindi published in 2012, deals in detail how to deliver the decision making power to unit communities namely Gram Sabha in the Rural areas and groups of about 3,000 persons living in cities areas so that, these communities by joint will of their own could plan and execute their own development according to their priorities, year after year. It is argued that the gram Sabhas may not only elect, the Panchayats members and Sarpanches but may also have the power to scrutinize their work and if not satisfied, they should be able to recall the elected persons and elect new ones. The argument is that the Gram Sabha members will have a better understanding of what they need as a priority, whether a school or a hospital, a drain or a canal, a road or a store, etc. It is considered that this type of development will be much more sustainable and make the people better satisfied rather than the present manner of development which is carried out from top towards bottom, from Central to State government to the District Administration wherein too much of leakage in the funds takes place due to corrupt practices at various levels.
CONCLUSION
There is presently a huge debate going on in the country about the appropriateness and equitability of the benefits of the present skewed development among urban people and the rural population. There is a perceptible impression that the present development favors the already well-off people and does not take care of the economically deprived population.
Sustainable Infrastructure Planning, Development and Construction

Alpana Mitra
Officer on Special Duty, Rajkot Municipal Corporation, Rajkot, India; alpanamm@yahoo.co.in
INTRODUCTION
About 3.5 billion peoplecurrently live in cities and by 2055 an estimated 75% of the world's population will live in urban areas. Cities occupy about 2% of the earth's land, but account for over 70% of both energy consumption and carbon emissions. Cities present the world's population with the best chance of reducing our ecological footprint. Urban areas are uniquely positioned to lead the greening of the global economy through improvements in transport, energy, buildings, technology, water and waste systems, as well as producing a wide range of economic and social benefits. To achieve this, existing and new-build cities will have to adopt sustainable development strategies, including efficiency gains, innovative infrastructures and technological advancements in order to meet the demands of this rapidly growing urban population. Sustainable Cities is being launched in June 2012 at Rio+20 the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development. In this back drop it is essential to evaluate our stand. We should see how our infrastructures are being planned? Whether they are developed in sustainable manner or not? In this paper it is intended to explore these questions along with providing idea of sustainable development and construction.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Sustainable development and sustainability influence today's infrastructure planners, policy makers, executive officials & officers and administrators. Some of them argue that modern lifestyles use too many natural resources, polluting or destroying ecosystems, increasing social inequality, creating urban heat islands, and causing climate change. Many of them, therefore, advocate sustainable cities. There are number of examples of civilizations which have significantly developed the lifestyle of community, quality of life and contexts. Harappa, Mohen Jo Daro, Mayan, Greek and Roman are a few examples which had developed own culture. They evolved indigenous lifestyle of the society, defined new direction and dimension of the physical development and transformed natural environment within their command area. The nucleuses of such command areas were the cities and, perhaps, that is why Greek cities were known as city-states.
DEFINITION
More than 100 definitions of Sustainable Development have come-up; some of them are presented here to understand sustainable development 1. Hawken--Sustainability as an economic state where the demands placed upon the environment by people and commerce can be met without reducing the capacity of the environment to provide for future generations (1993). 2. Common--To sustain is to support without collapse and the sustainability problem is taken to be: how to address problems of inequality and poverty in ways that do not affect the environment so as to reduce humanitys future prospects (1995).
3. Dryzek--The legitimate development aspirations of the worlds peoples cannot be met by all countries following the growth path already taken by the industrialized countries, for such action would over-burden the worlds ecosystems; however, since improving the conditions of the worlds poor is a desired international goal, economic growth should be promoted in ways that are both environmentally benign and socially just. Justice here refers not only to distribution within the present generation, but also to distribution across future generations (1997) 4. Elkington--Its the principle of ensuring that our actions today do not limit the range of economic, social, and environmental options open to future generations (1998). 5. Meadows--Sustainable development is a social construct, referring to the long-term evolution of a hugely complex system the human population and economy embedded within the ecosystems and biogeochemical flows of the planet (1998). 6. Berke and Conroy--A dynamic process in which communities anticipate and accommodate the needs of current and future generations in ways that reproduce and balance local social, economic, and ecological systems, and link local actions to global concerns (2000). In 1987 (World Commission on Environment and Development) had Published a report entitled Our common future. The Report was prepared under leadership by Gro Harlem Brundtland of Norway. The Commission put forward the concept of Sustainable Development as an alternative approach to one simply based on economic growth. It defines which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The document is also known as Brundtland Report. Brundtland Commission started looking for environmental issues: a. People responded with many interrelated issues: jobs, health, ecological productivity, education, international trade. It is Sustainability is not as much about the environment as it is about our communities and economic systems and their future survival. The definitions is put forward by Brundtland Commission is most widely accepted and followed definition.
PLANNERS INTERVENTION
Evolution of mankind is based on exploration of natural resources elements like land, water, air, fire etc. and technological advancement; beginning from innovation of wheel to satellites and cell phones. The intellectual capabilities have given progressive dimensions but transformed the lifestyle and put mankind at the top among all species. But a man did not stop there and has been constantly struggling to extract more from prevailing conditions for betterment of life. To achieve that he conceives new ideas, develop them and then applies them in concerned fields. The intervention of such advancement is in each field of natural cycle. A planner needs to be equipped with the knowledge to understand the intervention itself to assess short-term long-term impact, adjudge its viability and to design remedial measures against the dangers of that intervention.
Evaluation of Sustainable Development

The concept of sustainability or sustainable development has been discussed at international medium since long time. Certain publications in late 1960s and early 1970s inspired interest in the environmental movement. 1. In 1962-Rachel Carsons Silent Spring and 2. In 1968-Garret Hardins The Tragedy of the Commons. Many people in the 1960s predicted a doomsday in the 1960s. 1972 (UN Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm).The relationship between economic development & environmental
Sustainable Infrastructure Planning, Development and Construction 115
degradation was first placed on the international agenda. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is set up during this, which today continues to act as a global catalyst for action to protect the environment. However, in the succeeding years little effort was done to integrate environmental concerns into national economic planning and decision making. Overall, environment continued to deteriorate, resulting in global problems such as (a). Ozone depletion (b). Global warming (c). Water pollution grew more serious (d). Destruction of natural resources accelerated at an alarming rate. In 1987 (World Commission on Environment and Development) has Published a report entitled Our common future. In 1989, the report was debated in the UN General Assembly, which decided to organize a UN Conference on Environment and Development. The report had profound impact at the international level and in countries all around the globe. This report helped to shape the international agenda and the international community's attitude towards economic, social and environmental development. In 1992-The "United Nations Conference on Environment and Development" (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro with the largest gathering of world leaders. Subsequently, they formulated a comprehensive programme of action for global action in all areas of sustainable development named as Agenda 21. In Rio, 108 representatives of various countries-adopted three major agreements aimed at changing the traditional approach to development. In addition, two legally binding Conventions were opened for signature at the Summit they are 1. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: preventing global climate change, and 2. The Convention on Biological Diversity. Because of political and governance structures in most jurisdictions, sustainable planning measures cannot be widely supported well before they can affect institutions and regions. Actual implementation is often a complex compromise.
Principles of Sustainability in Infrastructure Planning, Design and Construction

It puts together two irreconcilable principles: (a) Environmental Sustainability (b) Economic Development This has led to two interpretations of Sustainable Development: (a) Eco-centric: This puts Global Ecology first (b) Anthropocentric: which puts human well-being first Therefore, right from the start of the development process, during the investigation and selection of land and buildings, clients, architects, planners and building contractors need to consider how to optimize the environmental, social and economic resources for sustainability of Infrastructure. Sustainable development is wide-ranging in its application reaching out to: (a) Land use, including forestry; (b) Water; (c) Air and pollution control; (d) Industry; (e) Energy; (f) Human resources. Let us see on macro prospective of practical application of Sustainable Development, which can be taken as: (a) Choose projects which are not resource-consuming, means the projects which are neither damaging resource nor destroying it. (b) To build every project in such a way that it is conserving the resource which are being used, renewing the resources which have to be consumed and countering the damage and pollution to environment that emerges as a result of development.
(c) Sustainable design that is based on 'whole life costings' can bring higher monetary returnseither through higher capital expenditure to reduce running costs, or through sourcing recycled materials that need a lower capital spend. From above discussion, theory and principles for sustainable infrastructure planning following stages are essential: 1. An environmental impact assessment 2. A health impact assessment 3. An assessment of the development's effect on sustainable communities 4. Extent of involvement by local community groups and local council After which for design of sustainable, we can enlist following questions: 1. How to minimise carbon emissions e.g. through carrying out a combined heat and power study and incorporating a major energy centre within the development. 2. How to minimise unwanted heat gains in the structure 3. How to improve the ecology and biodiversity of the site e.g. by green roofs and landscaping public areas / infrastructures 4. How to develop public and non-motorised transport that is most widely used 5. How to reduce water consumption for the development of the infrastructure. 6. How to maximise the use of safe, recycled and sustainably sourced construction materials and how to minimise construction waste 7. How to minimise pollution and flood risks 8. How to maximise recycling and reuse 9. How to maximise energy efficiency in construction 10. How to manage waste effectively during and after construction activity At the contracting stage of construction, sustainability objectives are often turned into construction specifications. It is desirable for infrastructure planner to invite tender considering all above aspects for each items of the work for sustainable development. This will bring a wide range of practical skills and knowledge into the process of developing sustainable construction specifications. This will help to get the offers for true sustainable developments. For preparing construction specification following broad principles helps can be helpful: 1. Who is responsible for materials and waste handling 2. Efficiency targets 3. Clear plan of action 4. Client and sub contractors' roles and tasks 5. Training plan for management and site workers on sustainable site management and construction techniques 6. Environmental protection and conservation are of utmost importance 7. Law, legislation etc.implementation 8. Awareness
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In short for planning, design and construction of sustainable development, the following objectives are most important: Social resilience and inclusion of all groups in society Living within environmental limits and aiming to lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions Maintaining high, stable levels of employment alongside a sustainable economy
This 'triple bottom line' of environmental, social and economic responsibility applies to all sectors, including construction industry. The construction industry needs to reduce its carbon footprint and consumption of non-renewable natural resources. Excess energy consumption is also a major source of carbon emissions. Sustainable building methods reduce the damage to the environment that the construction process and use of buildings create. They minimize energy use, waste and pollution, as well as maximizing re-use and recycling wherever possible. The Government and Construction industry must form Strategy for Sustainable Infrastructure development with an aim for zero carbon emission.
Water Resources: Indian Scenarios

R.D. Singh
Director, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, Uttarakhand; rdsingh@nih.ernet.in
INTRODUCTION
Water plays a major role in our lives as it play major role in agriculture, hydropower generation, livestock production, industrial activities, forestry, fisheries, navigation and recreational activities etc. India has plenty of fresh water. Most of the fresh water is received during monsoon months unlike land; availability of water varies from place to place and time to time. Bulk of rain fall, is confined to a brief period of 3-4 months and this large part of the country takes, supply of water for a greater part of the year. National Water Policy (2002) stresses the need for multi-sectoral integrated water resources development and management considering drainage basin as a whole or a sub-basin as a hydrological unit taking into accounts both surface and ground water for sustainable development. All individual developmental projects and proposals should be formulated and considered within the framework of such an overall plan. Appropriate river basin organizations need to be established for the planned development and management of a river basin or sub-basins, wherever necessary Special multi-disciplinary units will be required to prepare comprehensive plan taking into account not only the needs of irrigation but harmonizing various other sectors, so that the available water resources are put to optimum use. As per the National Water Policy in planning and operation of systems, water allocation priorities should be broadly as: (i) drinking water, (ii) irrigation, (iii) hydropower, (iv) ecology, (v) agro-industries and non-agricultural industries and (vi) navigation. India receives annual precipitation of about 4000 km3, including snowfall. Out of this, monsoon rainfall is of the order of 3000 km3. The long-term average annual rainfall for the country is 1160 mm, which is the highest anywhere in the world for a country of comparable size (Lal, 2001). The annual rainfall in India however fluctuates widely. The highest rainfall in India of about 11,690 mm is recorded at Mousinram near Cherrapunji in Meghalaya in the northeast. In this region rainfall as much as 1040 mm is recorded in a day. At the other extreme, there are places like Jaisalmer, in Rajasthan, which receives barely 150 mm of rainfall. Though, the average rainfall is adequate, nearly three-quarters of the rain pours down in less than 120 days, from June to September and thus exhibits very high spatial and temporal variability. India is endowed with a river system comprising of more than 20 major rivers with several tributaries. Many of these rivers are perennial and some of these rivers are seasonal. Apart from the water available in the various rivers of the country, the ground water is also an important source of water for drinking, irrigation and industrial uses etc. It accounts for about 80% of domestic water requirement and more than 45% of the total irrigation in the country. As per the international norms, if per-capita water availability is less than 1700 m3 per year then the country is categorized as water stressed and if it is less than 1000 m3 per capita per year, then the country is classified as water scarce. In India per capita surface water availability in the year 1991 and 2001 were 2309 and 1902 m3 and these are projected to be reduced to 1401 and 1191 m3 by the years 2025 and 2050 respectively. Hence, there is a need for judicious planning, development and management of the greatest assets of the country viz. water and land resources for raising standards of living of millions of people particularly in rural areas.
Water Resources: Indian Scenarios 119
WATER POLLUTION
The environment and the human health are closely interrelated. The wellbeing of the people is the reflection of the healthy environment, but both can damage by pollution. Pollutants released into air, water and soil can find their way in to human body by breathing, eating and drinking. Growing urbanization, rapid industrialization without proper plan, excess use of chemical fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides in agriculture field has deteriorated the quality of water, causing water pollution. In broad perspective Pollution means such contamination of water or such alteration of the physical, chemical or biological properties of water or such discharge of any sewage or trade effluent or of any other liquid, gaseous or solid substance into water (whether directly or indirectly) as may, or is likely to, create a nuisance or render such water harmful or injurious to public health or safety, or to domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural or other legitimate uses, or to the life and health of animals or plants or of aquatic organisms (Govt. of India, 1974). Broadly, the major sources of water pollution can be divided as urban and domestic waste, industrial waste, agricultural sources, mining wastes, induced contaminated source, radioactive substances etc. In municipal areas the solid waste is produced at a rate of 0.33 kg/capita/day and thus the production of solid waste by the urban population of the country is around 23 million tons per year. Therefore, urban and domestic wastes play a significant role in polluting the water. Industrial wastes discharge plays an important role in the deterioration of water quality specially in urban and industrial areas. Besides several environmental guidelines for industries in India, there is lack of facilities to treat the solid and liquid waste and the same is generally dumped in low lying/open area by these industrial units, which moves downwards to lower reaches causing pollution in ground water regime. To increase the yield, indiscriminate use of fertilizers has also resulted into higher concentration of some constituents like Nitrates and Phosphate. Pollution is therefore considered as a major threat at the system level involving environmental implications and needs to make efforts for its control and remediation. Various pollutants present in water are measured through water quality parameters and can be broadly classified into following categories: Physical Parameters: appearance, temperature, turbidity, colour, taste, odour Chemical Parameters: all inorganic and organic substances (e.g. pH, acidity, alkalinity, hardness, conductivity, chlorides, sulphates, nitrates, nitrites, ammonia, fluoride, boron, heavy metals, pesticides, detergents, phenols, cyanide, radioactivity, oil and greese, organics, BOD, COD, DO etc. Biological Parameters: Total Coliform, MPN, Total plate count (TPC) Some of the pollutants are of serious concern and can not be neglected, are Heavy metals (zinc, copper, cadmium, lead, mercury, nickel, iron, manganese, arsenic, chromium) and Pesticides and Polynuclear Aromatics Hydrocarbons (PAH). Heavy metal pollution in its inorganic and organic forms is mainly caused by uncontrolled discharge of wastewaters of different types of industries. Leachates from landfill sites and mining waste dumps are other contributors of metal pollution. Organic pollutants (mostly organochloro and some persistent toxic substances in water bodies) got importance because of their carcinogenic character. They enter water bodies through point sources, non-point sources as well as through long range atmospheric transportation. The process of bioaccumulation and bio-magnification of these organic pollutants fresh water eco-system is of great importance. The water is being used as multipurpose resource in India. The main uses of water are public water supply, outdoor bathing & recreation, fisheries & wildlife propagation, irrigation & other agricultural uses, cooling in power plants, navigation and disposal of wastes. The Central Pollution Control Board has classified all water bodies including coastal waters in the country according to their designated best uses as given in the Table 1. Most of these uses are often conflicting. In order for
any water body to function adequately in satisfying any one of the above mentioned use, it must have corresponding degree of purity. In terms of quality, drinking water needs highest level of purity, whereas disposal of wastes can be done in any quality of water. Therefore there is great need to maintain the quality of water as it is as important as the quantity.
DRINKING WATER SPECIFICATIONS

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) earlier known as Indian Standards Institution (ISI) has laid down the standard specifications for drinking water (BIS, 1991). In order to enable the users, exercise their discretion towards water quality criteria, the maximum permissible limit has been prescribed especially where no alternate sources are available. The national water quality standards describe essential and desirable characteristics required to be evaluated to ascertain suitability of water for drinking purpose. The important water quality characteristics as laid down in BIS Standard are given in Table 2.
Table 1: Designated Best Use Classification of Surface Water
Designated Best Use Drinking water source without conventional treatment but with chlorination Outdoor bathing (organized) Quality Class A Primary Water Quality Criteria Total coliform organisms (MPN*/100 ml) shall be 50 or less pH between 6.5 and 8.5 Dissolved Oxygen 6 mg/L or more, and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 2 mg/L or less Total coliform organisms (MPN/100 ml) shall be 500 or less pH between 6.5 and 8.5 Dissolved Oxygen 5 mg/L or more, and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 3 mg/L or less Total coliform organisms (MPN/100 ml) shall be 5000 or less pH between 6 and 9 Dissolved Oxygen 4 mg/L or more, and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 3 mg/L or less pH between 6.5 and 8.5 Dissolved Oxygen 4 mg/L or more, and Free ammonia (as N) 1.2 mg/L or less pH between 6.0 and 8.5 Electrical conductivity less than 2250 micro mhos/cm, Sodium Absorption Ratio less than 26, and Boron less than 2 mg/L
Drinking water source with conventional treatment Propagation of wildlife and fisheries Irrigation, industrial cooling and controlled disposal
D E
Contamination of water is certainly one of the key issues, as it can prevent water from being used for its intended purpose. Contamination can enter the water bodies through point sources and nonpoint sources. In India, fecal contamination is still the primary water quality issue for both surface and ground waters. Although this applies to the rural as well as urban areas, the situation is probably more critical in fast growing cities. Fecal contamination is a source of pathogenic organisms responsible for water borne diseases. It affects the health of the users as well as ecological health of the river. Depletion of oxygen in natural water bodies due to discharge of high organic loads from domestic sector as well as agro based industries deteriorates the health of the water body. Due to such sudden oxygen depletion, survival of aquatic life becomes endangered, which is of concern. Presence of organic pollutants (mostly organochloro compounds and some persistent toxic substances in water bodies) is also becoming an important water quality issue because of their carcinogenic character. They enter water bodies through point sources, non-point sources as well as through long range atmospheric transportation. The process of bio-accumulation and biomagnification of these organic pollutants in fresh water eco-systems is of great importance. Uncontrolled discharge of industrial wastewaters often causes heavy metal pollution in its inorganic and organic forms. Leachates from landfill sites and mining waste dumps are other contributors of metal pollution. Increased mineral salts in rivers may arise from discharge from industrial/ mining wastewater, irrigation and surface run-off from arid and semi arid regions.
A vast majority of groundwater quality problems are caused by contamination, over-exploitation, or the combination of two. Most groundwater quality problems are difficult to detect and hard to resolve. The solutions are usually very expensive, time consuming and not always effective. An alarming picture of ground water deterioration is emerging in many parts of the country. Groundwater contamination due to nitrate, fluoride, iron, arsenic and mercury and intrusion of leachate from landfill sites are some of the glaring examples of this in India nowadays.
Table 2: Drinking Water Specifications (IS: 10500:1991)
S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. Characteristics Desirable Limit Essential Characteristics Colour, Hazen units, Max 5 Odour Unobjectionable Taste Agreeable Turbidity, NTU, Max 5 pH value 6.5 to 8.5 Total hardness (CaCO3), mg/L, Max 300 Iron, mg/L, Max 0.3 Chlorides, mg/L, Max 250 Residual free chlorine, mg/L, Max 0.2 Desirable Characteristics Dissolved solids, mg/L, Max 500 Calcium, mg/L, Max 75 Magnesium, mg/L, Max 30 Copper, mg/L, Max 0.05 Manganese, mg/L, Max 0.1 Sulphate, mg/L, Max 200 Nitrate, mg/L, Max 45 Fluoride, mg/L, Max 1.0 Phenolic compounds, mg/L, Max 0.001 Mercury, mg/L, Max 0.001 Cadmium, mg/L, Max 0.01 Selenium, mg/L, Max 0.01 Arsenic, mg/L, Max 0.01 Cyanide, mg/L, Max 0.05 Lead, mg/L, Max 0.05 Anionic detergents 0.2 Chromium as Cr6+, mg/L, Max 0.05 PAH, mg/L, Max Mineral oil, mg/L, Max 0.01 Pesticides, mg/L, Max Absent Alkalinity, mg/L, Max 200 Aluminium, mg/L, Max 0.03 Boron, mg/L, Max 1
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
Permissible Limit 25 10 600 1.0 1000 2000 200 100 1.5 0.3 400 1.5 0.002 1.0 0.03 0.001 600 0.2 5
Fig. 1: Urban Population Growth Trend
India is urbanizing very fast. With increasing urban population water supply and wastewater generation is also increasing steeply. However, the treatment facilities are lagging behind due to paucity of resources with the urban local bodies, who are responsible for sewage management. Discharge of untreated domestic wastewater is predominant source of pollution of aquatic resources in India. Urban centers contribute most of the sewage generation in the country. The smaller towns and rural areas do not contribute significant amounts of sewage due to low per capita water supply. The wastewater generated in these areas normally percolates in the soil or evaporates. CPCB carry out regular inventory of water supply, wastewater generation, collection and disposal in class-I cities and class_II towns of the country. As per the latest estimate, 423 class I cities and 498 class II towns of the country harbouring population of 20 crore generate about 26250 million litre per day (mld) of wastewater. It was observed that most of the cities do not have adequate organized water supply, as well as wastewater collection and treatment facilities. Out of which about 7000 mld of wastewater gets some kind of treatment. It was also observed that Maharashtra, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Gujarat are the major contributors of wastewater (63%). The facilities constructed to treat wastewater do not function properly and remain closed most of the time due to improper design and poor maintenance, together with a non-technical and unskilled approach. As per the latest information about 38300 MLD of wastewater generated from urban centres out of which treatment capacity exists for only about 11000 MLD. Thus, a large part of the untreated sewage is discharged into water bodies causing pollution. In many cases, there is no dilution water available resulting in severe pollution in the receiving water body (Trivedi, 2010).
STATUS OF WATER RESOURCES IN INDIA

India supports about 1/6th of world population, 1/50th of worlds land and 1/25th of worlds water resources. Although, India occupies only 3.29 million km2 geographical area, which forms 2.4% of the world's land area, it supports over 15% of the world's population. India also has a livestock population of 500 million, which is about 20% of the world's total livestock population. More than half of these are cattle, forming the backbone of Indian agriculture. A brief description of availability of surface and groundwater water resources of India is given as follow. In India, surface flow takes place through 14 major rivers systems. Between them they share 83% of the drainage basin, account for 85% of the surface flow and house 80% of the total population of the country. In addition to major rivers there are 44 medium and 55 minor systems. These are fast flowing and monsoon fed. The surface flow is further enlarged by addition of about 450 cubic kms. of fresh water from ground water flow while about 50 cubic kms are added to runoff from irrigated areas. Out of this surface water flow about same amount of water percolates down to the ground water deposits. Several organizations and individuals have made an attempt to estimate water availability for the country within the limitations of physiographic conditions and socio-political environment, legal and constitutional constraints and the technology of development available differently. As reported by the ministry of water resources of India, the basin-wise average annual flow in Indian river systems is 1869 km3 and the utilizable annual surface water of the country is 690 km3 (Website: MOWR, India). The details of available surface water resources are given in Table 3. Ground water resources are abundant only in the northern and coastal plains. Underground reservoir of fresh water is called aquifers. Ground water are continuously reached through infiltration, seepage and evatranspiration. Presently about 25% of the ground water is being used by man. Agriculture uses maximum amount of ground water. It has been found that excessive use of ground water depletes aquafers, lowers the water table and may lead to salivation, water logging and alkalization of the soils. According to the initial estimates of the Central Ground Water Board an additional quantity of about 10,081 km3 of static ground water can be exploited.
Generally static water is not regular replenished on annual basis; its one time use is only possible as a short time strategy. Further experience indicates that large scale use of static water or its mining is usually associated with surface settlement which may cause heavy damages to properties of land and soils and may, possibly, trigger seismic activities. Therefore, any appreciable use of static ground water on regular basis is not foreseen till the middle of the 21st century. In our country, total replenishable groundwater resource is estimated as 433 km3. Out of which, annual natural ground water recharge from rainfall in India is 67% and the rest is from other sources. After allotting 15% of this quantity for drinking, and 6 km3 for industrial purposes, the remaining can be utilized for irrigation purposes. Thus, the available ground water resource for irrigation is 363 km3 of which utilizable quantity (90%) is 327 km3. The basin wise per capita water availability varies between 13,393 m3 per annum for Brahmaputra-Barak basin to about 300 m3 per annum for Sabarmati basin. The state-wise estimates of dynamic ground water (fresh) resource have been made by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB, 2006; IWRS, 1998).
Table 3: Basinwise Average Flow (in km3/Year)
River Basin Indus Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna Basin 2a Ganga 2b Brahmaputra, Barak and others 3 Subarnarekha 4 Brahmni-Baitarani 5 Mahanadi 6 Godavari 7 Krishna 8 Pennar 9 Cauvery 10 Tapi 11 Narmada 12 Mahi 13 Sabarmati 14 West flowing rivers of Kachchh and Saurashtra including Luni 15 West flowing rivers from Tapi to Tadri 16 West flowing rivers from Tadri to Kanyakumari 17 East flowing rivers Between Mahanadi and Pennar 18 East flowing rivers Between Pennar and Kanyakumari 19 Area of Inland drainage in Rajasthan desert 20 Minor River Basins Draining into Bangladesh Total Source: Website: Ministry of Water Resources, India S. No. 1 2 Average Annual Flow 73.31 525.02 585.60 12.37 28.48 66.88 110.54 78.12 6.32 21.36 14.88 45.64 11.02 3.81 15.1 87.41 113.53 22.52 16.46 NEG. 31.00 1869.35
WATER REQUIREMENTS
Different sectors of society use water for different purposes: drinking, growing food, producing manufactured food removing or diluting waste, producing and using energy, and so on. Agriculture is the predominant occupation in India. Therefore, development of irrigation to increase agricultural production for making the country self-sustained and for poverty alleviation has always been of crucial importance for the water resources planners. In our country, irrigation sector was assigned a very high priority in the 5-year plans. In order to increase irrigation potential and maximize agricultural production, a number of schemes like the Bhakra Nangal, Hirakud, Damodar Valley, Nagarjunasagar, Rajasthan Canal project etc. were taken up. The production of food grains has increased from around 50 million tonnes in the fifties to about 203 million tonnes in the year 19992000 (National Water Policy, 2002). According to the estimates adopted by NCIWRD (1999), by the year 2025, the population is expected to be 1333 million in high growth scenario and 1286 million in low growth scenario. For the year 2050, high rate of population growth is likely to result in about 1581 million people while the low growth projections place the number at nearly 1346 million.
Keeping in view the level of consumption, losses in storage and transport, seed requirement, and buffer stock, the projected food-grain and feed demand for 2025 would be 320 million tonnes (high demand scenario) and 308 million tonnes (low demand scenario). The requirement of food grains for the year 2050 would be 494 million tonnes (high demand scenario) and 420 million tonnes (low demand scenario). Table 4 provides details of the population of India and per capita water availability as well as utilizable surface water for some of the years from 1951 to 2050 (projected). The availability of water in India shows wide spatial and temporal variations. Also, there are very large inter annual variations. Hence, the general situation of availability of per capita availability is much more alarming than what is depicted by the average figures.
Domestic Use Water Requirement

We use lot of water for our daily needs. Accordingely, community water supply is the most important requirement and it is about 5% of the total water use. About 7 km3 of surface water and 18 km3 of ground water are being used for community water supply in urban and rural areas. Along with the increase in population, another important change from the point of view of water supply is higher rate of urbanization. As per the projections, the higher is the economic growth, the higher would be urbanization. It is expected that nearly 61 percent of the population will be living in urban areas by the year 2050 in high growth scenario as against 48% in low growth scenario. Different organizations and individuals have given different norms for water supply in cities and rural areas. The figure adopted by the NCIWRD (1999) was 220 litres per capita per day (lpcd) for class I cities. For the cities other than class I, the norms are 165 for year 2025 and 220 lpcd for the year 2050. For rural areas, 70 lpcd and 150 lpcd have been recommended for the year 2025 and 2050. Based on these norms and projection of population, it is estimated that by the year 2050, water requirements per year for domestic use will be 90 km3 for low demand scenario and 111 km3 for high demand scenario. It is expected that about 70% of urban water requirement and 30% percent of rural water requirement will be met by surface water sources and the remaining from ground water.
Irrigation Water Requirement

Irrigated area in the country was only 22.6 million hectare (M-ha) in 1950-51. Since food production was much below the requirement of the country, due attention was paid for expansion of irrigation. The ultimate irrigation potential of India has been estimated as 140 M-ha. Out of this, 76 M-ha would come from surface water and 64 M-ha from ground water sources. The quantum of water used for irrigation by the last century was of the order of 300 km3 of surface water and 128 km3 of ground water, total 428 km3. The estimates indicate that by the year 2025, water requirement for irrigation would be 561 km3 for low demand scenario and 611 km3 for high demand scenario. These requirements are likely to further increase to 628 km3 for low demand scenario and 807 km3 for high demand scenario by the year 2050.
Table 4: Per Capita Per Year Availability and Utilizable Surface Water in India (in m3)
S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Year 1951 1955 1991 2001 2025 (Projected) 2050 (Projected) Population (in Million) 361 395 846 1027 a. 1286 (Low growth) b. 1333 (High growth) a. 1346 (Low growth) b. 1581 (High growth) Per-capita Surface Water Availability 5410 4944 2309 1902 1519 1465 1451 1235 Per-Capita Utilizable Surface Water 1911 1746 816 672 495 421
Hydroelectric Power Water Requirement

The hydropower potential of India has been estimated at 84,044 MW at 60% load factor. At the time of independence (1947), the installed capacity of hydropower projects was 508 MW. By the end of 1998, the installed hydropower capacity was about 22,000 MW. The status of hydropower development in major basins is highly uneven. According to an estimate, India has plans to develop 60,000 MW, additional hydropower by the twelfth five year plan. It includes 14,393 MW during tenth five year plan (2002-2007); 20,000 MW during eleventh (2007-2012) and 26,000 MW during twelfth (2012-2017) five year plans. A potential of the order of 10,000 MW is available for development of small hydropower projects in the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan regions of the country. Therefore, it is not only desirable but also a pressing need of time to draw a master plan for development of small, medium and large hydro-schemes for power generation.
Industrial Water Requirement

Rough estimates indicate that the present water use in the industrial sector is of the order of 15 km3. The water use by thermal and nuclear power plants with installed capacities of 40000 MW and 1500 MW (1990 figures) respectively, is estimated to be about 19 km3. In view of shortage of water, the industries are expected to switch over to water efficient technologies. If the present rate of water use continues, the water requirement for industries in the year 2050 would be 103 km3; this is likely to be nearly 81 km3 if water saving technologies are adopted on a large scale.
Total Water Requirements

Total annual requirement of water for various sectors has been estimated and its break up is given Table 5.
Table 5: Annual Water Requirement for Different Uses (in km3) (NCIWRD, 1999)
Uses Surface Water Irrigation Domestic Industries Power Inland Navigation Environment Ecology Evaporation Losses Total Ground Water Irrigation Domestic Industries Power Total Grand total Total Water Use Irrigation Domestic Industries Power Inland Navigation Environment Ecology Evaporation Losses Total Year 1997-98 Low 318 17 21 7 330 23 26 14 7 5 42 447 213 19 11 4 247 694 543 42 37 18 7 5 42 694 Year 2010 High % 339 24 26 15 7 5 42 458 218 19 11 4 252 710 557 43 37 19 7 5 42 710 48 3 4 2 1 1 6 65 31 2 1 1 35 100 78 6 5 3 1 1 6 100 Low 325 30 47 25 10 10 50 497 236 25 20 6 287 784 561 55 67 31 10 10 50 784 Year 2025 High % 366 36 47 26 10 10 50 545 245 26 20 7 298 843 611 62 67 33 10 10 50 843 43 5 6 3 1 1 6 65 29 3 2 1 35 100 72 7 8 4 1 1 6 100 Low 375 48 57 50 15 20 76 641 253 42 24 13 332 973 628 90 81 63 15 20 76 973 Year 2050 High % 463 65 57 56 15 20 76 752 344 46 24 14 428 1180 807 111 81 70 15 20 76 1180 39 6 5 5 1 2 6 64 29 4 2 1 36 100 68 9 7 6 1 2 7 100
36 399 206 13 9 2 230 629 524 30 30 9 0 0 36 629
With the increasing population as well as all round development in the country, the utilization of water has also been increasing at a fast pace. In 1951, the actual utilization of surface water was
about 20% and 10% in the case of ground water. The utilizable water in river basins is highly uneven. For example in the Brahmaputra basin, which contributes 629 billion m3 of surface water of the countrys total flow, only 24 billion m3 is utilizable.
Climate Change and its Impact on Environment

Water is a central resource supporting human activities and ecosystems. The hydrologic cycle, a fundamental component of climate, is likely to be altered in important ways by climate change, which will result in (i) more rainfall in lesser time; (ii) decrease in number of rainy days; (iii) overall increase in precipitation; (iv) increased glacial melt-runoff initially and then afterwards decrease; (v) increase in runoff but less ground water recharge?; (vi) increase in flood events particularly of flash floods; (vii) increase in drought like situations; and some other related issues like (viii) increase in landslide events in hilly areas etc. India is a vast country with diversified climate from region to region. Any significant change in the climate specially in temperature will ultimately affect the water quality of our water resources thereby affecting rivers self purification capacity and aquatic life system.
Effect of Climate Change on Water Quality of Water Resources

The probable effects of climate change on water quality of water resources can be summarized as follows (http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/effects/water/quality.html): Higher water temperatures and changes in the timing, intensity, and duration of precipitation can affect water quality. Higher temperatures reduce dissolved oxygen levels, which can have an effect on aquatic life. Where streamflow and lake levels fall, there will be less dilution of pollutants; however, increased frequency and intensity of rainfall will produce more pollution and sedimentation due to runoff (IPCC, 2007). Flood magnitudes and frequencies will very likely increase in most regions mainly a result of increased precipitation intensity and variability and increasing temperatures are expected to intensify the climate's hydrologic cycle and melt snowpacks more rapidly (IPCC, 2007). Flooding can affect water quality, as large volumes of water can transport contaminants into water bodies and also overload storm and wastewater systems. Higher temperatures, particularly in the summer, earlier snowmelt, and potential decreases in summer precipitation could increase risk of drought. The frequency and intensity of floods and droughts could increase, even in the same areas, which will further the water quality problem. Sea level rise may also affect freshwater quality by increasing the salinity of coastal rivers and bays and causing saltwater intrusion, movement of saline water into fresh ground water resources in coastal regions. Changes in water quality could have implications for all types of uses. For example, higher temperatures and changes in water supply and quality could affect recreational use of lakes and rivers or productivity of freshwater fisheries. Certain species of fish could find temperatures too warm and migrate to more northern or higher altitude locations where water is cooler.
Water Quality Status of Water Resources in India Water Quality of Surface Water Resources
In view of the growing threat to our water resources, conservation of rivers, lakes and other water bodies is an important priority of the Government of India. Central Pollution Control Board has been monitoring water quality of national aquatic resources in collaboration of with SPCBs at designated monitoring stations. CPCB has worked out riverine length for different Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) values, in mg/L, as indicator of organic pollution after analysing 10 years of data, is as given below:
Length of river for BOD > 6 mg/L (severely polluted): 6086 km (14%) Length of river for BOD 3-6 mg/L (moderately polluted): 8691 km (19%) Length of river for BOD < 3 mg/L (relatively clean): 30242 km (67%) Total length of the river including tributaries: 45019 km
Based on the outcome of CPCBs studies on water quality and identification of polluted stretches of major rivers, the Government of India launched an ambitious river conservation plan named Ganga Action Plan (GAP) in 1986 for pollution abatement of river Ganga. Later in 1995-96, the conservation of another 17 rivers was added to this programme renamed as National River Conservation Plan (NRCP). The water quality of river Ganga is regularly monitored under this plan since April 1986 (Trivedi, 2006). The river water quality has shown improvement over the pre-GAP period water quality. It was observed that in 1986, the bio-chemical oxygen demand (BOD) which is an indicator of pollution of river water quality was ranging from 5.5 to 15.5 mg/L in the critical stretch of Ganga from Kannauj to Varanasi. As against this, the values of BOD in 2009 in the stretch of Kannauj to Kanpur is (1.5 4.8 mg/L) and Allahabad to Varanasi (3.10 6.25 mg/L) respectively. This is based on average of four months (March to June 2009). Similarly, Dissolved Oxygen (DO) levels which indicate the health of the river, were in the range of 5.6 to 6.6 mg/L in 1986 in the Allahabad-Varanasi stretch and in 2009 the range improved from 7.72 to 8.13 mg/L. (Source: http://envfor.nic.in/nrcd/NRCD/Ganga3.htm). The quality of Yamuna river water was maintained all through in Haryana as per the water quality standards with DO values above 5.0 mg/l and BOD values less than 3.0 mg/I. The DO value at Kalanaur (2009) is 9.1 and BOD values is 2.33. The Yamuna water at Delhi was always poor with DO values < 5.0 mg/l and BOD values >3.0 mg/l. The poor quality trend continued downstream also with values of DO fluctuating upto Majhawali. The values were again fluctuated d/s Agra. However, the values improved at Auraiya. The same trend was indicated by BOD values. The Critical stretch of Yamuna in 2009 extended from Delhi to Udi as against Delhi to Majhawali and again, Agra d/s to Etawah in (1996), there was no improvement in water quality and the effect of NRCD schemes was not positive (Source: http://envfor.nic.in/nrcd/NRCD/Yamuna.htm). Presently NRCP programme has been expanded to cover 29 rivers in 22 states. In addition to the pollution abatement of rivers, the conservation of lakes has also been included since June 2001 under the NRCP. The Central Government, by a notification dated 20.2.2009, has set up National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) as an empowered planning, financing, monitoring and coordinating authority for the Ganga river, in exercise of the powers conferred under the Environment (Protection) Act,1986. The functions of the Authority include all measures necessary for planning and execution of programmes for abatement of pollution in the Ganga in keeping with sustainable development needs.
Water Quality of Groundwater Resources

Groundwater situation in different parts of India is diversified because of variation in geological, climatological and topographic set-up. The prevalent rock formations, ranging in age from Archaean to Recent, which control occurrence and movement of groundwater, are widely varied in composition and structure. Further, significant variations of landforms from the rugged mountainous terrains of the Himalayas, Eastern and Western Ghats to the flat alluvial plains of the river valleys and coastal tracts, and the aeolian deserts of Rajasthan are also responsible non-uniform distribution of ground water. The rainfall patterns too show similar region-wise variations. The topography and rainfall virtually control run-off and groundwater recharge (Master Plan, 2002).
Growing demand of water in various sectors viz; agriculture, industrial and domestic sectors, has brought problems of over-exploitation of the groundwater resource, continuously declining groundwater levels, sea water ingress in coastal areas, and groundwater pollution in different parts of the country. The falling groundwater levels in various parts of the country have threatened the sustainability of the groundwater resource, as water levels have gone deep beyond the economic lifts of pumping. The Central Ground Water Board has established more than 15,000 network monitoring stations in the country to monitor groundwater level and its quality. Water levels in major parts of the country generally do not show any significant rise/fall. However, significant decline in the level of groundwater has been observed in certain pockets in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, NCT Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Chandigarh and Diu have recorded high level of groundwater development (more than 85%) (Mall et al., 2006). Groundwater in certain geological formations may not be of desired quality for specific uses. Naturally occurring fluorides, arsenic and salinity are known to adversely affect the quality of water for drinking water supplies. Under certain hydrogeological conditions, unsewered domestic waste can cause severe groundwater contamination by pathogenic bacteria, nitrate and other pollutants. In India, the percentage of sewered population is nearly negligible in most of the rural areas and is quite meager (0 to 50%) in most medium and small towns. As a result, the contamination of groundwater by pollution from unsewered areas is one of the most important environmental problems facing the country. Studies carried out in India reveal that one of the most important cause of ground water pollution is unplanned urban development without adequate attention to sewage and waste disposal. Industrialisation without provision of proper treatment and disposal wastes and affluent is another source of ground water pollution. Unsystematic use of synthetic fertilizers couple with improper water management practices have resulted in deterioration of ground water quality in many parts of the country. Recently a study on assessment of ground water quality in metropolitan cities of India was carried out by National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee sponsored by CPCB, Delhi. Findings in general and recommendations of the study has been summarized below (Source: CPCB Report, 2007): 1. The groundwater quality problems are mainly due to a) contamination by geogenic and manmade sources; and b) sea water intrusion due to over-abstraction of groundwater along the coasts. The geogenic contamination can be attributed to over-abstraction causing lowering of water table and disturbing the contaminated geological structures. The man-made contamination is mainly due to large-scale urbanisation, industrialisation and agricultural activities. 2. Groundwater quality is being increasing threatened by agricultural, urban & industrial wastes, which leach or are injected into underlying aquifers. With fast urban growth and increasing standard of living the waste generation has steeply increased in India, especially in large urban centres. Due to paucity of resources the local authorities, who are responsible for waste management are not able to adequately address the problem. This has resulted in a large amount of wastes, both solid and liquid, not being collected, treated or disposed properly. The un-collected wastes are largely accumulated in the city areas, percolate or leach in the ground and pollute the groundwater. 3. A large number of industrial activities are taking place in urban areas, especially in congested, populated areas. The wastes generated by industrial activities in urban areas get mixed with domestic wastes and pollute the groundwater.
4. The groundwater is only source of drinking in many urban centres of the country. Thus, a large urban population is at risk of consuming polluted water and the major problem is urban areas are related to increasing salinity, nitrate, coliform (indicators of pathogen), fluoride and in some cases micro-pollutants. 5. The quality of groundwater with respect to bacteriological parameters in some of the pockets of metropolitan cities showed bacterial contamination at few locations during pre-monsoon season. This can be attributed to in-adequate collection of sewage, garbage leading to accumulation of wastewater and garbage, inadequate maintenance of hand pumps, improper sanitation and unhygienic conditions around the structures and in the city limit may be responsible for bacterial contamination at few locations during the pre-monsoon season. 6. In some of the metro-cities like Agra and Meerut, the salinity is increasing at a fast rate. This can be attributed to percolation of accumulated salts in intense irrigated areas and industrial activities. 7. With respect to physico-chemical properties of the samples collected, it is either conforming to desirable or permissible limits. The quality of ground water from a few shallow tube wells has been impaired in some of the areas. However, the deep bore/tube wells have not yet been affected.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
India is one of the few countries in the world endowed with abundant land and water resources. In the major part of the country, rainfall is the only sources for water which is available mainly during the monsoon season lasting for less than 3 months. Due to tropical climate and it's geographical, location, the country experiences vast spatial and temporal variation in precipitation. About onethird of the country's area is drought prone. Due to spatial and temporal variability in rainfall and thus availability of water hundreds of millions of people in our conntry lack assess to sufficient amount of fresh water for their needs. Therefore, a first step towards sustainable water use would be to gurantee all humans the water needed to satisfy their basic needs.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] IPCC (2001) Climate Change, The science of climate change, Assessment Report of IPCC Working Group I [Houghton, J.T. et al. (eds.) and WMP/UNEP, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. IPCC (1998) The regional impacts of climate change: an assessment of vulnerability. A special report of IPCC Working Group II, [Watson, R.T. Zinyowera, M.C. and Moss, R.H. (eds)]. Cambridge, University Press, UK, pp. 517. IWRS (1996) Theme paper on Inter Basin Transfers of Water for National Development - Problems and Prospects. Indian Water Resources Society, Roorkee. IWRS (1998) Theme Paper Five Decades of Water Resources Development in India. Indian Water Resources Society, Roorkee. IWRS (2001) Theme paper on Management of floods and droughts, Indian Water Resources Society, Roorkee, India, pp. 4-12. Jeyaseelan, R. (2005) Water resources management problems of India. International Symposium on Recent Advances in Water Resources Development and Management. Dept. of Water Resources Development and Management, IIT, Roorkee, Nov. 23-25, 2005. Kumar, Rakesh, Singh, R.D. and Sharma, K.D. (2005) Water resources of India, Current Science Journal, Vol. 89, No. 5, September, 2005. Lal, M. (2001), Climate ChangeImplications for Indias Water Resources, J. of India Water Resources Society, 21(3), 101119. Lazaroff, C. (2000) Hidden Ground water Pollution Problem Runs Deep, Environment News Service, Worldwatch Institute, Washington, DC. Nagaraj, N., Marshall Frasier, W., and Sampath, R.K. (1999) A Comparative Study of Groundwater Institutions in the Western United States and Peninsular India for Sustainable and Equitable Resource Use, Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA. National Water Policy (2002) Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India. NCIWRD (1999) Integrated Water Resources Development A Plan for Action. Report of The National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development. Govt. of India, Ministry of Water Resources, New Delhi. NNRMS (2002) Flood risk zoning using satellite based remote sensing, Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India. Oaksford, E.T. (1985) Artificial Recharge: Methods, Hydraulics, and Monitoring, In: Artificial Recharge of Ground water, T. Asamo, editor. Butterworth Publishers, Boston.
130 Twenty-eighth NCCE & National Seminar on Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development [15] Padma T. V. (2004) India unveils new monsoon forecast model. Source: Sci. Dev. Net, http://www.clivar.org/recent/monsoon_forec2.htm. [16] Pant, G.B. and Kumar, K.R. (1997) Climates of South Asia, John Wiley & Sons Ltd., West Sussex, UK., 320 p. [17] Raghuvanshi, C.S., Chandra, M. and Raghuvanshi, T.K. (1990) Socio-economic impact of waterlogging A critique of mismanagement of surface irrigation. Proceedings of All India Seminar on Waterlogging and Drainage, Roorkee. [18] Rao, K L. (1973) India's Water Wealth. Orient Longman Limited, New Delhi. [19] Rashtriya Barh Ayog (1980) Report Vol. 1. Ministry of Energy and Irrigation. [20] Renault D. (2002) Value of virtual water in food: Principles and Virtues. Paper presented at UNESCO-IHE, Workshop on Virtual Water Trade, Dec. 12-13, Delft, the Netherlands. [21] Rosegrant, M. and Ringler, C. (1999) Impact of food security and rural development of reallocating water from agriculture. IFPRL. Washington DC. [22] Scot, C.A., Shah, T. and Beuchler, S.J. (2003) Lessons from Maxicon agriculture. Anand, India, IWMI-TATA, Water Policy Research Highlight, 3. [23] Seth, S.M. (2000) Integrated water resources management role of research and development in hydrology. Proceedings of International Conference on Integrated Water Resources Management for Sustainable Development, New Delhi, organized by National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee. [24] Shah, T. (2005) Groundwater and human development: Challenges and opportunities in livelihoods creation and environment. Lecture delivered during the Workshop on Creating Synergy between Groundwater Research and Management in South Asia, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, India, 7-9 February, 2005. [25] Water Management Forum (WMF) (2003) Inter-basin transfer of water in India Prospects and Problems. New Delhi, February, 2003, Water Management Forum. The Institution of Engineers (India). [26] Water Resources Society, Roorkee, 1998. [27] World Water and Environment Engineering, Vol. 28 (4), July/August, 2005, Buxton Press, Ltd, U.K.
Section A Sustainable Infrastructure Planning and Construction
Global Warming and Sustainable Cement Concrete-based-infrastructures

Rakesh Kumar
Principal Scientist, Rigid Pavements Division, CSIR-CRRI, New Delhi, India; rakesh_crri@hotmail.com
AbstractThe increasing concentration of carbon dioxide gas in earths atmosphere is responsible for the Global warming. Manufacturing of the key constituent of concrete (portland cement) is one of the major emitter of the greenhouse gases, contributing to global warming. The concrete industry is the single largest consumer of natural resources. Several places around the world are facing faster rates of depletion of the resources needed for the manufacturing of portland cement, mining of aggregates and water for making concrete. On the other hand, cement concrete provides ample opportunity for judicious use of industrial by-products and recycled materials in its manufacture resulting in numerous technical and environmental advantages that helps in sustainable development of infrastructures. This paper discusses contribution of cement industry in global warming and recycling of industrial byproducts combined with recent development in concrete technology for use in the construction of sustainable infrastructures.
INTRODUCTION
It is now generally accepted that the global warming is caused by the increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the Earths atmosphere from human activities. CO2 gas is the principal greenhouse gas. It exists in gaseous form in the Earths atmosphere at a standard temperature and pressure. The major human activities which contribute to the emission of the CO2 gas in the Earths atmosphere include combustion of fossil fuels and deforestation. The emissions of carbon dioxide gas by human activities are about 27 billion tonnes/year [USGS 2009]. The increasing concentration of carbon dioxide gas in the Earths atmosphere has raised concerns about global warming, climate change, and their subsequent effects on its inhabitants for the continuation of the civilization. The global average atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has risen from 280 ppm at the beginning of industrial revolution (about 150 years ago) to 380+ ppm [NOAA, 2009]. The annual growth rate of global average CO2 concentration in the Earths atmosphere since the beginning of continuous monitoring in 1959 is given in Figure 1. The maximum growth rate of atmospheric carbon dioxide was 1.9 ppm/year during 20002006 [Canadell et al., 2007]. Besides being one of the principal GHGs, carbon dioxide is a toxic gas also. Its effects on human body increase with an increase in its concentration. Some of these effects as reported by Davidson [2003] for different concentration levels are as given below: 1. 1% CO2 can cause drowsiness with prolonged exposure; 2. 2% CO2 is mildly narcotic and causes increased blood pressure and pulse rate; and, 3. At about 5% increase it causes stimulation of the respiratory centre, dizziness, confusion and difficulty in breathing Therefore, scientists, engineers, researchers, environmentalist and others, along with carbon dioxide contributing industries are making tireless effort to develop efficient and viable technologies in their respective areas that could help in making the products with low CO2 foot print besides reducing carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere.
134 Twe enty-eighth NCC CE & National Seminar S on Role e of Infrastructur re for Sustainab ble Developmen nt
Con ncrete is the e backbone for all the construction and infrast tructure dev velopmental activities around the Globe. The curren nt concrete construction n practice is considered d unsustainab ble as it consume es enormou us quantities of natural resources r su uch as stone e, sand, wate er, and 2-1/ /2 billion tones of f portland ce ement per year and eac ch of the primary ingred dients of it has an enviro onmental impact that t gives ris se to differen nt sustainability issues [M Mehta, 2001 1 and 2002] ]. From envi ironment prospect tive, portlan nd cement is s not consid dered an eco o-friendly material m as it ts production n is very energy intensive, i use es large amo ount of natur ral resources s, and releases a significa ant amount of o greenhouse ga ases (GHGs) ). About 1.7 tons of raw materials, su uch as limest tone, clay, ch halk, etc., are e needed to manu ufacture one e ton of ce ement [BCA A, 2004]. Ea ach stage of o cement pr roduction has some environm mental effec ct. The energ gy consump ption by the cement ind dustry is abo out 2% of th he global primary energy co onsumption [WEC, 199 95]. Cemen nt industry contributes over 6% of total anthropo ogenic CO2 emission [He endriks et al., 2004, PBL L, 2008, Naik k and Kumar 2012]. In 2006, 2 the global ca arbon dioxid de (CO2) em missions from m the burning g of fossil fue els stood at a record 8.4 gigatons of carbo on (GtC). Fig gure 2 show ws the global carbon dio oxide emissio ons from fos ssils fuels. Among all industria al non-comb bustion proce esses, the ce ement clinke er production n process is the largest source s of CO2 em missions. Sinc ce 1990, glo obal CO2 em missions from m fossil fuel use and cem ment produc ction has increase ed by about 34% [PBL, 2008]. Figur re 3 shows the t CO2 emi issions from fuel use and d cement producti ion by diffe erent region of the worl ld. The cem ment industry y is held re esponsible fo or global warming g to some ex xtent as production of one o ton of cement emits s one ton of f carbon diox xide and other GH HGs in the air. a
F 1: CO2 Concentration Fig. C ns Measured at Mauna Lo oa Observatory
Fig. 2: : Global CO2 Emissions from fr Fossil Fuels F [M Moore, 2008]
Fig. 3: Global CO O2 Emissions s from Fuel Use U and Cement C Produ uction by Re egion [PBL20 008]
Global Warming and Sustainable Cement Concrete-based-infrastructures 135
Cement almost has no potential for recycling. Therefore, each new concrete production requires new cement. On the other hand, sustainability is important for the well-being of the Earth and the continued growth of the civilization [Brudtland 1987]. The environmental issues associated with GHGs in addition to huge consumption of natural resources issues play a critical role in the sustainable development of the cement and concrete industry in the current century [Naik, 2008]. A sustainable concrete should have a very low inherent energy requirement, should be produced with little waste and with recycled materials, be highly durable, and ensures little impact on the environment. On the other hand, by-product materials have the potential to be utilized as the raw materials, substitute for basic ingredients of concrete, and as additional ingredients that may impart better strength and durability properties of concrete. Therefore, with judicious use of suitable industrial by-products materials, recyclable materials, combined with new construction technology, manufacturing of the concrete could be made sustainable. Recycling produces materials at much less environmental cost than materials from primary sources. In addition to conserving raw materials, recycling conserve energy, water, and reduces GHGs emissions. Concrete made with such materials has lower environmental impact through reduced carbon dioxide emission and reduced consumption of natural raw materials for its manufacture. This paper discusses developments in the field of sustainable concrete starting from the main constituent cement, recycling for aggregates, water and latest innovation in concrete technology towards use of concrete for the construction infrastructures for sustainable development.
BLENDED CEMENT
One of the most common efforts to make the concrete more sustainable is the use of the blended cement in place of conventional Portland cement. The production of blended cement involves replacement of a portion of the Portland cement clinker with industrial by-products such as fly ash (a by-product from coal-fired power plant), granulated blast furnace slag (a by-product from iron industry), silica fume (a by-product from silicon processing plant), or other pozzolanic materials. Such by-products and cement clinker are inter-ground to produce a homogeneous product. Blended cement can be used for all concrete construction activities. Production of blended cement reduces the quantity of cement clinker as a result of that the quantity of limestone and other raw materials required to produce cement reduces. The reduction in quantity of cement clinker results in reduction of the carbon dioxide emissions coming out from calcinations process of lime-stone. Blended cement provides opportunities to reduce the use of natural resources, reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases, and recycle industrial by-products. However, these potential benefits of blended cement are dependent on the availability of locally available blending materials. The potential for CO2 emission reduction by producing blended cement varies among country to country. Worrell [1995] estimated the potential for CO2 emission reduction in 24 countries in the OECD, Eastern Europe, and LatinAmerica. He reported a potential for CO2 emission reduction between 0% and 29%. It was negligible for those countries already producing large share of blended cement or countries without iron production or coal-fired power plants. Countries without much production of blended cement and having coal-fired power plants and iron industries have a large potential for producing blended cement. Use of industrial by-product materials in the production of cement or concrete not only provides energy saving, as well as economic and ecological benefits, but also technical benefits. These technical benefits include: increased strength, improved workability, reduced heat of hydration, decreased permeability, increased freezing and thawing durability, and increased resistance to chemical attack. Blended cement is more environment friendly than portland cement because blended cement utilizes industrial by-product material, produces more durable concrete, minimizes mineral by-products from being thrown away in landfills, and reduces the CO2 emissions due to the reduced need for manufacturing portland cement clinker.
SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE
Development of self-compacting concrete is regarded as one of the most desired innovations in the field of concrete technology. Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is an advanced step towards development of infrastructure for sustainable development. As the name indicates, it is the concrete that gets compacted under its self-weight only. Sustainable properties of concrete based infrastructures are also enhanced with the adoption of SCC for the construction of infrastructures. It provides benefits beyond conventional concrete in all three aspects of sustainable development (economical, sociological, and environmental). Enhanced durability of the in-situ concrete in heavily reinforced sections as well as sparsely reinforced members is the most important benefit of using SCC. It has significantly higher fines/powders particles than conventional concrete and the mixture proportioning is based upon creating a high-degree of flowability without segregation, while maintaining low (less than 0.40) water-to-cementitious materials ratio (w/cm). It has many environmental advantages over conventional concrete. It eliminates the need of vibration or any type of consolidating effort leading to better quality concrete with saving of electricity needed for compaction of concrete and improving noisy-environment at sites. Further, it provides opportunity to use one or more industrial by-product materials such as fly ash [Kumar et al., 2009; Sonebi, 2004], foundry bag house dust [Kraus et al., 2009], granulated blast furnace slag [Boel et al., 2007], limestone quarry fines [Naik et al. 2005; Felekoglu, 2007; Boel et al., 2007; Ho et al., 2002], and other similar by-product materials in its manufacture. Incorporation of one or more mineral admixtures or other types of powder materials having different morphology and grain-size distribution, improves particle-packing density and reduces inter-particle friction and viscosity, which improves the characteristics properties of SCC [Sonebi et al., 2000]. The use of large amount of byproduct materials as powder or fines reduces the environmental pollution. SCC is considered more environmental-friendly than conventional concrete.
GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE
Geopolymer concrete (GPC) proposed by Devidovits [1988; 1994] is an upcoming portland cement free technology for manufacturing sustainable concrete. Therefore, the primary difference between GPC and conventional concrete is that of their binders. Instead of portland cement, industrial byproduct material rich in Silicon (Si) and Aluminum (Al) such as fly ash, rice-husk ash, silica fume, slag, etc. is added to react with highly alkaline liquid (typically a combination of sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide solution) to produce binders [Devidovits, 1988, 1994]. In last few decades, considerable interest has been generated in this concrete, particularly in light of todays burning issues i.e. Sustainability and reduction of green house gas emissions from cement-based industries, responsible for global warming. The technology of geopolymerisation is not new and has been used in the construction of the Pyramids at Giza and other ancient civilizations structures. The use of this geopolymerization method in concrete making could significantly reduce the CO2 emission into the atmosphere caused by cement industry [Gartner, 2004]. A comparative study on CO2-footprint between the conventional concrete and GPC indicated a very low CO2-footprint for the later [Duxson et al., 2007]. This technology further reduces or eliminates the need for large amounts of raw materials for the manufacture of cement and provides great potential for recycling of Al- and Si-rich by-products materials. The main constituent of todays GPC is the ASTM Class F fly ash, a byproduct of coal-fired power plants. Low-calcium fly ash with Si and Al constituent of about 80% by mass and Si to Al ratio about two has been widely used for making geopolymer concrete [Gourley and Johnson, 2005; Hardjito and Rangan, 2005; Wallah and Rangan, 2006; Sumajouw and Rangan, 2006]. Aggregates suitable for making conventional concrete are used in the manufacturing of GPC. Similar to conventional concrete, coarse and fine aggregates occupy about 75-80 of the mass of the GPC. A combination of sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide solution is generally used as alkaline liquids to start the polymerization of the resource materials. Mass of water in the alkaline solutions is the major component of the water for the GPC mixture. In order to increase the workability of GPC,
Global Warming and Sustainable Cement Concrete-based-infrastructures 137
a high-range water reducer and some extra water may be added to it. The compressive strength and workability of GPC are governed by constituent materials of the geopolymer paste. Similar to water to cementitious materials ratio for conventional concrete, water-to-geopolymer solid ratio has been devised [Hardjito and Rangan, 2005]. Conventional techniques are used for mixing, casting, and compaction of the GPC. However, heat curing is advocated for the low-calcium fly ash based GPC. In general, curing time needed is about 24 hours and a temperature as low as 30 oC could be used, which can be provided by ambient conditions of tropical regions [Hardjito and Rangan, 2005]. This technology is very much suitable for the manufacturing of precast segmental units with high compressive and flexural strength, lower drying shrinkage, increased resistance to sulphate and acid attack and high resistance to chloride ingress, for the construction of reinforced infrastructures. As this concrete does not require cement, or water for curing, but utilizes by-product materials, it is more eco-friendly and sustainable.
RECYCLING OF CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION PRODUCTS IN CONCRETE

In addition to conserving raw materials, recycling of materials conserves energy, water, and reduces the emission of greenhouse gases and other atmospheric pollutants, hence, it produces usable products at much lower environmental impact than materials from natural resources. The materials generated every time a building, road, or bridge is constructed, remodeled, or demolished are called construction and demolition (CD) debris. Sustainable development also emphasizes on the need of recycling of such materials to conserve resources and to reduce environmental impact. About 25% of the all of solid waste that is discarded in USA comes from CD waste but there is no such information available for India. Therefore, recycling of CD wastes is one of the important steps towards sustainable development as these wastes are one of the largest waste streams. The most common way of using CD waste is as aggregates. It is well documented [Hansen 1992; Dhir et al. 1998] that the presence of masonry in the recycled aggregates is detrimental to the mechanical properties and durability of recycled-aggregate concrete, because of masonry products lead to higher water absorption when used as recycled aggregates. A similar adverse effect is noted in the concrete when natural sand is replaced by fine recycled aggregate fraction. Complete utilization of the CD wastes is attainable [Corinaldesi and Moriconi 2001, Moriconi 2005] with the help of appropriate technology. The adverse effect as mentioned above for recycled aggregates can be overcome by adopting appropriate measures such as reduction of water-to-cement ratio, use of water-reducer admixture, and/or addition of mineral admixtures such as fly ash [Corinaldesi and Moriconi 2001]. It is reported [Moriconi 2007] that recycled-aggregate concrete can be of equal to, or more than, that of naturalaggregate concrete strength by using fly ash. Also, the fines produced during manufacture of recycledconcrete aggregate can be effectively used as a filler material in the manufacturing of self-compacting concrete. It can also be used in the cement mortar for the masonry work [Corinaldesi et al. 2001a]. Moriconi et al. 2003 reported that finely ground fraction up to 5 mm from CD wastes used as a partial replacement of cement, improves the bonding between mortar and fired-clay brick in masonry work. Moriconi 2007 reported concrete manufactured with recycled-aggregates and fly ash shows no deleterious effect on the durability of reinforced concrete. Therefore, with the adoption of appropriate technology, recycled-aggregates including the fine fraction can be used in the manufacturing of sustainable concrete as it not only reduces waste generation but also consumes wastes resulting in reduction of environmental impact.
WASTE WASHED-WATER
As stated in earlier section, each component of concrete has some adverse impact on environment. Potable water is used to make and cure the concrete. However, potable water resources are not inexhaustible. In industrialized cities, with rapid construction activities, potable water is becoming scarcer and/or more expensive to meet the daily needs of human activities. On the other hand, large
amount of portable water is being consumed in concrete related activities. Ready-mixed concrete plants produce large amount of waste wash-water, the disposal of which has many adverse environmental impact. Such water has many useful of suspended solids. It also has a high-pH. Therefore, partial and complete recycling of waste wash-water in concrete manufacturing should prove a positive step towards sustainable concrete. Several research studies [Sandrolini and Franzoni 2001; Muszynski et al 2002; Tay and Yip 1987; Chatveera et al 2006] have suggested partial replacement of potable water in concrete with waste wash-water of ready-mix concrete plants without a significant compromise of desirable mechanical and durability properties of concrete. In addition to mixing in concrete, Tay and Yip [1987] have suggested to use such reclaimed water for the curing of concrete also.
CONCLUSION
Based on the information presented in the paper, the following conclusions may be drawn: 1. Cement has no much potential for recycling; thus, each new concrete construction requires new cement. 2. The cement industry is held responsible for global as it contributes over 6% of total global CO2 emissions from the fuel use for the calcinations process. 3. Use of the blended cement in place of ordinary portland cement in concrete is one of the most common efforts to make the concrete more sustainable. 4. The infrastructure for sustainable development can use a sustainable concrete produced with little waste and recycled materials ensuring high durability. 5. Uses of SCC, GPC, recycled CD wastes with help of appropriate technology and waste washwater from ready-mix concrete plants are some very viable steps towards the construction of infrastructures for sustainable development as these technologies provide opportunity to use enhances many sustainable properties including environmental impact of the structures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to the Director, Central Road Research Institute, Mathura Road, New Delhi, for his permission to publish the paper.
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Proceedings ACEEE, Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Industry (Vol. II).
Sustainable Infrastructure in the Area of Buildings and Roads

Shivika Singla1 and R.R. Singh2
1Graduate 2Professor,
Student, PEC University of Technology, Chandigarh, India; rrs208pecchd@yahoo.com Civil Engineering PEC University of Technology, Chandigarh, India; rrs837angwlmp@gmail.com
AbstractInfrastructures encompass a major sector of our daily activities and, to an extent, define our standard of living. Such acute impact has emphasized the need for a sustainable approach to the provision of infrastructure. With the majority of our metropolitan facilities up for renewal, an imminent need exists for integrating the development, design, management and operation of metropolitan infrastructure systems (highways, public transit, utilities, networks, etc.). Construction management research has a major role in the sustainable development of future infrastructure.
INTRODUCTION
After food a roof over the head is the topmost priority for any individual. He stands at the mercy of natures full fury and uncertainty without it. A house is his largest investment, often life time savings. It invariably needs 10-15 year loans. Same is the case with roads: improved mobility raises earning capability. Demand for these two priorities always outstrips resources in a developing country, and such is also our situation. Can there be better grounds for technological innovation? What is finally raised is a fundamental question for the engineering community: if such is their national priority, shouldnt these be taken on as the topmost challenges. Investments in these two sectors are again orders of magnitude higher than on other sectors, on which this conference is apparently focused. To improve rural infrastructure and thereby allow rural economies to grow, the Government of India established the Bharat Nirman Programme. This programme includes targets for many elements of rural infrastructure: roads, telephones, irrigation, water supply, electricity and housing. However, in the long term it is vital that all infrastructures are sustainable. There is no point in constructing infrastructure that brings benefit in the short term but that then deteriorates such that the benefits are no longer available. Indeed it is often the case that the provision and subsequent loss of infrastructure is worse that if it had never been provided., as dissatisfaction may occur, urban drift may increase, confidence in government and other authorities may wane, rural investments such as transport and productive farms are wasted and any attempt by rural people to secure their own livelihood will appear thwarted. In case of roads the sustainability demands that the roads meet are a clear need, that they are affordable, that the benefits outweigh any disadvantages, that they will endure for many years, that they are safe, that they provide additional support for the weaker members of a society, that they are open all year round to those who wish to use them, and so on. In case of buildings, designing one requires a 360-degree view of the entire building enterprise considering the local and global environment, the availability of renewable and non-renewable resources, community impact assessment, and the collaborative input of engineers, planners, architects, social scientists, behavioral scientists, and other community based groups. Clearly the design process is significantly complex since the designer has to understand the building performance in terms of different design factors and variables and under differing conditions. Some overall benefits of high performance design are: energy efficiency, design flexibility, resource conservation, indoor environmental quality, etc.
Sustainable Infrastructure in the Area of Buildings and Roads 141
Construction management research has a major role in preparing the industry to manage sustainable infrastructure developmentspecifically the coordination of urban infrastructure construction, and rehabilitation. Three paradigms are proposed here as the base for future actions: 1. Emphasizing sustainability in infrastructure design and planning in a way that will foster human activity and support economic growth without hindering the environment. 2. Utilizing the wealth of management techniques and expertise gained from previous urban developments to coordinate and manage the new development efficiently. 3. Using advanced technologies (both in materials and information technology) to optimize the overall provision and management of the new facilities. This paper describes certain vital aspects of road and building provision, from planning and design to construction and management, which determines the sustainability of the roads and buildings.
SUSTAINABLE BUILDINGS Sustainable Techniques for Analysis and Design

1. The analytical finite element computer model is almost overstating the elements weight due to overlap of frame/shell elements, which are connected at center line. This weight reduction could be significant in large projects. 2. In general, the structural computer model shall be consistent with the loadings stated in the project design criteria. There is no reasonable reason to add conservative figures in the model. 3. The surrounding building influence the distribution of wind pressure and wind load seriously. To obtain the wind load/responses and assess the living comfort and safety of the building wind tunnel model test shall be performed for economic design, rather than using the exaggerated static wind loads that are based on the design code estimations. 4. Do not ignore the structural component interaction such as beam column continuity interaction; soil structure model interaction; in filled wall-frame interactions etc. this approach can result in economy designs. 5. To minimize shrinkage cracking in a large concrete structure, it is a common practice to adopt stage construction by providing late-cast strips technique. 6. Alternate solutions should be examined for floor design, usage of precise hollow cone or/and post tensioned slabs may reduce the volume, false works and reinforcement quantity; especially for large area building floor. 7. Produce preliminary pile tests, where the results will give a good understanding of soil behavior to provide a more reliable soil structure interaction model. 8. In case of RC structures, try to optimize the component of concrete mixes by incorporating amounts of slag or fly ash, as an alternative to cement. 9. Building Information Modeling (BIM) is the intelligent process of generating and managing building data during its life cycle. The model encompasses building geometry, spatial relationships, geographic information, quantities and properties of building management.
Sustainable Techniques for Site and Construction

The following techniques related to site can be a very successful strategy in sustainable design as well as quicker and easier construction. 1. The installation of instrumentation to monitor the seismic and wind response of tall buildings is encouraged. These instruments will provide data valuable to the design community to calibrate and further improve design procedures.
2. Light weight partition, such as dry walls and others, will impact the super imposed loads consideration and result in gravity and stability building design. Besides, there is a reduction in laboring and construction period. 3. Compared with the traditional retaining structure, the reinforced soil cement mixture has more advantages. 4. Develop a sustainable material cut and fill strategy for the development. 5. Avoid the use of none indigenous species in the civil works. Wherever possible, consultant shall specify locally manufactured materials as first priority. 6. Achieve and maximize the use of clean and none destructive constructions building technologies including offsite prefabrication. 7. The use of recycled materials such as concrete aggregates would be possible for low strength concretes. Develop a management plan to maximize waste reduction reuse and recycling.
Sustainable Techniques for Foundations

1. The seismic forces are the function of overall weight of the building structure. Reducing the weight of the structure can result in lower seismic design forces for the lateral load resisting systems and the foundations carrying them. The following sustainable foundation techniques can be achieved. 2. First, it is important to provide early discussion and collaboration with the architect, to make adjustments to the final column and shear wall locations. Also to minimize the forces attracted from the lateral events. The centre of mass of the building should be near the centre of rigidity. 3. Avoid unforeseen ground conditions that escalate costs. 4. Minimize pile material usage and project time by optimizing foundation design. 5. Prevent redesign of foundations by carrying out cost effective site investigations to detect cavities. 6. Use grouting techniques and other technologies to ensure sustainability of piles.
Sustainable Techniques for Team Work

In order to gain all of the environment and economic benefits, prior knowledge and experience of the working team is one of the most important tools needed in the design of buildings. 1. At the early scheme design stage, and due to lot of unconventional form of towers and tallest waves over the world, an initial investment of the structure will be necessary to achieve the required architectural concepts in the shortest possible time. 2. Careful consideration should be given to the building orientation and massing. 3. Adopt technical feasibility study with alternative strategies for development and explore options for its build ability. 4. Develop appropriate structural frameworks for effective control over the redesigned, rework and project management. 5. Principal engineers should educate or have good knowledge of techniques of sustainable design. 6. Structural engineers should make more effort to achieve the most efficient structural design. They must use advanced structural analysis and the most powerful computer programs available today. 7. Minimize any complex and irregular shape that will impact the lateral deformation due to gravity loads. A uniform form will be integral with the building performance. Formwork reuse can lead to significant saving in material resources and reduce waste.
Sustainable Infrastructure in the Area of Buildings and Roads 143
SUSTAINABLE ROADS Whole Life Costing

Whole life costing is the sum of the agency costs, road user costs and other costs such as social costs over the life time of the facility and this is an important issue for consideration in rural roads delivery. Agency costs include both the cost of construction and maintenance of the road. Although the agencies are associated only with construction and maintenance of roads they often consider the road user and social costs to rank the projects as they contribute to the national economy. If the agencys cost for the whole life are not considered it is possible to construct a network of roads at reasonable cost but be encumbered with excessively high maintenance costs, a burden which will lead to either an unmaintained network or wasted money, neither of which is sustainable. Agency cost therefore largely depends upon the material used and the design of the pavement or treatment during initial construction and maintenance during the life. A certain treatment may have low initial cost but high long term maintenance costs and high user costs; another may increase the initial cost but minimize the maintenance cost and operating cost. The preferable approach is therefore to choose the design and maintenance approach based on whole life costs. Whole life costing pre supposes that an economy is stable and an administration is able to offer reasonable guarantees of long term funds, although it is noted that without this stability and guarantee any form of planning is unlikely to achieve its objective. It can be used to choose the best option among different surfacing. Whole life costs of alternatives can be compared and the one alternative which gives the maximum benefits with minimum cost is often selected. When comparing two alternative routes, as inevitably happens when funds are insufficient to allow all proposed improvements to be implemented, both costs and benefits will differ from one route to the other regardless of the surfacing chosen. One route may cost more but may expect higher traffic and greater economic growth. There are a number of ways in which benefits can be calculated, most of them being based upon traffic volumes, journey times, and road user costs as a function of the riding quality of the road surface. Social benefits can be incorporated into a decision making process in a number of ways, ranging from a participatory process in which communities are able to nominate candidate roads and rank alternatives to a cost benefit calculation based upon the number of people who will b benefitted as a result of the completed road.
Materials and Pavement Design

Most countries use similar material specifications for all roads on their networks. Such specifications in many cases lead to over design for roads which carry lower volumes of lighter traffic. This leads to high construction costs and a depletion of high specification materials which will be in demand when new high volume roads are constructed and a high specification is necessary. In many cases it is possible for materials, which would be considered marginal under the high specifications and which are often abundant and local to most sites, to perform perfectly well under lower levels of traffic. If materials tests and pavement trials are carried out, revised specifications can be written for lower volume roads thereby saving money and valuable reserves. It is sometimes the case that designs need to be adjusted slightly in order to allow certain marginal materials to perform adequately, an example being the use of drainage techniques such as sealed shoulders and a higher crown than normal to ensure that a material which may give problems when wet will remain dry and perform well. Sealed shoulders add to the cost of a road, but reduce haulage costs made possible by using a local material source may negate this additional cost. This balance of cost relates back to the issue of whole life cost while the addition of sealed shoulders is relevant to the section below since the extra seal width can provide additional safety for non motorized and vulnerable traffic.
Much work has been done on this subject by TRL around the world, producing catalogues of pavement designs for traffic levels as low as 0.01 million standard axles and on basis and sub-grades with CBRs as low as 45% and 3%, respectively and revised material specifications which are less stringent for lower traffic levels and more accepting of local marginal materials. It is noted that these catalogues and specifications are necessarily specific to a given reason due to the high variability of local climate and soils.
Road Safety
As rural roads are improved often with the sealed surface the ability of the vehicles to travel more quickly increases but the curvature of the road and other factors which impinges on the safety of all road users often do not change. Safety of road users and the travelling public (and it is generally the poor who continue to use non motorized transport and who are therefore vulnerable to motorized traffic) therefore becomes an important issue as rural roads are sealed. To minimize the risk to all road users it is recommended to include safety standards and safety auditing, a process in which the road is assessed solely on safety grounds at conception, design and preopening stages for all roads constructed under the two programs. Safety standards can include shoulders of adequate width to protect vulnerable road users, traffic calming measures, separated footpaths and cycle paths, widened carriage ways, improved curvature, of highway markets and bus parks, gentle slopes into side drains, well maintained road markings, pedestrian crossings and refuges, improved visibility, well maintained road edges, separated service roads to industrial areas and so on. Consultation with the education of the local population can also form an important part of a road safety improvement program.
Quality Assurance
A well written and appropriate specification and careful use of local materials are of no benefit if the constructed work does not meet these standards. It is probably true that in most countries around the world, if the roads are built to specification, they will last a long time and meet the needs of the users. The reason that most roads fail early is not so much poor planning or inappropriate design, although they are certainly issues in some cases, but that the intended work is not matched with that actually constructed. As a result the maintenance burden is increased, needs are frustrated, opportunities are lost, costs rise and unless more funds are found, the road will deteriorate and fall into disrepair. The experience is that the quality control procedures are often inappropriate and enforcement is inadequate. It is only natural that a contractor will seek benefit from such a situation by saving costs and still obtaining a contract completion certificate. If he is also able to win a contract to repair the same road only a short time later, so much the better. It is only by ensuring that the constructed work matches the intended work that whole life costs are kept low, communities benefit from improved road access, materials are used more wisely and roads are truly sustainable.
CONCLUSION
Sustainable energy design is an integral part of the infrastructure as they provide economic, environmental, health benefits directly to the community as a whole. This paper presented one view of the challenges and opportunities that the latest push for sustainable infrastructure development can present for the construction industry. It argued for the need for better documentation of our current processes, intensive use of information technology and reengineering infrastructure development process to emphasis integration and community involvement.
Green Street System for Eco-friendly Environment

Neeta Mittal
Sr. Principal Scientist CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India; neeta.mittal20@gmail.com
AbstractIn India the traffic congestion is increasing in the cities and towns and the situation is becoming more complex in core areas of the city. The dependency on automobiles is ecologically unsustainable. Air pollution is also increased due to increased no. of automobiles. Unplanned urbanization has drastically altered the drainage characteristics of natural catchments, or drainage areas, by increasing the volume and rate of surface runoff. Developed countries have solved the problems of traffic and storm water runoff up to some extent introducing the Green Street system along with the main traffic which may be used by the cycle user and pedestrians. The paper highlight the salient features of the green street system observed by the author during the visit of Portland USA to create the sustainable Environment. Keywords: Green, Street, Traffic, Pedestrian, Drainage, Landscaping, cycling, Storm water, Planters
INTRODUCTION
Urbanization, increase in population and economic activities are the major reasons for the increased traffic in most of the Indian cities. Environmental quality and a more sustainable spatial approach enhance the livability of cities. The inadequate public transport and the easy availability of financing facilities for private vehicles have resulted in increased vehicle ownership levels and their usage. The dependency on automobiles is ecologically unsustainable. Making existing cities and new urban development more ecologically based and livable is an urgent priority in the global push for sustainability. Lack of attention to environmental and social aspects in infrastructure development reduces the opportunities for economic growth and improving quality of life. Air quality levels have deteriorated in most large cities in India .Traffic gridlock in Delhi and other India cities is extreme. The average trip speed on many Indian city roads is less than 20 kilometers per hour; a 10 kilometer trip can take 30 minutes, or more. At such speeds, vehicles in India emit air pollutants 4 to 8 times more than they would with less traffic congestion; Indian vehicles also consume a lot more carbon footprint fuel per trip, than they would if the traffic congestion was less. A number of major cities and towns in India reported a series of devastating urban floods in the recent decade. Drainage systems are unable to cope with the increased volume of water and are often encountered with blockage due to indiscriminate disposal of solid wastes. In India eco friendly infrastructure is to be developed to solve the various problems. In India TERI has developed Griha rating system [3] which provides the guidelines for the buildings and for site development. US,LEED rating system[4] also describe in detail the sustainable sites for the green buildings only. Developed countries have solved the problems of traffic and storm water runoff up to some extent introducing the Green Street system along with the main traffic which may be used by the cycle and pedestrians. Portland in USA is a place where this system is implemented successfully and sustainable infra structure is created. Boston has also used this technique to utilize water runoff in creating the landscape areas.
GREEN STREET SYSTEM

Green streets are designed to improve pedestrian and bicycle safety, improve air quality and help alleviate the Urban Heat Island effect by reducing air temperatures, and enhance the aesthetics of the right-of-way. A green street uses a combination of vegetated and engineered strategies to manage rain melting snow, storm water runoff, at its source. Traditional storm water management directs runoff into pipes. A Green Street is natural storm water management approaches that uses plants and soil to slow, filter, and cleanse storm water from streets. The Green Streets Provide multiple benefits along the street right of way including: 1. Aesthetic enhancement of the road 2. Integrated system of storm water management within the right of way 3. Attractive pedestrian facilities 4. Provide connection to bicycle trails 5. Slow vehicular speeds 6. Improves local air quality and shade for cooling 7. Enhanced economic development along the transit corridor 8. Volume reductions in storm water which reduce the volume of water discharged via pipe 9. Nicely landscaped areas The important designing aspects of the Green Street are as follows:
Curb Extensions & Planters

The planters have proved to be able to capture almost all of the streets run-off, preventing flash floods and reducing the amount of water that the citys drainage system has to deal with. These planters extend four to six feet from the existing curb. These typically replace one or two parking spaces, usually closest to the intersection, which has the added advantage of improving the sight lines for motorists and pedestrians crossing it.
Pedestrian Facilities
In green streets landscaped pedestrian facilities are created to encourage the walking and for safe movement. Walkability is an important concept in sustainable urban design. Walkability is a measure of how friendly an area is to walking. Walkability has many health, environmental, and economic benefits. Factors influencing walkability include the presence or absence and quality of footpaths, sidewalks, traffic and road conditions, land use patterns, building accessibility, and safety, among others.
Photo 1: Green Side Walk in Beverton
Photo 2: Accessible Side walk in Houston, USA
Green Street System for Eco-friendly Environment 147
Landscaping elements are integral part of Green Street System that help curb storm water runoff bio swale, planters, rain gardens, and street treesare mutually beneficial for mobility and ecology. Green Street is a new method to encourage the walking and to manage the street storm water runoff through the landscape architecture application. Such green elements are increasingly found to be important deterrents of crashes and injuries, and contribute to a more comfortable and visually interesting environment for all users. Traffic-calming elements like , islands, and curb extensionsall popular in creating Complete Streetsprovide site opportunities for bio swales, street trees, and rain gardens.(Photo.3-4)
Rain Garden
A rain garden is a planted depression that allows rainwater runoff from impervious urban areas like roofs, driveways, walkways, parking lots, and compacted lawn areas the opportunity to be absorbed. This reduces rain runoff by allowing storm water to soak into the ground as opposed to flowing into storm drains and surface waters which causes erosion, water pollution, flooding, and diminished groundwater. They can be designed for specific soils and climates. The purpose of a rain garden is to improve water quality in nearby bodies of water. Rain gardens can cut down on the amount of pollution reaching creeks and streams by up to 30%.
Photo 3: Road side Plants for Rain Runoff
Photo 4: Rain Garden in Portland
Storm Water Management

A green street captures storm water runoff from streets and sidewalks infiltrates it into the soil to recharge groundwater and surface water, reduces the amount of polluted storm water runoff going into combined sewer system, and reduces combined sewer overflow events. The more impervious surfaces there are in the city, the more polluted storm water enters the sewer system, During rains, storm water runoff that isn't properly managed can flow over impervious surfaces picking up pollutants along the way and washing them into rivers and streams. Storm water runoff can also cause flooding and erosion, destroy habitat and contribute to combined sewer overflows. In Philadelphia Streets and sidewalks are by far the largest single categories of public impervious cover, accounting for roughly 38% of the impervious cover within the combined sewer service area. To mitigate the impact of this impervious area, the Philadelphia Water Department [2] has developed green street designs to provide stormwater management, while maintaining the primary function of the street for vehicles and pedestrians (Photo 5)
Pho oto 5: Green n Street of Ph hiladelphia, USA U
PORTL LAND GRE EEN STREE ET SYSTEM M

Visited this t beautiful l green city of o USA in Or regon. It is pleasure to walk in the cit ty. Frequent rains are the main n characteris stic of the pla ace and aver rage annual rainfall is 37 7 inches. Still l city is mana aging the rain wat ter efficiently y. Storm wat ter is one of f Portland's biggest b envir ronmental challenges. For F years, Portland d, Oregon, has h been a leader in gr reen infrastru ucture, activ vely promoti ing innovativ ve storm water management m t through vari ious educatio onal, funding g, and incent tive program ms. The city promotes p a wide range of green g infrast tructure tech hnologies, in ncluding, pe ermeable pa avements, in nfiltration ees, landscap ping require ements, and sustainable street desig gn (green planters, rain gardens, street tre One reason the t city has remained r at the leading edge of the green infrast tructure mov vement is streets).O its focus on monitori ing the effect tiveness of decentralized d storm water r managemen nt technolog gies. Elkin n, Landscap pe Architect said Portlan nd has proven that stree et planters, curb extensions and simple green g strips in n the medians along city y streets can provide cost-effective pe eak flow reduction of 80+ percent, filtration of pollut tants, ground dwater recha arge, soil reh habilitation, improved pe edestrian b n of neighbo orhoods, and d enough vol lume detenti ion to handle e rain events s in most safety, beautification situation ns. They also o give the ci ity more pla aces to plant t trees, which provide sh hade, increa ase home values and a help alleviate the urban u "heat island" effec ct [13]. It is s easy to de evelop in an n existing planting g strip. "You can dig tha at planting st trip out, cut the curb, le et the storm water go in n it, then replant it i and you've e got a storm m water facilit ty. It's very ch heap and ve ery simple," E Elkin said. Ore O
Urban Cycling
Pho oto 6: Space in i Train for Cycle, C Portland
Photo P 7: Cyc cle User For T Train Boardin ng
Green Street System S for Eco-f friendly Environment 149
In Portla and, cycling is a significa ant mode of transport. Separate stree ets are create ed for the cy ycle user. Bicycle use u in Portla and has been n growing rap pidly, having g nearly triple ed since 200 01; for examp ple, daily bicycle traffic t on fou ur of the Wil llamette Rive er bridges ha as increased from 2,855 before 1992 2 to over 16,000 in i 2008, par rtly due to im mproved faci ilities [6]. App proximately 8% 8 of comm muters bike to o work in Portland d, the highest t proportion of any majo or U.S. city and about 10 0 times the na ational avera age. As the t city has been particu ularly suppo ortive of urban bicycling g it now rank ks highly am mong the most bic cycle-friendly y cities in th he world. In n trains also facility is th here to carry y their cycles for the encoura agement to use cycles. (Photo 6,7)
Green Pedestrian n Facilities s

In Portla and most of the places ar re connected d through wa alkways. A 2011 2 study by Walk Scor re ranked ] Portland d 12th most walkable of fifty largest U.S. cities [8] . Some Port tlanders use mass transit t for their daily com mmute. Walk Score ran nks communities nationw wide (and soo on, globally) based on ho ow many business ses, parks, th heaters, scho ools and oth her common n destination ns are within n walking dis stance of any give en starting po oint."Side wa alk facilities are a provided d in Portland along with o on all the ma ain roads with bea autiful plante ers.(Photo-8).
Ph hoto 8: Side Walk W in Port tland, Oregon n
Photo 9: Ped destrian Stree et Beaverton n, USA
BEAVE ERTON GR REEN STRE EET SYST TEM

Beaverto on is a city in Oregon, United State es, seven mi iles (11 km) west of Port tland in the Tualatin River Va alley. As of the 2010 ce ensus the po opulation is 89,803.In 2010, 2 Beave erton was na amed by MONEY Y magazine as a one of the 100 "best pl laces to live" ", among sma aller cities, in n the country y. Beaverton is kn nown as th he green cit ty. Green st trip with landscaping p provided alo ong with walkway ys. Slopes in n the city ar re having ro oses and planters. Peopl le describe t this place of f USA as beautifu ul as Switzerl land. Residents of Beave erton enjoy easy access to a well pla anned transp portation network k and the en ntire Portland metropolit tan area, as s well as to the west sid de's largest shopping s district. It I is well kno own for its many m attractiv ve and well planned p neig ghborhoods, which offer a mix of high qua ality, diverse homes and affordable fa amily housin ng. It is a city where e one can ea asily travel on o bicycle. Walking W in th he central po ortion of the city is as comforta able as walk king in the park. p (Photo o 9, 10). Ne ear Beaverton city Library green stre eets with landscap ping are give en which en nrich the env vironment (P Photo 11). All A the marke et & resident tial areas are conn nected through beautiful green walkw ways and lan ndscaping. (P Photo 11, 13)
Phot to 10: Green n Street in Be eaverton, Ore egon
Photo 11: C Cambridge C Crossing Apar rtment Beavert ton
Photo 12 2: Green Stre eet-Library
Photo 13: Landscaped L S Slopes Along g Main Road with Walkways B Beaverton, Or regon
CONCL LUSION
Green st treets in citie es of India ar re a dream but b creation of o sustainabl le infrastructu ure is the need of the country. . In USA citi ies are impr roving the in nfrastructure using eco-fr riendly techn nologies. In Oregano the Por rtland, Beav verton are the cities which w have taken imita ative to cre eate the su ustainable infrastru ucture and converted c the whole city y as green and a beautifu ully develope ed along wi ith green streets . Inspite of fre equent rains s, during the year rain wa ater is prope erly managed d & utilized and ecofriendly environmen nt is created. There is a need n to adop pt these wate er managem ment and landscaping techniqu on drainage ues to reduce stagnatio on of rain water w on ro oads and overloading o e system infrastru ucture develo opment in India. It is imp portant to cre eate the land dscaped stree ets so that pe eople are willing to o travel by bicycle b and in nterested in walking for the t day to day d work. Aw wareness tow wards this issue an nd dissemina ation of know wledge is ve ery importan nt National policies p shou uld be formu ulated for impleme entation. Gre een streets should s be ma ade the part t of new dev velopmental scheme and d existing road infrastructure should be improved to t reduce the t traffic congestion c a and for eco o-friendly infrastru ucture.
Green Street System for Eco-friendly Environment 151
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] Mittal Neeta, Portland USA photos-1,2and 5to13 www.phillywatersheds.org/ TERI-Griha , National rating system, India US,LEED rating system 2009 for new construction & major renovation, published by green building council http://www.upperdesplainesriver.org/portland.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycling_in_Portland,_Oregon Transportation in Portland, Oregon, Wikipedia encyclopedia Walk Score, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walk_Score Environmental issues in India, Wikipedia, encyclopedia http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/delhi-is-air-pollution http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaverton,_Oregon#cite_note-2 Portland, Oregon, Wikipedia, the encyclopedia Green Streets, Go Mainstream in Portland, Green Infrastructure Integral to Stormwater Plan, Water, (2011) Gupta. Anil K. and Nair Sreeja S. Urban floods in Bangalore and Chennai: risk management challenges and lessons for Sustainable urban ecology [15] http://www.werf.org/livablecommunities [16] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Footpath
Sustainable Transport Strategies for Mega Cities

Pooja Singh1, P.S. Chani2 and M. Parida3
1Research 2Assistant
Scholar, Department of Architecture and Planning, IIT Roorkee; poozza26@gmail.com Professor, Department of Architecture and Planning, IIT Roorkee; prabhjot.chani1@gmail.com 3Professor, CED, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee; mparida@gmail.com
AbstractRapidly growing urban population and changing morphologies of the urban settlements coupled with higher expectations of the global economy are placing unprecedented stress on the urban transportation system. Realization of issues and challenges of urban transportation and counter measures for them will increasingly rely on the development and deployment of new technologies and cutting edge solution. A world class urban transportation which is innovative effective, integrated, sustainable, intermodal, safer, secure, reliable and cost effective will improve the transportation scenario in cities dramatically. The developments of cities largely depend upon their physical, social, and institutional infrastructure. In this context, the importance of intra urban transportation is paramount. The aim of the study is to provide an overview of urban transport issues and strategies towards sustainable transport in India. The Paper first reviews the growth of urbanisation, vehicular growth and availability of transport infrastructure in Indian cities. These are followed by the nature and magnitude of urban transport problems such as congestion, pollution, and road accidents and finally review the possible measures and strategies for sustainable transport planning. Keywords: Urbananization growth, Urban transportation; issues and challenges; sustainable strategies for urban transportation
INTRODUCTION
Although circumstances differ across cities in India, certain basic trends which determine transport demand (such as substantial increase in urban population, household incomes, and industrial and commercial activities) are the same. These changes have exacerbated the demand for transporta demand that most Indian cities have been unable to meet. The main reason for this is the prevailing imbalance in modal split besides inadequate transport infrastructure and its suboptimal use. Public transport systems have not been able to keep pace with the rapid and substantial increases in demand over the past few decades. Bus services in particular have deteriorated and their relative output has been further reduced as passengers have turned to personalized modes and intermediate public transport (such as three-wheelers and taxis), adding to traffic congestion which has had its impact on bus operations.
URBANIZATION GROWTH Global Urbanization

The global urban population has more than tripled to reach 2.86 billion. More people are residing in urban areas than in rural areas today. While urbanization has considerably slowed down in developed countries, developing cities are getting urbanized the most; accounting for 68% of the urban population in 2000. By 2020, 77% of the global urban population (3.26 billion) is expected to be in developing countries.
Urbanization in India
India is worlds second largest urban system. Its urban population has grown by about six times during last six decades 1951-2011. (Ref. fig. 1:) There has been 3fold increase in the % of urban
Sustainable Transport Strategies for Mega Cities 153
population to total population over the century. The vitality of urban settlement is evident from the fact that 31.15% live in town & cities in 2011 compared to 17.29% in 1951. Indias urban system is skewed towards bigger cities as evident from Table -1 The number of mega cities (>5m) and metro cities (1m) is rising very fast. The number of mega cities and metropolitan cities has grown up to 3 times during 1981- 2011. Concentration of population in bigger cities reveals imbalance in the Indian urban system. Cities likely to House 40% Of Indias Population by 2030.
Fig. 1: Urban Population in India Table 1: Number of Large Cities in India

Size of the City >5m >1m 1981 3 12 1991 4 23 2001 6 35 2011 9 50 Source: Asia Economics ANALYST, GSER ISSUE NO: 07/13, JULY6, 2007 Year >0.5m 41 55 74 94
Need of Sustainable Urban Transport

A sustainable transport is one that is safe, economically viable, and socially acceptable access to people, places, goods and services & meets the objectives for health and environmental quality. With the growth of population and urbanization, more natural resources and energy is consumed, which results in increased environmental pollution .Environmental impact of human activities, pollution, traffic generation and congestion make sustainability as an essential concern Growth of urban transport along a sustainable path in cities is the foremost need of the hour; local pollution is a health hazard and Green House Gas (GHG) emissions are a global issue. The present urban transport scene in India, in general, is quite unsustainable; the use of cars and two-wheelers is rising, public transport (PT) is inadequate, while walking and cycling are becoming less popular.
URBAN TRANSPORT ISSUSES AND CHALLENGES Vehicular Scenario

No. of registered motor vehicles plying on Indian roads has increased from 0.31 million in 1951 to about 90 million in 2005-06.Amongst different type of motor vehicles % of two wheelers has shown rapidly and constitute 70% of motor vehicles of India There is a significant shift from share of slow moving vehicles to fast moving vehicles and public transport to private transport. Table -2, envisages, between 1994 and 2021, the average two wheeler and car ownership levels per 1,000 of population and vehicle trips in metropolitan cities are estimated to grow more than three-fold. According to the study by MOUD, the daily trips in the top 87 urban centre would be doubled from 228 to 482 (2007-2030).which becomes Main cause of congestion and pollution.
Table 2: Growth of Vehicle Ownership in India

Year 1994 2021 2W/1,000 112 393 Car/1,000 14 48 Vehicle Trips (Million) 67 216
Rising Traffic Densities and Congestion

The effect of Increase no. of vehicles and disproportionate Increase in the road network is increased traffic densities on urban roads. (No of vehicles /km length of road.) Peak private vehicle density has already touched 170 veh/lane km-50 % higher than the basic requirement.The consequent result of rising traffic densities has been reduces journey speed rising Traffic congestion &loss of energy and productive time.
Inappropriate Public Transport System

Due to inadequate public transport nearly 60%-70% of the travel needs are met by the private modes. Inadequate mass transport facility is one of the causes for traffic congestion. City buses run as the principle mode in many cities while some metro cities have other public transport modes such as suburban rail or metro rail. Lack of cleanliness and unreliability of mass public transport system results in shift to private transport modes to cater the travel need of the passenger. Due to less passenger ridership in busses, their performance index is on lower side. Lack of route planning and location of depot the amount of dead mileage is quiet high leading to energy and financial losses. No provision for physically challenged people. Hardly any serious effort is made to make provision for elderly, physically challenged, children and females. Except for low floor busses recently introduced in few bigger cities. like Bangalore and Delhi metro. MRTs and BRTS are not accessible by LIG as they cant afford the fair of it. Lack of integration of public transport system which results in loss of productive time and energy on the one hand and fuel and environment inefficiency on the other hand.
Deteriorating Environmental Degradation

The deterioration of the environment due to traffic has been causing serious concern. Some environmental issues of traffic are: Safety of road users has been seriously endangered by the motor vehicles. An inevitable result of growth of traffic has been the increase in road accident which takes a great toll of human life every year. in many of the accident pedestrian are the sufferers. Children and aged is another group that receives severe punishment. Pedestrian, cyclist and slow moving vehicles account for 60-70% of fatalities. Noise in the street and adjoining areas has been growing up to intolerable levels. It can cause discomfort, annoyance, interference in sleep, speech and general task and can cause physiological effect like deafness. Air Pollution in atmosphere is fumes and gases emitted from vehicles create unpleasant environment and cause effect on health. Traffic Induced Vibration causes impact on building and adjacent structure.
Rising Vehicular Emission

According to 2007 estimates; Indian transport sector is responsible for 12.9 % of the countrys GHS emissions impacting air quality, public health, Sustainable urban development. According to the
study by CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) New Delhi reveals that vehicles contribute about 56-71% CO2 emission every day. According to CSE the quantities of all three major components (CO, NO2, &hydrocarbon) drastically increase with reduction in motor vehicles Speed. eg. At the speed of 75kmph emission of CO2 is 6.4grm/vehicles which increase by five times at the speed of 10km/hours. The Large cities(> 8 mill.) have 15% population and contribute 64% of CO2 emissions, Medium size cities(2-4 mill.) have 14% population, CO2 emission 3-4 times less, high growth rate in private motorized trips & Small cities(.5-2 mill) are dependent on Para transit modes (motorized and non motorized)
Poor Parking Facilities

About one fourth of valuable road space in our cities is being encroached by parked vehicles. There is lesser parking on major roads in bigger cities. The parking is pushed into minor or interior roads. There is need to revise car parking set out. According to a study at least 40 % of the commercial vehicles entering in the city have no business in the city. Parking of truck bound from/to city at city fringe during day time due to restriction in the city is also the concern. Poor parking----- Encroachment on roads Reduce the carriage way. Congestion ..Slow down the speed Delay .. Loss of Energy and Production time Degradation of Environment.
Lack of Coordination
Many agencies are working in different area of Traffic and Transportation, be it transport system, roads, rail, terminals or traffic control and regulation. But all these agencies work independently and hardly any coordination is visible amongst them. Lack of coordination amongst different agencies is responsible for absence of an integrated approach to urban transportation planning and development.
Inadequate Funding and Financing Option

Lack of finance is one of the most significant causes for slow progress in improving the urban transportation scenario. Funding and financing of urban transportation is still in an ambiguous state of affairs. Though some efforts have started in bigger cities but a longer path is yet to be travelled.
SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT STRATEGIES Integrated Land Use Planning

An integrated land use is planning and transport strategy using the compact city concept. All land use should be located in such of way that can reduce the trip length and encourage public transport.
Transit Oriented Development (TOD)

Transit oriented development is walkable, mixed use form of development focused around a transit station. Concentrating higher density development around the station makes transit convenient and encourages ridership. Decentralized distribution of work areas will reduce the transport demand to a large extent as the trip length will reduce remarkably. Transit oriented development is suggested for improving accessibility and usability of mass public transport facility. Location of major center of housings, shopping, employment, and recreation should be close to the mass transport route alignment to minimize the number and length of trips.(Fig. 2:) Higher density development around MRTs and LRT. Or BRTS. So that transportation system is convenient and economically efficient. TOD.
The distance that a person is willing to walk to take the transit defines the primary area within which transits will occurs. Distance should roughly a 5 minute walk approx.400-600 m .at these redi there is potential for 125-250 acre of land for TOD
Fig. 2: Concept of Decentralization
Fig. 3: Key Site Concept ABC Policy, Buchanan, 2001
Transport Demand Management (TDM)

Control of vehicle population has been achieved through two main measures: car ownership restraints and car usage restriction measures. Restrict vehicle usage by road pricing and parking fee and registration fee & fuel tax. etc, as practiced in Singapore. eg; charging the drivers for using congested road and Imposing heavy parking charges. and banning inner city parking Vehicle Quota System (VQS) is to Controls vehicle population, where numbers of new vehicles are predetermined, Owners bid for Certificates of Entitlement (COEs) to own a car. Giving priority to buses and car pool and employer should encourage their employees to prefer public transport by giving them allowance for choosing public transport.
Transport System Management (TSM)

TSM techniques offer low cost solution to urban transport problems are:
Road Widening/ Traffic Free Zones and TDR

Wherever feasible take up road widening by acquiring land but it is difficult in cities. So the novel solution is TDR (transferable development rights) wherein owner of the property on either side of the road to be widened have to compulsory relinquish the required extent of land needed to widen the street free of charges in lieu of increased FARs. The TDR can also be sold like share.
Traffic Signals Management

Computer controlled traffic signals management system provides flexible time traffic signaling, depending upon the volume of traffic and area-wise traffic signal coordination. Priority can be accorded to Public transport vehicles at traffic crossing.
Parking Policy
Parking policy should be critical consideration which should be evolved keeping in view the following Review of parking norms for various land uses and Multilevel parking provision at the venues of public concentration in commercial areas/metro station. Minimizing the need for use of private transport.by high parking fees and restriction.
Car Pooling
Car pooling can reduce vehicle emission drastically. Off peak our and weak end car schemes to allow more car primarily during off timing resulting less congestion and reducing energy requirement.
Park and Ride Facilities

Provision of park and ride facility particularly at suburban railway stations in and around the metro cities can greatly help in reducing the number of private vehicles on the urban roads. This facility can be easily privatized.
Peak Hour Congestion

Use of trucks and private cars should be banned on all major roads in mega cities during peak hours. Where individual still wish to ply their vehicles during peak hours, they should be required to obtain a permit on payment of a fee. Staggering of office hours is a simple and effective way to spread the duration of the peak hour and lessen the pressure on the road space. School hour can be very conveniently planned to be sufficiently away from the office hours. Even the office and industrial working hours can be staggered. The system of minimum occupancy vehicles can be introduced during rush hours in all millions plus cities along specified roads to reduce congestion in peak hours
Better Traffic Monitoring and Information

The information includes; motorist location, prevailing traffic condition, road works, parking facility etc. even the optimal route. To allow every motorist to access a wide variety of information while travelling Use of intelligent vehicle highway system-tested in Berlin: the car is computerized & can receive signals regarding the traffic condition of the city from the transmitters fitted in the traffic lights. The drivers at the start enter the destination in cars computer and on the basis of signal received driver can work out the optimal route.
Improvement in Vehicle Design and Fuel Technology

Improvement in engine design technology in two wheeler. i.e. changing the 2 stroke engines with 4 strokes will make the automobile environmentally clearer and energy efficient as well. Use of catalytic converters should be made mandatory in the petrol driven vehicles. As it can reduce CO2 and HC levels by more than 70%. Encourage alternative fuel like electricity, solar energy CNG, LPG, synthetic liquid fuels derived from hydrogenation of coal, synthetic liquid, which has been proved to be less air polluting and energy efficient.
Non Motorized Transport and Bicycles

It is energy efficient and environment friendly transport mode which will enhance urban mobility and reduce transport related pollution. It is time saving, flexible. It is accessible in narrow streets, undulating terrain and difficult areas. Planning and development of dedicated bikeways, NMV streets and Lanes. Which should be adequate direct, shortest, safe and attractive. Develop underpass on major roads and signal control lock system as prevalent in west countries. Development of network of cycles rental and parking centers. Cycle design improvement. like: multigear, batteries, computer chip and music system.
Improving Public Transport

Introducing world class transportation system like LRT, MRT and BRT in the cities to make it attractive for the private vehicle users. that satisfies the transport need of all sections of commuters and offer an attractive alternative to motor car . Such a shift will reduce the energy requirement and vehicular emission to a great extent. Instead of competition, different public transport should complement each other. Bus priority lanes and junctions should be planned to make it more attractive and faster alternative of cars. Make use of GPS system to locate the buses. And intelligent traffic lights should be erected to detect approaching buses and turn green automatically at the junction. Prioritization of bus traffic at signalized intersection will supplement the efforts made for dedicated bus lanes, which will tempt the passenger to use such vehicles in place of operation in the city. Special care should be taken while planning and providing facilities for elderly, physically challenged, children and woman at the terminal to make them more mobile.
Financing
More avenues should be worked out to introduce PPP mode in the urban transportation sector. Private sector should be convinced to their social responsibilities apart from the economic return. Measures like Levy on petrol for mass transport projects, Wiping off indirect subsidy given in allotment of land to petrol pumps and Surcharge on property tax& Rationalizations of passenger/vehicle taxes to evolve funds.
Nodal Authority
A single transportation agency (Nodal Authority) should be established in cities which will act as coordinator to all other agencies responsible for planning development and maintenance of urban transportation facilities. No plan of any agency should be implemented without the recommendation of this nodal authority.
CASE STUDIES
Table 1(a): Nottingham (England): Population: 0.62 Million, Area: 75sqkm, GNI Per Capita: US$25,250
Background The 9th largest city in UK, university city. Transport and Traffic Car ownership Ratio is average 51% LRT services Environment Ozone is the most hazardous pollutant Others pollutant are not exceeded over the environment Standard Policy and instrument Compact city concept Comprehensive car parking management with workplace parking levy Commuter plan to reduce single occupancy vehicles
Table 1(b): Dalian (China): Population/ 1.8 Million, Area: 234 km2
Background Rapidly developing city in China Transport and Traffic MRTS since 2003 Environment Air quality has been improved NO2 pollutant is serious concern Policy and instrument Prohibition to lead gasoline Bus and taxis adopted gas gasoline hybrid fuel engines Road side exhaust gas inspection Green mark is given to qualified vehicles in annual inspection
Some other practices in China. Strict control of motorcycles. Shanghai and many other cities prohibit them to reduce the traffic noise and improve safety. Public bike systems connected to metro stations to providelast kilometer. transport in suburban Shanghai, Hangzhou, Wuhan and other cities. Bike networks in Hangzhou, Shanghai and other cities. Parking control at destinations, with higher rates in the city center or where public transport accessibility is high. Accessibility to physically Disabled and aged people. Barrier-free transport
Table 1(c): Singapore: Population: 4.02 Million, Area: 700 km2
Background Island city State The proportion of elderly population has grown significantly Transport and Traffic Environment Well coordinated master Efficient Public Transport System with Public bus system. plan minimizing adverse environment impacts It discourage people from buying new vehicles Higher Car ownership Levels of air pollutant are low Policy and instrument Effective road pricing Area Licensing Scheme Electronic Road pricing Certificate of entitlement scheme to control vehicle population High cost of owing and operation the vehicles Fixing Euro IV standard for vehicular emission Video cameras are installed to capture smoky vehicles Encourage alternative fuel like CNG and electric cars. Cleaner Fuel- Reduced sulphur content in diesel.
Some other measure to optimize the vehicle usage are: Car pooling, Car Sharing ,Park and ride facility, weak end and off weak end cars, GPS based taxi services Educate the fleet owner and drivers about Common causes of excessive emission
Some fiscal measures like Road pricing and high parking fees in CBD to discourage the people to make the trip by private mode in specific peak hours.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The future transportation scene is bringing alarming challenges in the decades to come. A comprehensive vision is required to be developed to attain sustainable urban transport system for future.There is some goals and objectives to attain the sustainable transport system.
CONCLUSION
Rapid urbanization that too skewed towards bigger cities is a driving force to increased transport demand. Inadequacy of mass public transport system, inappropriate transport system management measures, inappropriate vehicle and fuel technologies, lack of inter agency coordination etc. have been making the urban transportation system unsustainable and inefficient. Mobility, safety, environment, energy, reliability, convenience etc. are the major issues striking the urban settlement in
the current urban system in India. Corrective measures like Transit Oriented Development, Transport System Management and Transport Demand Management Improved Public Transport Planning and Operation, and Fuel Technology Capacity Building Practices will minimize the above said issues to the large extent and make the urban travel seamless.
Table 2
Sustainability Goals I. Economic Economic productivity Objectives Improving Transport system efficiency. Transport system integration. Maximize accessibility. Efficient pricing and incentives. (road, parking, insurance, fuel, etc). -Access to education and employment opportunities. -Support for local industries. -reduce per capita transport energy consumption & per capita use of imported fuels. Availability and quality of affordable modes (walking, cycling, ridesharing and public transport). Especially for low-income households that spend more than 20% of budgets on transport. Efficient operations and asset management maximizes cost efficiency. Transport system accommodates all users, including those with disabilities, low incomes, and other constraints. Minimize risk of crashes and assaults, and support physical fitness. Help create inclusive and attractive communities. Support community cohesion. -Land use mix. , Walkability and bikability ,Quality of road and street environments Reduce global warming emissions Mitigate climate change impacts Minimize traffic noise exposure Minimize transport facility land use. Preserve high quality habitat. Encourage more compact development. Reducing fuel consumption By vehicle and road design TOD and land use planning
Economic development Energy efficiency Affordability Efficient transport operations II. Social Equity / fairness Safety, security and health Community development III. Environmental Climate stability Prevent noise pollution Open space and biodiversity protection
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] Kadiyali, L.R., (2012), Traffic Engineering and Transport Planning published by Publisher Khanna, New Delhi. Ministry of Urban Development, (May 2008), Study on Traffic and Transportation Policies and Strategies in Urban Areas in India, Government of India, New Delhi. Mckinsey Global Institute, (April, 2010) Indias Urban Awakening, Building Inclusive Cities; Sustaining Economic Growth, India. Jain. A.K. (2009), Low Carbon City- Policy, Planning and Practice, New Delhi. Luthra Ashwani (2002), Sustainable Transport Policy for Small and Medium Sized Cities of India , paper presented in National Conference on Transportation System, IIT Delhi,24-26 April. Luthra Ashwani (2011), Planning and Development Strategies for Urban Transportation-2020, paper presented in 60th NTCP, Mysore. Chua Yew Peng, ( 2010),Towards Environmentally Sustainable Transportation Singapore, paper presented in National Environment Agency, Hongyang .W.U, (May 2008), Benchmarking Efficiency of Sustainable Urban Transport in China-7 Challenges & 5 Strategic Priorities, paper presented in International Workshop on Integrated Transport for Sustainable Urban Development, China. Todd Litman, (2007,) Developing Indicators for Comprehensive and Sustainable Transport Planning, Transportation Research Record 2017, Transportation Research Board (www.trb.org).
Sustainable Development in Building Materials

J.S. Chauhan
Prof. & Head of CED, S.A.T.I. (Engg. College) Vidisha, M.P., India; jsccivil@rediffmail.com
AbstractNeed for providing improved housing facilities in rural areas is emphasized. Stress is laid on adopting indigenous technologies using locally available materials suitably improved by modern engineering techniques in house construction. The technology so selected should aim at improving the quality of lives of common people maintaining mans harmony with nature. Efforts should be made to reduce the dependence on producing energy from fossil fuels and the use of alternative/renewable sources of energy should be encouraged. Harmony with environment, preserving the iconological balance and improving the quality of the habitat should be our motto. The role of NGOs, technical institutions and the Building centers in the technology diffusion is stressed. Introduction of environmental and resource management in policy making process is given emphasis. Conserving the resources while planning for development should be given importance. Emphasis on environmentally sound development is underlined. The various reasons for the indigenous technologies not becoming popular among the rural people are listed and the measures to remove the bottlenecks in implementation are mentioned. Technologies to promote cost reduction in housing without sacrificing the functional requirements and quality of construction are listed. The Role of Building Centers in technology transfer mechanism and the efforts being made by the Vidisha Building Centre in this direction are outlined.
INTRODUCTION
India is a vast country with a population of little more than one billion. A major portion of the population live in villages with improper and in adequate housing facilities. With modernization and urbanization of the cities the tendency of the village population migrating to cities has increased. This tendency if not checked in time will have long range repercussions on the national economy. Migration of population from rural to urban areas can be checked by providing improved housing in rural areas. The Prime minister of India, Dr. Manmohan Singh has recently said that the centre is spending about Rs. 17,000 crores on rural development, annually, but the states are not properly utilizing the amount allotted to them. The states, in turn complain to the centre that sufficient amount has not been allocated to their states for proper development of rural areas. The villager is the final sufferer. This vicious circle should be broken and transparency should be brought out so that the money is properly utilized for the purpose for which it is meant.
Habitat
Habitat is a basic human necessity next to food and clothing. It is not only a place for protection from the vagaries of weather, but also for enlargement of ones personality. It is an institution in itself. Utmost care is to be taken in planning and designing the houses, keeping in view not only the affordability of the occupant but also ensuring that the social customs are taken due care. Functional requirements and quality of construction should not be sacrificed in an attempt to reduce the cost of construction. The skill of the planner and the designer lies in reducing the construction cost by adopting cost effective construction techniques and using energy efficient and eco-friendly building materials. As building materials account for 70 to 75% of the overall cost of the house, sufficient reduction in cost can be affected by selecting locally available materials suitably improved by modern engineering techniques.
TECHNOLOGY INPUTS
The technology to be adopted should be indigenous as far as possible using the locally available materials suitably improved by modern engineering techniques. It should serve the goals of development viz. eradication of poverty, environmental sustainability and improved equity. These goals can only be achieved if basic human needs like food, clothing and shelter are met. The technology should be relevant and ready for use by the common people and should aim directly at improving the quality of their lives and aspirations. It should derive maximum leverage from the local cultural environment, by drawing upon the existing managerial and technical skills and providing the basis for extending them. The technology should be able to use the physical potential of the area maintaining mans harmony with nature. Preference should be given to indigenous items, though their cost may be more, in the initial stages, to promote indigenous technology, care being taken to ensure quality. Fiscal measures as necessary should be introduced to ensure the above objectives. Efforts should be made to reduce the demand on energy from non-renewable sources as the fossil fuels are rapidly depleting and the oil prices are constantly increasing. Alternative/renewable sources of energy should be given a serious thought. Development and utilization of solar energy, wind energy and other non conventional energy sources should be popularized and if necessary, should be made mandatory in rural and remote areas. The worlds largest solar cooking system which has been installed at Tirumala, A.P. (India) in Oct. 2002 consisting of 106 automatic tracked parabolic concentrators arranged in a series and parallel combination to prepare food for 15000 people/day is a glaring example to show that India is marching in right path in the matter of utilization of solar energy for cooking purposes. The proposal to set up a desalination plant for making the drinking water available to the citizens of Chennai (approx. 30 crores of liters/day from sea water) announced by the Finance Minister, GOI in the recently announced budget is a commendable step to tide over the crisis of drinking water shortage in metropolis located in coastal region.
HARMONY WITH ENVIRONMENT

We should ensure harmony with environment, preserve the ecological balance and improve the quality of the habitat. Poorly planned efforts to achieve apparently rapid development ignoring the long term effect of many technologies on the environment have resulted in serious ecological damage. Air pollution, acid rain, industrial waste disposal, toxic effluent noise and vibrations, crowding and congestion and many other side effects of urban and industrial activity are now widely recognized as the costly by products of activities which otherwise produce useful outputs. More recently there is also a growing concern on global issues such as climate change, global warming, sea level rise and stratospheric ozone depletion etc. so it is essential to analyze the environmental impact of the application of each technology before it is actually adopted in real practice. Success demands a conscious integrated approach covering technology assessment, development, acquisition, absorption, utilization and diffusion and connects aspects of financing, based on overall national interests, priorities and the attainment of the most challenging technological goals. In addition to the deteriorating quality of air, water and other components of our environment, the quality of life for the poor comprises to a far larger degree of lack of access to basic amenities such as food, water, clothing, housing, transport and other basic needs which for majority of our people continue to be unfulfilled. This perhaps, is the most crucial area of human concern linking technology with Environment.
ROLE OF NGOS IN TECHNOLOGY DIFFUSION

While Governments must necessarily play a leadership role through education, creation of awareness, provision of infrastructure and overall planning, their policies on Science and Technology must be geared primarily to the promotion of creative action at the individual and community level. The
Sustainable Development in Building Materials 163
promise of Science and Technology can only be fulfilled through the introduction of the fruits of the scientific enterprise into the lives of common people. It cannot be expected that Government alone can disseminate the technologies among the people. NGOs and voluntary organizations should come up in the promotion and dissemination process so that the fruits of Science and Technology can reach the common man effectively. The technical institutions, the Building Centers, self help Groups have a vital role to play in the technology transfer among the common people.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The rapidly growing population is putting lot of pressure on the increasing demand of resources. The resource depletion should be controlled timely. If timely action is not taken it will result in ecological imbalance. It is high time to introduce environmental and resource management in to the policy making process. The available land per capita is decreasing and the cost of the food grains is increasing. This is obviously so because of the uncontrolled growth in the population. To increase the agricultural production on the limited area available, chemical fertilizers and pesticides are being used which, in turn, is the cause for resurgence of malaria and other diseases over the past few years. Development that does not conserve over a sufficiently long period into the future the resource base on which it stands cannot be sustained; resources may be water, oil, natural gas, fossil fuels etc. or forest wealth. The future policy makers and planners should not forget this aspect while addressing the issues of productivity, self reliance, equity and other fundamental aspects of development. Conserving the resources is an important factor to be considered while planning for development. Wasteful over utilization of natural resources provides one of the primary threats to our environment. If development is to lead to sustainable benefits for mankind effluent people should change their habits of using the natural resources and should learn to conserve them for the future. Much of the environmental degradation faced by the third world counties is also caused by over utilization of resources. Governments and international organizations have a role to play in designing and realizing such a development but the ultimate responsibility and action for improving their lives rests with the people themselves. Environmentally sound development cannot take place unless drastic changes are made in the structure of the society. The exploitation of nature by man is to be put to an end in an effective manner. Environmentally sound development requires several preconditions viz. infrastructure, capital, knowledge, systematic change and above all the willpower. This is not possible without the peoples participation in the various activities related to meeting their basic needs i.e. food, clothing, shelter, education, employment, transport, health care and energy. Almost all these basic needs have a close relationship with environmental values. People should have an access to the methods, tools and products of modern science and technology to achieve these objectives. They should have the necessary know how of the finance involved, technologies developed and also the importance of resource conservation. This is possible only through education. New technologies and products have come up where in the resource base and environmental protection have been taken care off e.g. biogas, windmills, solar devices like cookers, pumps, lighting devices, bicycle carts, mud block making machines, multi fuel and multipurpose engines, Integrated village energy systems, food storage bins etc. These technologies, though, they are apt and relevant to the present and future needs have not percolated properly and are still unpopular among the beneficiaries due to their 1. Economic non viability in production, marketing and use 2. Lack of proper linkages between the processes of innovation production and marketing 3. Lack of active participation of the people and their lack of interest in knowing the know how of these technologies 4. Non availability of spare parts and ancillaries 5. Problems of repairing and maintenance especially in rural areas in case of breakdown
6. Proper awareness not being created among the people in the importance of using alternate sources of energy/waste utilization & preventing the environmental degradation and resource depletion 7. Technology transfer from lab to land not done in an effective manner. Many such technologies are lying in the laboratories, workshops & archives. 8. Inadequate Government machinery to monitor the technology transfer to the grass root level. N.G.O.s and voluntary organizations should come up and take up this task in a missionary zeal. 9. Non existence of promotion, training and extension services to a satisfactory level. 10. Non availability of information or improper dissemination of information to the people. 11. Improper managerial skills and lack of interest of social organizations promoting these technologies as per local needs and requirements. 12. Complicated operational methods and improper training regarding the use of these technologies. 13. Unable to convince the people about the improvement of these technologies over traditional methods. 14. Unable to make the use of these technologies mandatory for eg. Solar devices in rural and semi urban areas, use of Mud blocks in rural areas in place of burnt clay bricks etc. 15. Improper delivery mechanism 16. Non existence of marketing organizations and unable to cope up with the demand and supply of certain products.
SOLID CONCRETE BLOCKS

The production of solid concrete blocks for construction of load bearing walls is being done as per IS 2185 (Part-I) 1983. The technology for production of solid concrete blocks was developed and patented by Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee. For the production of solid concrete blocks, lean concrete mix of cement, fine and coarse aggregate (12 mm to 40 mm stone) is prepared with controlled water cement ratio. The concrete mix is poured in the steel moulds and after sufficient vibrating, demoulding is done. In the solid concrete block masonry, the quantity of mortar required is very less (12%) as compared to conventional stone masonry (33%) and Brick Masonry (25%). The thickness of plaster required also is very less (12 mm) as compared to conventional stone masonry (25 mm) and Brick masonry (20 mm). Further the additional advantages of more floor area, as compared to conventional masonry is there by adopting the solid concrete block masonry.
Fig. 1: Solid Concrete Blocks
Hollow Concrete Blocks

The production of cement concrete hollow blocks for construction of load bearing walls as well as for non - load bearing walls is being done as per IS 2185 (Part - I) 1983. The technology for production of hollow concrete blocks was developed in western countries and now has gained much popularity in India too due to reduction of load on foundation and fast construction. The production of hollow concrete block is being done with machine. The designed mix of cement, sand and stone grit (6 mm) with controlled water cement ratio is prepared through concrete mixer. The masonry with these blocks requires less quantity of mortar (8%) as compared to conventional masonry (25% and 33%) for brick and stone masonry. The thickness of plaster required is also very less (12 mm) as compared to conventional wall construction 25 mm. Further the additional advantages of increased floor area in comparison to conventional wall construction are there by adopting the hollow block masonry.
Fig. 2: Hollow Concrete Blocks
Fly Ash Building Bricks

Good quality building bricks with superior performance can be produced with advantage from fly ash using clay lime, cement or sodium silicate as binder. The mixture of fly ash binder and coarse fillers in suitable proportions are moulded into bricks. The cement bonded fly ash bricks are water cured at room temperature and lime bonded fly ash bricks are autoclaved or steam cured. However the sodium silicate and clay bonded flay ash bricks are burnt at elevated temperature. These products meet the performance requirements for building bricks IS 1077-1976 and can be used in place of common burnt clay bricks for all types of applications. The manufacture of bricks seems to be the best mode of fly ash utilization.
Fig. 3: Fly Ash Building Bricks
Calcium Silicate Bricks

A calcium silicate brick is one of the most promising alternatives walling material in which fly ash, being a siliceous material, could be used together with sand and lime. The process consists of preparation of raw materials, mixing, shaping/ pressing and curing. The strength of the bricks depends on the operating parameters like moulding pressure, and steam pressure and duration of curing and steam pressure in the autoclave. This product has a higher strength in addition to a number of other advantages as they are uniform in size, shape and surface as well as low Fig. 4: Calcium Silicate Brick coefficient of variations in strength. Thus the thickness of the walls can be smaller and the walls do not require plastering on both sides.
Lime
In the case of building lime, which is an economical substitute for cement in mortars and plasters, the non-availability of standard quality lime is one of the important factors in its limited use. Efforts have been made by NBO to introduce the manufacture and use of dry hydrated lime as well as clay pozzolana conforming to IS Specifications. A number of plants for producing dry hydrated lime and clay pozzolana have been set up but such products are available to a limited extent only.
Cement
Cement which is a vital material for construction has been found to vary greatly in quality. A Working Group constituted earlier by the then Ministry of Works & Housing, under the aegis of NBO, had laid great stress on the availability of cement as per IS Specifications. This is a pre-requisite for adoption of strength mix design concept in place of nominal mix design thereby improving the quality of construction. It is a good augury that the Government has recently directed all cement manufacturers in the country to strictly adhere to quality standards as per Indian Standards Specifications. In an effort to improve the quality of concrete, production and use of ready-mixed concrete is also being propagated by NBO. As the quality of buildings, houses and other structures basically depends on the quality of building materials and products used, great importance is attached to adoption of more scientific methods of production of building materials to achieve the desired levels of quality.
Durability
Durability of construction depends on a variety of factors but it is basically governed by the quality of materials and appropriate techniques adopted for construction. As such selection of right type of materials, products and techniques of construction are matters of paramount importance. While doing so, the impact of environmental factors which cause deterioration in buildings and structures and up gradation of materials and products should be duly considered to enhance the durability of buildings and structures. This is a complex issue and in many situations where aggressive and extreme environmental conditions are met with, such as heavy rainfall areas and industrial & coastal environments, special protective measures are required to be taken in such situations in order not to jeopardize the durability of buildings and structure. On the basis of local situations, considerable research and development work is required to be undertaken to evolve appropriate products, techniques and methods of construction to extend the durability of structures.
Corrosion
One of the important problems in durability which has been experienced in our country pertains to fast rate of corrosion of steel reinforcement in RCC structures, particularly in the coastal regions. To study this matter, the NBO had sponsored a research study to the Central Electro-Chemical Research Institute at Karaikudi, which had suggested some remedial measures to be taken in this regards.
Organic Materials
Durability is an important consideration, when organic building materials, like timber wood based panel products; bamboos, reeds, thatch, etc, are used for construction. Seasoning of timber and application of preservative treatments extends the service life of such building materials.
Inorganic Materials
In the case of inorganic building materials, it is necessary to adopt the use of such materials and construction techniques which prevent their early decay and deterioration due to weathering and climatic agents, such as prevention of ingress of rain water; efflorescence in masonry, corrosion of steel in reinforced concrete constructions.
Degradation Factors
Degradation Factors (Agents) relevant to building performance include mechanical agents, electromagnetic agents, chemical agents and biological agents. The degradation factors affecting the service life of materials and components include. 1. Weather factorsradiation, temperature, water, normal air constituents, air contaminates, freeze-thaw and wind. 2. Biological factorsmicro-organisms, fungi and bacteria. 3. Stress factorssustained periodic and random stresses and physical action of water such as rain, hail, sleet, snow, etc. 4. Incompatibility factorchemical and physical. 5. Use factorsdesign of system, installation and maintenance procedures, normal wear and tear, abuse by user, etc.
PERFORMANCE
The performance of buildings and structures is basically dependent on the design, choice of materials and construction techniques. More exacting demands as regards quality and performance of structures are being made in modern days. To fulfill these, use of new and innovative materials and construction techniques has to be made. Performance concept in building needs to be further developed. To ascertain the extent of satisfactory performance it is necessary to evolve suitable criteria for its evaluation and also tests to ascertain them. A lot remains to be done in this field. The National Building Code of India lays emphasis on performance concept and suggests that building specifications and codes of construction practices should be rewritten to cater to performance requirements. This would have the advantage that the designers and builders would have a wider choice to select appropriate materials and construction techniques to fulfill the specific performance requirements. It will encourage adoption of innovations in construction. In predominantly tropical climatic conditions, great importance is attached to performance of buildings and houses to provide thermal comforts prevent dampness in buildings through floors and walls, water proofing of roofs, etc. It is, therefore, necessary to make right choice of building materials and products and adopt appropriate construction techniques to improve the performance of building and houses in regard to the above.
Many parts of our country are vulnerable to earthquakes, cyclones, floods, heavy rainfall, snowfall and avalanche, etc., and therefore buildings and other structures should be so designed and constructed so as to prevent damage and destruction to the extent possible. The use of right type of building materials and construction techniques is a matter of crucial importance. A lot of research and development work is required to be pursued in this direction.
SERVICE LIFE
The service life of buildings and structures is a factor mainly dependent on: 1. Specifications of materials and construction techniques adopted; 2. The extent of satisfactory maintenance and repair work undertaken periodically; 3. The environmental factors affecting the durability and performance of buildings. Great importance should be attached to extending the economic service life of buildings and structures. It is, however, not yet a practice to take into consideration life-cycle cost of buildings and houses. Most often stress is laid on low initial investment and inadequate funds are provided for maintenance and repairs over the life span of the building. On account of this, early deterioration of buildings and structures takes place and the service life of buildings and structures is reduced. There is no doubt, that besides the above it is due to the natural phenomenon also that deterioration and decay of buildings and structures takes place progressively. However, these are expedited on account of aggressive environmental conditions. Moreover, much depends on proper usage, upkeep and care of buildings and structures by the occupants and the users to prevent their yearly deterioration. In addition to technological factors, there are other social and economic aspects which contribute to the early deterioration of buildings and structures. These include the rent control, legislation, organization and management of maintenance, repair and reconstruction work. Data on the service life of building materials and products are essential to the selection of cost effective use of materials. In the case of traditional building materials, their service life could be predicted on the basis of past experience. However, in the case of new materials and products, such data is not available and hence it is difficult to predict their service life. As such, suitable tests should be evolved to determine the service life of new materials and products. Service life test method includes both a property measurement test and on again test.
CONCLUSION
Improved housing facilities in rural areas needs immediate attention in order to prevent migration of people from villages to cities. The technologies to be adopted should aim at improving the quality of lives of common people without causing resource depletion and environmental degradation. Locally available materials suitably improved by modern engineering techniques should be used in construction. NGOs, technical institutions and Building centers have a vital role to play in the technology transfer mechanism to the grass root level. Peoples participation in the various activities related to the improvement of their basic amenities and standard of living is a must in order to ensure that environmentally sound development takes place.
Physical Infrastructure Planning and Administration for Sustainable Development: A Case Study of Ramtek
Kalpana R. Thakare (Kawathekar)1 and Raju M. Thakare2
1Associate 2Research
Prof. & Head, Dept. of Architecture, KIT., Ramtek, Nagpu, India; kalpanarthakare@gmail.com Scholar, Dept. of Public Admin., RTM, Nagpur University, India; rajumthakare@gmail.com
AbstractAddition of social and economic infrastructure allows the growth of population in the small and medium towns putting the stress on land resource and physical infrastructure viz. roads, rail, water supply, drainage and solidwaste management. Local administrative agencies then work for fulfilling the physical infrastructure requirements thus developing the area and widening the road network to avoid the congestion problems at the bottleneck areas with every development stage. This is because of difference in plannersvision and the actual growth of town. While working for fulfilling the physical infrastructure requirements local agencies many times overlook the sustainability aspect as they do not think of the quantity and the quality of the resources available.Hence planners should consider thecarrying capacity of the resources available in the vicinity of the town while designing the development plan so that local administrativeagencies can work for sustainable development. This paper is an attempt to understand and identify the disparity between the planners vision and administrative agencies working in case of Ramtek with the suggestive measures for physical infrastructure planning and administration for sustainable development.
Keywords: Infrastructure planning, Physical growth, IDSMT, PURA, Sustainable Development.
INTRODUCTION
Infrastructure is the basic physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of a society or enterprise or the services and facilities necessary for an economy to function the physical networks that support society, unless otherwisespecified.In simple words of planners, Infrastructure is the physical framework of services, facilities and amenities in the development planning. Planning is an attempt to formulate the principles that should guide us in creating a realized physical background for human life, Thomas Sharp. Physical background in planning includes the buildings and services required for it. Infrastructure Planning can be termed as the optimization of the use of different resources in order to achieve the thoughtful planning in a way to have sustainable development. Sustainable development as defined is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for future generations.Sustainable development in India now encompasses a variety of development schemes in social, clean tech (clean energy, clean water and sustainable agriculture) and human resources segments, having caught the attention of both Central and State governments and also public and private sectors.
RAMTEK & ITS DEVELOPMENT Introduction of Ramtek Region

Ramtek Taluka under Nagpur District from Vidarbha region of Maharashtra state of India is having total population of 1.52l acs (Census 2011) spread over the area 1141.56 Sq. Kms. under 154 villages and 3 towns. This area is very much famous for its natural beauty due to availability of flora and fauna in the reserved forest.
Amb bagad moun ntain range tracts in the e west side of o the region. The vario ous hillsKai ikai hills, Ramgiri hills, Nagar rjun hills, Hidimba H hills covers the area. The Sur S river an nd Kapila River flow through the region. Various Nat tural and art tificial lakes span the len ngth and bre eadth of the tahsil. It also has a rich cultur ral background and herit tage in archit tecture.
F Fig. 1: Ramte ek in the Nag gpur District
Fig. 2: Ramtek T Taluka Showi ing the Conn nectivity of Various V Settle ements
In th he history the central cap pital of Nand d king was at a Nandivardhan todays N Nagardhan, 5 kmson the sout th of Ramtek k. With time the centre is s shifted towa ards North. At A present it ts centre is at t Ramtek which is s a small tow wn (C categ gory) in Nag gpur District on Northeast of Nagpu ur city. This region is bounded d by Madhy ya Pradesh state s on its Northern N sid deandBhand dara district o on eastern side. s It is connecte ed with the other areas of Nagpur District D throu ugh the boundary of Ma aharashtra st tate. The national l highway No. N 7 Nagpu ur Jabalpur Highway pa asses throug gh this area. The state highway (Mansar rTumsar 24 49) passing through t the Ramtek R town joins this national n high hway on the e western side end d.
Develo opment of Ramtek R

Due to direct d conne ectivity of the e region with h state and National N Hig ghways, the sufficient dis stance of Nagpur city and av vailability of natural envi ironment Ra amtek is obs serving the g growth. The physical factors which w dictat tes the grow wth of Ramt tek includes topography y which is h hills and plane lands having the t valleys fo orming in bet tween.
F Fig. 3: Map Sh howing the Hills H and Plan nes Justifying the Growth h of Settleme ents in Ramte ek
Physical Infrast tructure Plannin ng and Administ tration for Susta ainable Development 171
Ram mtek has und dergone deve elopment in various stage es as a religious centre, a administrativ ve centre, educatio onal centre, industrial i cen ntre and com mmercial cen ntre. To start with it obser rved the spre ead from hill i.e. g gad to footh hills. Increase e in the popu ulation has given Physica al growth of R Ramtek. Physical l growth can be observed d in phases as a follows. Phas se I: Phas se II: Early y settlement on o north of the t hill at Jain Temple. Settle ements at the e western sid de foothills an nd near the water w bodies s (Lakes).
Phas se III: Exten nsion of settlements along the south side s of the fo oothill. Phas se IV: Britis sh period set ttlements and d governmen nt offices on n the far wes st of the foot thill sand near Railway Stat tion. Phas se V: Bazar area, Exten nsion of road d from Bazar r to Jain Man ndiracross Ga andhi Squar re. Phas se VI: Area near New Bus B Stand thu us extending g from Gandh hi Square to Bus Stand. Phas se VII: Conte emporary/ Modern Develo opments beyo ond Bus Stand.
Fig. 4: Phase Wi ise Growth Pa attern of Ram mtek Shown on Google Im mage
The decadal pop pulation incr rease since 1951 can be seen s in detai il as given in the table be elow.
Table 1: 1 Decadal In ncrease in Po opulation in Ramtek R Talukasince 1951 (000)
Year r 2001 1991 1981 1971 1961 1951 T 152 128 293 214 175 147 Total R 115 97 264 194 163 137 U 37 31 29 20 12 10 T 77 66 152 110 89 74 Ma ale R 58 50 137 1 99 83 69 U 17 16 15 11 6 5 T 75 62 141 104 86 73 Female R 57 47 127 95 80 68 U 18 15 14 9 6 5
Fig. 5: 5 Spread of Ramtek R Toda ay in Compar rison with the Earlier Bou undary Table e 2: General Statistics S of Ramtek Talu uka Related to t Physical G Growth
Urban Rural Area in Sq. . Kms 21.61 1 1119.95 5 Households 7681 24262 Density D 1694 103 M/ F Ratio 96 61 97 70
EXISTI ING INFRA ASTRUCTU URE AND RELATED D PROBLEM MS Existin ng Infrastru ucture in Ramtek R Tal luka
Land us se: Total land d area11429 90 Forest Area59307 A ( (villages hav ving forest are ea 51.80 %) Land under r water bodie es-1729 Hec ctares Physical l and social Infrastructure I e Existing in Ramtek is as s below.
Ta able 3: Descri iption of Res sources and Physical P Infra astructure Av vailability in Ramtek Talu uka
Sr. No. Particulars 1 Connectivity Description Motor, Railw way Length of ro oads in Taluka: 721 7 Kms Road network n in Kms (Fig. 2010-11) PW WD Rural Roads s planned 595.06 6 completed 363 3.78 Others plan nned 210.35 com mpleted 126.67 Total T Planned 805 5.41 completed 490.45 Road out of f 153 villages 129 9 are having roa ad connectivity 5 of which are pr rivileged by PMG GSY. Villages hav ving primary scho ool132 Villages hav ving PHC 38 Gen neral Hospitals Human H 10; Vete erinary 9 Veterina ary Clinics 14 Villages hav ving post office:29nos Private tele ephone connecti ions nos.: 1308 Total Electri icity Use 123.51 [in 000 KWH (MSEB)] Use per r Head 81.457 Domestic 17 7.6 Commercial 3.64 Industrial 79.7 7 Public 1.43 Agri18.81 Other rs 2.33 Villages hav ving electricity for r domestic purpo ose 153nos (96.4 4 %) Average Rai infall at Ramtek Taluka 1164.20 0 mm (2010 figur res): days-40, Ra ainfall in mm-88 80.70, % of the avera age rainfall- 75.65 5% 36+villages having well: 100 0% ;villages hav ving irrigated area 93.53% 76 out of 14 43 villages get wa ater from supply y line.The Sur riv ver and Kapila R River flow through the region. It ha as nos. of lakes.F Fishery business members m : 2493 Nearest Poli ice Station Ramt tek, Devlapar Grade wise Industry classific cation (CPCB 20 010-11) Red-26 Orange-16 Gree en-32 Total74In ndustrial Training Cen nters; 1 Villages with h Commercial Ba anks: 9; Co-oper rative Societies : 163; Co-operat tive Factories : 1 Villages with h Agriculture rep presentative office e 21
2 3 4 5
Education Health Communicatio on Electricity
Water supply
7 8 9
Security Industries Banking Services
Physical Infrastructure Planning and Administration for Sustainable Development 173
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED TO EXISTING PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE IN RAMTEK TALUKA Connectivity

Roads are available for connectivity to major settlements but are not clean and clear to travel and transport.
Education
Schools for primary and secondary education are available but high schools and colleges are insufficient and centered at Ramtek town only hence students are deprived of the higher education. Especially for girls it is impossible to travel from village to Ramtek town for seeking education.
Health
The clinics and hospitals are available in the taluka but full time residing doctors are not available. Also operation and special care facilities are lacking.
Electricity
The requirement of power is increasing hence increasing the demand hereby creating pressure on the natural resources. Power supply for the agriculture activities are a must but not available for all round the clock.
Water Supply
With the growth of population and the spreading of settlements the resources are being overused. For Eg.: The lakes and stepped wells which used to be water fed for all over the session are now drying in the months of summer. And for rest of the months it is polluted. Rivers flowing through the region are getting dry in summer due to over utilization and reduction in amount of green cover.
Irrigation
Irrigation project was started in Ramtek and Pench and finished in 1924 and 1975 respectively. Cost of projects is 29.12 lakhs and 29419 respectively. Percentage of villages having irrigated area is 93.53 %but it is not able to irrigate the targeted fields to the fullest.
Security
Police stations are available all over the taluka but Deolapar the north- Western part of taluka is 99% forest zone and so need more security. Being a forest zone Ramtek Taluka also cherish the existence of tribal communities thus standing as the most populated tribal zone in Nagpur district (District Statistical Report 2011).
Banking Services
Banking services from national to cooperative level are existing but due to inadequate information the people are not able to take the advantage of it.
Industries
Industries are developed for agro based foods and products.
Mining
Mining is a significant activity observed in this region due to availability of manganese ores. 8 % of the population is occupied in mining. It is affecting the infrastructure and harming the natural environment.
Fig. 6: Schedule Caste and Scheduled Tribe Population in Nagpur District
Fig. 7: Occupation Pattern in Ramtek, Source: Nagpur District Statistical Hand Book 2003-04
LOCAL ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES WORKING FOR DEVELOPMENT

With the growth of settlements there is observed an encroachment on the natural settings. At Ramtek Taluka level Block Development Office/ Panchayat Samiti Office and Ramtek Nagar Parishadare the Local Administrative agencies working for the development of rural and urban areas respectively. Former President of India Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam has suggested PURA concept for development of rural areas. It is Planning of Urban facilities in the Rural Areas (PURA). The concept talks about the connectivity of rural areas with the urban by providing the physical connectivity, Electronic connectivity, Knowledge/ spiritual connectivity and Economic connectivity. Thus PURA (Planning of Urban amenities in the Rural Areas) allows the development of the rural areas and the distribution of infrastructure will be convenient with this kind of approach as the concentration of population in urban agglomerations is reduced. Various development activities took place under PURA concept in Ramtek Region.
Physical Infrastructure Planning and Administration for Sustainable Development 175
Under the Seventh five year Plan of Planning Commission, Government of India the development of Ramtek was marked under the IDSMT (Integrated Development of small and medium towns) for being a small town under Census of India categories of towns. IDSMT was the mission observed by Government of India to allow the development of small and medium category towns by providing the facilities in small and medium towns thus reducing the pressure on the large towns. By provision of the facilities in the small and medium towns viz. education and employment facilities people will not migrate to large towns thus allowing the growth and the development of small towns and also reducing the immigrating pressure on the large towns hereby distributing the infrastructure in a planned mannerfor reducing the load on the infrastructure in urban agglomerations. Under IDSMT mission Ramtek has got 83 Lakhs Rupees sanctioned from Central and Maharashtra State Governments of Indiaand 54 lakhs of which has been shown as utilized. The local agencies work for the development of Region under various missions including the following:
Housing for BPL

Houses are allotted to the poor under BPL (Below Poverty Line)
Cleanliness of Environment
To maintain the surrounding environment neat and clean the local agents are working out the ways as under:
Encroachment Removal
To remove the encroachments if any along the streets which is creating obstruction for the public traffic. Under this the encroachments along the main cross road of Gandhi Square (main square near central Bazar) and the encroachments of the shop keepers and their residences on the Ramgad which is a property of the private trust and the government are all removed during 2010-12.
Tree Plantation
Under Environment protection mission the tree plantation was done by the local agencies. The targeted and completed are is 6 Sq. Kms. The total number of trees planted under this mission are 12,225 same as targeted in 2010-11. Under protection of natural forest and Wild animals the work was undertaken in Pench Reserved forest.
Water Supply
Separate pipelines for Water supply to urban and rural areas have been made.
Solid Waste Management

The collection of the waste is done by the trolley and it is disposed of in the outskirt of the town. In villages the conventional method is being followed. For Soil waste there is no layout provision made in this region hence every house has its own septic tank.
Revenue Collection
Revenue is generated for the development works of the area through the collection of taxes.
CONCLUSION
Organic growth of the settlement results in inadequacy of infrastructure in the long run. This is faced by both inhabitant and administrator. This inadequacy of the infrastructure can be judged and understood before actually facing it. IDSMT and PURA are the solutions to reduce the difficulty at large level. Ramtek Region shows the example of the same whereby the education and employment opportunities are being developed in the vicinity of Ramtektown in addition to being a pilgrimage centre thus allowing the growth of the region rather than allowing the out migration to Nagpur. Ramtek region has natural forest (medium to dense type tropical forest) and the water bodies in the region to enhance the growth for sustainable development. With time the natural resources are getting depleted due to overuse and misuse of it. Accordingly Ramtek though being a small town and a taluka centre is no more an exception for this but Sustainable Development can be achieved with the solicitous planning and stringent administration.
SUGGESTIONS
Local Agencies have been working actively for the administration and management of the infrastructure with multi fold activities but the problems are continued further. The suggestions to overcome the problems may be as follows:
Conservation of Resources
By reducing the use of it For Eg.: Water resource use be maintained as per the standards required and the water harvesting be done for maintaining the water table. For the tribals/ local community be made responsible for the negative actives in the forest area under public private partnership.
Infrastructure Development
Infrastructure is the backbone of the Sustainable development. Promote use of alternative resources for the infrastructure. Allow the physical growth which can adhere to infrastructure available only.
Public Private Participation

Actively involving the members who are any ways related to the particular infrastructure. For Eg.: Solid waste collection and disposal be monitored by the public representatives.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] Nagpur District Statistical Report 2011, Government of Maharashtra Nagpur District Census 2011 Ramtek Development Plan 2013 N. S. Deshpande, Post Graduation Thesis report on Urban Sector Strategy for Vidarbha Region, SPA , Delhi. UjjwalaKhot, Post Graduation Thesis Report on Conservation Guidelines for the development of Ramtek cultural region, SPA, Delhi, 2005. Rama Yagya Singh &Alok Kumar Singh, Planning in Integrated rural environment S.R. Maheshwari, Rural Development in India second editionA public policy approach. www.googleearth.com/ramtek www. planningcommission.in
Un-Organized Building Construction A Case Study of Gwalior, MP (India)

Archana Tiwari1 and Dinesh Swarnkar2
1Professor, 2Student,
Civil Engg., M.I.T.S., Gwalior, India; archana62in@gmail.com M.E. (CTM), Civil, M.I.T.S., Gwalior, India
AbstractLarge scale transformation from traditional rural societies to Modern Urban Communities, have resulted in thousands of illegal and un-organized building construction. Urban Population in Madhya Pradesh is estimated to have almost doubled in 2011 to that of in 1951. Gwalior is an important Historical city of Madhya Pradesh having number of well known educational Institutions. The city attracts massive rural-urban migration. Total migration to Gwalior from 6 states is estimated to be 113587 (Censes of India 2001). This study is undertaken to assess the intensity and nature of unorganized building construction and its implications on basic amenities and environment of the city. A detailed survey of 18 colonies in 11Wards (randomly selected) is carried out by way of observations, transit walk, personal interaction and collecting response to questionnaire. The collected information and data are analyzed to identify the reasons of un-organized building constructions. Strategy to improve the housing scenario in the city is also recommended.
INTRODUCTION
To fulfill the basic need of food & clothing, a major population of world is migrating from rural to urban areas. The poor and vulnerable migrate from rural area to urban areas in search of livelihood. Particularly in third world developing countries like Greek, Sudan, South Africa or Bangladesh, Nepal or India urbanization are unplanned, unorganized and illegal. Due to lack of resources, governments are unable to provide basic shelter and employment for the increasing urban population. . The urban poor are forced to fend for themselves in ways that are against formal laws. Unplanned urbanization leads to unorganized building construction. A considerable amount of capital is tied up in such buildings. This rapid urbanized growth have severe impact on amenities like water supply sanitary system, transportation and living patterns .Many environmental impact likedecrease in water table, increase in pollution (air, water , noise and soil).
URBANIZATION STATISTICS Urban Population Growth of India

The Indian urban sector population is 28.4% of the countrys population. The United Nations human settlement indicators for India show a clear drift of rural population towards urban centers. During the last two consecutive censuses (19912001), urban population growth rate is found to be 31.4% whereas the rural population growth rate was 21.2%. Following table-1 shows the level of urbanization of country and total population of country.
Table 1: Total Population & Urban Population of India (Trend from 19012001)
Total Population in Millions 1901 238.4 1911 252.1 1921 251.3 1931 278.9 1941 318.6 1951 361.1 1961 439.2 1971 548.2 1981@ 683.3 1991* 846.3 2001 1028.6 Source: Calculated from Census of India (1901-2001) Year Urban Population in Millions 25.8 25.9 28.1 33.4 44.1 62.4 78.9 109.1 159.5 217.6 286.1 Urban Population as % of Total Population 10.82 10.27 11.18 12.01 13.87 17.29 17.96 19.91 23.20 25.70 27.8
URBAN POPULATION GROWTH OF MADHYA PRADESH

As per Census data 2011, projections of urban population growth of Madhya Pradesh is given in Table 2.
Table 2: Trend in Urban Population Growth in Madhya Pradesh
Year Total Population (Million) 1951 18.621 1961 23.227 1971 30.016 1981 38.174 1991 48.571 2001 60.367 2011 72.599 2021 93.564 2031 112.445 2041 131.060 2051 148.287 Source: Alok Ranjan, 2009, Projections for the period 2011-2051 Urban Population (Million) 2.769 3.865 5.577 8.528 12.274 15.967 20.059 30.530 43.370 60.340 79.630
CASE STUDY History of Urbanization in Gwalior

Gwalior is situated in the north of Madhya Pradesh at 26 12 N latitude and 78 18 E longitude. The city is basically consist of three distinct urban areas - The old town of Gwalior in the north called Hazira, Lashkar in southwest and Morar towards the east.
Data Collection
Primary and Secondary surveys are carried out to collect relevant data for housing scenario of Gwalior in general and status of un-organized building construction in particular. Data are taken from various studies to know the level of pollution in different parts of the city.
Primary Survey
It consists of collecting relevant data from various sources - Municipal corporation of Gwalior,
Department of Town & county planning, Gwalior: Regional transport office, National sample survey organization, Gwalior and studies carried out by the researchers.
Secondary Survey
It consists of collecting information to understand the present situation of building construction and development of city. Almost entire city was covered and numbers of persons were interacted, the opinions of construction consultants were also taken.
Questionnaire
A questionnaire is prepared to assess the reasons of un-organized constructions.
Data from Primary Survey Population Growth in Gwalior

The population of Gwalior has grown to more than double in three decades (1971-2001) from 406.14 thousands to 865.54 thousands. Population in Gwalior from 1941 to 2001 is given in Table 3.
Un-Organized Building ConstructionA Case Study of Gwalior, MP (India) 179
Table 3: Urban Population in Gwalior

Year 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 Source: Census of India. Population in Million 173.1 241.58 300.59 406.1 555.86 717.78 865.54
Migration
Details of (From nearby areas) total number of in-migrants to Gwalior in the decade 1991-2001 is 113587 are given in Table 4.
Table 4: Migration in Gwalior (19912001)
District District - Bhind MADHYA PRADESH District - Morena MADHYA PRADESH District Shivpuri MADHYA PRADESH District - Datia MADHYA PRADESH District - Jhansi UTTAR PRADESH District Agra UTTAR PR.ADESH District. Etawah UTTAR PRADESH District- Jalaun UTTAR PRADESH District - Bhopal MADHYA PRADESH District Chhatarpur MADHYA PRADESH In migration from top 10 districts In-migrations from other districts Total In migration to Gwalior Source: migration tab1e, census of India 2001 No. of Migrants 19936 13519 7670 6978 5209 2825 2261 2059 1836 1754 64047 49540 113587 Percentage 17.55 11.90 6.75 6.14 4.59 2.49 1.99 1.81 1.62 1.54 56.39 43.61 100.00
Household Size
Household size is continuously decreasing in Gwalior (Table 5). In year 1971 it was estimated as 6.0 and expected to reduce to 5.6 in 2011 and may further reduce to 5.5 in 2021.
Table 5: Household size in Gwalior
Year Household size 1971 6.0 1981 5.9 1991 5.8 2001 5.7 2011 5.6# 2021 5.5*
HOUSING STOCK & SHORTAGE

As per census 2001, housing stock and housing shortage were estimated tobe 1, 27,000 and 17,000 respectively. In draft of master plan 2005 the net demand for housing was estimated to be of 68279 unit which further increased to 1, 67,000 units as per draft of master plan 2021. As per MP Human Development Report, 2002, about 30% of housing units are from un-organized sector in Gwalior Nagar nigam.
VEHICULAR GROWTH AND NOISE POLLUTION

Number of vehicles registered each year in Gwalior for last 9 years are depicted in Fig. 1
Fig. 1: Vehicular Growth in Gwalior

Source: RTO, Gwalior
POLLUTION
The infrastructure is lagging behind to control the adverse effects of rapid urbanization on environment. Air and noise pollution have been increasing day by day. It is estimated that 80% of the noise produced by vehicles. In Gwalior public transport system consists of tempo, auto rickshaw, taxi and city buses. The extent of noise pollution in Gwalior is studied (Wani k.2010) It is reported that the noise level in Gwalior have exceeded the standards set by the Central Pollution Control Board in all the Zones. A total increase of 170340 vehicles is from the year 2000 to 2009. Noise levels in various parts of the city are given in Table 6.
Noise Pollution
Studies (Khursheed Ahmad wani and Y.K.Jaiswal,june 2010) show that noise pollution in Gwalior exceeded the safe limits in all zones. Noise levels in various parts of city are given in Table 6.
Table 6: Noise Levels in Gwalior
Zone Safe Limit Locations Average Noise level in dB Silence Zone 50 dB Madhav Dispensary 50.55-58.83 Residential Zone 55 dB Lashkar Pinto-park 56.95-63.28 57.25-63.28 Commercial Zone 65 dB Thatipur Railway Station 80.6-86.4 81.05-110.00
Jiwaji University 47.0-60.18
Air Pollution
Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons resulting from incomplete combustion of organic materials are highly carcinogenic at relatively low levels. The human activities heating, cooking, combustion of refuse, motor vehicle traffic tobacco smoke etc, are responsible for large emission of PAH's is atmosphere. In the study. (Kori R; Shrivastava Pk*; Upadhyay, N, 2007), air samples taken from the various locations of Gwalior city reveals the presence of PAH compounds.
Water Pollution
The Kalpi River in Morar is polluted at various locations as number of open and closed drains are merging into it. Water samples taken from (Verma 2010) the locations Morar bridge, St. Paul School and Kalpi bridge were found polluted.
Ground Water Level

Under Ground water in the earth in different layers is known as aquifer layers. In Gwalior city, two layers are available, First layer from 9 feet to 120 feet; Second layer from 180 feet to 270 feet. If both layers are dried than that area is considered as dry zone. Water tables are falling dangerously low in the region. At many Places the first layer of water level is completely empty. The positions are most alarming in the south Gwalior i.e. Madhoganj to Guda and Awadpura area. It has changed into dry zone. Indiscriminate utilization is causing dropping of Water Level in Gwalior City and Surroundings. In last 7 years, ground water level in morar, gwalior and laskar have reduced from 80 to 130 feet, 80 to 110 feet, and 150 to 250 feet respectively.
Secondary Survey
A detailed survey of eighteen colonies from eleven different wards was carried out. These includes both types (organized and unorganized) of building construction. Secondary data for the study are generated by the method of transit walk through the settlements, interaction with the residents, observation to notice the nature of construction and taking opinion of construction consultant. Summary of data are presented in the following Table 7.
Table 7: Status of Building Construction
Ward No 3 6 10 16 21 25 26 30 52 55 60 Name of Colonies Vinay Nagar Anand Nagar Koteshwar Colony Chandan Nagar Suresh Nagar Shiwaji Nagar Shiv Vihar Sainik Colony New Ram Vihar Lal Sahab Ka Bagicha Lather Factory Colony Aditya Nagar Gandhi Nagar Balajipuram Balajipuram Hurawali New Colony Block A New Colony Block B New Colony Block C Statutory Status of Colony Developed F-4 Developed F-4 Developed Unauthorised Developed F-4 Developed F-4 Developed Developed Developed Unauthorised Notified Unauthorised Notified Unauthorised Developed F-4 Unauthorised Unauthorised Unauthorised Unauthorised Unauthorised Promoter GDA GDA Private Private Private Private Private Private Private Private Private Private Private Private Private Private Private Private Apro. Houses 1000 800 200 950 200 110 1500 1200 1800 110 250 350 500 115 95 180 145 150
Table 8: Statutory Status and Basic Amenities

Statutory Status Developed F-4 Developed Un- developed Permission Status Available Available Not available % of Houses 27% 48% 25% Waterline 100% 100% 25% Sewer Line 18% 57% 35% Electricity 100% 100% 100%
Separate questionnaires are prepared for house owners and contractors. Approximately 200 persons were interacted. The questions for house owners were aimed to assess awareness about legal aspects and reasons of unorganized construction. The questions for contractors working in unorganized construction were about their qualification and experience. Responses from house owners revealed that they are aware of legal aspects of developments but due to financial constraints only 30% could procure legal plots. About 90% of the houses were constructed without taking formal permission from Municipal Corporation, 70% of them applied others considered it as wastage of money. Building by-laws are also not followed in most of the buildings. Only 10% of houses were designed by engineer/architect and only 5% were found to be supervised by engineer during construction. All the contractors were having more than ten years experience but not having technical qualification. Contractors were having only 15% of permanent labour with them.
CONCLUSION
Due to lack of job opportunities, infrastructure and services in rural area, rural to urban migration will continue. Housing is an essential element in the overall socio-economic development of a region and its citizens. The safe, hygienic provision of housing with adequate basic services will improve the productivity significantly. In order to improve quality of life the existing housing stock is needed to be improved with provision for disaster resistance, hygienic conditions and services. Government has formulated NUHHP-2007 (National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy-2007) to promote sustainable development of habitat to ensure equitable supply of land, shelter and services at affordable prices to all sections of society. This is expected to put a curb on unplanned growth. A sustainable habitat development planning must integrate environmental management. Following strategy is proposed to improve quality is proposed to improve quality of life and develop sustainable habitat.
Enhancement of Existing Housing Stock

About 90% of the buildings in Gwalior are non-engineered and constructed without any quality control. Details of existing un-organized building constructed in various parts are documented. A step by step procedure can be fallowed to renew the un-organized buildings stock. 1. The legal status of land should be checked. The possibility to legalize the construction by way of land use alteration should be assessed. 2. An assessment of basic amenities in the area should be made. 3. The cost of providing minimum basic amenities in the selected areas should be estimated. 4. An affordable fee for legalizing construction and developing the amenities can be can be charged from the residents. 5. Existing housing stock should be strengthened and improved in quality. Dismantling of a building should be the last option as it results in wastage of valuable construction resource. 6. The methodology for upgrading the quality and retrofitting the building to safeguard in case of disaster shall be demonstrated and propagated through media campaigns to encourage house owners to adopt it for their own safety interests. 7. As far as possible, dismantling of houses should be avoided as it results in loss of resources.
Technology Transfer
Awareness about correct practice of construction must be created at all levels of society. The safety of non-engineered buildings from the force of earthquake is a subject of highest priority. The by -laws must incorporate provision for earthquake resistance, water harvesting etc. building centres are established to transfer technology, upgrade and train construction artisans and provide guidance to local population. Some NGOs are also working in this direction but only 5% of the constructions are done by engineering approach in the area. The technology transfer efforts are mainly concentrated on few buildings constructed by organized agencies and government departments. Further innovative technology, use of eco friendly and Cost effective building materials should be introduced to make housing affordable requiring minimal maintenance.
Training and Awareness Programme

1. Awareness Development and publications of guidelines for correct construction practice 2. Training and awareness program for craftsman, supervisors, individual home builders, contractors and engineers. 3. Awareness seminars and program on radio, televisions and newspapers articles etc. 4. Dissemination of guidelines for correct construction practice in easy language through brochures/leaflets.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37]
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Directorate (T.C.P), (2011), drafts Gwalior master plan (2011), department of country & town planning Madhya Pradesh. Dixit Amod M., (2004), "Promoting Safer Building Construction in Nepal", 13th World Conference On Earthquake Engineering Vancouver, B.C., Canada, 1717. Elias Beriatos, (2008), "Uncontrolled Urbanization, Tourism Development and Landscape Transformation in Greece", 44th ISOCARP Congress. Fantu Cheru, (2001) "Globalization and uneven urbanization in Africa: the limits to effective Urban Governance in the provision of basic services" American University. Fortieth Report Standing Committee on Urban Development (2009), Urban Housing, By Lok Sabha Secretariat. Gangolells, M., Casals, M., Gasso, S. et al., (2008), "A methodology for predicting the severity of environmental impacts related to the construction process of residential buildings". Building and Environment. 44: 558-571. 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(2008) ,urban Land Policy And Management Reforms, ITPI Journal5 : 3 p.60 - 68 Jain A.K., (2008),"Innovative Concepts of Planning Building and Development Controls", www.ashahabitat.com/knowledgebase/pdf/planning4.pdf Kori R; Shrivastava Pk; Upadhyay , N, (2007),"Studies On Presence Of Pahs In Ambient Air Of Gwalior City", Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 11, No. 4, pp. 101-104 Lewis James , (2003), Housing construction in earthquake-prone places: Perspectives, priorities and projections for development, The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 18 No 2, p.35-45 Madhya Pradesh Human Development Report, (2007), "Migration and Urbanization" Government of Madhya Pradesh. Mahadevia, Darshini, (2009), "Deprivations, Vulnerabilities and Shelter Security Linkages in Urban India", Working Paper of project, Social Protection in Asia. 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Role of Infrastructure towards Determining Urban Efficiency and Prosperity in Future

Shweta J. Raut1 and Raksha V. Bongirwar2
1Asst. 2Asst.
Professor, Department of Architecture, KITS, Ramtek; shwetaraut@gmail.com Professor, Department of Architecture, KITS, Ramtek; bongirwar.raksha@gmail.com
AbstractIndias rise in recent year is a most prominent development in the worlds economy. India has re-emerged as one of the fastest growing economies in the world. According to many commentators, India could unleash its full potentials, provided it improves the infrastructures facilities, which are at present not sufficient to meet the growing demands of the economy. Failing to improve the countrys infrastructure will slow down Indias growth process in terms of economy, prosperity, quality, maintenance etc. Therefore Indian Governments first priority is to rising to the challenge of maintaining and managing high growth through investments in Infrastructure Planning Sectors, among others. My paper examines the importance of urban infrastructure and how they help in determining the urban efficiency and prosperity in future with respect to the current scenario of infrastructure and management in India. Keywords: Infrastructure, Physical or Hard Infrastructure, Urban Infrastructure, Green Infrastructure, Demand and pressure on Urban Infrastructure.
INTRODUCTION
The word Infrastructure is a combination of the Latin prefix infra meaning below and Structure. The Oxford English Dictionary, trace the words origins to earlier usage, originally applied in a military sense. It can be defined by the following different ways: 1. Infrastructure is basic physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of a society or enterprise or the services and facilities necessary for an economy to function. 2. The American heritage Dictionary, defines the term infrastructures as the basic facilities, services and installations needed for the functioning of a community or society. 3. It can be generally defined as the set of interconnected structural element that provide framework supporting an entire structure of development. 4. The term typically refers to the technical structures that supports a society, such as roads, water supply, sewer, electrical grids, telecommunications and so forth and can be defined as the physical components of interrelated systems providing commodities and services essential to enable, sustain or enhance societal living conditions. 5. Earlier the military use of term achieved currency in the United States after the formation of NATO in 1940s and was then adopted by urban planners in its modern civilian sense by 1970.
TYPES OF INFRASTRUCTURE
Infrastructure is practically involving all the domains of urban life including services, basic amenities by considering the convenience, comfort and security of the users. There are two types of infrastructures.
Role e of Infrastructur re Towards Det termining Urban n Efficiency and Prosperity in Fu uture 185
P Physical or Hard H Infrastru uctures
This refers to large l physical network n necessa ary for the functioning of f a modern industrial nation
Social or So oft Infrastruc ctures
This refers to all the instituti ion which are re equired to maintain the economi, e health h and cultural and a social standards of a country such a as financial system, educa ation system etc c.
Ha ard Infrastructu ure 1. Transpo ortation 2. Energy y 3. Water Management 4. Commu unication 5. Earth Monitoring M
Soft Inf frastructure

1. Governanc ce 2. Economic 3. Social 4. Cultural 5. Sports & Recreational R
URBAN N INFRAST TRUCTUR RE

1. Ur rban or mun nicipal infrastructure ref fers to hard infrastructu ure system g generally ow wned and op perated by municipalities m s. 2. Ur rban infrastru ucture consi ists of drinking water, sa anitation, sew wage system ms, electricity and gas dis stribution, ur rban transpo ort, primary health h service es and enviro onmental reg gulation.
GREEN N INFRAST TRUCTURE

1. Gr reen infrastructure is a multi-faceted m d planning approach a for r constantly changing lan ndscapes us sing the subje ects of urban n regeneratio ons, health an nd climate ch hange. 2. It highlights the importance e of natural environment e t in decisions s about land use planning. c ary benefits of ecologica al, economic c and social spheres. 3. It provides a number of complimenta olicy and pla anning integ gration, lands scape multi-functioning and organiz zational co-o op are all Po ide eas that und derpin growth h of green infrastructure. 4. Gr reen infrastr ructure has been discu ussed as enabling plann ners to dev velop multi-f functions inn novative and d sustainable e places.
NEED OF INFRA ASTRUCTU URE

1. Ur rban populat tion grew by y 26% to 36% % of populat tion by 2011 (50% by 20 025). 2. Gr rowth in GD DP (Gross Do omestic Product) is predic cted to be 8% % to 9% per annum. 3. Ro oad traffic gr rowth will be 15% per ye ear. 4. Ai ir traffic is gro owing by 25 5% per year. 5. 10 01,000 MW of o new powe er needed in 2012.
6. Sanitation coverage is only 35% currently. The above figures are a few statistics from publicly available documents such as the India Infrastructure Report, 5-year plan documents. They indicate two issues: 1. First, in many cases, the current infrastructure is inadequate even for todays needs. E.g. nearly two thirds of the nation do not have access to sanitation facilities 2. Second, current infrastructure is not likely to meet tomorrows needs. E.g. With the increase in road traffic at 15% per annum, we will need more, high quality roads in order to maintain freeflowing traffic. Both these issues indicate that India needs its infrastructure to be developed. According to 11th 5year plan, following infrastructure targets had been set (2007-2012). 1. Additional 10 million hector of assured irrigation created by 2009. 2. INR 15,000 Cr. to be spent on road maintenance alone. 3. 1000+rural habitations to be connected with roads by 2009. 4. Port capacity increased from 520 MT to 800 MT. 5. 575 million telecom subscribers by 2012. 6. 60,000 MV of new power to be added by 2012. The style of urban infrastructure provision that encourages more efficient pattern of resource consumption is the basis for development of sustainable cities. Conventional approach to urban infrastructure management was based on the premise Facilitating Infrastructure Supply. But in new built developments serviced within a supply-oriented framework, any explicit consideration of various environmental and social effects is rare. The increased awareness towards environment and a sustainable society coupled with a need to make our cities worth living, demand side interference in the provision and management of urban infrastructure is being advocated. Demand side interference broadly has two aspects: 1. Managing the existing demand and 2. Channeling/monitoring the ever-increasing demand. The increase in the existing demand is correlated with the consumption pattern.
PRESSURE ON URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE

This process of urbanization has created a huge gap between demand and supply of urban services and infrastructure4. For instance, the Ninth Plan Working Group on Housing has estimated the investment requirement for housing in urban areas at Rs. 526, 00 crores. The India Infrastructure Report, 1996 estimates the annual investment need for urban water supply, sanitation and roads at about 28,035 crores for the next ten years. The Central Public Health Engineering (CPHEEO) has estimated the requirement of funds for 100 percent coverage of the urban population under safe water supply and sanitation services by the year 2021 at Rs.172, 905 crores. Estimates by Rail India Technical and Economic Services (RITES) indicate that the amount required for urban transport infrastructure investment in cities with population 100,000 or more during the next 20 years would be of the order of Rs.207, 000 crore. Such a big quantum of requisite investment for supply of urban infrastructure cannot be allocated within the budgetary resources of the central and state government. Therefore, private sector participation is being envisaged. But the experience so far suggests the limitations of this approach of financing. Under such a scenario, the supply of urban infrastructure to meet the existing demand and ever increasing demand is a Herculean task, which asks for demand side interference to solve the problem of quality and availability of urban services and infrastructure. The management of existing
demand d requires network n ope erators to understand u the consum mer to develop more intimate relations ship with the em in order to t modify th he demand in n stressed pa art of their ne etwork. On the t other hand, ch hanneling / monitoring m o ever increa of asing deman nd covers the e issues of re egional planning, i.e. micro as s well as mac cro planning covering the e intricacies of o rural- urba an interactio on.
Fig. 1: Altern nate Plannin ng Philosophy y
THE EX XISTING DEMAND D

The dem mand for any object is tied up with many factor rs. Consump ption pattern ns and life st tyles of a particula ar society sha ape the natu ure of deman nd, may it be e higher or le esser depend ding upon th he degree of consu umption. The e pressure on infrastructu ure due to th he existing demand d is directly linked with the consump ption pattern n of the pe eople. In fac ct, postmode ern culture is an effect of the logi ic of the commod dity of late ca apitalism and d today; the ethics of con nsumerism5 has become e a part and parcel of postmod dern society. . It does influ uence the mindset m of the e people and d determines s social class sification, because e the symboli ic association n of goods may m be utilize ed and reneg gotiated to e emphasize di ifferences in life sty yles, which demarcate d so ocial relations ship.
Requirement of Infrastructu ure and Ac ccess to Inf frastructur re in India

(Source: : World Bank k, World dev velopment In ndicators) 1. Electric power r consumptio on 503kwh/ca apita. rban sanitation facilities 52% 5 of urba an population n with access s. 2. Ur 3. Im mproved wate er sources 89 9% of popula ation with ac ccess. 4. Us sage of intern net or internet access 7 people p per 10 00 people. 5. Mobile phones s 15 people per p 100 people.
THE EV VER INCR REASING DEMAND D

Although h urbanizatio on in an eco onomy is con nsidered a po ositive indica ator of development, but t it brings associate ed problems s also. To ease e the pr ressure on mismanaged m d urban centers and en nsure the equitabl le urbanizatio on throughout the count try the policy y to develop satellite citie es was adopt ted. Such satellite cities may re elieve some pressure fro om big urban n centers, bu ut the reality y is that such h satellite cities ha ave got their own o misman nagement an nd infrastruct ture problem ms. In other w words, the im mplication of such a policy app proach is the e shifting of a portion of f the problem m of big urb ban center to o satellite cities an nd small town ns/cities, and d not solving the problem m as such.
The need is to consider the process of urbanization holistically in the light of the extent and nature of rural-urban interactions in the context of comprehensive regional planning. The ever-increasing demand and thus pressure on urban infrastructure is the outcome of two trends first, the increase in demand originates from the reproductive behavior of present urban masses. Second and the major cause of increasing urban population and thus demand is migration of population from rural and semi-urban area to cities and metros. Such unwanted migration is the result of diverse nature and type of economic activities and opportunities in rural, semi-urban and urban area. For instance, economy of big metro cities being different from small urban centres carries its own charm to induce the ambitious and educated youth to migrate there. Similarly, small urban centres attract rural masses. Monitoring of such migration asks for diversification and decentralization of economic activities as a part of regional planning.
AN ALTERNATE PLANNING PHILOSOPHY

The guiding proposition of the alternate planning philosophy is that both demand and supply side should be given due consideration. As the planning so far has been supply oriented, need is to make it balanced by giving due weight to demand aspect of the problem. On the demand side account should be taken of existing as well as ever increasing demand. Managing the existing demand asks for proper understanding of the postmodern consumer and chalking out the policy and intervention instruments i.e. pricing, taxes, subsidies, publicity, enforcement, accordingly. Management of ever-increasing demand is to be through monitoring and channeling the migration process. Such monitoring has to be in the broader context of regional planning. Regional planning should address two aspects: Micro planning and integration & compatibility of various micro plans.
URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE AND ECONOMY

Only 30 per cent of Indias population lives in urban areas. This is much lower than in China, Indonesia, South Korea, Mexico, and Brazil. Some of this may be due to much lower per capita incomes in India. The Committees projections suggest that Indias urban population as presently defined will be close to 600 million by 2031, more than double that in 2001. Already the number of metropolitan cities with population of 1 million and above has increased from 35 in 2001 to 50 in 2011 and is expected to increase further to 87 by 2031. The expanding size of Indian cities will happen in many cases through a process of peripheral expansion, with smaller municipalities and large villages surrounding the core city becoming part of the large metropolitan area. Three decades of rapid economic growth would normally have propelled migration from rural areas but growth in India has not had this effect thus far. This is because industrialization has been capital intensive and the services boom fuelled by the knowledge economy has also been skill intensive. A few cities of India have acted as centres of knowledge and innovation. As more cities provide economies of agglomeration and scale for clusters of industries and other non-agricultural economic activity, the urban sector will become the principal engine for stimulating national economic growth. Industrialization will absorb more people as India advances further in its integration with the world economy. At the present juncture, India faces the challenge of continuing on its high growth trajectory while making growth more broad-based and labor-intensive. Urban Infrastructure development is also depends on the Production Activity. Infrastructure development is directly proportional to the production activity i.e. economic condition or social welfare of the country.
URBAN N INFRAST TRUCTUR RE INVEST TMENT REQ QUIREMEN NT: 2012 31

The Rep port on India an Urban In nfrastructure and Service es is a result of over two o years effor rt on the part of the t High Po owered Expe ert Committe ee (HPEC) fo or estimating g the investm ment require ement for urban in nfrastructure e services. The T HPEC was w set up by the Min nistry of Urb ban Develop pment in May, 20 008. The investment for urban infrastructure e over the 20-year 2 perio od is estima ated at Rs. 39.2 3 lakh crore at 2009-10 pri ices. Of this, Rs. 17.3 lak kh crore (or 44 4 per cent) is accounted d for by urba an roads. The bac cklog for this s sector is ve ery large, ran nging from 50 5 per cent to o 80 per cen nt across the e cities of India. Sectors S delive ering urban services suc ch as water supply, sewerage, solid waste mana agement, and stor rm water dra ains will need d Rs. 8 lakh crore (or 20 0 per cent). The T Committ tee has made explicit provision of Rs. 4 lak kh crore tow wards investm ment in renew wal and rede evelopment including slum ms. ognizing tha at the focus of o policy sho ould be on provision p of public servi ices which fl low from Reco infrastru ucture assets s and not merely m on creating the assets, the Committee has highlig ghted the importan nce of operations and maintenan nce (O&M) for the upk keep of the e assets. Th he O&M requirem ments for new w and old as ssets are projected at Rs. 19.9 lakh crore over the 20-year per riod.
Fig. 2: Urban n Infrastructu ure Investment Requirement: 201231 1
OBSER RVATION
1. Po ower Sector: This sector experienced d 24% shortf fall in power in relation w with target se et in 10th 5y year plan. 2. 25 5% fall in hyd dropower an nd thermal ta argets over 2002-07 perio ods. 3. On nly 3% popu ulation has access a to inter rnet. 4. W Water and san nitation: 50% % of urban households h do not have e piped wate er and 44% have no sa anitation.
5. Transportation sector: 60,000 cr were allotted to be spent so far. In many cases, the current infrastructure is inadequate. Ex. Nearly 2/3rd of nation does not have access to sanitation facilities. 6. Current infrastructure is not likely to meet tomorrows need. Ex. With increase in road traffic at 15% per annum we will need more high quantity roads to maintain free flow traffic.
CONCLUSION
1. India is urbanizing. This transition, which will see Indias urban population reach a figure close to 600 million by 2031, is not simply a shift of demographics. It places cities and towns at the centre of Indias development trajectory. In the coming decades, the urban sector will play a critical role in the structural transformation of the Indian economy and in sustaining the high rates of economic growth. Ensuring high quality public services for all in the cities and towns of India is an end in itself, but it will also facilitate the full realization of Indias economic potential. 2. India needs a lot more infrastructure to meet its needs. The government is focusing on this and has created a set of programs and reforms aimed at addressing this issue. 3. However, as the above study in a paper indicates, current infrastructure is still inadequate and many targets have been missed. There is therefore a lot of work that needs to be done. Business as usual, will not suffice. 4. Infrastructure inadequacies in both rural and urban areas are a major factor constraining India's growth in terms of economy, quality, production etc. 5. Infrastructure plays a vital role in determining urban efficiency and prosperity.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Report on Indian Urban Infrastructure and Services March 2011, The High Powered Expert Committee (HPEC), Dr. Isher Judge Ahluwalia, Indian Council for research on International Economic Relations. Report on Infrastructure Planning and Management-Class 2 Norms and Standards of Municipal Basic Services in India, April 2007, Dr. M.P. Mathur Education and training at various administration levels: assessing needs, ensuring quality, Dr. Potaraju Geeta, conference paper. Reports of World Bank, World Development Indicators.
Use of Precast Technology for Low Cost Housing

K.D. Sadhale1, K.A. Sahakari2 and N. Dias3
IIA, K.D. Sadhale and Associates; kdsadahale@gmail.com IEI, K.A. Sahakari and Associates; kasahakari@gmail.com 3Member IEI, IGS, Government Polytechnic Panaji; nancy_dias@yahoo.com
2Member 1Member
AbstractPrefabricated construction has a potential of achieving high productivity and efficiency without sacrificing quality. It has the potential of constructing housing quickly and affordably. Mass construction using low cost technologies in rural areas and in areas affected by natural calamities like earthquakes, cyclones and tsunamis is essential. Rehabilitation of slum dwellers and relocation of families also calls for such construction. This paper discusses low cost housing concept using precast fabricated members. The design aspects deliberated in this paper are based on an award winning project located in Goa for outstanding qualities in architecture, planning and contributing to the environment of small or a large community houses and buildings like schools, health centres and recreational buildings. The authors have conceptualized and constructed the building project. The structure is a load bearing two storied residential building complex. Slim precast rafters of trapezoidal cross sections were used to support the slab. The buildings have been occupied for the last 12 years with no maintenance and without any problems. This paper focuses on design and construction techniques implemented in that project. A total of about 25 to 35 percent of cost savings could be achieved by using these techniques. Keywords: Prefabricated Construction, Low Cost Housing, Design Aspect, Construction Techniques
INTRODUCTION
Prefabricated construction is a building process in which elements or modules of the structure are prefabricated at plants, and then transported to the construction site for installation. Prefabricated construction has a potential of constructing housing quickly and affordably. This technique can achieve high productivity and efficiency without sacrificing on quality. Considerable amount of energy savings can be achieved by implementing prefabricated construction, thus contributing towards green technology and sustainable development.
PREFABRICATED CONSTRUCTION
Prefabrication techniques are used in construction where the structure is composed of repeating units, or where multiple copies of the same basic structure are needed. Mass construction using low cost housing in rural areas and in areas affected by natural calamities, could be carried out using this technique. Rehabilitation of slum dwellers and relocation of families also calls for such construction. This technique is also widely used in the construction of bridges, off shore projects, etc., where construction using traditional methods is difficult. This technique offers safety, economy and speed of construction with less environmental impact. Prefabricated units are also used in high rise structures as safety, quality and speed of construction could be achieved. Stringent quality control norms could be achieved in this method of construction thus making it very popular.
Advantages of Prefabricated Construction

1. The formwork moulds could be reused many number of times hence saving cost and time on erecting the formwork as in traditional building procedures. 2. The controlled processes and building practices in the factories/ plants ensure very good quality control of the units produced. Very accurate processes for proportioning, grading, mixing, vibrating and curing of concrete could be achieved which is not possible in case of in situ construction.
3. Since the final product obtained is without faults, defects and honeycombing, the need for finishing these units by plastering, cladding, etc. is eliminated. 4. Construction time is reduced and buildings are completed sooner, allowing an earlier return of the capital invested. 5. On-site construction and congestion is minimized. 6. Skilled labor could be employed permanently on the plant as the manufacturing of various units is continuous. 7. Time spent in bad weather or hazardous environments at the construction site is minimized. 8. Wastage is less. 9. Advanced materials such as sandwich-structured composite can be easily used, improving thermal and sound insulation and airtightness 10. High Energy savings could be achieved due to use of slimmer sections, less wastages and controlled processes. Also resources like formwork and water could be reused which results in further savings. 11. The prefab elements of a panelized home are precut; they fit snugly together, making a tighter edifice. This means less effort for heating and cooling resulted in lower energy bills hence contributing to green building technology
Disadvantages of Prefabricated Construction

1. Transportation and handling of prefabricated components such as concrete panels is difficult. Transportation costs are higher for voluminous prefabricated sections than for the materials of which they are made up of. 2. The joints have to be well designed and properly assembled as improper design and handling techniques may lead to the failure of these joints and ultimately collapse. 3. The joints have to be designed to maintain the monolithicity of the structure so that the structure behaves as one unit especially for construction in earthquake prone zones. 4. The joints have to be made corrosion-resistant so as to avoid failure of the joint. 5. Joints should be leaks proof especially if used as roof panels. 6. Large prefabricated sections require heavy-duty cranes and precision measurement and handling to place in position. 7. Larger groups of identical buildings constructed from the same type of prefabricated elements tend to look unaesthetic and monotonous. 8. In earthquake prone zones adequate precautions in design and construction has to be adopted.
CASE STUDY OF AMRAEE HOUSING PROJECT

Amraee housing project is an award winning ecofriendly and cost effective project located at Ponda, Goa. The Award was instituted by The Indian Institute of Architecture and Dharmasthala Manjunatheswar Charitable Trust in the year 2000 for works carried out in rural and semi urban areas with population not exceeding half a million for a building project which reflects outstanding qualities in architecture and planning and contributing to the environment of the place. Amraee housing project focuses on deeper levels of systemizing eco-friendly techniques and attitudes of sustenance of living environment by reducing the consumption of energy intensive materials. The entire process of development and construction is designed to cause least harm to the environment. The various units were planned keeping in mind the functionality and individual requirement of the clients.
Use of Precas st Technology fo or Low Cost Hou using 193
As this project was w promote ed by a deve eloper as his commercial l enterprise, it was neces ssary that the proj ject should be viable. The challen nge was to keep the se elling cost lo ow while re ecovering expensiv ve land cost t with constr ruction cost (without inc creasing the number of units or FSI I). In this project 30% 3 of ava ailable FSI was w given up p for mainta aining prope er quality an nd ambience e. So the whole fo ocus was on n constructio on technolo ogy and effe ective manag gement and use of mat terials to reduce the t cost drast tically withou ut compromi ising on quality. The project was undertaken keeping the following po oints in mind d: 1. Instilling a sense of responsibility in the e minds of th he inhabitant ts towards the environme ent. onstructing in n such a way y that it could d cause least t damage/im mpact on the environment. 2. Co 3. Us sing energy saving s mater rials and met thods of construction. 4. Ke eeping the co ost low witho out comprom mising on the e quality.
Fig. 1: Plan P Showing g Various Un nits Planned wit thout Cutting g the Existing g Trees
Fig. 2: Amraee A Hous sing Complex after Comp pletion
Sustain nable/ Gree en Techniq ques Imple emented in n the Project

1. Th he entire clu uster of units s was developed withou ut cutting a single existi ing tree in the t area. Th herefore the plans of each and every unit had to be b different so s as to pres serve all the trees. t 2. Gr round cuttin ng was kept to a minimu um hence th he various un nits were constructed at different lev vels following the topogr raphy of the land. Individ dual resident tial units also o were const tructed at dif fferent levels s. 3. Ea ach and ever ry unit was given g access to the garde ens to instill a sense of r responsibility y towards their environm ment and to promote p outd door activitie es for kids as s well as adul lts. he waste wat ter of each and every uni it was dispos sed within th he garden spa ace allotted to t them. 4. Th 5. Pa arking sheds was provid ded at the en ntrance and the entire area a was con nnected by pathways p he ence enabling the childre en to play and move arou und without any fear of t traffic or acci idents. 6. Ex xposed later rite masonry y was prov vided which h eliminated d the need for plaster ring and su ubsequent pa ainting of the e building un nits. 7. Lo ocally availab ble Laterite was used as s a major bu uilding mate erial which w was acquired d directly fro om the qua arry. Use of energy inte ensive mate erials like ce ement and s steel was minimized m su ubstantially by b using exp posed laterite e masonry, slim precast t RCC roofs and other units u like ch hajja brackets s etc. 8. Th he roofing sy ystem consist ting of preca ast units with h mangalore tiles laid on top provide es air gap in between th hus shielding g the heat. Also A in uppe er floors larg ge volumes a are provided d making ro ooms airy an nd well ven ntilated. The ese entire at ttribute to th he microclim mate making g it very co omfortable th hus reducing the energy consumption c n for cooling. .
9. Th he ground treatment giv ven consistin ng of green gardens co over and pa athways cons sisting of ste epping stone es and soil, naturally n gro own grass wh hich increase e the absorp ption and the ereby the radiation impr roving the microclimate.
Structu ural and Design Aspe ect

The stru ucture is a lo oad bearing two storied residential building. b Locally availab ble laterite st tone was used to construct the wall footin ng and the 300mm 3 thick k walls. The exposed e late erite masonry y gives a very rus stic and eart thy look to the t entire pr roject. This eliminated the t 20 mm d double coat external plaster, cement c pain nt/weather pr roof paint apart from peri iodic maintenance of rep painting the wall. w
Use of Precast Re einforced Concrete C Precas st PCC Lintel Blocks for Windows
The lintels were con nstructed of precast PCC C blocks. Al ll PCC block ks required f for one arch h shaped lintel we ere cast at one o time as s shown in the Fig.3. This T techniqu ue helps in reducing la abor cost consider rably, as cutt ting stones of o the require ed shape and d size is labo orious. Fig.4 and Fig.5 sh hows the lintel during and afte er constructio on.
Fig. 3: Casting of PCC P Lintel Blocks B
Fig. 4: Lin ntel During Constr ruction
ig. 5: Lintel After A Fi Constructio on
Thin Pr recast Rein nforced Co oncrete Lin ntels for Doors

Thin precast R.C li intels of M1 15 grade, ha aving cross section 100 0mm x 300m mm with main m steel consistin ng of 2 numb bers of 10mm m dia. tor steel bars and d 6mm mild steel @200m mm distribution steel. These lin ntels were designed to act a as compo osite units alo ong with the e laterite mas sonry constructed on top of it. To achieve e the compos site effect, th he top layer of the lintels was made r rough during g casting. The lint tel once plac ced in posit tion above the t door wa as smeared with a laye er of cement t mortar. Laterite masonry wa as then const tructed on to op of it as shown in the Fig. F 6. On se etting this thin n precast lintel beh haves as a co omposite un nit.
Precas st Chajja Brackets

Precast chajja brack kets as shown n in the Fig. 7 and Fig.8 8 were used instead of th he conventio onal RCC chajjas. They were fixed f by inse erting them during const truction of th he wall maso onry. These brackets were pro ovided with notches on top to accom mmodate matti wood ba attens. Mang galore tiles were w then fitted on n top of these e battens. Th he whole ass sembly prove ed to be very y cost effecti ive as it save ed on the RCC and formwork.
Precas st R.C Doo or and Wind dow Frame es and Ventilators

The pre ecast toilet door d frames replaced th he conventio onal wooden n frames thu us further sa aving on the cost t and at the e same time conserving the forest resource. r Als so the ventil lators were made of precast jalli. j
Use of Precas st Technology fo or Low Cost Hou using 195
Fig. 6: Thin Precast t R.C. Lintels
Fig. 7 & Fig. 8: Casti ing & Fixing of Precast C Chajja Bracke ets
Precas st Staircase e Treads

Precast staircase s trea ads of 100mm thickness were used as shown in th he Fig.9. The precast treads were cantileve ered out from m the wall. This T was in contrast to the t conventional RC stai ircase consis sting of a thick wa aist slab and which would require centering, shut ttering and considerable c amount of steel s and concrete e. Since Prec cast Staircase e treads has an excellent t finish, plast tering was av voided, henc ce further reducing g the cost.
F Fig. 9: Precas st RCC Stairc case Treads
Fig. 10: Ca asting of Prec cast Planks
Precas st R.C. Plan nks

Precast planks p of 60 00mm x 120mm dimensi ions were us sed as shown n in the Fig. 10. The thic ckness of these pr recast planks s was kept at t 50 mm. Ho owever at th he edges the thickness wa as reduced to t 30mm all arou und to prov vide monolit thicity at the e joints when placed and a concret ted in positi ion. The placeme ent of these e planks along with th he partially precast R.C. trapezoid dal rafters and the reinforce ement details s are shown in Fig. 11.
Partial lly Precast R.C. Trape ezoidal Raf afters

Partially y precast slim m rafters of tr rapezoidal cr ross section were w used to o support the e precast pla anks. The dimensio ons and rein nforcement details d of the ese rafters is s as shown in i the Fig.11 1. These raft ters were cast in three t stages. . First, the bottom b 100m mm was cas st. On setting and curing, these raft ters were placed in i position. These units s being light t in weight could be ea asily transpo orted and ca arried by two peo ople.
Fig. 11: Precast RCC Rafter and Plank Assembly
Fig. 12: Elevation of Precast Rafter
Construction Procedure of the Precast Roof
Fig. 13: Precast Planks and Trapezoidal rafters
Fig. 14: Reinforcement Details of Trapezoidal Rafters
1. The partially precast trapezoidal rafters were lifted by two to three laborers and placed on the wall such that their center to center spacing is exactly 127mm. 2. Then the middle portion of the trapezoidal rafters was concreted using a sliding box. 3. After setting and proper curing, of this middle portion the precast planks were placed on top of these rafters as shown in the Fig.13 and Fig. 14. 4. Steel reinforcement consisting of 6mm diameter mild steel bar was placed in the 100mm x 50mm notches in both directions as shown in the Fig. 11. 5. The notches were then concreted. This was done so that when these precast planks were placed on the partially precast rafters, reinforcement could be placed in these gaps and then concrete could be poured in the depressed portion. This would impart monolithicity to the structure to some extent and make the joint waterproof. 6. As these precast planks and precast trapezoidal rafters have a very smooth finish, it eliminates the need to plaster it, thus saving costs.
Use of Precast Technology for Low Cost Housing 197
6. As these precast planks and precast trapezoidal rafters have a very smooth finish, it eliminates the need to plaster it, thus saving costs.
Phased Cluster Wise Construction Cost

Phase I II III No. of Units Commencement Completion 12 Feb 1995 Jan 1996 9 May 1996 Nov 1997 16 Nov 1997 Jan 2000 Common services as the scooter shed, sump , OH tank, water gutters, etc. Total Cost 29,54,300.00 24,53,476.00 58,54,953.00 3,38,977.00 1,15,91,706.00
By comparing the above cost to the prevailing market rates at that time it was found out that a total of about 25 to 35 percent of cost savings could be achieved by using these techniques.
AMRAEE HOUSING PROJECT AFTER 12 YEARS

The buildings have been occupied for the last 16 to 12 years with minimal maintenance. The structure shows no signs of deterioration on the concrete surface, such as rusting, cracking and spalling. Fig.15 and Fig.16 shows the recent photographs of the exterior as well as the interior roof of Amraee Housing Complex. It is obvious from the pictures that the structure is in a very good condition.
Fig. 15: Recent Pictures of Amraee Housing Project
Fig. 16: Recent Pictures of Roof Showing Precast Rafters and Planks
ADAPTATION OF COST EFFECTIVE TECHNIQUES FOR MASS HOUSING

Various techniques as stated below could be incorporated so as to affect cost savings for mass housing projects. 1. Use of slim Precast Reinforced Concrete building construction units like slab planks, wall panels, thin lintels, door and window frames, etc. 2. Adaptation of partial prefabrication of some of the precast components like partially fabricated beam, joists or rafters of such size and weight which could be fabricated at construction sites or in industrial production units which could be transported and carried by two people easily. 3. Exposed stone masonry. 4. Precast concrete chajjas or chajja brackets. 5. Use of precast cantilevered staircase treads. 6. Modular housing having identical units thus reduces the cost of casting these units of different sizes.
CONCLUSION
The Amraee Housing Project is constructed as a part of the landscape without disturbing the natural topography and without cutting a single tree. The use of eco friendly architectural principles, natural light, ventilation, waste management system, construction materials and techniques, etc. has reduced the energy consumption required to create comfort level of temperature, humidity and air movement. This has resulted in energy savings during construction as well in the long run thus reducing the green house effect. The project is a trendsetter who proves that low cost housing can be achieved without compromising on the quality and at the same time spreads awareness for the use of energy efficient materials. It also enhances the quality of life of the residents and incorporates the responsibility towards our environment. This concept can be further used for mass low cost housing projects or for any building construction work thus reducing cost and increasing profitability.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] IS: 4326-1993. Indian Standard Earthquake Design and Construction of Building- Code of Practice, Second Revision, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. IS: 10297-1982. Indian Standard Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Floors and Roofs Using Precast Reinforced / Pre stressed Concrete Ribbed or Core Slab Units, Indian Standards Institution, New Delhi. Lal, A.K. (1996). Handbook for Low Cost Housing, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi. Rao, A.N.V. and Raina, S. (2005). Energy Independence in Buildings Why and How?, National Council of Cement and Building Material, India, 4, 8-11. Stuart, M.D. (2008). Antiquated Structural Systems Series, Part 5, Engineers Notebook, Structure Magazine, 25-27. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefabrication. http://civilengineerlink.com/prefabricated-construction.
Strategies for Hilly Roads and Transport

S.K. Negi1, V. Srinivasan2 and R.K. Garg3
1Sr. 2Sr.
Principal Scientist, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India; sknegicbri@rediffmail.com Scientist, CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre, Chennai, India; vsrinicbri@rediffmail.com 3Chief Scientist, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India; gargarchi@gmail.com
facets of national life. Even today, the community remains devoid of basic facilities such as housing, drinking water and roads in hilly areas. Hill roads are an important sector for development, which deals in all aspects of development including agriculture, health, education, forestry, fisheries, small-scale industries, trade, commerce etc. that depends on good transport & communication. It provides essential infrastructure for achieving the objectives of integrated rural development and enabling rural community to overcome their sense of isolation. The principal modes of transport in hilly areas are walk, cycle, automated vehicle (two wheeler, tractor), mini bus and bus though not necessarily in the same order. Hill mobility depends on good transport infrastructure (roads, paths, bridges, culverts) and low cost transport services. Adoption of appropriate and cost effective technology using local materials, machinery and other resources is essential for hill development. This paper focuses on status of hill roads, options for transport system and improved mobility.
AbstractThe development in hilly areas has not kept pace with the overall progress in other
INTRODUCTION
India is a vast country extending over an area of 3.29 million square kilometres with an astounding strength of population of more than one billion. It is basically rural in character as nearly 74.30 per cent of its population lives in 5.92 lakh villages. It is predominantly an agrarian economy as about 60.00 per cent of its people take it up as an occupation. As such, any attempt, to develop the country or to improve the living standards of the people, must begin with the development of villages. But, as these villages are physically spread throughout the length and breadth of the country, no mode of transport other than road transport can adequately and effectively meet the demand of transport arising out of the growing economic, social, health, cultural and religious needs of the villagers. Villages in India are not connected with all-weather roads, though there is a wide disparity in connectivity among states. Many villages still rely on earth tracks which is unsuitable for motorized traffic due to poor riding quality, and which become impassable during the rainy season because of missing bridges and culverts. Much of the network is under-developed, of low standard and poor quality, structurally weak, poorly maintained, and extremely deteriorated. The poor condition and inadequate coverage of the rural network is a major constraint to rural development and poverty alleviation. Lack of roads means, an estimated 20-30 per cent of the agricultural, horticultural and forest produce gets wasted because of inability to transport the produce to market and processing centers. If a proper Rural Transport (RT) system were provided, it would have functioned as a catalyst, facilitator and efficient instrument for accelerating rural development and bringing about social equity. Ensuring an effective Rural Transport Infrastructure (RTI) system is an essential requirement for rural development, although by itself, it is not sufficient to guarantee success. Without adequate RTI, communities lack the necessary physical access for basic domestic chores, agricultural activities, social and economic services and job opportunities. Without reliable access to markets and productive resources, economic development stagnates, and poverty reduction cannot be sustained. Improvements of the intra- and near-village path and track network, and the provision of all-season basic motorized accessif affordable and appropriateare therefore essential conditions for rural
development. Simultaneous development of adequate rural infrastructure, productive sectors, social and economic services, an appropriate macroeconomic framework, good governance and local ownership, are required for rural poverty alleviation (Figure 1).
Infrastructure Transport Water Energy Irrigation Communication
Hilly Area Development
Productive Sectors Agricultural Fishery Non-farm Sector Natural Resource Managements
Social and Economic Sector Health Education Administration Transport
Fig. 1: The Elements of Rural Development
STATUS OF RURAL ROAD

Percentage of village roads to total road length in the country has an increasing trend. Out of total roads network of all types in India (24.66 Lakh kms), Panchayat roads constitute 10.54 lakh km (42.6 per cent), while P.W.D. roads (9.40 lakh kms) account for 38.0 per cent, urban roads (2.32 lakh km) form 9.4 per cent and project roads account for 10 per cent. Majority of Panchayat roads remains unsurfaced which constitute about 63 per cent of total Panchayat road length. Availability of fair weather / surfaced roads connecting every village is a prerequisite for improving the quality of life and economy in the rural areas. Government of India has placed substantial emphasis on improving the connectivity of villages through several programs. Rural roads receive a major share (nearly 50 per cent) of funding available from various employment generation programs of the government. Government is committed to providing accessibility to the remaining 40 per cent of villages. Indian government launched a national program called Prime Ministers Rural Road Program (Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana) aiming at all-weather road access to all habitations with a population of 1,000 and above by the year 2003, and those with a population above 500 by the year 2007. Besides providing connectivity to above 1,00,000 habitations, the program also aims to upgrade about 5,00,000 km of existing rural roads.
PATTERNS OF RURAL TRANSPORT

Rural Transport involves many types of movement for a wide range of purposes both with in villages and beyond. The purpose of the travel may related to the household (obtaining water, fuel, and food), agricultural (tendering and marketing of crops and livestock), or a wide variety of socioeconomic activities (education, religion, recreation, health, employment, income generation). Journeys may have multiple purposes. Different means of transport may be appropriate depending on infrastructure, purpose, distance, gender and age. Effective rural transport relies on a variety of means of transport to move passengers and goods, with type and diversity depending on infrastructure, environmental conditions, users (Figure 2). Most rural transport takes place in the vicinity of villages. Trips generally involve short distances and small
Strategies for Hilly Roads and Transport 201
loads carried on paths and tracks, typically for marketing, collecting water and firewood, and tendering crops and animals. Intermediate means of transport are ideal for such purposes but are not sufficiently promoted or supported by government transport planners, and they are expensive for poor rural people. Out-of-village travel is less common but of enormous economic and social importance, including trips to and from distant farms and markets, employment opportunities, schools, health facilities, grinding mills, and friends and relatives. These trips involve longer distances and are more likely to involve intermediate means of transport or motorized transport services. But in many rural areas, walking and carrying may be used even over long distances. Motorized public and private rural transport services concentrate on routes from villages to market towns and from towns to cities, where there is greater demand and better infrastructure.
Village Surroundings Villages Local Centers
Market Service Center Town
Bigger town City
Fig. 2: Rural Transport Pattern
OPTIONS FOR RURAL TRANSPORT SERVICES Carrying, Wheelbarrows, Handcarts, and Trolleys
Although humans can carry loads of 50 kilograms (kg) for short distances, loads of 1020 kg is more normal. The comfort of carrying these can be increased with simple technologies such as poles, shoulder yokes, or backpacks. Carrying is flexible, requires little infrastructure, and is the transport means of choice for light loads and very short distances. It may be the only realistic option in difficult environments (such as those with mud, slopes, streams, or dense vegetation). Simple wheeled devices such as wheelbarrows, handcarts, and trolleys increase human transport capacity. Depending on the environment (ground surface and slope), these can comfortably carry 50100 kg. Balanced handcarts (with most weight on the wheels) are more comfortable than wheelbarrows with one forward wheel. Wheelbarrows can operate on smaller paths but need two hands to operate them. Carts, barrows, and trolleys are easy to load and park and are good for short or intermittent journeys (itinerant selling, collecting, or delivering). They are generally used for short distances (1002,000 meters).
Bicycles, Bicycle Trailers, Sidecars, and Tricycles

Bicycles are the most available, affordable, and flexible means of transporting people and small loads over short distances, and they are increasingly common in rural areas. In some countries bicycles have important functions for carrying other people (family, friends, hire) and small loads (up to 100 kg). Bicycles do not need elaborate infrastructure but work best in flat areas with hard surfaces. While long journeys are possible, bicycles are mainly used for distances of 1- 10 kilometers. Bicycles may be fitted with load-carriers or additional seats (for children or adults). For very large loads, bicycles may be pushed, not ridden. In Vietnam bicycles fitted with folding side platforms and rods to balance the handlebars and saddle carry extraordinary volumes and loads. Detachable cycle trailers can increase the weight and volume that can be safely carried by a bicycle. Although examples can be seen in many countries (Cambodia, Denmark, United States), they are not common. In some countries, including Cuba, Lao PDR, and the Philippines, bicycle sidecars are used to transport people and goods. Tricycles also increase the weight and volume that can be safely transported. They may have two wheels at the front (as in Peru) or behind (the cycle rickshaws of the Indian subcontinent). Although tricycles are mainly used in urban areas, they may be used in rural areas to carry people and goods. Tricycles have achieved critical mass in several Asian and Latin American countries.
Animal Power
Animal transport is common and increasing in many parts of the world. Animals are generally privately owned and provide transport services for the family as well as for hire. Many different animals can be used for riding, as pack animals, and for pulling sledges, carts, and wagons. Different species have different advantages and disadvantages. They include oxen (available and strong, but slow and expensive), cows (multipurpose), and buffalo (strong but sensitive to heat). Horses (strong but delicate) are fast transport animals, most common in temperate, subtropical, and highland areas. Donkeys (small but cheap) are found mainly in semiarid areas. Mules, camels, llamas, elephants, and dogs have more specialized transport niches. Animals can be used singly or in teams, providing a wide range of transport capacities, from 50 kg (single small pack animal) to 5,000 kg (wagon pulled by two or more oxen, horses, or mules). Animals are most commonly used for trips of 1-10 kilometers, but longer journeys are possible. Animal transport is often appropriate and affordable in rural areas, where feed resources are available and the animals have multiple functions. Animaldrawn carts can carry significant loads between fields, farms, and villages even if tracks are poor. Carts may be expensive relative to rural incomes, but maintenance is simple and affordable. Carts are mainly used in flat areas, while pack animals provide important mobility in hilly areas.
Motorcycles and Three-Wheelers

Motorcycles, mopeds, and scooters are expensive relative to rural incomes but provide convenient, fast, and flexible transport for passengers and small amounts of freight. Transport services based on motorcycles are increasing in most developing countries, particularly in urban and periurban areas. Transport capacity of motorcycles can be increased by the use of a sidecar or a trailer. They can also be adapted to make three-wheelers for carrying passengers and goods. In the Philippines motorcycle sidecars commonly carry six or more people. In Cambodia motorcycle trailers may carry more than 10 people, or over 500 kg, without major modification (or safety devices). In much of Asia, three-wheelers based on motorcycle technology provide urban and rural transport services. These have basic covers to protect passengers and goods from the weather. Although motorcycles can be used on poor tracks, motorcycle trailers and threewheelers require good roads without steep slopes.
Tractors, Power Tillers and Utility Vehicles

Four-wheel agricultural tractors are complicated machines, specialized for traction in uneven terrain. They can pull trailers with more than five metric tons on very poor tracks. Tractors are most important for short distance (1-5 kilometer) transport in agriculture, road maintenance, and forestry. It is expensive but may benefit from preferential agricultural duties. Due to the scarcity of other transport options in rural areas, tractors may be used on roads as multipurpose vehicles for longer distances. In South and Southeast Asia trailers pulled by two-wheel agricultural tractors (power tillers) are becoming increasing important for rural transport (1-10 kilometers). Farmers can use them profitably in irrigated rice systems, with additional uses for family transport and transport hire. Trailers may also be used mainly as transport services, partly because of preferential taxes and duties on agricultural equipment. In flat areas, trailers can transport more than 20 people. Night transport with power tillers is a recognized hazard in many countries. The use of power tillers has been tried in several countries in Africa and Latin America, but they are generally unsuitable for conventional, rain-fed cropping systems, and there has been a problem of reaching a critical mass of economically viable units. In Southeast Asia local entrepreneurs make cheap small trucks using a diesel engine fitted into a scrap chassis. These are known as itaen (Thailand), koyun (Cambodia), and congnong (Vietnam), which means iron oxen, the name first used for power tillers. They have few refinements (or safety features), and no two vehicles are identical. Some small workshops make more than 100 a year. Transport entrepreneurs generally operate them, carrying building materials, goods, and people in rural and periurban areas.
Cars, Pickups and Minibuses

Pickup trucks with load capacity of 1 metric ton and the ability to carry a dozen passengers in comfort (and many more if necessary) are versatile vehicles widely used in rural transport. They are used mainly for medium- to long-distance travel (10-200 kilometers). Pickups used in rural transport services may be fitted with passenger-carrying benches and load-carrying roof racks. The size, speed, and flexible load potential of pickups, and their ability to cope with poor roads throughout the year, make them well suited to the long-distance transport needs of small, dispersed communities. Cars (bush taxis) and minibuses fill similar niches in periurban and rural areas but do not have the same ability to cope with bad roads. Minibuses are becoming increasingly common for transporting passengers and small loads in areas where roads are well maintained.
Large Buses and Trucks

Large trucks (5-30 metric tons) and buses (30-60 passengers) are most cost-effective when carrying full loads over long distances (20-200 kilometers). They are not always as suitable for rural transport because demand is dispersed, making it difficult to attain a reasonable load factor. Trucks have a very seasonal demand in rural areas (with peaks around harvest time). Buses can be viable on interurban, periurban, and high-density routes, but they may be inappropriate for poor, dispersed rural communities. As rural production, affluence, and transport demand rise, large trucks and buses become increasingly important as the cheapest transport options for consolidated loads. Means of transport with characteristics and requirements are shown in Table 1. Each vehicle has a cost advantage at some combination of distance and demand. For short distances and low overall demand, bicycles are cost-effective for light loads and ox carts for heavier loads. Large trucks become cost effective for the longest distances and highest demand levels.
Table 1: Means of Transport with Characteristics and Important Requirements

Load Speed (km/hr) (kg) Carrying / head load 20 5 Wheelbarrow / Sledge 100 4 Handcart 150 4 Pack donkey 80 7 Bicycle 60 10 Cycle rickshaw 150 8 Donkey cart 400 6 Horse cart 1000 7 Ox cart 1000 5 Motorcycle 100 50 Power tiller trailer 1000 10 Pickup 1200 80 Light Truck 12000 80 Source: Paul Starkey etc. World Bank Report Transport Means Range (km) 10 1-3 5 20 20 15 15 15 10 50 15 200 200 Mechanics Low Low Low Low Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium High High High High Good Roads or Tracks Low Low Medium Low Medium High Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium High High
DISCUSSIONS
Government level planning practices define numerical targets for village connectivity but typically ignore alternative ways of achieving the same targets. There is no guidance on key issues such as where the villages should be connected to, design and construction standards, and the prioritization of villages. It is common to see road works remains incomplete without bridges and culverts and multiple road connection provided to one village while other villages remain without a single connection.
Most rural road investment decisions are at present subject to considerable political influence, with little or no consideration of economic priorities. To maintain a degree of equity among villages, the spatial balance of the program must be considered along with economic criteria when selecting individual road for development. Rural road technologies are largely traditional and have not undergone any major change for several decades. It is possible to introduce cost effective technology and bring down the overall life-cycle cost of rural roads, through improved design, improved material specifications, and new / improved technologies. The roles of central, state and local governments need to be clearly defined. The Ministry of Rural Development should assume leadership in essential policy adjustments/ enunciation and institutional changes, as well as in financing, technology transfer, human resources development, and monitoring of rural road development in different states. One of the main problems in the planning and management of rural roads is the lack of reliable information on key aspects such as road condition and traffic volumes. A computerized database, preferably in a Geographical Information System (GIS) environment, should be created at national, state and district levels. Community participation offers significant potential for mobilizing the support of local communities in resource generation, land acquisition, and tailoring the rural road programs to local needs. Provide guidance on appropriate spending for transport services in relation to people served, tonnage handled, increased income from sales, and so on. Consider economical options to enhance affordability and use of transport among the poor (including credit, subsidies, taxes and duties).
Propose ways to enhance human capacity, awareness and to stimulate local initiatives and interventions to address gender and cultural obstacles to make transport available to those in need. Maximize return from existing transport through multi-sector initiative using information technologies to identify demand and access markets efficiency. Encourage a coordinated approach to providing information and increasing diversity involving several ministries, NGOs and formal and informal private sectors. Introduce programs to stimulate synergy between transport and the rural economy; including enhanced agricultural production and employment creation. .
CONCLUSION
Developing road and transport are important for the successful implementation of various government programs for agricultural development, poverty alleviation, employment generation and rural industrialization. Hilly terrain mobility depends on good transport infrastructure (roads, paths, bridges, culverts) as well as low cost transport services. Governments (central, state) and NGOs should promote new means of transport in many low-density, low-income areas, and efforts should consider the needs of disadvantaged groups. Community participation involving all stakeholders is essential to determine infrastructure priorities, appropriate locations for facilities, and suitable means of transport. Broad national, state and local networking is important because of the magnitude of hilly transport problems, the number of stakeholders and the need for diverse interventions. There is an urgent need to review and revise the existing system of planning, design, construction and specification to enhance the life cycle of road construction, operation and maintenance at an affordable level.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The paper is being published with the kind permission of the Director, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee.
REFERENCES
Chandra B. Shrestha, (2003). Developing a computer aided methodology for district road network planning and prioritization in Nepal, International Journal of Transport Management, pp 157-174. [2] Christina Malmberg Calvo, Options for Managing and Financing Rural Transport Infrastructure, World Bank Technical Paper No. 411. [3] Dr. J.P.Singh, (2001). Transportation and Communication in Rural India: Some Facts, Kurukshetra, pp 17-19. [4] Government of India: Ministry of Rural Development, Manual for Preparation of District Rural Roads Plan for PMGSY, 2001. [5] Government of India: Planning Commission, Xth Five-Year Plan, 2002-2007. [6] Jerry Lebo, Design and Appraisal of Rural Transport Infrastructure- Ensuring Basic Access for Rural Communities, World Bank Technical Paper No. 496. [7] K.N. Raju, Rural Roads Networks: Some Issues, Kurukshetra, (2000) pp 41-44. [8] Kotnana Rama Rao, Rural Bus Transport Operations of the Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation* (A Study of their Impact on the Socio-Economic Development of Rural Households in Visakhapatnam District), Finance India, Vol. X No. 2, June 1996, Pages 397403. [9] Paul Starkey, Simon Ellis, etc, Improving Rural Mobility: Options for Developing Motorized and Nonmotorized Transport in Rural Areas, World Bank Technical Paper. [10] Rural Roads and Rural Transport: A new challenge (2001), Kurukshetra, pp 12-16. [11] World Bank, (2003). Technical Note on Rural Transport in Multi-Sectroral and Community Driven Projects, News Letter, March. [1]
Section B Green Building Construction and Green Retrofitting
Comparative Analysis of Building Sustainability Assessment Tools and Identifying Key Attributes for Green Retrofits
Ashok Kumar1, P.S. Chani2 and Rajesh Deoliya3
1Senior Principal Scientist & Group Leader (Architecture & Planning), CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee; kumarcbri@rediffmail.com 2Asstt. Professor, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee; prabhjot_chani@gmail.com 3Principal Scientist, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee; deoliya_cbri@rediffmail.com
AbstractThis paper discusses and summarizes a systematic study on the building sustainability that involves various relations between built, natural and social systems and therefore comprises of different priorities that require consideration at each stage of a buildings life-cycle. The building sustainability assessment tools and methods available worldwide are constantly evolving in order to overcome their present limitations, but they continue to be based on a different list of indicators, which cause difficulties in comparing results. The International Organization for Standardization is working for the last few years to define standard requirements for the environmental and sustainability assessments of buildings. Three building sustainability assessment tools, GRIHA, LEED, and BREEAM are compared from point of view of climate responsiveness, energy efficiency, materials and resources and waste management. The paper highlights the limitations of the present tools emphasize on the need for developing a new rating system for existing buildings which will be more scientific in the Indian context. An attempt is made to identify key elements and attributes for green retrofits of existing buildings in India? Keywords: Sustainability, assessment tool, GRIHA, LEED, BREEAM, ISO, green retrofit, energy efficiency, climatic responsiveness.
INTRODUCTION
Sustainability and, in particular, sustainability in construction, has a short developing history in terms of principles, standardizations and applications. Since the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future, in which the concept of sustainable development was coined by Brundtland, the Prime Minister of Norway, the term sustainability has been used more and more in many fields. Using this term, the building industry was forced to not only think of energy efficient buildings or good indoor environments, but also to have other aspects in mind. Since then, many alternative definitions of sustainability have been proposed and are: Sustainability assessment is a tool that can help decision-makers and policy-makers decide what actions they should take and should not take in an attempt to make society more sustainable [Devuyst, 2001]; or The aim of sustainability assessment is to ensure that plans and activities make an optimal contribution to sustainable development [Verheem, 2002]. The following goals for an overall sustainability assessment can be found in literature that nearly every author agrees on: i) Optimization of site / existing structure potential; ii) Optimization of energy use; iii) Protection and conservation of water resources; iv) Use of environmental friendly materials and products; v) Enhance indoor environmental quality; and vi) Optimized operational and maintenance practices and create built environments that are livable, comfortable, safe, and productive. For construction as such, sustainability still is regarded as equivalent to environmental efficient or green. The focus on environmental aspects in the construction field has increased in an exponential manner from when, for instance, the reports of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) showed that almost one-third of the energy is used for construction and
from when the Kyoto Protocol was written [Sathye, 2006]. Consequently, in around 2000, the international and national organizations for standardization started to develop standards for the application of sustainable principles. The basic idea of the standardization work for sustainability is that all construction works must fulfill functional and technical performance requirements, but additionally they have to consider the environmental, social and economic performances. An important issue is that every product or element involved in a construction work has to be considered in the assessment of those performances. Thus, the standardizations for production, transport, building process, use and end of life have to be considered together [Guri, 2010]. While the challenges of sustainable development are global, the strategies for addressing sustainability in building construction are essentially local and differ in context and content from region to region. Thus, these strategies will reflect the context, the preconditions and the priorities and needs, not only in the built environment, but also in the social environment. In particular, the social environment includes social equity, cultural issues, traditions, heritage issues, human health and comfort, social infrastructure and safe and healthy environments. In developing countries particularly India, the social environment may include poverty reduction, job creation, access to safe, affordable and healthy shelter etc. [kumar, 2012]. Many countries have developed green building rating systems aimed at promoting more sustainable buildings. The assessment techniques vary in their overall intention, approach and field of application [Chew, 2008, Fowler, 2006, Kumar, 2006, 2012, Forsberg, 2004]. The European research project, Practical Evaluation Tools for Urban Sustainability (PETUS), gives a comprehensive overview of more than 180 sustainability tools, including case studies [Jensen, 2005]. Without doubt, it is hard to say one system is better than the others because they are all designed based on a national background, which limits their scope. The techniques make useful framework for the design team and also supports the decision making in the planning and construction process. So, Sustainability techniques include sustainability tools and sustainability methods. This paper is based on literature studies including white space mapping and thematic comparison of their criteria carried out as part of Doctoral research of the first author. The focus is to compare three building sustainability assessment methods; i) GRIHA (Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment) administered by Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Govt. of India & TERI; ii) LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design), administered by the US Building Council (USGBC) and in Europe BREEAM by British Building Research Establishment (BRE), UK. The main elements of the sustainable building rating system are; i) a set of assessment criteria/credits; ii) a set of physical quantities, called indicators, which allow to quantify building performances with respect to each criterion/credit; iii) a normalization method; and iv) a procedure for assigning weights to get a unique value for decision making given by a panel of experts with limited or no research, who established and defined a number of criteria/credits and indicators [Jensen, 2005]. The research analysis and evaluation is also carried out in this paper with respect to the environmental assessments, climate responsive architecture, energy performance and green retrofits credits in the three tools. The main questions addressed in this paper are: 1. Do building certification tools promote sustainability? 2. How three building assessment methods comply with sustainability and environmental building assessment concerns? Which tool / method is following sustainable development issues? 3. Do assessment methods promote energy saving in buildings? 4. Do assessment methods cover green retrofits for existing buildings?
Comparative Analysis of Building Sustainability Assessment Tools and Identifying Key Attributes for Green Retrofits 211
NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL STANDARDIZATION WORK ON SUSTAINABILITY

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards provide practical tools for tackling challenges in all three dimensions of sustainability economical, environmental and social. In India, a chapter on sustainability is being added to the National Building Code 2005 by Bureau of Indian Standards. Similarly, Government of India is promoting sustainability in construction works through Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Govt. of India, Bureau of Energy Efficiency, etc. Similarly, lots of standards have been developed by ISO with the sustainability in construction concept e.g. ISO/TC43 (Acoustics), ISO/TC59 (Building Construction), ISO/TC146 (Air quality), ISO/TC163 (Thermal performance and energy use in the built environment), ISO/TC205 (Building environment design), etc. In particular, the ISO/TC207 (Environmental Management) was established in 1993 with the scope of "standardization in the field of environmental management tools and systems that established standards for the applications of Life Cycle Assessment methods (the ISO 14040, 14044, 14047, 14048 and 14049). Recently, the development of standards like ISO/WD 14067-1 Carbon footprint of products Part 1: Quantification and ISO/WD 14067-2 Carbon footprint of productsPart 2: Communication that they are not referable have been developed. ISO/TC59/SC17 (Building construction Sustainability in building construction) is the first ISO committee addressing sustainability in its work e.g. environmental management (ISO 14000), environmental life cycle assessment, environmental declaration and international standards on service life planning (ISO 15686 series) [Guri, 2010]. ISO 21931 -1:2010 Sustainability in building construction identifies and describes issues to be taken into account in the development and use of methods in assessing the environmental performance of both new and existing buildings and are valid for retrofitting and refurbishment. ISO 21929 1:2011establishes a core set of indicators e.g. adaptability, costs, maintainability, safety, aesthetic quality, indoor air quality, waste generation etc. that provide measures to express the contribution of buildings to sustainability. But the question is to what extent the current sustainability methodologies meet the requirements of ISO? In relation to building methods of assessment of the environmental performance of buildings, none of the used tools incorporate the calculation methods mentioned in the standard. Most of the tools refer to CO2 emissions, kg of materials use, etc. and incorporate the related social and economic aspects [Guri, 2010].
THE STATE-OF-THE ART ON BUILDING SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT TOOLS

Literature reviews and white space mapping has been carried out to identify the building sustainability assessment tools developed by various countries during the last two decades and are followed worldwide. Many of the systems were created by modifying a single system, or integrating multiple systems that had multiple country applications. Sustainability assessment tools are constantly evolving in order to overcome their various limitations. All the building grading / certification systems promote sustainability. But, it is difficult to say which one of these assessments is better and more comprehensive. The obvious point is that a good assessment should fulfill and comply with issues concerning sustainability. Environmental impacts to surrounding include pollution, land use, energy, water, waste and material. Most of credits in GRIHA, LEED, and BREEAM go for environmental issues. Building assessment methods in terms of society point of view concentrate on indoor environmental quality and health and well-being. Most systems exhibit a combination of all these approaches [Todd, 2001, Chew, 2008]. Studies have also been conducted to characterize the systems in terms of building type, regional developments such as Canada and China. Fowler and Rauch, 2006 have summarized rating systems for sustainable building procurement processes within the scope of the United States General Services Administration.
Experiences from the Practical Use of Building Sustainability Assessment Tools

The scope of the entire available framework of green building grading systems ranges from simple to chronologically complex, perspective to performance-based, and the grading of design-guidelines to environmental impact assessment. Most systems exhibit an environmental impact assessment. Most systems exhibit a combination of all these approaches (Todd, 2001). From the studies carried out in the PETUS project (Practical Evaluation Tools for Urban Sustainability, on how sustainable assessment tools are used in different European cities, it is clear that the practical world does not always follow the theoretical expectations (Jensen, 2005). One of the main conclusions from the PETUS studies is that assessment tools are mainly used in projects already defined as sustainable. In almost all cases, where tools were used, the project or policy was already declared sustainable, meaning that a number of sustainability initiatives had already been decided. Applying the tool in these projects, therefore, had limited influence of increasing the sustainability of the project, but could instead be seen as a part of the green branding of the project. This makes it difficult to assess the tools actual influence on the project and questions the role of the tool: is the tool used to improve the sustainability, or is it a way to say that the project is sustainable? Ideally, tools for sustainability should be applied to any project, and by using the tools, the projects and policies should become more sustainable. [Jensen, 2009]. Similarly, there might be actors that have an expertise or experience of using a tool. Typically, the tool is not an integrated part of the client's or municipality's practice, and that the experts are hired as external consultants to carry out a sustainability analysis. This means that learning about the tool, building competences and establishing an ownership to the tool is typically embedded at the consultant, and not at the client or the municipality or the development authorities, who, therefore, often sees the use of the tool as an extra cost. This illustrates that to some extent, to become a skilled user of a tool and feel ownership to it, you have to be trained to apply the tool. As many tools require a large number of data, the practical use necessarily has to be flexible. The often encountered problem of data accessibility is also a reason for not using assessment tools, as the lack of data either makes the tools difficult or expensive to use, or has a limited basis for comparison. Other reasons amongst potential users (municipal planners, departments, clients, building owners etc.) for not using tools relates to lack of knowledge of the tool or to a skeptic of the advantage of using the tool [Jensen, 2009].
SCREENING AND COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF BUILDING SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT TOOLS

Screening analysis of the building sustainability assessment tools reveals that many systems do not fit the sustainable building rating system needs of India. Therefore, screening criteria has been identified in order to concentrate the review on the systems that has the greatest potential of addressing the Indian needs. The screening criteria RMAA include (Fowler K.M. & Rauch E.M. 2006) the following: 1. Relevance (R): Does the rating system provide a whole building evaluation rather than an evaluation of an individual design feature? 2. Measurability (M): Does the rating system use measurable characteristics to demonstrate the extent of sustainable design incorporated into the building? 3. Applicability (A): Can the rating system be used on all of the types of buildings (e.g. institutional, commercial and residential buildings)? 4. Availability (A): Is the rating system easily adaptable to the Indian scenario or currently available for use in India?
Based on the RMAA screening analysis, BREEAM and LEED have been finalized for comparison with GRIHA. The table 1summaries the sustainability assessment tools, their affiliation and the scoring pattern as given below:
Table 1: Sustainable Building Assessment Tools, Affiliation and Scoring Pattern
Sustainable Building Assessment Tools GRIHA (Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment) BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method) LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) Country System Age Available Recent for Public Use Revision India 2007 2011 UK USA 1990 1998 2011 2009 Scoring Pattern and Rating/ Evaluation
51-60 points : one star, 61-70: two star, 71-80: three star, 81-90: four star & 91-100 points: five star rating Overall building performance : unclassified < 30%, pass 30%-45%; good 45%-55%; very good 55%70%; excellent above 70% and outstanding > 85%. Buildings can qualify for four levels of certification: Certified 4049 points; Silver 5059 points; Gold 60 79 points , and Platinum 80 points and above.
Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA)

GRIHA has been developed by Tata Energy Resources Institute, New Delhi, India and has been modified by Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Govt. of India in 2011 as a National Rating System after incorporating a few provisions of National Building Code (NBC) -2005, and other Indian codes. The primary objective is to help design green buildings and, help evaluate the greenness of new buildings. GRIHA consist of some core points, which are mandatory to be met while the rest are optional points, which can be earned by complying with the commitment of the criterion for which the point is allocated. While the intent of some of the criteria is self-validating in nature; energy consumption, thermal and visual comfort, noise control, and indoor pollution levels which need to be validated on-site through performance monitoring. The points are awarded provisionally while certifying and are converted to firm points through monitoring, validation, and documents to support the award of point. The details under each credit enable the design and construction of buildings of all types. Different levels of certification are awarded based on the number of points earned. The minimum points required for certification is 50. There are 4 additional points kept for innovation. SVAGRIHA (Small Versatile Affordable) has also been developed by ADaRSH (Association for Development and Research of Sustainable Habitats) and TERI in 2011, for smaller buildings in India which although have small individual environmental footprints but their cumulative effect is far bigger. SVAGRIHA has been designed as an extension of GRIHA for projects with built-up area less than 2500sqm. The tool can help in design and evaluation of individual residences, small offices and commercial buildings. The rating comprises of only 14 criteria (instead of 34 of GRIHA). The tool calculates the number of points that they are able to achieve in that particular criterion and provide recommendations for any improvements in order to improve the environmental performance of buildings.
Scope of Buildings
GRIHA is designed for the certification of individual projects in India only.
Categorization
1. Site Selection and Site Planning (15%). 2. Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (35%). 3. Water Efficiency (15%). 4. Materials and Resources (14%). 5. Health and Well Being (15%).
6. Solid Waste Management (6%). 7. Innovation (beyond 100) 8. Project Totals: 104 Possible Points
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) was developed by The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) in 1998. The aim of building assessment system was to develop a method to measure and compare green buildings. The assessment system was published in 1998 as LEED Version 1.0, followed by Version 2.0 in 2000, Version 2.1 in 2002, Version 2.2 in 2005 and the actually valid Version 3.0 in 2009. The tool addresses specific environmental building related impacts using a whole building environmental performance approach.
Scope of Buildings
The LEED certification system has been adopted for many building types: LEED Core & Shell, LEED New Construction, LEED Schools, LEED Retail, LEED Healthcare, LEED Commercial Interiors, LEED Homes, LEED Existing Buildings and LEED Neighborhood Development. (Fowler K.M. & Rauch E.M., 2006, and USGBC 2011). LEED is currently the dominant system being adapted to multiple markets worldwide. Minor updates can occur no more than once a year, while major updates are expected to occur on a 3 -5 year cycle, and follow a defined process including a public comment period. The assessors are trained and an assessor must pass the examination. Looking into its wider applications, LEED India has been modified by Indian Green Building Council (IGBC) to communicate a buildings sustainable design achievements with others. In LEED 2009, there are 110 possible points. The points included: (LEED 2009 for New Construction and Major Renovations Rating System, 2008). 1. SS-Sustainable Sites: (26 Possible Points). 2. WE-Water Efficiency: (10 Possible Points). 3. EA-Energy & Atmosphere: (35 Possible Points). 4. MR-Materials & Resources: (14 Possible Points). 5. EQ-Indoor Environmental Quality: (15 Possible Points) 6. ID-Innovation & Design Process: (6 Possible Points). 7. RP-Regional Priority: (4 Possible Points) 8. Project Totals: 110 Possible Points
Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM)

BREEAM is the British Building Research Establishment (BRE) Environmental Assessment Method, UK and is the first commercially available environmental assessment tool for buildings. It has been used by many other rating systems as their development basis. BREEAM is a widely used method and has over 116,000 buildings certified and nearly 714,000 registered all around the world (BREEAM Europe Commercial 2009). In this context, the aims of BREEAM Europe Commercial 2009 are: 1. To mitigate the impacts of buildings on the environment 2. To enable buildings to be recognized according to their environmental benefits 3. To provide a credible, environmental label for buildings 4. To stimulate demand for sustainable buildings
Scope of Buildings
BREEAM is used for a wide range of formats from country specific scheme, for example UK, Netherland, Spain, Sweden and Norway, to international schemes which designed for the certification of individual projects anywhere in the world.
Categorization
BREEAM Europe Commercial covers BREEAM Europe offices, retail and industrial buildings. The manual consist of 10 categories and 59 criteria. Each category has certain weighting for the overall rating and finally the performance of the whole building can be defined. Each section has its own weighting. These categories are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. MAN-Management: (10 possible points). HEA-Health and Wellbeing: (14 possible points). ENE-Energy: (21 possible points). TRA-Transport: (10 possible points). WAT-Water: (6 possible points). MAT-Material: (12 possible point) WST-Waste: (7 possible points). LE-Land Use and Ecology: (10 possible point) POL-Pollution: (12 possible points). Innovation: (10 possible points). Project Totals: 112 Possible Points
Comparison of the Building Sustainability Assessment Tools

Theoretical comparison, evaluation comparison and overall comparison are the methods used to compare the evaluation results and the contents of the sustainability assessment tools. The evaluative framework for environmental management approaches developed by Henrikke Baumann and Sarah J. Cowell (1999) is adapted to structure the frameworks of the four tools to represent the essence of the tools and for better understanding of the context structure with academically recognized terminology and methodology. Theoretical comparison shows the structures of the three tools are not similar and the difference in-between consists in aspects of assessing dimension and involved actors. Different sustainability topics are allocated under different categories with different weightages and the paper compares thematic differences of the assessment methods. All three methods rely on criteria, but they are allocated in different ways. The evaluation comparison shows difference among most aspects. The indoor air quality has different scores. The low scores of energy consumption contrast sharply which present lack of evaluative comprehensiveness of the tools. The operational work of evaluation can be described as a means of collecting, analyzing, calculating data to get all the criteria scored. The three tools integrate the scored results to facilitate understanding of different readers (Kumar 2012). In this study, 34 criteria of GRIHA for the operation phase are chosen due to their relevance to Indian situations. The overall comparison also expresses lack of evaluative comprehensiveness of the tools for consideration to outside air intake; heat leakage; environmental efforts, thermal comfort and efforts in construction phase are neglected by the tools due to the difficulties to be evaluated. The International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol (MVP) provides an overview of current best practice techniques available for verifying results of energy efficiency, water efficiency, and renewable energy projects. It may also be used by facility operators to assess and improve facility performance. The quantifiable and comparable information was collected for each rating system. Where feasible, this information has been captured in data tables to allow for comparison.
Thematic Comparison of GRIHA, BREEAM and LEED

The following key to the criterion has been considered: does meet criterion 9; meets criterion with exception(s) 9/-; does not meet criterion 8; under development u/d; information unknown and not applicable n/a (Fowler K.M. & Rauch E.M. 2006, Kumar 2012). The thematic comparison of assessment methods shows that there is a lot of difference in the points allotted for the technical aspects such as Optimize site potential, energy use, water efficiency, environmental friendly materials and products, indoor environmental quality, operations and maintenance etc. Energy section differs from 35% in GRIHA, 32% in LEED and 25% in BREEAM. The comparison of the technical aspects is given in the table 4 below.
Applicability
To identify whether the rating system addresses the Government of India Energy Policy Act, 2001 and sustainability goals. Whether the tool can be used on all building types i.e. New Construction, Major Renovations, and Operations & Maintenance as well as existing buildings? The table 2 gives a comparison of the aspects related to applicability.
Table 2: Comparison of the Applicability Aspects
Tools New Major Construction Renovations 9 8 9 9 9 9 Type of Projects Tenant Operations & Build-Out Maintenance 9 9 9 9 9 9 Existing Buildings 8 9 9 Type of Buildings Office Commercial Buildings Buildings 9 9 9 9 9 9
GRIHA BREEAM LEED
Development
To identify the level of involvement in the development, funding, and management of the rating system by Government, private industry, NGOs, and others. Identify if system was developed using a consensus-based approach, life cycle analysis, expert opinion approach, or other and ability to gather information on the represented organizations as well as to access relevant information either from the internet or other sources. The table 3 gives a comparison of the aspects related to development.
Table 3: Comparison of the Development Aspects
Tools System Management Government Private Industry 9 9 9 9 9 9 NGO 9 9 9 Development Approach Consensus Life Cycle Expert Based Analysis Opinion 8 8 9 9 8 9 9 8 9
GRIHA BREEAM LEED
Usability
To know whether the tool can be applied effectively for all building types and is relatively simple and practical to use. Identify the cost of using the tool including cost of project registration, fees associated with certification, and time needed to complete an application. 90% of the registration -cum-rating fee for projects GRIHA rated 3 stars having built area up to 5000 m2 and for projects rated 4 stars above 5000 m2 built area is reimbursed by MNRE after validation of the star rating post construction by the National Advisory Council. The scheme is presently confined to commercial and institutional buildings including housing complexes with a minimum area of 2500 m2.
Technical Content
To identify whether the tool is addressing NBC 2005, MNRE, CPCB & ECBC guidelines. To review how the tool addresses sustainable design attributes i.e. optimizing energy use, using environmental preferable products, and enhance indoor environmental quality. The table 4 gives a comparison of aspects related to the technical contents of the tools.
Table 4: Comparison of the Technical Content Aspects

Tools Optimize Site Potential Optimize Energy Use Protect and Use Enhance Optimize Conserve Environmentally Indoor Operations & Water Preferable Environmental Maintenance Materials and Quality Practices Products Others
GRIHA BREEAM LEED
17% 15% 20%
35% 25% 25%
13% 5% 7%
14% 10% 19%
14% 15% 22%
2% 15% 0%
5% 15% 7%
The environmental aspects include: Land use and ecology, sustainable sites, water efficiency, material and resources, renewable energy, pollution and emissions, waste and recycling and transportation. Most of them except land use and ecology and sustainable sites are considered in all the three tools. In LEED renewable energy, pollution and emissions and waste are moderately considered. In societal point of view, all the three tools cover indoor environmental quality, health and well-being criterion.
Identification of Key Elements and Attributes for Green Retrofits in Existing Buildings
Designing a green retrofit yields environmental, economical and social benefits. From the environmental point of view, three R reduce, reuse and recycle of materials shall be made part of the sustainable supply of resources, reduce the amount of waste and pollution that is generated. The environmental benefits of buying and using energyefficient equipments are many that save money, cutdown air-conditioning bills and electricity usage. The paperless work culture by converting all the data in electronic /digital form will reduce the consumption of papers and using recycled paper will further save trees and will save green house gases. From health and safety point of view, the health of the occupants may be ensured by the use of nontoxic materials and products. For the green retrofit design of existing buildings, it is necessary to determine what is involved in the retrofit / refurbishment or fitout a building. This could mean using resources efficiently-getting more from less; minimize waste; efficient use of energy and water; environment friendly materials and products etc. Hence, to achieve sustainability, it is necessary to: i) enhance biodiversity; ii) identify and meet the real needs, requirements and aspirations of communities; iii) use resources effectively; iv) minimize pollution; v) create healthy environment and identify targets, benchmarks and manage their delivery. The comparative analysis has led to the identification of key elements and / or attributes for green retrofits in existing buildings. The interviews (50 nos.) were taken from the builders, architects and engineers to take the users and designers point of view about the key elements. However, the list given below is tentative and suggestions are invited to add or delete the attributes and their grouping. After finalization of the key elements, the quantification of these parameters for its adoption along with their weightages and aggregation shall be carried out using statistical methods and shall be published in the future. The tentative list of the key elements and / or attributes is given below in table 5.
Table 5: Identification of Key Elements and/ or Attributes for Green Retrofits of Existing Buildings
Criterion No. Attributes/ Criterion Climate Responsive Architecture, Environmental Impact and Energy Efficiency 1 Sunlight Penetration 2 Heat Transfer Characteristics (Heat Gain and Loss) 3 Building envelope (Location and materials used in walls, windows, doors, floors & roof) 4 Lighting (Acceptable illumination level), lamps & luminares 5 Office appliances (Personal computers, printers & scanners, photocopiers, fax machines) 6 Smart Meters 7 Optimize energy performance of building within specified comfort limits 8 Optimize building retrofit design to reduce conventional energy demand 9 Reduce the embodied energy in the retrofits Table 5. (Contd.)
218 Twenty-eighth NCCE & National Seminar on Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development ..Table 5. (Contd.) 10 11 12 13
Energy efficient equipments and processes Energy efficient building systems for retrofits Enhance outdoor lighting system efficiency Low or zero carbon technologies (use of solar panels, solar hot water, wind, small scale hydro power, Biomass, heat pumps etc.) 14 Alternative Transportation (Bicycle) 15 Phase Change Materials for energy efficiency 16 Potential for natural ventilation 17 Reduction of CO2 emissions 18 Soil conservation 19 Reduce air pollution 20 Mitigating ecological impact and enhancing site ecology 21 Reduce long term impact on biodiversity 22 Reduced Site Disturbance (Development Footprint) 23 Landscape Design to Reduce Heat Islands (Non-Roof) 24 Reduce hard paving on site through landscape 25 Micro climate improvement through landscape design Sub -Group Total: 35 Possible Points Materials (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle) 26 Environmental friendly / sustainable building materials 27 Waste minimization 28 Utilization of fly ash in building structure 29 Pervious Concrete 30 Efficient waste segregation, utilization of demolition waste and recycled aggregate in renovation / refurbishment 31 Storage and disposal of waste 32 Resource recovery from waste 33 Reduce volume, weight and time of construction by adopting efficient technology 34 Resource Reuse 35 Use of Local/Regional Materials 36 Rapidly Renewable Materials 37 Use of Low-Emitting Materials 38 Use low -energy material in interiors 39 Efficient use of insulation materials for improving the thermal performance 40 Quantitative life cycle assessments environmental, social and economy Sub -Group Total: 25 Possible Points Water Conservation and Efficiency 41 Water conservation 42 Waste water treatment and ensure water quality 43 Sustainable options for clean water and grey water treatment 44 Water consumption and Water monitoring 45 Water leak detection and prevention 46 Water efficient equipment 47 Reduce landscape water requirement 48 Reduce building water use and efficient water use during renovation / refurbishment 49 Water recycle and reuse including rainwater harvesting 50 Surface water run-off collection & recycling 51 Storm water Management and Treatment Sub -Group Total: 15 Possible Points Indoor Environmental Quality, Health & Well-being and Inclusiveness 52 Air quality within and around buildings 53 Adequate Ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality 54 Impact of Daylight & Views 55 Thermal comfort 56 Visual comfort & Glare control 57 Acoustic comfort / performance 58 Acceptable outdoor and indoor noise level 59 Tobacco and smoke control 60 Use of low VOC paints/adhesives and sealants 61 Minimum use of paper / paperless work 62 Creating a green team 63 Office furniture form wood substitutes Table 5. (Contd.)
Comparative Analysis of Building Sustainability Assessment Tools and Identifying Key Attributes for Green Retrofits 219 ..Table 5. (Contd.) 64 Cost effectiveness & Payback cost to the owner 65 Socio-cultural disturbance to tenants and to the site etc. 66 Audit and validation (after renovation / refurbishment the building within two years) 67 Operations and maintenance protocol for electrical and mechanical equipment 68 Universal accessibility Sub -Group Total: 25 Possible Points Research and Innovation Sub -Group Total: 10 Possible Points Green Retrofit Building Project Total : 110 Possible Points
CONCLUSION
Sustainability assessment is being viewed as an important tool and very few examples of effective sustainability assessment processes have been implemented around the world. Based on the state -ofthe art, the application of three sustainability building assessment tools -GRIHA, BREEAM and LEED has been compared based on the screening analysis; RMAA Relevance, Measurability, Applicability and Availability, having a greater potential of addressing Indian needs. While the tools are typically designed with one country in mind they are often applied to other countries as a means of gaining increased exposure to the worldwide building industry. The tools studied in this paper show variations in their point system which reflect the geographic and cultural singularity. Moreover, some of the more environmentally positive credits do not possess the potential to provide direct lifecycle payback costs to the owner, which typically serves as inbuilt incentives. While the tools do encourage developers and design professionals to think green, they are not adjusted to take into account the local climate or cultural differences. Construction materials and technology, thermal comfort levels, water availability and electricity demands are all major region-specific factors. India has different thermal comfort levels allowing for greater energy savings through decreased use of air conditioning. Some categories within the rating system have a greater positive impact on the environment than others yet still receive the same level of points. All the three tools provide points for encouraging the use of bicycles and mass transit. This credit is very easy to achieve in urban settings, and difficult to achieve in rural areas. More number of experts in the evaluation team with different professional background of landscape architect, energy consultant, mechanical, electrical and plumbing consultant and the project managers may not be feasible in a country like India where the availability of experts is very difficult in smaller towns, and this will not promote large scale green or sustainable buildings. An issue of prime importance is also that of managing the flows of information and knowledge between the various levels of indicator systems. An important constraint to these methods is that the specific definition of the terms sustainable building is complex, because different actors in the buildings lifecycle have different interests and requirements in different countries. The existing buildings which are going to last for another 30 -60 years, it is important to formulate strategies and /or guidelines for the green retrofits of such buildings to achieve a minimum level of greenness. The list of key elements and / or attributes mentioned in this paper is tentative and further research is going on to finalize them. After finalization, the quantification shall be carried out for giving the weightages and aggregation to the attributes using statistical methods. The outcome shall be used in developing strategies for green retrofitting of existing buildings of CSIR laboratories and other types of buildings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research performed in this article is a part of the Doctoral Research of Ashok Kumar, the first author and also forms a part of CSIR -CBRI Supra Institutional Network Project. The work reported in this paper is published with the permission of Director, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee.
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Evaluation of an Institutional Building using GRIHA Tool: Case Study of IIT Roorkee
Anu Singh
COA, Associate, Indian Institute of Architects, Chandigarh College of Architecture; anusingh.cca@rediffmail.com
Preamble: Human civilization dates back to the times when mankind used to be hunter and gatherer. The settlement pattern was based on the hunting routes. The next stage in the development was sites near fertile grounds and riverine sites. Man evolved the art of cultivation. The age is termed as Age of Muscle Power. The next generation was Age of fossil fuel. Where man was dependent on oil and electricity as mode of energy generation. Depleting resources gave rise to Age of Atomic Energy. Traced streamline of human civilization demonstrates positive link in Energy, Money and Shelter.21st Century onsets the stage for the consumption of resources in view of development. Buildings are constructed with the inflow of money and energy. The need is for the structures with minimum footprint and maximum G of Green. The green buildings practices with efficient use of Sun, Wind and Water as primary source of energy. The term Sustainability finds its origin as under: In 1991, UNESCO issued a report entitled Environmentally Sustainable Economic Development: Building on Brundtland The report made distinction between economic growth, which involves quantitative growth and economic development, which involves getting better without increasing the total consumption of energy and material beyond a level that is reasonably sustainable. 1992, World leader convened an Earth summit in Rio de Janerio, Brazil, the concept of sustainable development did emerge as a means of combining ecological and economic needs. With these Green initiatives, the path was traced for the future development on sustainable ground. LEED, ECBC, TERI-GRIHA (TERI-Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment) are some of the evaluation and rating systems for Green Building design. TERI green building design and evaluation systemA tool to design, operate, evaluate and maintain resources in efficient healthy and intelligent building. Buildings have major environmental impact over their life cycle. Resources such as ground cover, forests, water and energy are depleted to give way to buildings. Green rating systems with major emphasis was on site planning, material, landscaping, construction techniques and energy consuming systems of lighting, space conditioning and water heating etc are adopted today for sustainable practices. TERI-GRIHA laid down 32 criterias for the green rating of buildings. On the qualification of these criterias the buildings were awarded points and the start rating certificates. MHRD opened its hands towards Teri-Griha and given it a shelter in government sector. Today, professional adopt these rating systems for evaluation of buildings. The paper is an attempt to study existing structure on the criterias mentioned in rating system. Further, the paper will focus on criterias as tool for measuring and rating a buildings environmental performance in the context of Indian climate and building practices. Issues Raised: Energy Consumption: The building with contradiction in internal and external environment is major case of energy consumption. The alien glass box structures with heavy air conditioning deteriorate the environment. On the contarory, the natural light and ventilation can reduce the energy load of the building. Fashionable Trends: Instead of following the fashion, the need is to develop a healthy system based on Indias varied climate. Regional variation in building practices is our Heritage. The only task is to strip the architecture to the minimum basic comfort conditions and rate the buildings on the degree of greenness. Conserve Resources: Building consumes resources for construction and operation. The use of energy efficient techniques such as wind towers, earth air tunnels, green wall, thrombi wall etc. will reduce the electricity load of the structures. The operation cost of building will reduce. On the other hand meticulous site planning and construction techniques will improve the beauty and inside-outside link, reduce the material consumption of building at construction stage.
The Need: Indian building industry is highly decentralized involving diverse stakeholders in design, construction, equipment, installation etc. The need for integrated green design and application process. It is urgent to define and quantify sustainable building practices. The insurance is required or consumption of minimum resources as under. The present day need is for the design of green buildings with: Minimum demand for electricity. Generate all electricity by harnessing natural Sun and Wind Conserve water by rain water harvesting and percolation pits. Recycle and Reuse waste Energy Efficient construction techniques and design. Case Study: The case study method was adopted for research initiative in design. The main building of educational campus of IIT, Roorkee is chosen domain of study. The building is a demonstration laboratory for the Green features incorporated in design and construction. The paper will be compilation of evaluation of the main building on TERI-GRIHA criteria. The paper will focus on site planning, building envelop design, integration of renewable resources, water and waste management, building system design for lighting and ventilation ,locally available construction materials in construction of building. Inferences: The GRIHA system for evaluation of building is transparent method for rating. It demonstrates the ingenious techniques used in the design of sustainable building. The qualitative evaluation splits the building components of material, lighting, ventilation, green cover, construction techniques. The major emphasis will be on building operation and maintenance stage. The components teach us lessons for sustainable practices. Keywords: Green practices, Rating System, TERI-GRIHAs Criteria, Evaluation.
INTRODUCTION
Human civilization consumed energy on the onset of development. Energy demand is outshooting the production of energy. From hunters age to age of computers the consumption of energy increased. Today the energy need of a man with air-conditioner is 550 W/Capita. Major section of this belongs to unhealthy work culture and sluggish practices. The need is for sustainable means with concern for limited use of energy consumption. Eco-friendly, Environment sensitive, Energy-Efficient and Green are sister terms of Sustainability. Sustainability means the consumption of resources in a way that they cast minimum /least damage to environment. Institutional buildings are integral component of our building sector. Many institutional buildings are constructed to meet the demand of industry. The construction material and high technology consume huge momentum of energy and resources. The need is for energy efficient techiniqes, low embodied energy material, conservation of resources and environmental friendly architecture. The paper outlines the study of Green institution building i.e. Main building of IIT Roorkee campus. The efficient techniques and rating criteria expose the inherent rational system of construction in design.
GREEN PRACTICES & RATING SYSTEM

Green rating system is the evaluation techniques for the Greenness of the built structure. Greenness of built structure means the building with minor environmental impact over their life cycle It is an indicator of environmental performance of built structure. Building consumes land, forest, water for its construction. It uses light, electricity, heating and air condition for occupants comfort during its operation stage. Rating system monitors the efficient use of the mentioned parameters. Many rating systems are developed over the years are as under:
Evaluation of an Institutional Building using GRIHA Tool: Case Study of IIT Roorkee 223
Table 1: Rating Systems for Evaluation of Buildings [3]

Rating System Building Research and Environment Assessment Method Leadership Energy and Environment Design TERI- Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment Abbreviation BREEAM LEED TERI-GRIHA Year 1990 1998 TERI registered in 1974
In India, TERI-GRIHA is used prominently for the assessment of building designs on sustainability aspect. The aim was to provide impetus to sustainable development. TERI was established in 1974. The initiation towards sustainable development was made in 1982. In GRIHA ratings system international rating criterias are tailored to suit the building industry of our country. GRIHA as a rating tool helps people assess the performance of their building against certain nationally acceptable benchmarks. It will evaluate the environmental performance of a building holistically over its entire life cycle, thereby providing a definitive standard for what constitutes a green building. Also it is a system to define and quantify the sustainable building practices. These practices include Site planning, Building envelop design, Building system design (HVAC, Lighting, Water and Electricity), Integration of renewable resources, Water and Waste management, Selection of ecologically sustainable materials. [1] All institutional buildings are eligible for certification under TERI system. The system of TERIGRIHA will design and evaluate the institutional buildings. These buildings are assessed on its performance on entire life cycle. The evaluation is done as building under operation. Buildings are assessed under three stagesPre-construction stage, Building planning and Construction stage, Building operation and Maintenance stage. These institutional buildings are eligible for certification as mentioned earlier. The project of main building will generate a comprehensive matrix of Green rating system. It will bring out the green characteristic of the intuitional building. The TERI-GRIHAs criterias will be studied under the applicable pointers. Assessment of the environmental relevance will be undertaken in evaluation criteria. Conclusions will be drawn on the basis of evaluation.
THE BASIC FEATURES OF GRIHA RATING SYSTEM

Basically the GRIHA rating system is developed to help design and evaluate new buildings. According to the system, a building is assessed based on its predicted performance through its life. The stages for evaluation include: 1. Pre-construction stage 2. Building planning and construction stages: The prime resources that are considered in this section are land, water, energy, air, and green cover. 3. Building operation and maintenance stage
THE BENEFITS
The evaluation of buildings in their stage of conception will result in reducing GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions, reducing energy consumption and the stress on natural resources. Some of the benefits of a green design to a building owner, user, and the society as a whole are as follows: 1. Reduced energy consumption without sacrificing the comfort levels 2. Reduced destruction of natural areas, habitats, and biodiversity, and reduced soil loss from erosion etc. 3. Reduced air and water pollution (with direct health benefits) 4. Reduced water consumption 5. Limited waste generation due to recycling and reuse 6. Reduced pollution loads
7. Increased user productivity 8. Enhanced image and marketability
TERI-GRIHAS CRITERIAS
There are 34 points on which the evaluation of buildings is done under TERI-GRIHA. 34 Criterion of the Rating System is divided under 4 Categories, namely 1. Site Selection and Site Planning: Covers Criterion 1-9 and is sub divided into two categories: Conservation and efficient utilization of resource Health and well being during construction Criterion 1-7 Criterion 8-9
2. Building Planning and Construction : Cover Criterion 10-31 and is sub divided into six categories: Water Energy: end use Energy: embodied and construction Energy: renewable Recycle, recharge, and reuse of water Waste management Health and well-being during post-construction Occupation Building Operation and Maintenance : It has Criterion 10-12 Criterion 13-14 Criterion 15-17 Criterion 18-19 Criterion 20-21 Criterion 22-25 Criterion 26-31 Criterion 32-33 under it.
3. Innovation: Criterion 34 is meant for any innovative technique emphasizing green intent of project.
Table 2: Evaluation Procedure of Criterion of TERI-GRIHA
Criteria Number Criteria 1 Criteria 2 Criteria 3 Criteria 4 Criteria 5 Criteria 6 Criteria 7 Criteria 8 Criteria 9 Criteria 10 Criteria 11 Criteria 12 Criteria 13 Criteria 14 Criteria 15 Criteria 16 Criteria 17 Criteria 18 Criteria 19 Criteria 20 Criteria 21 Title for Evaluation Site Selection Preserve as Protect Landscape during construction/ compensatory depository forestation Soil Conservation (post construction) Design to include existing design features Reduce hard paving on site Enhance outdoor lighting system efficiency Plan utilities efficiently and optimize on site circulation efficiency Provide, at least, minimum level of sanitation/ safety facilities for construction workers Reduce air pollution during construction Reduce landscape water requirement Reduce building water use Efficient water use during construction Optimize building design to reduce conventional energy demand Optimize energy performance of building within specified comfort Utilization of fly ash in building structure Reduce volume, weight and time of construction by adopting efficient technology (e.g. pre-cast systems, ready-mix concrete, etc.) Use low energy material in interiors Renewable energy utilization Renewable energy based hot water system Waste water treatment Water re-cycle and re-use (including rain water) Points 1 5 Partly Mandatory 4 2 Mandatory 2 Partly Mandatory 4 3 2 Mandatory 2 Mandatory 3 2 1 6 Mandatory 12 6 4 4 3 2 2 5 Table 2. (Contd.)
Evaluation of an Institutional Building using GRIHA Tool: Case Study of IIT Roorkee 225 Table 2 (Contd.) Criteria 22 Criteria 23 Criteria 24 Criteria 25 Criteria 26 Criteria 27 Criteria 28 Criteria 29 Criteria 30 Criteria 31 Criteria 32 Criteria 33
Reduction in waste during construction Efficient waste segregation Storage and disposal of waste Resource recovery from waste Use of low VOC paints/adhesives/sealants Minimize ozone depletion substances Ensure water quality Acceptable indoor and outdoor noise levels Tobacco and smoke control Provide the minimum level of accessibility for persons with disabilities. Energy audit and validation Building operation and maintenance. Innovation points.
Total *The points are updated time to time, the latest detail of points can be verified from GRIHA manual [1].
2 2 2 2 4 3 Mandatory 2 Mandatory 2 1 1 Mandatory 2 Mandatory 4 100*
In this system points are earned for meeting the design and performance under mentioned criteria. The evaluation performa is filled by site monitoring in required cases. The documents and photographs are submitted under the heading of criteria. TERI-GRIHA has 100 point system. The minimum points required for rating system is 50.
Table 3: Rating Criterion of TERI-GRIHA
Points Scored 5060 6170 7180 8190 91100 Rating One Star Two Star Three Star Four Star Five Star
EVALUATION OF INSTITUTION BUILDINGCASE STUDY OF ADMINISTRATIVE BUILDING, IIT ROORKEE (U.K.) Criteria 1
Site should be located within km radius of an existing bus stop, commuter rail, light rail /metro station. The main building site planning is done to minimize disruption of natural ecosystem. The building takes maximum benefit from prevailing micro climate. The green cover reduces the heat island effect. It even reduces the noise level. Landscape is used as buffer zone. Green and paved areas well integrated in design. Building scores maximum on site design element. The building design element is also excellent and scores quite well. Location of entrance and windows are appropriate. Architectural elevations are well composed. The courtyard enhances ventilation inside the building.
Criteria 1
Fig. 1: Google Image of IIT Roorkee with km Radius from IIT Main Building
Criteria 4
Design to include existing site features Score 4
Fig. 2: Main Building set in Green Cover
Criterion 7
Plan Utilities Efficiently and Optimize On-site Circulation Efficiency Various transportation and service corridors shall be minimized and consolidated and the pedestrian walkways to be shaded. Aggregate utility corridors shall be used Utility corridors shall be consolidated along the previously disturbed areas or along new roads in order to minimize unnecessary cutting and trenching and ensure easy maintenance Score 1 1 1 3 1 1 1
Fig. 3: Water Percolation Pits, Drains and Roof Drains
Criterion 10
Reduce Landscape Water Demand If landscape water demand is reduced by up to 30% If landscape water demand is reduced by up to 40% If landscape water demand is reduced by up to 50% Score 1 2 3 3 3
Criterion 13
Optimize Building Design to Reduce Conventional Energy Demand The WWR and/or SSR shall be limited to the prescribed levels as per Table13.1(GRIHA Manual Introduction Volume-I) and all fenestration shall meet the SHGC requirements of ECBC 2007. Minimum 25% of the living area shall be daylighted and shall meet the level of daylight prescribed in NBC 2005 (reference Table 13.2 GRIHA Manual Introduction Volume-I) If the total daylighted area>50% of the total living area and meets the prescribed level of daylight If the total daylighted area>75% of the total living area and meets theprescribed level of daylight Overdesign of artificial lighting system shall be avoided and the lighting levels in indoor spaces shall be maintained as recommended in NBC 2005 Score 2 2 1 1 2 4 0 2 0 0 2
Criterion 17
Use Low-Energy Materials in INTERIORS Minimum 70% of the total quantity of materials used for sub-assembly/internal partitions/panelling/falseceiling/in-built furniture shall be low-energy materials Minimum 70% of the total quantity of materials used for flooring shall be low-energy materials Minimum 70% of the total quantity of materials used for door, windows and frames shall be low-energy materials Score 2 1 1 3 1 1 1
Criterion 21
Water Recycle and Reuse (Including Rainwater) Applicability Check 5Ground water table is high and ground water recharge is not advisable as per Central Ground Water Board norms. If the project demonstrates 25% annual water reuse Note: Applicable is answer is yes to Applicability Check 4 above If the project demonstrates 50% annual water reuse Note: Applicable is answer is yes to Applicability Check 4 above If the project demonstrates 75% annual water reuse Note: Applicable is answer is yes to Applicability Check 4 above The surplus rainwater is recharged in to the ground after necessary filtration Note: Applicable if answer is yes to Applicability Check 5 Score Yes 1 2 3 2 5 0 0 0 5 Yes
Criterion 29
Acceptable Outdoor and Indoor Noise Levels The measured outdoor noise levels on site conform to the standard set by the CPCB, Table 29.1, GRIHA The measured indoor noise levels inside the building meet the noise levels recommended by NBC 2005 (Table 29.2, GRIHA Manual) Score 1 1 2 1 1
Criterion 31
Provide at Least the Minimum Level of Accessibility for Persons with Disabilities Buildings shall be designed in compliance with the NBC code in order to be disabled friendly Score 1 1 1
Criterion 34
Innovation Points Name of the tree species as environmental education in campus design Score 1 1 1
All the above mentioned criterias are evaluated in the research paper as per TERI-GRIHA norms for institutional building.
LESSONS LEARNT
1. Site to be in proximity to transport link such as bus stop / commuter rail. This will reduce the commuter distance and travel time. It will reduce the consumption of perishable resources. 2. Building should demonstrate minimum disruption to natural system. The building block to set within green and paved area. The choice of green vegetation and cover should be native to area. The landscape to act as buffer to building block. 3. Design the site plan to minimize the length of pedestrian and vehicular circulation. 4. Reduce building footprint. 5. Conserve water to maximum. Sprinkler system is similar to natural rain. In this water is distributed through pipes. It reduces the water waste. 6. Daylight to be well integrated with artificial light. It should be in accordance to NBC codes. 7. Reduce the use of air-conditioners inside the building. Improve the energy performance of building by adoption of energy efficient techniques in design.
8. Locally available material with low E- value to be used for construction. It will reduce the transport load and comply with regional architecture. 9. Rain water harvesting to be adopted in design. The waste water in building to be used for landscape/ flushing after proper treatment. Recycle and reuse is strongly recommended. 10. Building to be accessible to disabled according to NBC Codes. 11. Introduction of landscape as buffer to noise. 12. Building to educate the visitor by adoption of name plates of tree species/ any environmental education.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
1. Sprinkler system has efficiency of 70%. The landscape of main building adopts sprinkler system. Need is to reduce the water demand. The score point is valid only if waiter demand is reduced by 30%, 40%, 50%. by use of sprinkler system. 2. The optimal use of lighting inside the building needs calculation of lighting power density. Further, it needs study of types of lamps used for artificial lighting. The use of skylight needs full support of artificial light. This point is critically evaluated for building. 3. The use of air-conditioner inside the building is strongly criticized. 4. The building was constructed in~1850s. The material would have been locally procured. The score point is justified only if the material is tested for its low energy value. 5. Treatment of waste water and reuse of waste water is strongly recommended.
CONCLUSION
1. Design Intervention: TERI-GRIHAs criterias are intelligent inventory of design solutions pertaining to site and building block. The site analysis in terms of proximity figures and outdoor quality is excellent. The building block design features improves the inside comfort conditions. 2. Landscape: Integrations of inside and outside environment through landscape improves inside environment. It reduces the heat island effect and provides buffer. 3. Scientific: Tool TERI uses scientific base for its applicability. The results can be improved by scientific enquiry in case applicable to lighting, ventilation and temperature controls inside the buildings. 4. Intelligent Rating System: TERI-GRIHA system utilizes almost all aspects of the design and site planning. Each domain is further sub divided intelligently to evaluate the building thoroughly. It includes construction, material, design, services etc. Each component of the building is under scanner. 5. Educate: TERI-GRIHA has certificate course for the professional. It also awards the green architecture. It provides opportunity to individuals by conducting educational programme at national level.[2] 6. Efficient Network: There are established centers at national level in Banglore, Goa, Guwahati, Kolkota. It has even presence at Japan and Malaysia. It has set up affiliated institutes: TERINA(North America) Washington DC USA, TERIEurope, London, UK.[2] 7. Conventional Construction: The evaluation systems excel on conventional construction system. Local construction material is used for construction of buildings. It will consume fewer resources. The climate responsive regional architecture is encouraged in TERI norms. 8. Energy Efficient Design Features: The wind tower, earth air tunnels and trombe wall are some of the energy efficient techniques used for conservation of energy in buildings. TERI encourages these in design. There are many more pointers for the excellent user friendly system of TERI. The paper is a research assignment of sustainability in institution buildings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Prof. Mahua Mukherjees contribution is worth appreciation for conducting a course on TERI-GRIHA norms in Department of Architecture and Planning at Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] TERI-GRIHA(TERIGreen Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment), TERI green building design evaluation systemA tool to design, operate, evaluate and maintain resourceefficient healthy and intelligent building, The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi,2006. Singh Navita, Achieving Sustainability in Residential Design, 18-23, Journal of Architecture. Radhika S. Shukla & Shashank S. Chakradeo, Green building rating system in India, A Comparison of LEED India & TERIGRIHA, 67-75, Research Journal JOA. http://www.grihaindia.org
Green Building Materials - Quantification of Embodied Energy of Houses

Deepak Bansal
DGM (Projects), HUDCO (Housing & Urban Development Corporation Limited), New Delhi; dbansal1969@gmail.com
AbstractAs per current figures India needs to build more than 26.53 million all weather resistant houses by Year 2012 [1]. Building construction has always been one of the main basic requirements for comfort and there is a huge demand of building materials for the construction of buildings. There are different types of buildings, which have totally different typologies, functions and are located in different climatic zones, but all the buildings require basic materials like, building blocks/bricks, cement, steel, timber, glass, ceramic tiles, water supply/sanitation wares and electrical wires/fixtures to some degree. The embodied energy values (EEV) of building blocks is very high and as they are required in large quantities in the buildings construction, define energy footprint of the building. The EEV of a material is the total energy required in manufacturing of the material (sourcing, processing, transportation, handling, wastage). Traditional building blocks/brick materials used world over, were adobe, stabilized earth blocks, reeds, mud wall with bamboo/wooden members, timber, stone, fired clay bricks/blocks, cement concrete blocks (solid, hollow or hybrid), etc. Now, major advancement has taken place in these materials and construction techniques, as stabilization of earthen blocks has become more scientific(resulting in more strength & durability), concrete blocks are custom made (as per design strength and properties), fired clay bricks having made perforated/hollow (to save on materials, weight & provide insulation), aerated concrete blocks have evolved, along with cellular light weight concrete(to reduce dead weight), Fly ash/FaLG/Calcium Silicate or Sand lime bricks/blocks have been developed along with many other products. This paper deals in quantification of EEV of a housing unit of an area of about 25 sqm constructed with different building blocks. Keywords: EEV, CLC, Sand lime, Adobe, FaLG, Green Building
INTRODUCTION
Any Building construction primarily requires building materials comprising of Cement, Steel (Reinforcement), Bricks/Blocks, Sand, Aggregates, Water, Glass, timber, Insulation materials, marble/granite/tiles, Plumbing and Electrical wares etc. Out of these, Bricks/Blocks consume major share of cost and Embodied Energy in any building construction and especially in Housing units in those countries, which do not emphasize on HVAC systems, for tropical climatic conditions like India. To understand the Cost effectiveness and sustainability of housing units up to 25 sqm of plinth area, scores of such houses are analysed in HUDCO (Housing & Urban Development Corporation Limited, New Delhi, India) and a hypothesis is formed. The houses analysed, were cost effective houses conforming to all building bylaws and local climatic and living conditions and are presented in this paper. The housing typology studied in the present case study is defined in Table 1. The Design of the typical housing typology is given in Fig. 1. In a single, two, three and four storied building, the consumption pattern of basic building materials, is as defined in Table 7. This is derived based on an average Carpet area of housing unit as 21 sqm and wall area in plan is 20%, having a total plinth area of 25 Sqm per unit [2]. Different building materials have different physical, structural properties, and different costing parameters, which are also presented in this paper. The Thermal comfort of different building materials have not been analysed in the present case.
Green Building Materials - Quantification of Embodied Energy of Houses 231
Table 1: Brief Specifications of Housing Typology Studied [2]

Structure Walls Roof Flooring Skirtings/Dado & Toilets & Kitchen Plaster/Rendering Mud Fuska/ Terracing Parapet Joinery and Doors CC Gola/Khurrah/ coping Earthquake Resistant Features Specifications Load Bearing Structure 230/200 mm thick brick masonry in 1:6 (cement: coarse sand) mortar Flat RCC roof (M25 concrete),115 mm thick TMT Fe 500 D Steel reinforcement 40 mm thick cement concrete (1:2:4) 12 mm thick 300/1200 mm high in 1:6 (cement: coarse sand ) mortar 12/15mm thick 1:6 (cement: coarse sand) mortar 100 mm thick (average) with brick tiles 900mm high 115 mm thick brick masonry in 1:4 (cement coarse sand) mortar MS Frames with steel grill and 4 mm float glass panel in windows, Flush Door Shutters. 1:2:4 PCC (Plain cement concrete) RCC Plinth/Lintel Bands for all and Vertical Steel in 3rd and 4th floor buildings only.
1. Here the Houses are reinforced with horizontal and vertical RCC Bands as per the requirements of seismic provisions given in IS 4326:1993, as per class C Buildings (Seismic Zone III with Importance Factor 1.0) [3]. 2. The Houses are having same foundation up to two storied Houses (750x750mm continuous spread stepped footing) and in three & four Storied Houses, foundations are slightly increased to (900 x 900mm / 1000 x 1000mm) continuous spread stepped footings) for a soil Bearing Capacity of @ 11 T/sqm (nett.). 3. Vertical Steel has been provided from foundation to top RCC slab in Three & Four Storied houses only.
Fig. 1: Typical Drawings of the Housing Typology Chosen in the Study

Source: HUDCO JNNURM-Meerut, UP, India
Different Building Materials Available

Till today there is no alternate for Cement, steel, sand or aggregates for any mass housing Project in India, but there are good options for substitution of Bricks/Blocks. Many of these options have been used in different construction projects and have shown encouraging results. The National Building Code (NBC) of India 2005 and Bureau of Indian standards(BIS) have recognized the specifications of these building materials and have prepared Indian Standards on them. The Compressive stress, Tensile & shear stress, slenderness ratio, weathering effects, water absorption, hardness, dimensional stability, Poisson ratio, etc. have been defined. Some of the commonly used Alternative Bricks/Blocks & their specifications are listed in Table 2.
Table 2: Different Building Bricks/ Blocks Available [6]
Building Material Size (mm) Fired Clay Brick (conventional) Hollow Cement concrete block AAC/CLC Fal G Block Solid Concrete Block HF SEB (soil-cement block) HF (fly ash block) 229x114x76 400x200x200 400x200x200 300x200x150 300x200x150 230x220x115 230x220x115 Comp Strength MPa 7.5 4.0 4.0 7.5 7.5 5.0 7.0 (N) 27.5 268.8 192 180 216 110 95 (KN/cu.m) 13.86 16.80 12.00 20.00 24.00 18.90 16.33 MJ 4.5 11 11.5 7.9 10.4 6.1 5.3 (MJ/N) 0.164 0.041 0.060 0.044 0.048 0.055 0.056 Weight Density EEV (Block) EEV
Embodied Energy of Building Materials

The embodied energy is the total quantification of energy required in making of the building materials from excavation, handling, transportation, process, and final usages in the buildings. The production process and transportation lead distances of building materials are not uniform in any country; hence there is no consensus on EEV (Embodied Energy Values) of different building materials. However the values assumed in this case are taken from a paper published in the Journal of institution of Engineers (India) as represented in Table 3.
Table 3: EEV of basic Construction Materials [4]
Items Soil Cement Sand Fly ash Steel Standard Burnt Bricks (Fired Clay) Clay Fly ash Bricks Sand Lime Bricks Hollow Cement Concrete Blocks Aerated Blocks Fal G Blocks Solid Concrete Blocks EEV (MJ) 0 0.67 0 0 3.20 4.50 2.32 2.79 11.00 11.50 7.90 10.40 Units 0 MJ/N 0 0 MJ/N MJ/Bricks MJ/Bricks MJ/Bricks MJ/Blocks MJ/Blocks MJ/Blocks MJ/Blocks Sizes in mm 0 0 0 0 0 229*114*76 200*100*100 200*100*100 400*200*200 400*200*200 300*200*150 300*200*150
The EEV indicated in Table 3, are without adding for handling/transportation inputs. Apart from these, there are soil stabilized blocks, made by manual press and hydraulic press, with or without fly ash, which can be used in load bearing masonry construction. The proportion & specification of manufacturing process of the soil stabilized blocks manufactured by Hydra Form (HF) machine is given below in Table 4.
Table 4: Properties of Hydra form Block (Hydra form India (P) Ltd.) [5]
Basic Data Block Dimension(mm) Production Capacity of machine by working for 8 hours Weight of Soil based block(kg) Weight of Fly ash based block (kg) Total weight of Soil based mix (kg) Total weight of Fly ash base mix(kg) Volume of each Block (in cu.m) Total volume of blocks produced (cu.m) Density of soil base block( per cu.m) Density of Fly ash base block(per cu.m) Length(mm) 230 2800 11 9.5 30800 26600 0.006 16 1890 1633 Width (mm) 220 Height(mm) 115
The calculations for the EEV of interlocking SEB (stabilized earth block) using Hydra form machine and fly ash interlocking block using Hydra form machine are given below in Table 5 and Table 6 respectively.
Table 5: EEV of SEB Block (Hydra form India (P) Ltd.) [5]
Raw Material (for 2800 blocks ) Soil C. Sand/ St. Dust Cement Total Power : 18.5 kwh x 8 hr x 3.6 MJ Total EEV per day production EEV per Hydra form Block (SEB) (size: 230 x 220 x 115) in MJ % Age 62.00 30.00 8.00 100.00 Weight (kg) 19096 9240 2464 30800 EEV (MJ) 0 0 16509 16509 533 17042 6.09
Table 6: EEV of Fly Ash Block (Hydra form India (P) Ltd.) [5]
Raw Material (for 2800 blocks ) Fly Ash C. Sand/ St. Dust Cement Total Power : 18.5 kwh x 8 hr x 3.6 MJ Total EEV per day production EEV per Hydra form Block (Fly Ash) (size: 230 x 220 x 115) in MJ % Age 65.00 27.00 8.00 100.00 Weight (kg) 17290 7182 2128 26600 EEV (MJ) 0.00 0.00 14258 14258 533 14791 5.28
Table 7: Basic Building Materials Requirement per sqm of Plinth Area of a Load Bearing Housing Unit up to 25 sqm of Plinth Area, for House Constructed with Fired Clay Bricks
Item Brick Cement Steel Sand Aggregates Units No Bags of 50 Kg Kg Cum Cum Single Storied 460 5 16 0.65 0.45 Two Storied 366 4.4 15 0.56 0.39 Three Storied 369 4.3 18 0.55 0.38 Four Storied 345 4.2 18 0.53 0.36
Table 8: Basic Building Materials Requirement per sqm of Plinth Area of a Load Bearing Housing Unit up to 25 sqm of Plinth Area, for House Constructed with Hollow Cement Concrete Blocks
Item Hollow CC Block ( 400x200x200mm) Cement Steel Sand Aggregates Units No Bags of 50 Kg Kg Cum Cum Single Storied 60 4 16 0.55 0.40 Two Storied 47 3.4 15 0.46 0.35 Three Storied 47 3.5 18 0.46 0.34 Four Storied 44 3.3 18 0.44 0.33
Table 9: Basic Building Materials Requirement Per sqm of Plinth Area of a Load Bearing Housing Unit up to 25 sqm of Plinth Area, for House Constructed with AAC Blocks
Item AAC Block of 400x200x200 mm Cement Steel Sand Aggregates Units No Bags of 50 Kg Kg Cum Cum Single Storied 60 4 16 0.55 0.40 Two Storied 47 3.4 15 0.46 0.35 Three Storied 47 3.5 18 0.46 0.34 Four Storied 44 3.3 18 0.44 0.33
Table 10: Basic Building Materials Requirement Per sqm of Plinth Area of a Load Bearing Housing Unit up to 25 sqm of Plinth Area, for House Constructed with FalG Blocks
Item FalG Block of 300x200x150 mm Cement Steel Sand Aggregates Units No Bags of 50 Kg Kg Cum Cum Single Storied 105 4 16 0.55 0.40 Two Storied 82 3.4 15 0.46 0.35 Three Storied 83 3.5 18 0.46 0.34 Four Storied 77 3.3 18 0.44 0.33
Table 11: Basic Building Materials Requirement per sqm of Plinth Area of a Load Bearing Housing Unit up to 25 sqm of Plinth Area, for House Constructed with Solid CC Blocks
Item Solid CC Block of 00x200x150 mm Cement Steel Sand Aggregates Units No Bags of 50 Kg Kg cu.m cu.m Single Storied 105 4 16 0.55 0.40 Two Storied 82 3.4 15 0.46 0.35 Three Storied 83 3.5 18 0.46 0.34 Four Storied 77 3.3 18 0.44 0.33
Table 12: Basic Building Materials Requirement per sqm of Plinth Area of a Load Bearing Housing Unit up to 25 sqm of Plinth Area, for House Constructed with HF SEB Blocks
Item HF SEB Block of 230X220X115 mm Cement Steel Sand Aggregates Units No Bag of 50 Kg Kg Cum Cum Single Storied 150 4 16 0.55 0.40 Two Storied 117 3.4 15 0.46 0.35 Three Storied 118 3.5 18 0.46 0.34 Four Storied 110 3.3 18 0.44 0.33
Table 13: Basic Building Materials Requirement per sqm of Plinth Area of a Load Bearing Housing Unit up to 25 sqm of Plinth Area, for House Constructed with HF Fly Ash Blocks
Item HF Fly ash Block of 230X220X115 mm Cement Steel Sand Aggregates Units No Bags of 50 Kg Kg Cum Cum Single Storied 150 4 16 0.55 0.40 Two Storied 117 3.4 15 0.46 0.35 Three Storied 118 3.5 18 0.46 0.34 Four Storied 110 3.3 18 0.44 0.33
Table 7 to 13 above demonstrates the building materials requirement in different storied building construction and nos of brick/ Blocks required per sqm of plinth area. This also illustrates that Four Storied (G+3) is the most optimum type of Construction of housing units in India in terms of material requirements. There is marginal increase in steel quantities, which is getting off -set by other materials.
Computation of EEV of Housing Units

The EEV of the Basic building materials and the quantities of the basic building materials is available, which enables us to calculate the EEV of housing units per Sqm of Plinth area. This will give designers a fair idea regarding the energy footprint of the housing units (but without adding for handling, transportation and sundries energy as this aspect has innumerable variations in Indian context). This is explained in Tables 14 & 15.
Table 14: EEV Per sqm of Plinth Area of Houses

Type of Masonry Fired Clay Brick Hollow CC Block AAC Block Fal G Block Solid CC Block HF SEB HF Flyash Single Storied 4257 2512 2542 2681 2944 2767 2647 Two Storied 3597 2153 2177 2285 2490 2352 2258 Three Storied 3677 2256 2280 2390 2597 2457 2362 Four Storied 3516 2176 2198 2300 2492 2363 2275
Hence from Embodied Energy Values perspective Two Storied (G+1), Load bearing structure is the best model in this situation and Four Storied Housing is also very close to Two Storied Housing in terms of Embodied Energy Values. More options have not been worked upon as Indian Standards IS 1905 do not allow unreinforced Load bearing Construction higher than Four Storied (G+3) in India, due the different loading and wall slenderness combinations. However this masonry option, although widely practised in India, is not energy & cost efficient, as the EEV of Fired Clay Brick is much higher compared with other building blocks options available and wall thickness is also 230 mm, whereas in other options wall thickness can also be controlled as other blocks can be designed as per requirement.
Table 15: Comparative Chart for EEV with Different Masonry Option for a Single Storied House Per sqm of Plinth Area
Masonry with Following Fired Clay Brick Hollow concrete Blocks AAC/CLC Blocks HF Flyash Block FalG Block HF SEB Block Solid Concrete Block EEV(MJ)/sqm of Plinth Area 4257.00 2512.00 2542.00 2647.00 2681.00 2767.00 2944.00 % Saving 0 41 40 38 37 35 31
Table 16: Comparative Chart for EEV of 1 sq. m. of Masonry with different Building Materials (Prices in Indian Rupees for the Year 2012)
Building Materials Sizes(mm) Wall Thickness (mm) 230 200 200 200 200 230 230 No of Blocks/ Bricks Required Per sqm of Wall 116 13 13 23 13 40 40 Cost/cum (INR*) 4000 4000 5000 5000 5000 5000 5000 Cost/Sqm (INR*)
Standard Burnt Brick (Fired Clay Bricks) Hollow cement concrete blocks AAC Block FalG Solid CC Block HF SEB(soil cement blocks) HF(fly ash blocks)
229x114x76 400x200x200 400x200x200 300x200x150 300x200x150 230x220x115 230x220x115
920 800 1000 1000 1000 1150 1150
1 USD is about 50 INR as on April 2012.
COMPARISON
In this exercise attempt is made to draw a comparison between conventional building blocks (Fired Clay Brick) with other commonly available options and draw a parallel to understand the energy and cost footprint of the building for a chosen housing typology in India, with only one variable i.e. building block. This gives a broad idea that the correct application of building blocks can influence economies of scale on energy and cost without compromising on functionally and structural performance of the building.
CONCLUSION
The EEV has been taken from a reputed Indian source IE (I) [4], but can be any values depending upon the manufacturing/transportation/handling/wastage data available for the materials and the quantification can be done as per the actual consumption of the materials in the building, to understand the energy footprint of the building. The exercise shows that Hollow Cement Concrete Blocks uses least cost (INR 800 per sqm of wall area) and least energy (2512 MJ per sqm of Plinth area) of Housing unit, which is 41 % less than Fired Clay Brick house and have less wall thickness (200 mm compared to 230 mm in case of Clay fired Bricks), resulting in more carpet area. IMS Journal [11] also reported that thermal performance of brick houses is also much better than that of Timber houses with insulation, giving a boost to Hollow Cement Concrete Blocks as they offer better thermal properties than Fired Clay bricks .Translating the above benefits of inherent thermal properties to Energy Efficiency shall form a separate study. It is proposed to carry out further exercise for other building materials also up to Four storied, to understand the EEV of the other types of buildings also. This is authors personal research, HUDCO may or may not agree with the same.
REFERENCES
Report of the Technical Group [11th Five Year plan: 2007-12] on Estimation of Urban Housing Shortage in India; Bansal Deepak (2008), Affordable houses & Cost Effective Technologies, Hudco Darpan, Issue 4, 29-30, www.hudco.org; IS 4326:1993, Indian Standard on Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction of buildings-Code of Practice (Second Revision) www.bis.org.in; [4] Chani P S, Najamuddin, and Kaushik S K (2003), IE (I) Journal-AR, 84 , 47-50; [5] Hydra Form Asia (P) Ltd, New Delhi, India. Website www.hydraformasia.com; [6] Bansal Deepak (2011), et al, International Conference on Structural Engineering, Construction and Management, Kandy, Sri Lanka. 3; [7] Bansal Deepak (2011), Masonry from Stabilized Earth Blocks-sustainable & structurally viable option, International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, ISSN 0974-5904, 04, No 06 SPL,772-779; [8] Bansal Deepak(2011), et al, Sustainable Urban Development & Bio Diversity, Hudco Shelter, 13, No 1&2, 15-28; [9] Bansal Deepak (2010), et al, embodied energy in residential cost effective Housing, International Conference on Sustainable Built Environment, Kandy, Sri Lanka, D11; [10] Bansal Deepak (2010), et al, embodied energy in residential cost effective Housing, TERI-BMTPC Conclave, New Delhi, India; [11] T H McNeilly, For Energy Conservation in Houses, Construction Mass out Performs insulation in most Australia. Journal of International Masonry Society UK. [12] Bansal Deepak, R Gogia (2012), Innovative and Traditional Building Materials-Sustainability & Cost Effectiveness- An analysis of EEV, 8th International Conference on Structural Analysis of Historic Construction, SAHC conference Oct, Wroclaw, Poland. [1] [2] [3]
Sustainable Building Design Techniques

S.K. Deshmukh1 and A. Gupta2
1Principal, 2Asst.
College of Engineering & Tech, Akola (MS); principalcoeta@gmail.com Prof., Civil Engg. Dept., COET, Akola (MS); gupta.abhinandan@gmail.com
AbstractUnstoppable population growth, urge for high rate development and growth both at individual and country level leaded to urban agglomerations. This urbanization is thus creating the high demand for consumption of raw resources. Even the countries provide various aids and fund for urban development in terms of infrastructure development. All such mega construction projects execution with poor management is leading to high scarcity of construction resources worldwide. High resource consumption, high waste generation, less effective planning etc is responsible for undesirable climatically changes occurring in environment. It is predicted that the global mean temperature may increase between 1.4 & 5.8 degree Celsius by end of 2012. This increase is expected to have severe impacts on the global hydrological system, ecosystem, sea level, crop production & related processes. The climate change is part of the larger challenge of sustainable development. The impact of climate variability & change will affect to achieve sustainable development goals.As neither the growth and development can be stopped nor the growth of environmental pollution, resource depletion can be promoted, in such case the strategy to be adopted is of substituting alternative sustainable material and technique at first Micro level that is, at individual level. This paper aims to show such alternative materials and technique at Micro level which proves to be ecological. Implementing the concept of 3 Rs- Reduce, Reuse and Recycle along with ecological design the work is carried out in this paper. The efforts taken in this paper will add a unit of mitigation measure to prevent ecological imbalance due to construction industry. Keywords: 3Rs- Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Urbanization, Micro level
INTRODUCTION
The exponentional increase in static and dynamic population due to tourist attraction, educational institutions, industries etc, insists on the business, which demands more settlement leading to urbanizations. For economical development of country even government grants various projects for increasing facilities in megacities. With supportive role of government the growth of urban areas speeds up, construction industry plays important role in such development. More the construction need more is resource consumptions, which is unavoidable since, the growth of country cannot be stopped. But, at the same time problems like pollutions, resource depletion etc. is becoming matter of concern. With same rate of resource consumption, it will become hard for coming generations to survive. Thus; the need for developing technique which can sustain resource came into existence. Lack of government policy, public participation, awareness, R & D work leads more attention for finding such alternative sustainable material and techniques. If the strategy of 3Rs is just followed micro and mega level will leads to major sustainable growth. Micro level defines the application of technique at individual level, supplier, manufacturer etc. and Mega level defines the application and participation at social and national level. By making rules and regulations, polices for sustainable growth. In this paper sustainability construction concept is limited to micro level which is achieved by applying various known materials and technique by replacing conventional high recourse consuming techniques.
METHODOLOGY
The major resources are classified under heads on basis of quantity, environmental impact and cost, and appropriate material and technique is adopted to overcome consumptions and environmental problem.
Sr. No Resource Consumption Cost Environmental Impact 1 Cement B A A 2 Sand A C B 3 Steel C A B 4 Water A C A 5 Man A A B 6 Formwork B B B Grade A: High; B: Moderate; C: Less Note: Resources priority changes with change in locations and need of project. The concept of 3Rs (Reuse, Reduce and Recycle) is applied and checked for its suitability.
REUSE MATERIAL Blended Cement (Fly Ash Based)

The waste generated from power generation industry, fly ash if mixed in specific proportions shows many advantages like Higher long term strength, improved workability, reduce heat of hydrations, and reduction is quantity of cement. Thus, reuse of fly ash into cement mix, and fly ash bricks can effectively reduce the quantity of cement.
REDUCE Occulus
Occulus is the provision for ventilations and illumination based on technique which helps to make effective utilizations of sun rays. It is the circular opening made in the roof such that the rays are allowed to get concentrated and fall on water body (tank) made just below it, this water reflects the light and spread the rays in all possible directions, thus reducing consumption of energy.
Masonry Work (Brick Bond)

While making the infill walls provision of rat trap bond and cavity wall helps in two ways-Rat trap bond is laid by placing the bricks on their sides having a cavity of 100 mm with alternate course of stretcher and headers. 1. Reducing the number of brick consumption 2. Increasing the temperature resistivity, because of presence of cavity or gap between inner and outer face of wall.
Green Roof
Green roof technology is very efficient to maintain the temperature of the house. Provision of grass on the roof helps to hold the water and to maintain the temperature. The installation procedure includes placing of sheets over truss and a layer of water proofing material over which the grass is cultivated in layer of soil. Proper provision of drains and gutters need to be provided to avoid water logging.
Precast Members
Various members like lintel beams, frames, slab panel, septic tank cover, stairs etc, help to save the cost of formwork as all this are casted in casting yard with same available mould. Along with that it has many benefits like easy to place and fix, easily replaceable, economical, rapid work process. Thus, pre-casting members helps to reduce various resources to great extend like time, money, labor, material etc.
Sustainable Building Design Techniques 239
RECYCLE Rain Water Harvesting

Every year an average roof receives about 70,000 liters rain water, which drains off and ultimately get washed. Thus managing and reusing rain water can effectively reduce the demand of water. The provision for rain water system is already being made by many researchers. Simple installation includes provision for first water flush off, conduits carrying rain water to tank through grids and mesh arrangement to avoid water blocking and pipes to carry for desired domestic use.
Grey Water Management

The average consumption of water is 135 liters/ person, so for an average family of 4 peoples daily consumption is of 540 liters. Use for bathrooms, washing utensils, cleaning etc. holds major percentage of consumptions, thus if provision is made to recollect the waste water from bathrooms commonly known as grey water and is further processed to remove hardness, chemical content, floating impurities can be effectively use for purpose of landscaping, washing, flushing toilets etc.
Wind Catcher
Studying the direction of wind flow the wind catcher can be provided at the top of roof. Wind catcher is the opening with slide vertical panels and covered from top to carry wind into the house. Since, the density of cool air is more it moves downward and thus, the warm air being lighter moves upward and gets removed from house; maintain air circulation and temperature within structure.
CONCLUSION
This paper high lights various available material and technique which can be easily applied in construction practice without any extra efforts. By adopting such methods one can reduce the consumption of resources considerably as well as the cost of construction. Such efforts at individual or at micro level can lead to achieve high goals of sustainability. However, conventional thinking, lacking role of local and government bodies, lack of awareness among people, etc. proves to be hurdles or limitation for such type of sustainable practice. Scarcity of natural resources, water, forest etc. is like a wakeup call for all of us in quest for sustainability.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] B.V. Venkatraman Reddy, (2004).Sustainable building technology, current science, vol 87, no. 7.10 Oct 2004. CEs circular No.24, SER, 18th Oct.1979, Garden reach Caluctta. Economic assessment for construction application (1998),available though URL Gilpin, A. Chicheste (1996) Dictionary of environment and sustainable development, New York. Sustainable tomorrow (2007)- CII-ITC centre for excellence in sustainable development.
Section C Advances in Construction Materials and Technologies
Hybrid Fibre Reinforced Concrete A Review

S.K. Singh1, Ajay Chourasia1, M.M. Dalbehera2 and S.K. Bhattacharyya3
1Principal 2M.Tech
Scientist, CSIR, Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India; sksingh_cbri@yahoo.co.in Student, AcSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India; mickey2049@gmail.com 3Director, CSIR, Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India; director@cbri.in
AbstractConcrete being a brittle material, the toughness of the cementitious material can be enhanced by the use of randomly distributed short fibers in it. The low tensile strength and poor fracture toughness of cement-based materials are serious shortcomings that not only impose constraints in structural designs, but also affect the long-term durability of structures. The paper attempts to highlight state-of-the-art in the area of Hybrid fibre reinforced concrete, which clearly indicates promising future to concrete technology due to many advantages offered thereof. The paper discusses at length about the mechanical properties and residual fire behaviour of HyFRC. The various hybrids are based on fibre constitutive response, fibre dimensions, and fiber functions. The properties of concrete improve at certain level, but not as a whole if it is reinforced only by one type of fiber. Using different types of fibers in a cement matrix, which offers more attractive engineering properties because of the presence of one fiber enables a more efficient utilization of the potential properties of the other fiber. This is due to synergy effects of hybridization of different types of fibres into concrete. The paper attempts to review hybrid fibre reinforced concrete, through analysing important parameters such as mechanical properties, which include optimization of fibres dosages, impact behaviour, post-cracking behaviour, behaviour of hybrid fibres on SCC. In addition, the role played by hybrid fibres in concrete when exposed to fire has also been studied. Keywords: Hybrid fibre reinforced concrete, state of the art, mechanical properties, residual strength
INTRODUCTION
Concrete is relatively brittle material and develops micro cracks even during curing and initial stages of strength development whereas reinforcement of concrete with randomly distributed short fibres improves the initiation and propagation of cracks by improving overall properties of the conventional concrete. Fiber reinforcement is commonly used to provide enhanced toughness and ductility to brittle cementitious matrix. The reinforcement of concrete with a single type of fiber may improve the desired properties to a limited level, whereas combination of two or more types of fibres if used in optimal way in concrete achieves better engineering properties due to positive synergetic effect. This includes combination of different kinds of fibres with different shapes, dimensions, strengths and modulus to concrete matrices. The hybrid fibre utilizes the individual qualities of its constituent fibres to undermine the inherent limitations of their counterpart. To control micro cracks in concrete, microfibers are used having diameters (10- 40 m compared to 500 m), while to control macro cracks, macro fibres are used to resists propagation and crack opening. The Fig.1 presents comparison of typical loaddeflection curves for conventional FRC and hybrid FRC. The hybrid fibre reinforced concrete, are effective in arresting cracks both at macro and micro levels. This is due to positive interaction between the fibres and resulting hybrid performance exceeds the sum of individual fibre performances. This phenomenon is termed as Positive Synergy Effect [1]. The various hybrids are based on fibre constitutive response, fibre dimensions, fiber function as described below:
Hybrid FRC
Conventional FRC
Fig. 1: Comparison of Conventional and Hybrid FRC
Hybrids Based on Fibre Constitutive Response: Where one type of fibre is stronger and stiffer and provides reasonable first crack strength and ultimate strength, while the other type of fibre is more ductile or can readily undergo considerable slippage to provide better toughness and strain capacity in the post crack zone. Hybrids Based on Fibre Dimensions: Where one type of fibre is smaller (micro) and provides micro-crack control at early stage and delays coalescence. This leads to a higher tensile strength of the composite. Other fibre is larger and is intended to arrest the propagation of macro-cracks and therefore, resulting a substantial improvement in the fracture toughness of the composite.
Hybrids Based on Fiber Function: Where one type of fibre is intended to improve the fresh and early age properties such as ease of production and controlling plastic shrinkage, the other fibre leads to enhanced mechanical properties. The most commonly fibers used are steel, carbon, asbestos etc. (high modulus fibers) and polyester, polypropylene (low modulus fibers). Properties of some fibers are listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Typical Mechanical Properties of Fibres
Fiber Type Steel Mesophase pitch based carbon Isotropic pitch based carbon Polypropylene Nylon Polyester Polyethylene Alumina A-glass(Soda-lime-silica glass fibers) E-glass(Borosilicate fibers) NEG AR-Glass(Nippon electric glassalkali resistant) Aramid Aramid(high modulus) Acrylic Rayon Rock wool Modulus of Elasticity (GPa) 212 232 30 1.5-3.5 2-4 17.5 5 105 65 72 79 62 117 14.6-19.6 7 203 Tensile Strength (GPa) 1200 2100 590 375 140 896-1100 200-300 1725 3105 3450 2450 3620 3620 200-1000 420-630 280-2800 Density (kg/m3) 7850 1900 1900 900 1150 1340-1400 960 2700 2460 2540 2740 1440 1440 1170 1500 7800
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Polypropylene-glass Hybrid Fibres

The micro fibre composites have been made by combining organic fibres (polypropylene & nylon) and inorganic fibres (glass, asbestos & carbon) in cement matrix (Walton and Majumdar [2]). It has been observed that organic fibres have insignificant effect on modulus of rupture of the matrix with high impact resistance. The better performance of longer and finer fibres has been noticed due to larger surface area available for bonding of matrix. The high modulus high strength carbon and asbestos fibres have shown increased modulus of rupture but very little improvement in impact strength as compared to plain mortar specimens.
Hybrid Fibre Reinforced ConcreteA Review 245
PP-Alumina/ Carbon Hybrid Fibres

Mobasher & Li [3] attempted use of two types of hybrid fibres cement mortar based composites with PP & alumina (4%+4%) and PP & carbon (4%+4%) along with individual fibre for different volume fractions to examine the feasibility of its manufacturing. The load-deflection response is quasi-linear upto ultimate load with reasonable stiffness. The enhancement in first crack load is 73% of the peak ultimate load of composites. The post peak curve has been observed decreasing rapidly despite of high volume fraction of fibre. The PP fibres have shown bridging on major cracks of the matrix resulting to significant increase in toughness. At 4% volume fraction of PP fibre, the increase in peak load is not significant, but toughness has increased significantly. The mortar composite exhibited significantly nonlinearity prior to peak load. Wherein, at 8% volume fraction, both the peak load and toughness significantly increased to the order of 300% and 1500% respectively. This composite has exhibited a ductile behaviour being pull-out of fibres which has generated a significant closing pressure on the crack surfaces and modelled as an elastic perfectly plastic material. The hybrid composites peak load is increased by 75% as compared to PP composites having 4% volume fraction. This increase in strength is due to contribution of short alumina/carbon fibres. The toughness of both hybrid composites is comparable and enhanced by 43% as compared to PP composites (Vf of 4%).
Steel-Polypropylene/ Carbon Hybrid Fibres

Sukontasukkul et al.[4] have studied the penetration resistance of FRC and HyFRC (steel +carbon, steel+polypropylene) under low velocity impact loading. The brittle failure has been observed mostly in control and carbon based FRC whereas, ductile failure is observed in SFRC & HyFRC. The load deflection responses of SFRC and HyFRCs are more ductile than those of control & carbon based FRC. The better post peak response of SFRC is clearly due to high strength and better elastic properties of steel fibres whereas, post peak response of HyFRCs are also dominated by macro steel fibres. Yao et al. [5] have studied the mechanical properties of hybrid fibre-reinforced concretes with carbon-steel (0.2% + 0.3%), steel-PP (0.2% + 0.3%) and carbon-PP (0.2% + 0.3%) fibre combinations at low fibre volume fraction (0.5%). The compressive and split tensile strengths of carbon are highest whereas, they are lowest for PP fibres when used alone in the mix. The enhancement in compressive strength of hybrid composites i.e. carbon-steel & carbonPP fibres has been observed. The improvement of 31.4% in compressive strength, 36.5% in split tensile strength, 32.9% in modulus of rupture and 33.9-199.5% in toughness indices have been observed for steel carbon hybrid composites compared to control specimens. The post peak curve of carbon-steel composites is found rapid decrease due to probably low volume fraction of carbon fibre and its shorter length than the average size of aggregate. Banthia and Gupta [6] have carried out investigations on high strength hybrid composites to assess the possible synergy effects due to hybridisation. The mixes with polypropylene fibres have shown lower compressive strengths but significant increases in modulus of rupture. The maximum increase in modulus of rupture is 40% for hybrid composite (Steel-0.75% + macro PP-0.25%). Selffibrillating PP fibre has performed better than the crimped PP fibre in terms of flexural toughness. Load carrying capacity of steel FRC is increased, when Vf is increased from 0.5% to 0.75. At identical volume fraction, deformed steel macro-fibre provided better toughness than the self-fibrillating PP fibres. Hybridization of crimped PP fibre, carbon fibre and PP micro-fibres, exhibited maximum synergy followed by macro steel fibre and micro PP fibres. Nehdi & Ladanchuk [7] have investigated the potential synergistic effects of self consolidating concrete by incorporating different combination of steel and synthetic polymer macro and micro fibres. The fibres both individually and in different combinations have been added in concrete with varying volume fraction from 0 to 1%. The slump flows of hybrid SCC mixes for combination of steel
fibres having different configurations & lengths are higher. However, the lower slum flow has been observed when short steel fibres are added. The first crack loads of hybrid fibre (steel + synthetic) composites are higher than the individual fibres. It has been seen that when only one type of steel fibre is used, the mixtures made with shorter fibres showed higher 28-day compressive strengths than that of mixtures with longer fibres alone. Synthetic micro fibres tended to decrease compressive strength but this effect could be reduced significantly by combining steel fibres. The results also indicated that hybrid fibres have excellent rheological and mechanical properties due to synergistic effects. Sivakumar and Santhanam [8] have quantitatively evaluated the effects of individual steel fibres as well as hybrid combinations of steel and non-metallic (polyester, polypropylene, and glass) fibres on the plastic shrinkage cracks of high strength fibre reinforced concrete The image analysis technique has been used for estimation of crack measurement. The first crack, a fine hair line, is observed in control specimens above central stress riser approximately about 2.6 hours after mixing with water whereas, in FRC took longer time more than 7 hours for appearance of first crack. This is due to probably availability of bleeding water on the top surface which delayed the drying of concrete. Single drying crack is observed in control specimen whereas, short and discontinuous cracks have been observed in HyFRC. Secondary cracks are also observed branching out from the main crack in HyFRC. Hybrid fibres are found to be most effective in reducing plastic shrinkage cracks in the order of 5099% as compared to control specimens. The steel -polyester combination has showed the best results by reducing plastic shrinkage crack by 99%, as shown in the Fig 2(a) and 2(b). The total crack area reduced with increased addition of non-metallic fibres, as shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 2(a): Crack in the Plain Concrete [8]
Fig. 2(b): Crack in HyFRC (Steel + Polyester) [8]
Fig. 3: Influence of Dosage of Non-metallic Fibres on Total Crack Area [8]
Sivakumar and Santhanam [9] have observed that concrete with non-metallic fibres did not registered any increase in compressive strength compared to control specimen. The maximum enhancement in compressive strength is only 15% for (steel-0.25+ PP -0.25) whereas split tensile
strength gave the maximum enhancement of 34% over the control specimen. Among all the fibre reinforced concrete, the combination of steel-polyester has exhibited maximum flexural (Fig.4) and load carrying capacity. In addition, the increased fibres availability makes it more efficient in delaying the growth of micro-cracks and thereby improving ultimate tensile stress capacity. The highest flexural toughness has been noticed for steel (0.38%) + PP (0.12%) fibre combination due to synergistic effect of two fibres compared to control samples as shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 4: Flexural Strength of Various HyFRC
Fig. 5: Flexural Toughness of Various HyFRC
Aydin [10] has discussed the effects of fibre inclusion on the flow characteristics of HyFRC. The flow behaviour of HyFRC is different than that of control self compacting concrete. To retain high level workability with fibre reinforcement, the amount of paste in the mix has been increased to provide better dispersion of fibres. Pons et al.[11] have studied the role of hybridisation of non rusting amorphous metal fibres and PP fibres on the mechanical properties of self compacting concrete for specific use in precast architectural building components. The slipping polypropylene fibres provided safety against catastrophic failure of the specimens. The high modulus and high bond amorphous metal fibres at the dose of 20 Kg/m3 in concrete have provided a strain hardening behaviour phase that developed in the range of 00.2mm of crack-mouth openings and increased the maximum flexural load carrying capacity by about 50% compared to control specimens. The response of fibre reinforced concrete is sum of the response of the cementing matrix and the contribution of each of its reinforcing fibres. It has also been observed that the contribution of each type of fibre is proportional to its amount within the concrete. Singh et al. [12] also evaluated strength and flexure toughness of HyFRC of different combinations of steel and polypropylene fibres. Corrugated steel fibres and homo-polymer fibrillated polypropylene fibres is used in concrete in ratio of 100-0%, 75-25%, 50-50%, 25-75% and 0-100% by volume fraction of 1.0%. The enhancements in compressive and flexural strength are found in the order of 6 to 18% and 40 to 80% respectively. Increase in centre point deflection of beams is found out to be around 31 to 85%, whereas 31% increase is observed for 100% PP fibre. Flexural toughness parameters are also determined based on Post crack strength. It has been observed that the increase of fibre availability in the hybrid fibre system due to low density non-metallic fibres in combination of steel fibres is the reason for the enhanced flexural toughness of the HyFRC mix. The combination of 75% steel fibres and 25% polypropylene fibres is the most appropriate combination for the hybridization effect in terms of compressive, flexural strength and flexural toughness. Libre et al. [13] have investigated the mechanical properties of hybrid fibre reinforced lightweight aggregate concrete made with natural pumice. The results showed that, PP fibres have insignificant effect on the density of concrete as compared to steel fibre. The effects of PP fibre on workability of
fresh concrete are not as prominent as it is with steel fibre. Concrete mixes having 0.4% of PP fibres showed slightly better ductility behaviour than those with 0.2% PP fibre. The effects on flexural behaviour is observed to be insignificant and rather inconsistent when volume fraction of PP fibre is less than or equal to 0.2%. Steel fibres increased the flexural and compressive strength by 200% and 50% respectively. The steel fibres have shown significant effect on both descending and ascending part of flexural curve whereas PP fibres have effect only on the descending part of the curve. From the outcome of the experiments it has been seen that fibres mitigate brittle nature of plain concrete to a great extent.
Steel-Nylon Hybrid Fibres

Adeen et al. [14] have studied the mechanical properties of hybrid steel-nylon fibre reinforced concrete. Varying volume fraction of 0.5%, 1%, 1.5% of nylon and steel fibres in the ratio of of 1000%, 70-30%, 50-50%, 30-70% and 0-100% has been used in the investigation. It is observed that the maximum increase in compressive strength is 242% for hybrid concrete having volume fraction of 0.5% (50% nylon fibre + 50% steel fibres). For the other volume fraction of 1% and 1.5% the compressive strength increased by 227%, and 210% respectively. When compared to the control specimens, increasing the hybrid fibre percentage in the ratios from 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5% by volume fraction, enhances the flexural strength by 154%, 157% and 181% respectively. The results from the experimental investigation have shown that the steel fibres improve the concrete properties better than the nylon fibre due to their higher tensile strength.
Macro PPMicro PP Hybrid Fibres

Hsie et al. [15] studies the mechanical properties of coarse monofilament type and micro staple PP fibre hybrid fibre-reinforced concrete. Adding of both types of fibres individually as well as in combined form have a detrimental effect on the workability of the mix. This is due to creation of network structure in concrete, which restrain the mix from segregation and flow. Due to high content and large surface area of fibres, fibres used to absorb more cement paste to wrap around, and thus increase the viscosity of mix which makes it stiffer. The increase in compressive strength of PP hybrid fibre reinforced concrete varied from 14.60% to 17.31%, as compared to increase in steel polypropylene concrete which varied from 12.3% to 15.89%. The reasons for this has been attributed to the fact that as staple PP fibre mixed concrete form a network like structure, and lower the concrete stress concentration at the crack tip. In case of split tensile and flexural strength, PP hybrid fibrereinforced concrete shows an increase of 13.35% and 24.6% respectively. In addition, hybridisation has shown a positive effect in lowering drying shrinkage strain, which reduced from 1 to 0.862.
SteelPolyolefin Hybrid Fibres

Ravichandran et al. [16] have tested combined hooked steel fibres and polyolefin fibres which have shown interesting results for high-strength concrete, improving its inherent mechanical properties. The polyolefin fibre is low modulus but its tensile strength is comparable to that of the steel. The compressive strength increased to about 62.2 MPa from 61.2MPa (control specimen) at 0.5% volume fraction. On increasing the volume fraction to 1 & 1.5%, the compressive strength has been increased to 66.3 MPa & 67.5 MPa. The split tensile strength is recorded highest at 80% steel fibre concentration at all three volume fractions 0.5%,1.0% and 1.5%, and the values has been reported to be 7.90, 10.0, 11.45 respectively compared to 4.86 MPa of control mix. The flexural strength also showed the same trend at all the three volume fractions.
BEHAVIOUR OF HYFRC AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURE

Concrete is considered to be a non-combustible material, with satisfactory performance when exposed to fire. However, due to heterogeneous nature, its constituents interact differently with fire; hence the properties of concrete as a whole may change radically when exposed to fire. This leads to
dehydration of cement paste, increase in porosity, thermal expansion, thermal creep, spalling and reduction in its mechanical properties. With increasing compressive strength, the brittleness of concrete also increases, as a result of explosive spalling at elevated temperature. Further, high strength concrete, when exposed to elevated temperature results to excessive spalling causing damage to rebars and structures. However, these can be addressed to certain extent by incorporating combination of various types of fibres viz steel-polypropylene hybrid fibres and nylon-polypropylene hybrid fibres in concrete matrix.
Steel-Polypropylene Hybrid Fibres

The residual strengths of high strength concrete (HSC) and hybrid fibre reinforced high-strength concrete (HFRHSC) exposed to elevated temperature have been studied by Chen & Liu [17]. Volume fraction of fibres has been kept at 0.6%. The specimens are heated at the rate of 10 0 C/minutes to different temperatures 200, 400, 600 & 800 0C & are kept for 3 hours before allowing them to cool naturally at room temperature. After exposing the concrete specimens to 800 0C the residual compressive strength found to be 10%, 32%, 38% & 30% for individual controls, carbon, steel & PP fibres based concrete of their original values respectively. In this study, all specimens are tested in SSD conditions with moisture content of 3.5% before exposed to high temperature. Bangi & Horiguchi [18] investigate the build-up pore pressure at different depths of hybrid fibre concrete, when exposed to different heating rates. The thermal load is applied on one face of the specimen by means of computer controlled radiant heater placed 10mm above it for heating upto maximum temperature of 600 0C. The slow heating at the rate of 5 0C/minute is applied on specimens until maximum temperature of 600 0C is reached, and is then maintained for 2 hours. In the second pattern, moderate heating at the rate of 10 0C/minute is applied upto 600 0C & maintained for 3 hours. In third pattern, fast heating rate which is lower than the standard fire curve is applied by thermally shocking the specimen by heating device upto 800 0C for 4 hours.At slow heating rate control concrete experienced explosive spalling at a pressure of 3.8 MPa at depth of 10mm after 110 min. In case of PP & hybrid fibre composites, the pore pressures has been observed to be less than 1 MPa which clearly indicates the effectiveness of hybrid fibres in mitigating the built up pore pressure & consequently resistance to spalling. During faster heating, addition of steel fibres played some role in pore pressure reduction at relatively higher pressures in deeper regions of concrete. Pliya et al.[19] have studied the behaviour of HSC at elevated temperature by incorporating micro PP and steel fibres. The combined Vf of 0.49, 0.60, 0.61 & 0.73% have been used in HSC with Vf for individual fibres of steel (0.38 & 0.50) & PP (0.11 & 0.22). The specimens are heated at a rate of 1 0C per minute and then kept for 1 hour for different temperatures upto 150, 300, 450, & 600 0C before allow cooling at room temperature. No explosive spalling for various heating-cooling cycles has been observed, but aggregates splitting and corner separations on prismatic specimens have been observed. The porosity has seen increasing with the temperature due to departure of water & cracking by differential thermal expansion between cement paste, aggregate & the fibre. The porosity has increased quickly in PP fibre based concrete as compared to steel fibre based concrete. The relative porosity at 3000C is observed to be 19.7%, 152.7%, 107.3% and 138.6% for control samples, only PP, only steel and hybrid fibre concrete respectively. The mass loss has been observed as a function of heating temperature. At 6000C the average mass losses are reported as 7.2%, 7.6%, 6.8% and 6.7% for control sample, only PP, only steel and hybrid fibre concrete respectively. Ding et al.[20] has tested hybrid fibre reinforced self compacting high performance concrete (SCHPC) exposed to high temperature. The micro PP and steel fibres have been used. The fibre dosages for PP are 0.22% & 0.33% whereas it is 0.51% & 0.71% for steel fibres. It has been observed that the workability of the SCHPC is not much affected by addition of fibres. The specimens exposed to temperature of 300 0C, 6000C and 9000C according to the time- temperature relation as shown in the Fig.6. The relative losses in compressive strengths are reported as 17%, 67% and 94%.
Lower losses in PP fibre based concrete is because of lower melting and vaporising temperature (160180 0C) of PP fibres during temperature increasing process, resulting to decreased tensile stress in capillary of concrete matrix. The relative losses in compressive strengths for steel fibres for Vf of 0.51% and 0.71% is about 16%, 63% and 91% and 8, 59 and 91% respectively for above three temperatures. This shows that higher steel fibre contain has smaller loss in compressive strength at elevated temperature. The failure mode of steel fibres has changed from pullout at lower temperature to tensile failure (broken down). The failure pattern of fibre composites beams changed from ductile to brittle one.
Fig. 6: Temperaturetime Relation
It has been observed that using hybrid fibres in combination of steel fibre 55 Kg/m3 and PP fibres 2 Kg/m3 in concrete has shown excellent results with no visible spalling at temperature of 900 0C for 3 hours exposure.
Nylon-Polypropylene Hybrid Fibres

The addition of PP fibres in concrete is most effective and widely used method to prevent spalling in normal concrete and HSC. The amount of PP fibres usually required varying from 1-3Kg/m3 depending upon type of fibres to mitigate the occurrence of spalling. Song et al. [21] has observed that nylon fibre added to concrete improves compressive and tensile strength upto 6 and 7% respectively over those of polypropylene fibre concrete. The combination of polypropylene-nylon fibres provides significantly better spalling protection to the concrete in fire, than single fibre by themselves at the same fibre content. Bentz [22] noted that the connectivity of void spaces in concrete is critical to provide a convenient escape route for vapour generated during fire exposure to reduce spalling risk. Heo et al. [23] tested on combined nylon (9 mm length) & polypropylene (19 mm length) fibre reinforced concrete to assess the synergistic effect on spalling protection of concrete exposed to fire. The fibre content in this study has been varied from 0.05%, 0.10% and 0.15% volume fraction. The Fire tests are conducted for one hour exposure in accordance with standard fire curve of ISO-834 and allowed to pull naturally at room temperature for 24 hours. The combination of hybrid fibres, at a very small fibre content of 0.03%, is observed to be very effective in protection against spalling which is otherwise about three times lesser fibre content required of single type of polypropylene fibre (0.10%) for same level of protection. It has also been observed that length of fibre is dominant over the number of fibre per unit volume for a given fibre content. In terms of weight loss the control specimen undergone a drastic weight loss of 74% when exposed to fire, compared to the hybrid specimen the weight loss is as low as 8%. The optimum fibre requirement for hybridisation of micro nylon and micro PP fibre in high strength concrete to provide sufficient spalling resistance has been studied by Lee et al. [24]. Different combinations of fibres have been studied with varying dosages from 0 to 0.1% by volume fraction of PP and nylon fibres in the concrete mix. The combinations of nylon and PP fibres have showed better spalling protection and no explosive spalling has observed at 0.05% fibre content (nylon 0.025% + PP 0.025%), which is half of the content of PP fibre alone required for spalling prevention.
CONCLUSION
The paper attempts to highlight state-of-the-art in Hybrid fibre reinforced concrete. The subject has motivated since the year 1975 and over the years hybridisation of steel and polypropylene fibres has attracted most attention. The paper discusses at length about the mechanical properties and residual fire behaviour of HyFRC. The various hybrids are based on fibre constitutive response, fibre dimensions, fiber functions. The high modulus of steel fibre helps in bridging the propagation of cracks while polypropylene fibre provides outstanding toughness to concrete. Thus, hybrid combinations of these fibres offer potential advantages in improving concrete properties as well as reducing overall cost of FRC production. Hybrid fibres when used in concrete, improves the macro and micro cracking mechanism, stressstrain behaviour, enhancement of ductility, yield load, durability and residual strength of concrete when exposed to high temperature. Significant research efforts have been made to understand the variations in mechanical properties and post-cracking behaviour of hybrid fibre reinforced concrete. The research outcome reveals that the variations depend on type of fibres and concrete. The use of fibers as a secondary reinforcing mechanism helps in mitigating the stresses developed upon drying. Further, it has been explored through extensive laboratory investigations that the addition of non-metallic fibers such as polypropylene, glass, and polyethylene reduces drying shrinkage crack widths of concrete at later ages. It has also seen that a considerable amount of hybrid fibers allows self-compacting ability. Research efforts highlight that high-level of workability with fiber reinforcement can be achieved by enhancing the amount of paste in the mix so to provide better dispersion of fibers. This can be done by increasing cement content, increasing fine aggregate content or by using pozolonic materials.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Director, CSIR-CBRI, Roorkee for permitting to publish the paper.
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252 Twenty-eighth NCCE & National Seminar on Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development [15] Hsie, M.; Tu, C. and Song, P. S. (2008), Mechanical properties of polypropylene hybrid fibre-reinforced concrete, Materials Science and Engineering, 494, 153157. [16] Ravichandran. A.; Suguna, K. and Ragunath, P.N. (2009) Strength modelling of high-strength concrete with hybrid fibre reinforcement, American Journal of Applied Sciences, 6 (2), 219-223. [17] Chen, B. and Liu, J. (2004), Residual strength of hybrid-fibre-reinforced high-strength concrete after exposure to high temperatures, Cement and Concrete Research, 34, 10651069. [18] Bangi, M.R. and Horiguchi, T. (2011), Pore pressure development in hybrid fibre-reinforced high strength concrete at elevated temperatures, Cement and Concrete Research, 41, 1150-1156. [19] Pliya, P.; Beaucour, A.L. and Noumow. A. (2011), Contribution of cocktail of polypropylene and steel fibres in improving the behaviour of high strength concrete subjected to high temperature, Construction and Building Materials, 25, 19261934. [20] Ding, Y., Azevedo, C., Aguiar, A.J. and Jalali, S. (2012), Study on residual behaviour and flexural toughness of fibre cocktail reinforced self compacting high performance concrete after exposure to high temperature, Construction and Building Materials, 26, 2131. [21] Song, P.S.; Hwang, S. and Sheu, B.C. (2005), Strength properties of nylon and polypropylene fibre-reinforced concretes, Cement and Concrete Research, 35, 1546-1550. [22] Bentz, D.P. (2000), Fibres, percolation and spalling of the high performance concrete, ACI Material Journal, 97, 351-359. [23] Heo, Y.S., Sanjayan, J.G., Han, C.G. and Han, M.C. (2010), Synergistic effect of combined fibres for spalling protection of concrete in fire, Cement and Concrete Research, 40, 15471554. [24] Lee, G.; Han, D.; Han, M.C.; Han, C. G. and Son, H. G. (2012), Combining polypropylene and nylon fibres to optimize fibre addition for spalling protection of high-strength concrete, Construction and Building Materials, 34, 313320.
Behaviour of Steel Fibre Reinforced Self Compacting Rubberised Concrete Beams under Monotonic Loading
N. Ganesan1, Bharati Raj2 and A.P. Shashikala3
1Professor 2Research
& Dean (P&D), CED, National Institute of Technology, Calicut; ganesan@nitc.ac.in Scholar, CED, National Institute of Technology, Calicut; bharatiraj83@gmail.com 3Professor, CED, National Institute of Technology, Calicut; apska@nitc.ac.in
AbstractPast studies indicate that addition of shredded rubber to concrete improves its ductility significantly. Also, the incorporation of steel fibres enhances the ductile and engineering properties of concrete to a great extent. Considering these aspects, a sustainable composite having improved ductility has been developed by adding shredded scrap rubber to Self Compacting Concrete (SCC) as a partial replacement of fine aggregate. The flexural behaviour of Self Compacting Rubberised Concrete (SCRC) beams under monotonic loading has been studied. Besides this, an attempt has been made to obtain Steel Fibre Reinforced Self Compacting Rubberised Concrete (SFRSCRC) by the addition of short discrete randomly oriented steel fibres to SCRC. The experimental investigation consists of casting and testing of 9 beams of 100 x 150 x 1200mm size under flexure. Three specimens were tested for each mix and the average results were taken for analysis. The results were analysed based on first crack load and ultimate load, load deflection behaviour and energy absorption capacity. The analysis results indicate that the SCRC and SFRSCRC specimens showed better load carrying capacity, crack resistance and ductility than the SCC specimens under monotonic loading. Keywords: beams, flexure, self compacting concrete, shredded rubber, steel fibres
INTRODUCTION
An emerging field for the reuse of scrap tyres is in the production of concrete, where the shredded tyre rubber can be used as a partial replacement to natural aggregates. Since the production of shredded tyre rubber is well advanced, the reuse of scrap rubber in concrete leads to both environmental and economic advantages. Past investigations on rubberised concrete [1,2] indicate that the partial replacement of coarse or fine aggregate of concrete with waste tyre can improve properties such as resistance to abrasion, absorption of shocks and vibrations and ductility and hence, make a move towards achieving sustainable concrete. The development of Self Compacting Concrete (SCC) with the unique property of flowing under its own weight by Okamura [3] was with the prime aim of solving the problem of honeycombing and giving better finishes to structures, especially where congestion of reinforcement is a major concern. The possibility of developing SCC incorporating shredded scrap rubber aggregates was a novel approach to combine the advantages of both SCC and rubberised concrete. Even though this seemed to be a promising technology in controlling the microstructure of concrete, very few studies have been carried out so far on Self Compacting Rubberised Concrete (SCRC) [4,5]. Earlier studies have revealed that the addition of steel fibres in SCC improves the engineering properties such as ductility, post crack resistance, energy absorption capacity etc [6]. The concepts of sustainability and sustainable development are receiving greater attention nowadays as the causes of global warming and climatic change are discussed in various forums. Since, concrete is the most widely used construction material, sustainable technologies for concrete construction allow for reduced cost, conservation of resources, utilization of waste materials and
development of eco-friendly durable concrete. Considering these aspects, a sustainable composite having improved ductility has been developed by adding shredded scrap rubber to SCC as a partial replacement of fine aggregate [7]. One of the barriers of the application of SCRC in construction is the lack of adequate information regarding the behaviour of structural elements with this material. The application of SCRC to structural members has not been studied so far. Hence, an attempt has been made to investigate strength and behaviour of SCRC and Steel Fibre Reinforced SCRC (SFRSCRC) flexural members subjected to monotonic loading.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME Materials and Mix Proportions

The materials used in this study include Ordinary Portland cement conforming to IS: 12269-1987 [8], flyash with a normal consistency of 45% obtained from Neyveli Lignite Power Plant conforming to Type F as per ASTM C618 [9], river sand passing through 4.75mm IS sieve conforming to grading zone II of IS: 383-1970 [10] having specific gravity of 2.54 and coarse aggregate with a maximum size of 12mm and specific gravity of 2.77. The mix design adopted is based on the method proposed by Nan et.al [11] which gives an indication of the target strength after 28 days of curing. The water powder ratio (w/p) was adjusted so as to obtain the SCC mix of grade 50MPa and then was checked for the self compactability as per the EFNARC [12] acceptance criteria for SCC. Naphthalene based super plasticizer Structuro 201 and viscosity modifying admixture (VMA) Calcium Sulphate dihydrate were added to impart better workability and viscosity to the mix in order to avoid segregation. Fine rubber was obtained by shredding the worn out scrap tyres and sieved to get rubber particles with a maximum size of 4.75mm. The specific gravity of fine rubber thus obtained was 1.14. In Self Compacting Rubberised Concrete (SCRC), the fine aggregate was partially replaced by fine rubber and the percentage volume of replacement (Rr) was 15%. Steel Fibre Reinforced Self Compacting Rubberised Concrete (SFRSCRC) was obtained by adding 30mm long crimped steel fibres having 0.45mm diameter (aspect ratio 66) at volume fractions (Vf) of 0.50% to the SCRC mixes.
Table 1: Mix Proportions for SCC, SCRC and SFRSCRC
Material Cement (kg/m3) Fly ash (kg/m3) Coaurse Aggregate (kg/m3) Fine Aggregate (kg/m3) Shredded Rubber (kg/m3) Steel Fibres (kg/m3) Super Plasticizer (% of powder content) Water (kg/m3) PVA (kg/m3) Water Powder Ratio (w/p) VMA (kg/m3) SCC 600.00 270.00 720.00 720.00 5.83 247.00 0.284 SCRC 600.00 270.00 720.00 612.00 41.20 7.80 256.00 5.80 0.294 0.81 SFRSCRC 600.00 270.00 720.00 612.00 41.20 45.04 7.80 256.00 5.80 0.294 0.81
As the partial replacement of fine aggregate with fine rubber increased, the mix was found to be less workable and hence, the amount of super plasticizer was increased, so that the mixes satisfy the acceptance criteria of SCC. The viscosity modifying admixture was also added at the rate of 0.01% of the water content for imparting better workability and viscosity to the mixes in order to avoid segregation. In order to offset the loss of strength due to the addition of scrap rubber, Poly Vinyl Alcohol (PVA) of 2.35% of water content was added.
Behaviour of Steel Fibre Reinforced Self Compacting Rubberised Concrete Beams under Monotonic Loading 255
Table 2: Fresh Properties of the Mixes

Mix Designation SCC SCRC SFRSCRC Slump Flow (mm) 700 700 700 V-Funnel Time (s) 8 9 12 L-box Value 0.92 0.89 0.88 Result No Blockage No Blockage No Blockage Remarks SCC SCC SCC
The details of the constituents of the mix are given in Table 1. The self compactability of the mixes was verified by Flow test, V-funnel test and L-Box test. The fresh properties of the mixes are given in Table 2. Along with test specimen, 100 mm cubes, 150 300 mm cylinders and 100 100 500 mm prisms were also cast and cured under the same conditions. The hardened properties of the mixes are given in Table 3.
Table 3: Hardened Properties of the Mixes
Mix Designation SCC SCRC SFRSCRC Compressive Strength (MPa) 52.89 41.04 48.22 Density (kg/m3) 2488.89 2103.70 2162.96 Flexural Strength (MPa) 6.48 5.65 7.14 Modulus of Elasticity (MPa) 29800.00 26790.00 29117.38 Split Tensile Strength (MPa) 3.21 2.83 3.11
Details of Specimens
The experimental work consisted of casting and testing of 9 beams of size 100 x 150 x 1200 mm under monotonic loading. Beams were provided with two 10 mm diameter high yield strength deformed bars at bottom and two 6 mm diameter bars at top. Two legged stirrups of 6 mm diameter @ 85mm c/c have been used as shear reinforcement. The shear reinforcement is designed to ensure flexural failure. Properties of reinforcing bars used are given in Table 4. The overall dimensions and details of reinforcement are given in Fig 1. Three specimens were tested in each series and average results were taken for analysis.
Table 4: Mechanical Properties of Steel Reinforcement Bars
Nominal Diameter of Bar (mm) 10 6 Actual Diameter of Bar (mm) 9.97 6.09 Yield Strength (N/mm2) 426 433 Ultimate Strength (N/mm2) 570 678 Modulus of Elasticity (N/mm2) 2.32 x 105 2.44 x 105
P/2 26mmbars A
P/2 2L,6mmbars@85c/c 2,6bars 2L,6bars 150 2,10bars
210mmbars 50 370 360 1200
A 50
100
370
SECTION A-A All dimensions are in millimeters
Fig. 1: Details of Specimen
Testing g
A two point p flexura al bending system s was adopted for r the tests. The T specime ens were tes sted in a Universa al Testing Ma achine (UTM M) of 2943kN N (300t) capa acity with an n effective spa an of 1100m mm. Fig 2 shows th he schematic c diagram of f test set up and Fig 3 sh hows the ph hotograph of f test setup. The T load applied on the speci imen was inc creased in sta ages at a uniform rate til ll the failure of the specim men, and at each stage s of load ding, followin ng measurem ments were made. m 1. De eflection at mid-span m usin ng a dial gau uge having le east count of f 0.01mm an nd 25 mm tra avel. 2. De eformations at mid-span n using LVDT Ts having lea ast count of 1 micron ac cross the dep pth of the be eam at 20mm m below the e top and 20 0mm above the t bottom. The deforma ations obtain ned from LV VDT reading gs were used to calculate strains. 3. Cr rack widths at a ultimate lo oad using a microscope m of o 25X magn nification (Cra ackscope).
Fig g. 2: Schemat tic Diagram of Test Setup p
Fig. 3: Test S Setup for Mo onotonic Load ding Test on Bea ams
RESUL LTS AND DISCUSSIO D ONS Behavi iour of Spe ecimens

All the beams b were tested under two point loading (fou ur point bend ding). In all t the specimen ns as the loading was increase ed, cracks ap ppeared in the t flexural span s and further increas se in load re esulted in addition nal cracks and widening of o some of the earlier cra acks. In the case of spec cimens with rubber, r a large nu umber of finer cracks de eveloped in the flexure span s and it started wide ening when the load increase ed. At higher r loads, some of the crac cks propagat ted up the beam, b deflec ctions were la arge and tension steel started yielding at this stage. At A ultimate st tage, all the cracks traversed towards s the top and som me of the cra acks got wid dened. The first crack lo oad, ultimate e load and d deflection at ultimate load incr reased consi iderably with h the addition n of steel fibr res to SCRC. Fig. 4 shows tes sted specime ens of SCC, SCRC and SFRSCRC S b beams. From m the figure, it can be observed d that in the e case of SC CC and SCR RC specimen ns, cracks ar re uniformly y distributed and are almost parallel p to ea ach other. But B in the cas se of SFRSC CRC specime ens, large nu umber of finer cracks occurred d without any uniform pattern. Th his may be due to the fibre bridg ging effect. After A the formatio on of cracks, fibres interc cept them an nd widening g of cracks ge ets reduced. As and whe en micro cracks develop d in th he matrix, th he fibres in th he vicinity of such micro o cracks try t to arrest thes se cracks and pre event further r propagatio on. Hence, the t cracks appearing a in nside the ma atrix have to o take a meande ering path, re esulting in the t demand for more energy for fu uture propag gation, which h in turn increase es the ultimat te load.
Behaviour of Steel Fibre Reinforced Self Compacting Rubberised Concrete Beams under Monotonic Loading 257
Load Deflection Behaviour

Load deflection plots for all the tested specimens were drawn. The comparison of load deflection curves is shown in Fig 5. From the figure it can be observed that all the curves are linear up to first crack load. Further application of load, caused multiple cracks and the curve deviated from linearity into a nonlinear region. Beyond the multiple cracking stage, the P- curve became more or less flat till the ultimate load was reached. In the case of SCC specimens, a sudden drop in the load was noticed beyond the peak load while for SCRC, the reduction was observed to be more gradual. SFRSCRC specimens exhibited more or less a flat descending portion of the curve beyond peak load. This indicates the improvement in the dimensional stability and structural integrity of the specimen even beyond peak load when fibres are added. The addition of steel fibres leads to an increase in the peak load and a more ductile softening behaviour.
80 70 60 Load (kN) 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 SFRSCRC MONOTONIC SCRC MONOTONIC SCC MONOTONIC
Load-deflection curve
Mid-span deflection (mm)
Fig. 4: Crack Pattern in Beams Subjected to Monotonic Loading
Fig. 5: Comparison of Load-Deflection Curves under Monotonic Loading
First Crack Load and Ultimate Load

Average values of test results of three specimens for each mix are given in Table 5. First crack load was determined from the load deflection plot corresponding to that point on the curve at which the curve deviated from linearity. From the table it can be observed that first crack load increased with addition of rubber and fibres, which may be due to the increase in tensile strain carrying capacity of concrete in the neighbourhood of rubber and fibres. Ultimate load also gradually increased with addition of rubber and fibres. When fibres are added to concrete, crack propagation gets arrested which results in requirement of more energy. This leads to improvement in load carrying capacity. The results indicate an increase of up to 9% in first crack load and 1% in ultimate load for SCRC specimens. With the addition of 0.5% fibres, the increase in first crack load and ultimate load was 10% and 6% respectively.
Table 5: Test Results
Mix Designation SCC SCRC SFRSCRC First Crack Load (kN) 11.7 12.7 17.6 Ultimate Load (kN) 71.60 72.59 74.56 Deflection at Ultimate Load (mm) 12.05 12.62 13.93 Energy Absorption Capacity (kNm) 0.893 1.018 1.394
Energy Absorption Capacity

The area under the load deflection curve indicates the energy absorption capacity. Due to inherent limitations of the testing machine, full load deflection curve could not be obtained. Therefore, the load deflection behaviour up to 80% of peak load in the descending branch was noted. Energy absorption capacity was calculated as the area under the load deflection curve up to peak load and
up to 80% peak load in the descending branch and the results obtained are given in Table 5. From the Table, it can be seen that energy absorption capacity consistently increases for rubberised composites. The increase is nearly 14% for SCRC specimens and 56% for SFRSCRC specimens when compared to SCC specimens.
CONCLUSION
Following conclusions are drawn from the experimental investigations conducted to assess the influence of scrap rubber and fibres on the flexural response of SCC beams. 1. The addition of steel fibres leads to a reduction in the fresh properties of SCC such as workability and flow ability. However, there is significant improvement in the hardened properties such as compressive strength, flexural strength and tensile strength. 2. The first crack load increased with the addition of scrap rubber and steel fibres. It was noted that the first crack load of SCRC and SFRSCRC was 1.08 and 1.51 times that of the SCC beams. 3. SCRC and SFRSCRC specimens exhibited numerous finer cracks and showed enhanced ultimate deflection due to the elastic nature of the scrap rubber particles and bridging effect of steel fibres respectively. 4. While there is a marginal increase (1%) in the ultimate load of SCC with the addition of shredded rubber in the case of SCRC beams, significant improvement (6%) was obtained with the addition of shredded rubber and steel fibres in the case of SFRSCRC specimens. 5. The energy absorption capacity was more for SCRC and SFRSCRC specimens and the increase was nearly 14% for SCRC specimens and 56% for SFRSCRC specimens when compared to SCC specimens.
REFERENCES
Topu .B, and Avcular N (1997), Analysis of rubberized concrete as a composite material, Cement and Concrete Research, 27(8), 1135-1139. [2] Gregory Marvin Garrick B.S (2005), Analysis and testing of waste tyre fibre modified concrete, MS Thesis, Louisiana State University. [3] Okamura H (1997), Self-Compacting High-Performance Concrete, Concrete International, 19(7), 50-54. [4] Najim K.B, and Hall M.R (2010), A review of the fresh/hardened properties and applications for plain- (PRC) and selfcompacting rubberised concrete (SCRC), Construction and Building Materials, 24, 20432051. [5] Mehmet G, and Erhan G (2011), Permeability properties of self-compacting rubberized concretes, Construction and Building Materials, 25, 33193326. [6] Grunewald S, and Walraven J.C (2001), Parameter-study on the influence of steel fibres and coarse aggregate content on the fresh properties of self-compacting concrete, Cement and Concrete Research, 31, 17931798. [7] Bharati R, Ganesan N, and Shashikala A.P (2011), Engineering Properties of Self- compacting Rubberized Concrete, Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 30(23), 1923-1930. [8] IS 12269: 1987, Indian Standard Specification for 53 Grade Ordinary Portland Cement, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. [9] ASTM C618 - 08a, Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete. [10] IS 383:1970 (R2002), Indian Standard Specification for coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources for concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. [11] Nan S, Kung-Chung H, His-Wen C (2001), A simple mix design method for self-compacting concrete, Cement and Concrete Research, 31, 17991807. [12] European Federation of Producers and Contractors of Specialist Products for Structures (EFNARC), Specifications and Guidelines for Self Compacting Concrete, February 2002. www.efnarc.org [1]
An Experimental Investigation on Confinement of Concrete with Poly-Vinyl Chloride Pipes

P.K. Gupta1, N. Lakumalla2, G. Ramesh3, A.K. Ahuja4, P. Bhargava5 and S.K. Agrawal6
1,2,3,4,5Department 6Building
of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute Technology Roorkee, India; pkgupfce@iitr.ernet.in Material & Technology Promotion Council, New Delhi, India; ska@bmtpc.org
AbstractIn this paper an experimental study is presented to investigate the effectiveness of PVC pipe for confinement of concrete. PVC pipes having 140mm, 160mm and 200mm external diameters were used to confine the concrete having compressive strength 20MPa, 25MPa and 40MPa. The concrete has been designed using IS code 10262-1982(Reaffirmed -2004). The testing of the specimen on a displacement controlled INSTRON make Universal Testing Machine of 2500KN capacity was made. During the experiment mode of deformation and corresponding compression curves were recorded and obtained results are compared with the existing models for confined concrete available in the literature. It is found that PVC pipes can be effectively used for confinement of the concrete. The available analytical models can also be used to predict the load carrying capacity of PVC pipe confined concrete up to appreciable accuracy. Keywords: PVC pipe, Confined concrete, Confinement, Ductility.
INTRODUCTION
Strengthening or repairing of deteriorating concrete columns has now become one of the areas of study in construction industry across the world. One of the deficiencies in concrete columns is the lack of lateral confinement and low energy absorption capacity. Researchers are working on the techniques by which such deficiencies can be minimized during construction stage. The strength, ductility and energy absorption capacity of new concrete columns during construction can be enhanced by providing external confinement by employing UPVC tubes. These tubes can be used as formwork during construction and after that as an integral part of column. There are a number of confinement materials to be used for confining concrete columns. Structural steel tubes are extensively studied for such purpose in past two decades and as a result numerous literatures [1-5] are available. Composite construction can result in a more efficient structural system due to the effective use of its constituents. Steel tubes filled with concrete have been considered in construction industry as columns, especially in seismic regions [6]. Their benefits include high stiffness and strength, large energy absorption, and enhanced ductility. The interaction between the outer tube with the concrete core provides three additional properties. These are (1) tube confines the concrete core, as a result enhancement in compressive strength and ductility of concrete occurs; (2) tube provides additional shear strength for the concrete core; and (3) depending on tubes bond strength with concrete core and its stiffness in the axial direction, it develops some level of composite action, thereby also enhancing the flexural strength of concrete. On the other hand the concrete core, in return, prevents local buckling of the steel tube. In view of these facts, in the present study the authors have proposed an idea to strengthen concrete columns by using UPVC tube as outer confining layer in order to both increase the compressive strength significantly and strive for the smallest unfavorable influence on the ductility and durability of the strengthened columns. A comparative test research program to strengthen columns
by UPVC tube has been put forward. In order to evaluate the behaviour of the proposed UPVC tube columns more objectively and thoroughly, an experimental study is performed. The test results are presented and discussed from strength, ductility and energy absorption capacity point of view. Since use of UPVC for confinement of concrete is relatively new and theoretical work available in this area is very limited. Therefore, different models available in the literature that were originally developed for transverse steel reinforcement confinement are used to access the confinement of the concrete columns with UPVC tubes. Hence, in the present paper the predictions of the enhancement of load carrying capacity of concrete confined with UPVC tubes is studied by employing different theoretical models available. This paper also describes the effect of plastic tube diameter/thickness ratio and core-concrete strength on mechanical properties of concrete confined with UPVC tubes.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME Materials Un-plasticized Poly-Vinyl-Chloride (UPVC) Tube

In this paper, Un-plasticized Poly-Vinyl-Chloride (UPVC) was chosen to make confined concrete after considering following points: 1. Polymer is one of the most stable substances when high corrosion resistance is required. The anti-corrosion characteristics of UPVC have been proven to be outstanding. Since the last century, polyethylene copolymer coatings have been used of the protection of external surface of onshore and offshore pipelines. 2. UPVC tube can also be used as a protective layer against mechanical damage caused by the severe environment. Physical properties of the UPVC are given in Table 1. UPVC has a breaking elongation up to 134% and a brittle temperature down to -94OF (-70OC), therefore it can withstand those mechanical damages which occur in the exposure of high energy environments like marine and saline. In addition the thermal conductivity of UPVC is only 0.45% that of a steel tube; it can provide a stable curing condition for the core concrete to achieve high performances and high durability.
Table 1: Physical Properties of UPVC Pipes
Parameter Density Elastic modulus Flexure strength Poisson ratio Ultimate tensile strength Breaking elongation Thermal conductivity Service life Value 13-14.5 KN/m3 3380MPa 65.5 MPa 0.38 27.5- 52 MPa 134% 0.14-0.28 kcal/m.hroc >50years
Finally the service life of UPVC tube is longer ]than 50years, and with the mechanical supporting of core concrete UPVC can serve longer as a protective layer of the concrete structure.
Concrete
Three series of concrete M20, M25, M40 were designed as per code IS: 10262-1982 (Reaffirmed 2004) [7] to fill the UPVC tubes. Portland Pozzolona Cement (according to IS1489-1991 Part-1) was used to obtain concrete. Its compressive strength was 20 MPa at 3 days and 45 MPa at 28 days. Local sand with a fineness modulus of 2.7 was used as fine aggregate and saturated surface dry crushed aggregate was used as coarse aggregate. The concrete mix proportions and the compressive strength at 28 days are given in Table 2.
An Experimental Investigation on Confinement of Concrete with Poly-Vinyl Chloride Pipes 261
Table 2: Concrete Mixture Proportions

Grade of Mix M20 M25 M40 Water/ Cement Ratio Water (Kg/m3) 215 215 215 Cement (Kg/m3) 428 458 537 Sand (Kg/m3) 619 564 590.7 Aggregate (Kg/m3) 1040 1033 934.5 Compressive Strength at 28 Days fck, (MPa) 23.6 28.6 43.5
0.50 0.47 0.40
Specimens
Eight UPVC tubes with the outer diameters (D) of 140 mm, 160 mm and 200 mm were cut in 800 mm length (L). The wall thickness (t) of UPVC tubes were 3.9 mm, 4.25 mm and 5.85 mm for 140 mm, 160 mm and 200 mm diameters respectively. Typical nomenclatures for specimens are used to designate them. For example specimen T160M20PC-1: T160 stands for tube of 160mm external diameter, M20 stands for grade of concrete, PC stands for Plain concrete, 1-stands for first specimen. Therefore, T160M20PC-1 indicates specimen made with tube of diameter 160 mm, filled with plain concrete having compressive strength 20 MPa and number one. The details of the experimental setup can be seen elsewhere [8-9]. Details of column specimens are given in Table 3. To judge the confinement effect of UPVC tube constraining factor was applied and defined as [8-10];
A p f py Ac f ck
(1)
Where Ap and fpy are the cross-sectional area and yield stress of UPVC tube, receptively; and Ac and fck are the area and compressive strength of the core concrete respectively. UPVC tubes were tested for the tensile strength of their material with the sample as shown in Fig. 2. This sample was tested in the sophisticated TINIUS OLSEN machine of the material testing laboratory of Metallurgy Department of Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee with a loading rate of 50 mm/min. Fig. 2(b) shows the original sample used for the testing. The stress-strain curve is shown in Fig. 3. The ultimate strength (fpy) was recorded as 42.22 MPa.
Items of Investigation
The stress strain curves of confined concrete specimens were obtained by performing compression tests on INSTRON make UTM machine with a capacity of 2500 KN. The experiment was performed using a displacement control method with cross head speed of 1 mm/min. The rate was applied continuously without a jerk load. Loads and displacements were measured continuously by data collection computer system. The frequency of the data collection is 0.4Hz.
Fig. 1: Modelling of Plastic Tube Confined Concrete
(b) Photograph Fig. 2: Typical Specimen for Tension Test of UPVC Tube (a) Dimensions, (b) Photograph 45 40 35 30 Stress (MPa) 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 Strain Fig. 3: Typical Tensile Stress-Strain Curve of UPVC Tube Material 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
The axial displacement of all specimens was controlled in the range from 0 to 30 mm. It was found that the residual strength of all specimens were still greater than 42% of peak load at the axial displacement of 30mm (see Table 3).
Table 3: Details of Specimens
Confinement parameter Specimen T160M20PC-1 T160M20PC-2 T200M20PC-1 T200M20PC-2 T140M25PC-1 T140M25PC-2 T140M40PC-1 T140M40PC-2 D/t ratio 37.6 37.6 34.1 34.1 35.8 35.8 35.8 35.8 D x t x L mm 160 x 4.25 x 800 160 x 4.25 x 800 200 x 5.85 x 800 200 x 5.85 x 800 140 x 3.9 x 800 140 x 3.9 x 800 140 x 3.9x 800 140 x 3.9 x 800
=
Ap f
py
A c f ck
0.20 0.20 0.23 0.23 0.17 0.17 0.11 0.11
Residual Strength at 30 mm Compression as % of Peak Load 42.2 49.9 44.4 54.1 45.2 45.05 42.70 42.70
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Mode of Failure

All specimens exhibited a good ductility and still retained the integrity when the displacement reached 30 mm. The failure pattern of all specimens was shear failure as shown in Fig 4(a-d). A typical characteristic of shear failure is that the core concrete is damaged by shear stress in one direction due to weak confinement effect of the tube. The shear crack direction can be judged by the appearance of
the specimen. The same type of mode of failure was also observed by Wang and Yang [10] in their experimental program. They also found shear type failure for specimens having 0.204. For all specimens tested here is between 0.11 and 0.23. (see Table 3).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 4: Typical failure Modes of Specimens: (a) T160M20, (b) T200M20, (c) T140M25, (d) T140M40
Load-compression Curve
Figs. 5 & 6 show the load-compression curves of all the specimens. Load-compression curves are classified according to the specimens with the same core concrete and different tubes, or with the same tube and different core concretes respectively. From Fig. 5 it is clear that as diameter of tube increases the peak load increase but the ductility decreases for the specimens having different diameters and filled with concrete having same compressive strength. From Fig. 5 and Fig 6 it is also clear that the tube diameter/thickness (D/t) affects the post-peak behaviour of the curve. The absolute values of the slope of the curves decline by the decrease in tube diameter/thickness, where as the change of the residual strength ratios of the specimens after peak stress is generally just the opposite. The reason is that the confinement effect of UPVC tube enhances as the tube thickness increases. Moreover, confined concrete shows enhanced ductility.
Fig. 5: Comparison of Load-Compression Variations of Different Diameter Tubes Filled with Same Concrete Grade M20
Fig. 6: Comparison of Load-compression Variations of Same Diameter Tubes Filled with Different Concrete Grades
It can be found from Fig. 6 that the slope of the onset section of the curves goes down with the decrease in grade of concrete. The reason can be attributed to the difference of the elastic modulus between UPVC tube and core concrete. The elastic modulus of UPVC tube is only between 9% and 15% that of the concrete core. Therefore, when the grade of concrete decreases; the proportion of UPVC elastic modulus in a confined concrete specimen increases; and the elastic modulus of the confined concrete decreases. From Fig. 6 it is also clear that concrete strength affects the post-peak behaviour of the curve significantly. Absolute values of the slope of the curve increase with increase in concrete strength because the core concrete becomes more brittle. The residual strength of specimen decreases with increase in concrete strength.
Fig. 7: Comparison of Energy-compression Variations of Different Diameter Tubes Filled with Same Concrete Grade M20
Fig. 7 and 8 shows the energy-compression curves for different specimens. It is clear from Fig. 7 that as diameter of tube increases the energy absorbing capacity also increases.
Fig. 8: Comparison of Energy-compression Variations of Same Diameter Tubes Filled with Different Concrete Grades
CONCLUSION
This paper proposed new kind of composite material, which is obtained by filling Unplasticized PolyVinyl Chloride (UPVC) tube with concrete. Based on the test results following conclusions may be drawn: 1. Confinement of concrete columns with UPVC tubes improves their compressive strength and ductility. The improvement in strength and ductility is dependent on the concrete strength and geometrical properties of tubes. 2. Failure pattern of all the specimens are shear type failure. 3. Compressive strength of concrete affects the post-peak behaviour of the load-compression curve significantly. Absolute value of the slope of the curve increases with increase in concrete strength due to the increased brittleness. 4. The slope of the onset section of the curves goes down with the decrease in grade of concrete. 5. The tube diameter/thickness ratio affects the post-peak behaviour of the curve; absolute values of the slope of the curves decline by the decrease in tube diameter/thickness ratio.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanks are due to the Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC), Ministry of Housing & Urban Poverty Alleviation, and Government of India for providing the financial support for this research work.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] Schneider SP. Axially loaded concrete filled steel tubes. J. Str. Engg. (1998), 124, no. 10:1125-1138. Martin DO, Russell QB. Design of Circular Thin-Walled Concrete Filled Steel Tubes. J. Str. Engg. (2000), 126, no. 11:295-1303. Giakoumelis G, Lam D (2004). Axial capacity of circular concrete filled tube columns. J. Constructional Steel Research, 60, pp. 1049-1068. Oliveira WLA, Nardin SD, Debs ALHCE, and Debs MKE (2009). Influence of concrete strength and length/diameter on the axial capacity of CFT columns. J. Constructional Steel Research 65:2103-2110. [5] Gupta PK, Sarda SM, and Kumar MS. (2007), Experimental and computational study of concrete filled steel tubular columns under axial loads. J. Constructional Steel Research 63:182-193. [6] Ge H, and Usami T. (1992), Strength of concrete-filled thin-walled steel box columns: experiment. J. Struct. Engrg. ASCE, 118(11):3036-3054. [7] BIS: 10262-1982 (Reaffirmed -2004). Recommended guidelines for concrete mix design, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. [8] Golla R. (2012), Experimental investigation into behaviour of concrete filled PVC tubes. M. Tech. dissertation, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India. [9] Nagaraju L. (2012) Study on reinforced cement concrete filled UPVC pipes as columns. M. Tech. dissertation, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India. [10] Wang J and Yang Q. Experimental study on Mechanical Properties of concrete confined with plastic Pipe. 2010 Title no. 107-M17 ACI Materials Journal: 132-137.
A Study on Suitability of Concrete Filled UPVC Pipes as Columns

P.K. Gupta1, G. Ramesh2, N. Lakumalla3, A.K. Ahuja4, P. Bhargava5 and S.K. Agrawal6
1,2,3,4,5Department 6Building
of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute Technology Roorkee, India; pkgupfce@iitr.ernet.in Material & Technology Promotion Council, New Delhi, India; ska@bmtpc.org
AbstractIn the present study, Unplastisized Poly Vinyl Chloride (UPVC) tubes filled with concrete are axially loaded to investigate their load carrying capacity and associated ductility. Total twelve specimens of UPVC tubes of diameters 140mm, and 200mm with effective length of 900mm were cast. M20 grade of concrete was filled inside the tubes for the casting of UPVC concrete filled tube (CFUT) column specimens. All these specimens were prepared to investigate the effect of outer diameter to thickness (D/t) ratio on the strength, confinement and ductility of columns specimens. The column specimens were tested for axial loading in the INSTRON machine of capacity 250 tones. Their loaddeformation curves and modes of deformation were recorded. The test results indicate that as D/t ratio decreases, the confinement and ductility increases. The magnitude of the displacement corresponding to peak load increases as diameter of specimen increases. It can also be concluded from the experiments that concrete filled UPVC tubes can be used as columns. Keywords: Unplastisized Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) tubes, Ductility, Confinement, Strength, Buckling
INTRODUCTION
Concrete Filled Tube (CFT) is an example of blending two materials generally steel and concrete together to avail the compressive strength and stiffness of concrete and ductility of steel in one of the best possible ways. The CFT is prepared by filling the concrete in a steel tube. The CFT structural members such as columns and beams have a number of distinct advantages over an equivalent steel, reinforced concrete, or steel-reinforced concrete members. The orientation of the steel and concrete in the cross section optimizes the strength and stiffness of the section. The steel lies at the outer perimeter where it performs most effectively in compression, tension and in resisting bending moment. Also, the stiffness of the CFT is greatly enhanced because the steel, which has a much greater modulus of elasticity than the concrete, is situated farthest from the centroid, where it makes the greatest contribution to the moment of inertia. Additionally, it has been shown that the steel tube confines the concrete core, which increases the compressive strength of concrete core and consequently the axial load carrying capacity and the ductility of CFT structural members. Therefore, it is advantageous to use CFTs as columns [1] in high rise buildings where land space is one of the major concerns due to high price of land. There has been significant research on CFTs over past two decades [2-8]. As a result leading international codes have devised the design procedures and guidelines for CFTs as columns and beams [6]. In the severe environmental conditions the outer steel tube may have weathering effects and as a results land to the lower load carrying capacity of members. UPVC tube can be used as a barrier between the severe environment and the material of the structural element. Therefore, in the present paper an experimental study on Concrete Filled Unplastisized Poly Vinyl Chloride Tubes (CFUTs) as columns is presented. The Unplastisized Poly Vinyl Chloride (UPVC) tubes were used in place of conventional steel tubes. UPVC has certain distinct advantages as a material. Firstly, it is cheaper than the steel. It is a low maintenance material. It does not support combustion and is self extinguishing. It has a high electrical resistivity and has good insulation properties. It is unaffected by most concentrations of acids, alkalis and organic chemicals. It can also withstand huge deformations. Other advantages include its availability in a range of colors and finishes. Due to all these properties it qualifies as a suitable material in building construction.
A Study on Suitability of Concrete Filled UPVC Pipes as Columns 267
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
(a) Unfilled UPVC Pipes
(b) Reinforcement for UPVC Columns
(c) UPVC Pipes Filled with Concrete
(d) UPVC Pipe Columns Sealed against Water Loss
(e) Epoxy Capping on the Test Specimen
(f) Cross-Section of Prepared Specimen
Fig. 1: (a-f) Details of the Preparation of the Specimens of the CFUT
Commercially available UPVC tubes generally used for water pipes were chosen for this study. Two diameters of tubes were chosen; they were 140 mm, and 200 mm respectively. All the tubes had a length of 900 mm. Tubes were filled with one grade of concretes, i.e. M20 grade to make Concrete Filled UPVC Tubes (CFUTs). Concrete was prepared as per the guidelines given in IS-10262: 1982, reaffirmed 2004 [9]. Locally available material and OPC 43 grade was used for making the concrete. All the test specimen of similar configuration were casted with one design mix in one go so that their physical properties had a minimum variation. Concrete cube strength of 7 and 28 days were
recorded. In total 12 test specimens were prepared for the present study. Fig. 1 (a) shows the typical pipes used for preparation of specimens. All these test specimens had their length/diameter (L/D) ratio between 4.5 and 6.4 so that effects of slenderness were not prominent and therefore the effects of confinement and resultant increase in strength could be studied. Their diameter/wall thickness (D/t) ratios were between 35 and 42. All the twelve specimens were prepared with concrete infill of M20 grade and had six TMT bars of 12 mm diameter as longitudinal reinforcement in addition to the these two hoop one at top and other at bottom were also welded in the reinforcement (see Fig. 1(b)). Details of the test specimens are shown in Fig 1(a-f). Fig. 1(d) shows the specimens sealed with polyethylene sheets to provide curing. In order to transfer the axial load without any eccentricity both top and bottom surfaces were prepared using epoxy (Fig. 1(e)). Fig. 1(f) shows the cross-section of the prepared specimens ready for testing. All the six reinforcement bars are clearly visible in the crosssection. Testing of the specimens was carried out in two ways: first by transferring the load through both concrete and UPVC pipe i.e. both loaded, and second only through concrete core i.e. concrete loaded. For second type of loading i.e. concrete loaded, special steel plates having diameters equal to the inner diameter of UPVC pipes were used. Fig. 2(a) shows these plates. In each diameter specimens two specimens were cured in artificial sea water to study the effect of sea water on their mechanical behavior and tested as concrete loaded. The specimens were named on the basis of their diameters, compressive strength of concrete, way of testing and type of curing. Thus, T140M20B-1 signifies the first specimen with external tube diameter of 140 mm, filled with M20 grade of concrete cured in polyethylene sheet and tested with transfer of load through both pipe and concrete. Similarly T140M20C-2 signifies the second specimen with external tube diameter of 140 mm, filled with M20 grade of concrete cured in polyethylene sheet and tested with transfer of load through only concrete. Similarly D200M20CC-2 signifies the second specimen with external tube diameter of 200 mm, filled with M20 grade of concrete cured in sea water and tested with transfer of load through only concrete. The salient properties of these test specimens are given in Table 1.
Table 1: Details of UPVC Tubes Specimen Nominal Mean External Thickness Dia. (mm) (t) (mm) 140 3.86 200 5.94 Inner Dia. (mm) 134.0 188.0 D/t L/D Outer Dia.(D) Cross-sectional (mm) Area (mm2) Ratio Ratio 140.39 200.17 1377.0 3710.2 36.3 33.7 6.4 4.5 Length (L) (mm) 900 900
T140 T200
These specimens were tested on 250 ton capacity UTM available at the Structural Engineering Laboratory of Civil Engineering Department of IIT Roorkee. Load-compression curves were recorded with automatic recorder of the machine. The testing was carried out at 1 mm/m speed of cross head. Fig. 2(b) shows the machine and specimen during testing. In general the specimens failed due development of one shear crack (see Fig. 2(c)). Fig. 2(d) shows the picture of a typical specimen failed due to development of shear crack. Two different methods were employed to test the specimens. First three specimens were tested by loading both concrete and UPVC tube. Seven specimens were tested by loading only concrete core in a CFUT. Remaining five specimens were tested as pure concrete core so that the comparative data is available to judge the increase in strength due to confinement. For loading both concrete and UPVC tubes simultaneously, capping was done on the test specimens using epoxy resin. To load only the concrete steel plates of inner tube diameters were prepared. These details are shown in fig. 2.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Two types of specimens and in total twelve specimens were tested with three methods to investigate the load carrying capacity and their behaviour under axial loading. The Results of the load carrying capacity of the different specimens were obtained from their corresponding load-displacement curves
obtained during testing. Fig. 3(a-b) shows the typical variation of load-compression curves for all specimens i.e. concrete loaded and both loaded. The corresponding energy-displacement curves are shown in Fig. 4(a-b). After comparison of load-compression curves in Fig. 3 it clear that the behavior of the specimens; in different cases of loadings and curing conditions are almost similar in terms of their load carrying capacity. The load carrying capacities of all specimens having same diameters are almost comparable. It is clear from Fig. 3(a-b) that UPVC CFTs exhibits ductile behaviour during axial collapse and absorbs considerable energy also (see Fig. 4(a-b)). Fig. 5 shows the comparison of load-compression and energy-compression variations of specimens having different diameters. It is clear from this figure that as the diameter increases and D/t decreases the load carrying capacity and ductility increases due to increase in confinement. The magnitude of the displacement corresponding to peak load increases as diameter of specimen increases. The energy absorbing capacity of specimen also increases with increase in its diameter. It is also clear from Figs. 3 and 4 that curing in sea water does not hamper the load carrying capacity of CFUTs.
(a) Steel Plates for Loading Only the Concrete Core in a CFUT.
(b) UPVC Pipe Columns During Testing (Only Concrete Loaded)
(c) Typical Mode of Collapse UPVC Pipe Columns
(d) Visible Shear Crack in Mode of Deformation
Fig. 2: (a-d) Details of the Testing of the Specimens of the CFUT
800 700 600 Load (kN) 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 5 10 15 Compression (mm) 20 25 30
T140M20B-1 T140M20C-1 D140M20CC-1 T140M20B-2 T140M20C-2 D140M20CC-2
(a)
(b) Fig. 3: (a-b) Comparison of Load-Compression Curves of Different Specimens Tested with Different Methods (a) Diameter=140 mm, (b) Diameter=200 mm
(a)
30000 25000 Energy (J) 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 0 5 10 15 20 Compression (mm)
(b) Fig. 4: (a-b) Comparison of Energy-compression Curves of Different Specimens Tested with Different Methods (a) Diameter = 140 mm, (b) Diameter = 200 mm.
1400 1200 1000 Load (kN) 800 600 400
T140M20B-1 T200M20B-1
T200M20B-1 T200M20C-1 D200M20CC-2
T200M20B-2 T200M20-C2 D200M20CC-1
25
30
200 0 0 5 10 15 Compression (mm) 20 25 30
(a)
30000 25000
T140M20B-1 T200M20B-1
20000 Energy (J) 15000 10000 5000 0 0 5 10 15 Compression (mm) 20 25 30
(b) Fig. 5: (a-b) Comparison of (a) Load-compression and (b) Energy-compression Curves of Specimens Having Different Diameters Filled with Same Grade of Concrete Tested with Both Loaded Methods
It is clear that all the test specimens show a clear increase in strength due to confinement resulting from the use of UPVC tubes. It was seen that the mode of failure was diagonal shear of the concrete core. This was ascertained by cutting the test specimens outer UPVC cover after the failure of test specimen (see Fig. 2(d)).
COMPARISON OF LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF THE TEST SPECIMENS WITH STANDARD CODES OF PRACTICE
Results for the load carrying capacity of the CFUT specimens as their ultimate strength (Pu) were obtained from the corresponding loadcompression curves in experiments. These values are tabulated in Tables 2. The theoretical values (Pthe) of load carrying capacity of different concrete filled tubes were predicted using six Internationals codes as per their recommendations and listed in Table 2. To validate the results obtained by the experimental program, they were compared with six standard codes of practice, whereby the predicted strength by these codes was compared with the actual strength of test specimens obtained by the experiments conducted. The comparison results are given in Table 2. Following codes were used for comparison:
Table 2: Comparison of Load Carrying Capacity (kN) of Different Specimens Type of Strength Ultimate Design Ultimate Design Exp. EC4 AISC(LRFD) ACI 318 1001.96 751.47 644.35 483.26 933.53 466.77 545.91 272.96 NBR 8800 1010.08 795.66 657.71 518.04 Egyptian Code 238.97 137.62 347.91 198.69 CAN/CSAS16.1 M94 687.10 445.13 312.48 201.82
1150-1180 1058.93 785.02 627-672 669.37 501.95
1. EN 1994-1-1(Eurocode 4) [10]. 2. ANSI/AISC 360-05 [11]. 3. ACI-318. 4. NBR-8800. 5. CAN/CSA- S16.1 M 94 [12]. 6. Egyptian Code of Practice. The data for mechanical properties was as obtained by testing of the tube sample. The other data was taken from the standard UPVC tube manufacturers websites. Therefore the data used for calculations was as under: Ultimate tensile strength of UPVC tube=42.22 MPa. 1. Youngs Modulus=2750. 2. Compressive strength=20 MPa. 3. Shear strength=39 MPa. 4. Poissons ratio=0.35-0.38 5. (Higher value was taken for calculations, where applicable). 6. Concrete compressive strength (fck) was taken as 70% of the 28 day cube strength. This was based on the data obtained from testing the pure concrete cores. To have a balanced comparison only pure CFUTs or the CFUTs having only concrete infill were compared so that the effect of only UPVC tube in generating the confinement could be compared with standard international codes of practice. It is evident from this table that EC4 and AISC- LRFD give the best estimation of strength for the CFUTs followed by NBR 8800 and ACI. Hence, the use of these standard codes can also be extended to design and strength predictions for CFUTs. However, further studies are recommended on the subject to come out with suitable coefficients in these codes equations for even better strength prediction for CFTs using UPVC tubes in place of conventional steel tubes.
CONCLUSION
Present study focused on use of an alternate material for steel in conventional CFTs. The purpose of study was to use UPVC due to its certain inherent advantages, i.e. good weather resistance, good chemical resistance and high die-electric strength to provide high electrical resistivity. It also has good insulation properties. It is unaffected by most concentrations of acids, alkalis and organic chemicals. It can also withstand huge deformations. Purpose of the present study was to see whether a UPVC tube can give the comparable increase in strength of concrete core due to confinement vis a vis the steel tube. It is evident from the results that the UPVC tube qualifies as a replacement material for steel tube in CFTs with an addition of other advantages offered by UPVC as listed above. The strength prediction in CFUT can be done by standard codes of practice used for the design of CFTs by various nations as is brought out by this study which makes the studies on CFUTs even simpler. With present studies it emerges that CFUTs can be used as column members. It is also suggested that further studies be carried out on CFUTs as structural members. The other variants of PVC such as MPVC and OPVC can also be tried for their suitability in place of UPVC since they have certain other advantages over UPVC.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are thankful to Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC), Ministry of Housing & Urban Poverty Alleviation and Government of India for providing the financial support for this research work.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] D. J. Oehlers and M. A. Bradford (2004), Composite steel and concrete structural members, Elsevier Journals, Oxford Langfordlane, KindlingtonUK. S. D. Nardin and A.L.H.C.E. Debs (2007), Axial Load Behaviour of Concrete Filled SteelTubular Columns, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Structures &Buildings 160, Issue SBI, pp. 13-22. G. Giakoumelis and D. Lam (2004), Axial capacity of circular concrete filled tube columns, Journal of Constructional Steel Research 60, pp. 10491068. P. K. Gupta, S. M. Sarda and M. S. Kumar (2007), Experimental and computational study of concrete filled steel tubular columns under axial loads, Journal of Constructional Steel Research 63,pp. 182-193. Y. C. Singh (2008), Studies in steel encased RC columns, M. Tech. Dissertation,Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee. J Zhang (2004), Design of Composite Columns, Seminar on Steel Structures, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Helsinki University of Technology, Finland. Gupta, P.K., Sarda, S.M., Kumar, M.S. (2007), Experimental and computational study of concrete filled steel tubular columns under axial loads. Journal of Constructional Steel Research: 63: 182193. H. Raghuvanshi ,Studies on concrete filled circular PVC tubes as columns, M. Tech. Dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee (2010). IS:10262-1982 (reaffirmed 2004). Recommended Guidelines for concrete mix design; BIS, New Delhi. Eurocode 4: Design of steel and concrete structures, part 1.1, general rules and rules for buildings. Brussels (Belgium) (1996): European Committee for Standardization. ANSI/AISC 360-05 (2007). Specification for structural steel buildings. American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc.; third print. CAN/CSA- S16.1 M 94 (2002). Canadian Code of Practice for composite design.
Analytical Study of Concrete-Filled Tubes in Axial Compression

P.K. Gupta1 and Heaven Singh2
1Department 2Department
of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee; spramod_3@yahoo.co.in of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee; heavensingh216@gmail.com
AbstractThis paper presents a numerical investigation into the behavior of concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) short columns subjected to pure axial compression. Most of the specimens modeled in this study are concrete-only loaded specimens, wherein the concrete is directly subject to straincontrolled compression while the force is transferred from concrete to steel due to the bond between the two materials. All the selected columns have length-to-diameter ratio equal to 4. Three-Dimensional Nonlinear Finite Element Models are prepared for the compression process using commercial software ABAQUS v6.9. Steel tubes of different outer diameters and wall thicknesses filled with different grades of concrete are chosen for modeling from the available literature. The steel tube is modeled as an elastic-perfectly plastic material. Two material models from the Abaqus library, namely Drucker-Prager and Concrete Damaged Plasticity, are generally employed to simulate the behavior of CFST members. The present study also examines the applicability of both to the simulation of concrete loaded specimens. The results from the proposed model are compared with their experimental counterparts from the available literature for validating the model. It is observed that the computational model is able to map the deformed shapes and the load deformation pattern of the CFST columns filled with different grades of concrete. Keywords: CFST, Concrete loaded, ABAQUS, Finite element modeling
INTRODUCTION
In the modern world, building land is a very costly asset. This in turn, leads to an ever increasing demand for more effective utilization of building space. Nowadays, with advances in technology, new innovative designs are being adopted to achieve this objective. It requires providing smaller column cross sections (so as to allow increased thoroughfare while simultaneously reducing cost of construction). New construction techniques such as Flat slabs and Concrete filled tubular columns are a few means to this end. Concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) columns are a form of composite construction that possess concrete filled into a steel tube, with the advantages of both materials combined into one. The steel tube provides lateral confinement to the concrete core. This causes a tri-axial state of stress in concrete resulting in increased compressive strength and deformation capacity. The placement of the stiffer steel tube at the periphery of concrete core also enhances moment of inertia of the member. This provides many structural advantages such as improved flexural resistance and higher initial stiffness. The steel tube also enhances shear resistance and ductility against cyclic loading. The steel tube itself acts as the formwork for construction and supports the initial construction loads. This reduces the overall cost of construction. Meanwhile, the in-fill concrete prevents the inward buckling of the steel tube, thereby providing increased load capacity. These features have encouraged the use of CFST members as lateral load resisting components in areas prone to high seismic activity. CFST columns are also increasingly being used as compression members (piers) and piles in foundations for bridges subject to heavy moving traffic all over the world (Shanmugam and Lakshmi, 2007).
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Due to their increasing popularity, CFST members have been a prominent area of interest among researchers over the last 2 decades. Experimental tests by Tomii et al (1985) on 268 CFST columns
Analytical Study of Concrete-Filled Tubes in Axial Compression 275
highlighted that two failure modes could be observed during the test. They were the overall buckling for slender columns and the crushing of concrete for short columns. Additionally, the post-yield behavior of circular and octagonal CFST columns was found to exhibit strain hardening or perfectly plastic behavior, while strain softening was the failure mode observed after the critical load was reached for square CFST columns. Johansson (2002) tested nine experimental specimens each under concrete and steel both loaded condition as well as only concrete loaded conditions. All the steel tubes were 159 mm in diameter, while three grades of concrete were used as infill, viz. M30, M60 and M85. Based on these tests, the authors proposed a mechanical model to predict the behavior of CFST columns across different grades of concrete. The experimental outputs were further analyzed in Johansson and Gylltoft (2002). It was observed that while the specimens possessed almost the same ultimate load resistance in both loading conditions, the both concrete and steel loaded specimens were found to possess higher initial stiffness than only concrete loaded samples. This was attributed to the initial participation of steel in carrying compressive load in the both loaded case, while in the concrete loaded case the load is primarily carried by concrete core in the initial stage (and transferred to the steel tube only due to bond between steel and concrete). They concluded that in either loading pattern, concrete strength was augmented due to the bond between steel and concrete. Due to the bond between concrete and steel, all of the stub columns sustained large deformations with almost completely maintained load resistance in case of infill with normal strength concrete, while a postpeak drop in load capacity was observed in columns filled with high strength concrete in both loading conditions. Three Dimensional Finite Element simulations were performed for the tested samples by the authors using ABAQUS v5.7. The model developed was found to predict the deflected shapes and the load-deflection behavior of the samples with good accuracy .OShea and Bridge (2000) also tried to estimate the strength of CFST under different loading conditions such as axial loading of the steel only, axial loading of the concrete only, and simultaneous loading of the concrete and steel both axially and at small eccentricities. All the tested specimens were short with a L/D ratio of 3.5. They concluded that the degree the confinement effect was highest when only the concrete was loaded axially and the thin-walled steel was used as pure circumferential restraint. Oliveira et al (2010) performed an extensive study on the behavior of 32 specimens under concrete only loaded condition. All the samples were 114.3 mm in diameter, while two wall thicknesses i.e. 3.35 mm and 6.0 mm were used. Four grades of concrete were used as infill, viz. M30, M60, M80 and M100. Furthermore, both short as well as slender columns were tested. Four length- to- diameter ratios (L/D) were used; L/D= 3, 5, 7 & 10. While the short columns (L=3D) in both thicknesses were found to fail by crushing of concrete core at mid-height, the thin-walled columns of L=5D and 7D were found to be susceptible to diagonal shear failure of concrete core. The thick tubes were found to be capable of resisting the brittle shear failure, irrespective of the column slenderness ratio (L/D) and thus failed by global buckling. The L=10D columns failed by global buckling in all cases. The authors also carried out manual calculations for the axial load capacity of the members using material models for concrete and steel available from literature. A correction factor was proposed for predicting the peak load capacity of columns with L/D greater than 3. Hu et al (2003) used a confined concrete model to perform simulations of CFST specimens previously tested by the authors in Huang et al (2002) as well as some specimens from the literature. All the modeled specimens were both concrete and steel loaded specimens. The load capacities and mode shapes obtained from the FEM simulations were found to be in good agreement with the corresponding experimental specimens. From his experimental results, he concluded that circular columns provided better post-peak ductility even upto D/t ratios as high as 150. Giakoumelis and Lam (2004) tested fifteen circular specimens to examine the effect of bond strength between concrete and steel tube on the behavior of CFT columns. The specimens were tested with inside walls of the hollow tube greased to minimize its bond with concrete tube as well as in non-greased fashion. It was found that the effects of the bond between the concrete and the steel tube is more critical for high-strength concrete while for normal strength concrete, the reduction in the axial capacity due to the loss of bonding between steel and concrete was negligible, Sakino et al (2004) also investigated the behavior of stub columns loaded under compression. A
hundred fourteen specimens of different cross sectional shapes and varying width to thickness ratios were tested. Normal strength concrete as well as high strength concrete was used as in-fill. Schneider (1998) tested fourteen specimens to study the effect of tube shape and steel tube thickness on the composite column strength. It was observed that circular columns provided much more post-yield axial ductility than square or rectangular columns. This was attributed to the same level of confinement along the entire cross section in circular sections, while in rectangular shapes maximum confining stress occurs at corners (owing to stress concentration) and reduces towards the centre of the cross section. The author also modeled these specimens using ABAQUS 1994 and obtained good agreement with experimental results. From the above review, it is clear that the Finite Element modeling of CFST columns under only concrete loaded conditions in axial compression is scarce. Hence, an attempt is made here by the authors to provide a suitable model for simulating the aforementioned CFST behavior.
NUMERICAL MODELING General

Numerical study of any experimental problem allows a researcher to study in detail any number of factors influencing that phenomenon, which would otherwise be very tedious if performed experimentally. Since there is great scope for saving time and money in construction by using CFST members, there is thus a great interest in development of a numerical model capable of capturing the response of such members. As observed from the available literature, the failure modes of short concrete-filled steel tubular columns with only concrete under direct axial compressive loads are concrete crushing at or around mid-section. Suitable constitutive models must be adopted for concrete and steel tube to capture this deformed shape in CFST columns. The contact between the steel tube and concrete remains the single most important factor influencing the behavior of the composite columns. This contact behavior must be very carefully modeled, so that the composite essentially behaves as one member; otherwise all the advantages of CFST columns will be lost.
Details of the Model Meshing

In any finite element based analysis, selection of the appropriate element type is very important for the success of the computational procedure. The Abaqus software consists of Abaqus Standard module, which is used for simulating the quasi-static strain controlled tests. It has an in-built comprehensive element library that provides different types of elements catering to different situations.When a CFST column is subjected to pure axial compression, the in-filled concrete core behaves as a single solid block that undergoes compression without any rotation. ABAQUS provides a set of Solid (continuum) elements specially designed for such cases. The most commonly used elements are 4-node linear tetrahedron (C3D4), 6-node linear triangular prism (C3D6) and 8-node linear brick elements (C3D8) (ABAQUS 6.9 Documentation, 2009). C3D8 brick elements are found to be most suited from both the accuracy as well as time required viewpoints. It can be used for complex nonlinear analysis involving contact, plasticity and large deformations. The hollow steel tube can be meshed by using either the shell elements or the solid brick elements. However, in addition to the translational DOFs, the shell elements also possess rotational DOFs. This may give rise to compatibility issues at the junction of concrete core and steel tube, since the concrete core elements come with only translational DOFs. Hence C3D8 elements are used to mesh the steel tube also. A single layer of these elements through the element thickness is found to reproduce the deformed shape of the tube with good accuracy. For application of load only to the concrete core of the specimen, it is essential to use plungers exactly fitting the inner size of the core at both ends. These plungers are placed directly under the platens of the machine and transfer load to the core.
Material Modeling
An elastic- perfectly plastic model is used for steel tube. Youngs modulus and poisson ratio of the material are taken as specified in the literature. Von-Mises flow rule is used to define the yield surface for steel. Two material models, viz. Drucker- Prager Model or the Concrete Damaged Plasticity Model (ABAQUS 6.9 Documentation, 2009) are tried for modeling of concrete. The Drucker Prager Model is usually applicable to brittle materials with compressive strength 10 times or more than the tensile strength. It has found to be of good accuracy in predicting the response of CFST short columns with both concrete and steel loaded in axial compression. However, for CFST subject to concrete only loaded conditions, trials were performed and it was found incapable of describing the deformed shapes of the specimens. The Concrete Damaged Plasticity Model is custom built for simulating the brittle behavior of concrete; concrete may be completely undamaged or damaged to some extent. It is generally applicable for concrete subject to low confining pressures ( upto 4-5 times the uniaxial compressive strength of concrete). The confined concrete model used by Huang et al (2003) is used to simulate the post-yield hardening behavior of the concrete under confinement.
Contact and Interface Modeling

The Rigid rectangular plates at the top and bottom of the model represent the platens of the testing machine while the spheres in contact with the plates are the plungers (Fig. 1). The plungers are constrained to be rigid bodies and a reference node is defined for controlling its motion. Surface to Surface contact with coefficient of friction (f) as 0.1 is provided between the plates and the plungers. The normal contact between steel and concrete core is provided using friction, with the inner surface of the stiffer steel tube serving as the rigid surface and the outer surface of the concrete core as the slave surface. The value of f between the two surfaces is chosen as 0.25. Hard Contact is provided between the two surfaces, which allow the pressure to be transmitted across the two surfaces only when there is actual contact among them.
i) Meshed Concrete Core
ii) Meshed Column Assembly
iii) Final Column Assembly
Fig. 1: Different Stages of Assembly of the Computational Model
Loading and Boundary Conditions

The steel tube and the concrete core are left completely free in all directions to allow any possible deformation in the column. The bottom rigid plate is fixed completely using the encastre boundary condition applied at its reference node, while the loading was applied on the top rigid plate through displacement control (to simulate the strain controlled test). The value of the applied displacement was generally kept slightly higher than the maximum value for the same in the corresponding
experimental investigation. . The simulated results were found to be unaffected by the rate of loading; hence the rate of loading is kept as 1 mm/min throughout the modeling.

The aforementioned numerical model was used to simulate the experimental specimens SFC1 through SFC9 tested by Johansson (2002). The output from the model was compared with the corresponding expt. results. Three factors were used to judge the accuracy of the model, i.e. a) Similarity between the expt. and simulated deformed shapes b) Whether the model is capable of predicting the Load-deformation behavior of the sample c) Difference between the expt. and simulated load capacities should be as less as possible
Comparison of Deformed Shape

Both the models for concrete, i.e. Drucker Prager model and Concrete Damaged Plasticity (CDP) were used to simulate the specimen SFC3. Fig. 2: provides a comparison of the experimental deformed shape with the deflected shape obtained from both the models.
a) Experimental Deformed Shape
b) Deformed Shape using CDP Model
c) Deformed Shape using Drucker Prager Model
Fig. 2: Comparison of Experimental and Simulated Deformed Shapes
From Fig. 2, it is clear that the Concrete Damaged Plasticity model is accurately able to follow the crushing of concrete and overall bulging of CFST member at the mid-section of the column, while the Drucker Prager model is completely incapable of describing the deformed behavior of the specimen. Hence, the CDP model is more preferred for use in Concrete only loaded specimens.
Comparison of LoadDeflection Behavior

Figs. 3 and 4 illustrate a comparison of experimental and simulated load-deformation behavior of some specimens, while Table 1 provides details of the simulated samples as well as ratio of expt. and simulated peak compressive load capacities. From Figs. 3 and 4, it is clearly evident that the proposed model is capable of predicting the initial stiffness of the specimens very closely.
It must be noted that all the simulated results shown are obtained using the damaged plasticity model. The Drucker Prager model being insufficient to describe the response of concrete loaded CFST members (as shown previously), is not discussed further.
3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 EXPERIMENT 500 0 0 10 20 Displacement(mm) 30 40 SIMULATED 4000 3500 3000 Load(KN) Load(KN) 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 20 40 Displacement(mm) 60 EXPERIMENT SIMULATED
SFC3
SFC5
Fig. 3: Expt. vs. Simulated Load- Deformation Behavior for Samples SFC3 and SFC 5
4000 3500 3000 Load(KN) 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 10 20 Displacement(mm) 30 Load(KN) 5000 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 EXPERIMENT SIMULATED 1000 500 0 0 10 20 30 Displacement(mm) 40 EXPERIMENT SIMULATED
SFC8
SFC7
Fig. 4: Expt. vs. Simulated Load- Deformation Behavior for Samples SFC7 and SFC 8
All the CFST specimens are found to exhibit good ductility, which is correctly captured by the computational model. The CFST specimen is also found to be yielding in the simulated and experimental results at almost same axial deformations.
Comparison of Peak Compressive Load Capacity

The model is observed to overestimate the peak load bearing capacity for all the specimens; Table 1 illustrates these observations. All the samples had outside diameter (D) of 159 mm and length (L) of 650 mm (Johansson 2002).
Table 1: Material Properties and Results of Simulated Specimens

Column Concrete Comp. Wall D/t Steel Yield Strength fc Thickness Strength fy (MPa) (MPa) t(mm) SFC 31) 4.8 34.12 433 64.5* SFC 4 5.0 34.12 390 36.6* SFC 5 6.8 34.12 402 36.6* SFC 7 5.0 28.75 390 93.8* SFC 8 6.8 23.38 402 93.8* SFC 9 10.0 50.34 355 93.8* * Cylinder strength of 150mm X 300 mm cylinders Experimental Load Capacity Pexp (KN) 2250 1620 2830 2979 3410 3820 Simulated Load OE** Capacity Psim (KN) (%) 2849 1982 3621 3683 4372 4990 26.62 22.34 27.95 23.63 28.21 30.63
** OE denotes the overestimation of simulated load relative to the experimental value and is defined as ((Psim - Pexp )*100/ Pexp ) 1) SFC 1 through SFC 3 all possess the same material properties, hence only SFC 3 is mentioned.
It is clear from Table 1 that the proposed model overestimates the maximum load carrying capacity of the specimens by as much as 30% ( relative to expt. Values). Hence, it is not suitable to determine the load resistance capacity of CFST only concrete loaded members.
CONCLUSION
The paper presents a brief insight into the numerical simulation of short concrete filled steel tubular coloumns with only concrete core loaded directly in axial compression. The simulation procedure attempts to model the confining effect of steel casing on concrete using a confined stress strain model for concrete available in literature. To judge the accuracy of the model, the output peak axial load bearing capacity, deformed shape and load-deformation behavior are compared to the corresponding values from the literature. a. It is observed that the Concrete damaged plasticity model in-built in ABAQUS library, in addition to the confined model for post-yield behavior, can accurately predict the Deformed shape of the CFST specimens. b. The various facets of load-deformation behavior, viz. the initial stiffness, yield displacment of the CFST and the overall ductility are found to be suitably modeled. c. The simulated peak load carrying capacities are found to diverge significantly from their experimental counterparts; the proposed model may overestimate the load capacity by as much as 30%.
More Refinement should therefore be carried out in the computational model before it can be used to reliably predict the full response of the concrete only loaded CFST members.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] ABAQUS 6.9 Documentation, ABAQUS Users and Analysis Users Manual 2009, Providence R.I. Giakoumelis, G. and Lam, D. (2004). Axial capacity of circular concrete-filled tube columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 60, 1049-1068. [3] Hu, H.T. et al (2003). Nonlinear Analysis of Axially Loaded Concrete-Filled Tube Columns with Confinement Effect. Journal of Structural Engineering 129, Issue 10, 1322-1329. [4] Huang, C., Yeh, Y., Liu, G., Hu., H. T., Tsai, K. et al.(2002). Axial Load Behavior of Stiffened Concrete-Filled Steel Columns. Journal of Structural Engineering 128, Issue 9, 1222-1230. [5] Johansson, M. (2002). The efficiency of passive confinement in CFT columns. Steel and Composite Structures 2, No. 5, 379-396. [6] Johansson, M. and Gylltoft, K. (2002). Mechanical Behavior of Circular SteelConcrete Composite Stub Columns. Journal of Structural Engineering 128, Issue 8, 1073-1081. [7] OShea, M.D. and Bridge, R.Q. (2000). Design of circular thin-walled concrete filled steel tubes. Journal of Structural Engineering ASCE 126, Issue 11, 1295-1303. [8] Sakino, K., Nakahara, H., Morino, S., and Nishiyama, I. (2004). Behavior of Centrally Loaded Concrete-Filled Steel-Tube Short Columns. Journal of Structural Engineering 130, Issue 2, 180-188. [9] Sakino, K., Tomii, M., and Watanabe, K. (1985). Sustaining load capacity of plain concrete Stub columns by circular steel tubes. Proceedings of International Spec. Conference on Concrete- Filled Steel Tubular Structures, 112-118. [10] Schneider, S.P. Axially loaded concrete-filled steel tubes, Journal of Structural Engineering 124, Issue 10, 1125-1138. [11] Shanmugam, N.E. and Lakshmi, B. (2007). State of the art report on steel-concrete composite Columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 57, Issue 10, 1041-1080.
Influence Fibers on Impact of Ferrocement Slabs Reinforced with PVC-Coated Weld Mesh
P.B. Sakthivel1, A. Jagannathan2 and R. Padmanaban3
2Associate 1Professor of Civil Engineering, Jerusalem Engineering College, Chennai; pbs_ms@yahoo.com Professor of Civil Engineering, Pondicherry Engineering College, Ponducherry; a_j_nathan1957@yahoo.com 3PG Student (Construction Engg. & Mgmt), Jerusalem College of Engineering; kumarrpn@yahoo.co.in
AbstractFerrocement is an innovative and light-weight material, which consumes less energy for production and thus an eco-friendly and sustainable material. Since research is limited on use of noncorrosive materials in ferrocement, this experimental research makes an attempt to study the impact energy of cementitious slabs with 250mm X 250 mm X 25 mm (thickness) to find out the influence of addition of Stainless Steel (SS) fibers (in discontinuous form in varying proportions of 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0% and 2.5% of the volume of specimens) on ferrocement slabs reinforced with III, IV and V layer PVC-coated steel weld mesh ('P' mesh). The SS fibers used in this study are of 12.5 mm length, with aspect ratio of 28, and the mix proportion of cement mortar and water-cement ratio are all fixed as per the ACI Codes. The impact study was conducted using a simple free-fall velocity method, using 1 kg steel ball, dropped from a height of 600 mm in a repeated manner and the number of blows received on initial crack and ultimate specimen failure stages were studied. The energy absorbed by the test specimens namely, the slabs with 'P' mesh (III, IV and V layers) and fibers (0.5-2.5%) are compared with the control specimens that are cast with 'P' mesh (III, IV and V layers). In general, it was seen that on increasing the stainless steel fibers from 0.5% to 2.5%, there is an increase in energy absorption level of ferrocement slabs. Results also show that the ferrocement slabs reinforced with combination of V layer 'P' mesh and SS fibers of 2.5% had the highest impact energy absorption level (in Joules). The Residual Impact Strength (IRS) shows that there is an increasing trend in the Residual Impact Strength (IRS) value of test specimens, when compared to control specimens. The initial and final crack width of slabs (formed during the impact loading) reinforced with PVC-coated mesh, with and without fibers have been studied in detail and analyzed. Keywords: Cementitious Composites, Ferrocement Mortar, SS Fibers, Sustainability
INTRODUCTION
Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) is the most popular material worldwide, and exploring some substitute material to RCC is important in the current scenario. This is because 80% of the building materials in RCC constitutes gravel (blue metal of required size) as coarse aggregates, and such nonrenewable material sources are heavily mined from the natural quarries, in a country like India, sometimes even without taking the required permission from the Government. Consumption of blue metal in large quantities paves way to depletion of natural resources and therefore necessitates an alternative but a sustainable building material (Sivakumar and Gomathi, 2012) that minimizes the use of building materials in construction. If a question is raised as to whether there is any way to reduce the consumption of such non-renewable material resources to avoid the greenhouse gas emissions? (Bremner, 2010), the present authors answer that the trend is changing now by moving from RCC elements to a more sustainable alternative material like Ferrocement. Ferrocement is an innovative material that uses thin cement-based elements ranging from 10-25 mm thickness, using cement, sand and water, and wire/weld mesh as reinforcement, and can be cast to any desired shapes/ profiles (Naaman, 2000; Jagannathan and Sundarajan, 2006) at lower costs. Ferrocement is increasingly used as a major construction material for new construction works (as roofing components and exterior panels) as well as retrofit projects (Mobasher and Li, 1996) and repair and rehabilitation of old and deteriorated building structures (Kar et al., 2012), but the only drawback is the corrosive nature of thin reinforcing mesh (about 0.7 mm-1.0 mm diameter) in marine and other aggressive environments.
In order to find a permanent solution to the above corrosion problems in ferrocement, Sakthivel and Jagannathan (2012a) have introduced a non-corrosive PVC-coated weld mesh type reinforcement in ferrocement elements and conducted flexure studies on thin cementitious composites of 15 mm, and found that the PVC mesh gives 90% of the efficiency of slabs with GI weld mesh, and hence suitable for use as non-corrosive reinforcing mesh, especially for water-retaining structures. In continuation of these studies, Sakthivel and Jagannathan (2012 b) have conducted impact studies on ferrocement slabs of 25 mm thick, using PVC coated steel reinforcing mesh (1-5 layers) and found that there are some bonding problems in using PVC-coated weld mesh, when compared to GI coated weld mesh, and the reasons attributable to poor bonding are thin layer of PVC coating on weld mesh with the cementitious matrix. Sakthivel and Jagannathan (2012b) have also recommended that since the optimum number of PVC-coated weld meshes is only 5 nos. for 25 mm thick ferrocement slabs and the number of mesh layers could not be increased beyond 5 nos. in 25 mm thick slabs, discontinuous fibers can be added, and the increase in energy absorption levels, if any, can be determined through impact performance studies (Sakthivel and Jagannathan, 2012). In support of this idea, the research carried out in the last few decades has also established that the addition of short and discrete fibers to concrete/ cementitious matrix enhances its engineering properties like compressive, tensile, flexural and shear strengths and also its toughness and ductility (Singh and Singhal, 2011), and control the propagation of cracks and limit crack widths (Qian and Stroeven, 2000). Although addition of fibers is expected to improve the engineering properties, it is not well understood for various types of fibers and should necessarily be tested for each kind of fiber (Nouri and Morshedian, 1995). It is important to select fibers with such dimensions which give maximum degree of performance for a particular application (Hameed et al., 2009). This study has taken the suggestions of Sakthivel and Jagannathan (2012b) to use Stainless Steel fibers (noncorrosive and discontinuous SS fibers of 0.5% to 2.5% of volume of specimens) as additional reinforcement in ferrocement elements (primarily reinforced with III, IV and V layer PVC-coated weld mesh and named as 'P' meshes throughout this paper) and made an attempt to determine the influence of SS fibers in improving the energy absorption capacity of slab elements.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK Material Properties

Ordinary Portland cement (OPC-53 Grade) conforming to IS 12269-1989 of 53 grade was used for producing the ferrocement mortar. The specific gravity of cement was found to be 3.14. Locally available river sand with a specific gravity of 2.64 and fineness modulus of 2.91 was used as fine aggregate, conforming to Zone II of IS 383: 1970. The engineering parameters such as compressive, tensile and flexural strength were studied, which forms the criteria to evaluate the effect of adding fibers to cementitious composites (Hodhod and Abdeen, 2010). Cubes of 100 mm size were cast for determining the compressive strength of plain ferrocement mortar and also with addition of SS fibers. Cylinders of 100 mm diameter X 200 mm height were cast to find out the splitting tensile strength, for various proportions of fibers (0.5%-2.5%) and also for reference specimens made of plain cement mortar. Prism specimens of 40 X 40 X 160 mm were cast to test the flexural strength of plain ferrocement mortar (Ibrahim, 2011) and also using various proportions of fibers (0-2.5%) in cement mortar. The cement mortar used for casting the cube and cylinder specimens as well as the ferrocement slabs were in a proportion of sand cement ratio of 2:1 and water-cement ratio of 0.43, as per the ACI guidelines. Following are the results of the above tests with plain ferrocement mortar and with addition of SS fibers in ferrocement mortar: The plain ferrocement mortar had a 28-day compressive strength of 33 N/mm2, split tensile strength of 4.6 N/mm2, and prism flexural strength of 5.8 N/mm2. The 28-day cube compressive strength had shown the result of 41.63, 47.17, 49.35, 50.25 and 53.12 N/mm2 for ferrocement mortar when SS fibers of 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2% and 2.5% respectively have been added. The Splittensile strength at 28 days of 6.26, 7.32, 7.43, 8.49 and 8.81 N/mm2 has been obtained for
Influence Fibers on Impact of Ferrocement Slabs Reinforced with PVC-Coated Weld Mesh 283
ferrocement mortar with addition of SS 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2% and 2.5% respectively. And the 28-day prism flexural strength for ferrocement mortar with addition of SS 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2% and 2.5% are 5.73, 6.74, 7.12, 7.63 and 7.92 N/mm2 respectively. The properties of PVC-coated weld mesh ('P' Meshes) and Stainless Steel Fibers ('SS' Fibers) are given in Table 1 and 2.
Table 1: Properties of PVC Coated Weld Mesh
Properties of PVC-coated Weld Mesh Tensile Strength (N/mm2) 512.36 Yield Stress (N/mm2) 406.51 Elongation (%) 7.12 Weld Shear (N/mm2) 250 Outer Coating Material PVC Density (g/cm3) 7.82 Outer thickness (mm) 0.83 mm (22 gauge) Inner Material thickness (mm) 0.70 mm (24 gauge) Outer Coating thickness (PVC) in microns 7 to 9 Inner Coating thickness (Zinc) in microns 4 to 6 Chemical Composition of Weld Mesh (in %) Carbon 0.05 % Manganese 0.35 % Silicon 0.04 % Sulfur 0.018 % Phosphorous 0.024 % Nickel Trace Chromium Trace Molybdenum Trace
Table 2: Properties of Stainless Steel Fibers

Mechanical Properties of Stainless Steel Fibers Size (mm) Length (mm) Shape UTS 0.45 12.5 Crimped 1353 N/mm2
Chemical Composition of Stainless Steel Fiber (in %) (Grade-AISI 304) Cold Drawn Type, Crimped Carbon 0.023 % Manganese 1.47 % Silicon 0.50 % Nickel 8.05 % Chromium 18.26 %
Preparation and Testing of Specimens

In this study, SS fibers were used as reinforcement in cementitious matrices in this study to find out whether there is any improvement in the energy absorption characteristics of ferrocement slabs (which is basically reinforced with III/ IV/ V layer PVC-coated weld mesh) and SS fibers have been proportioned in 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0% and 2.5% of the volume of specimens. A total of 54 nos. of ferrocement slab specimens of size 250 X 250 X 25 mm (thickness) were cast in this investigation for the purposes of evaluating the impact energy absorption of ferrocement slabs. 9 nos. are "Control Specimens" (3 slabs each reinforced with III, IV and V layer PVC-coated weld mesh), and 45 nos. are "Test Specimens" which have been cast with a combination of primary reinforcement of III, IV and V layer 'P' mesh and secondary reinforcement of SS fibers of 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2% and 2.5%. Thus, the 45 nos. of specimens comprise of 3 specimens in each combination of P-III + 0.5% SS, P-III + 1%
SS, P-III + 1.5% SS, P-III + 2% SS and P-III + 2.5% SS; P-IV + 0.5% SS, P-IV + 1% SS, P-IV+ 1.5% SS, P-IV + 2% SS and P-IV + 2.5 SS; and P-V + 0.5% SS, P-V + 1% SS, P-V + 1.5% SS, PV + 2% SS and P-V + 2.5%. The properties of PVC-coated weld mesh and Stainless Steel (SS) fibers are shown in Table 1 and 2 respectively. The molds were lightly oiled before pouring of the ferrocement mortar mixed with fibers, in order to prevent mortar sticking to the sides of the mold, and easy remolding process, and the top surface of the slab was trowelled smooth. As per the suggestions of Sakthivel and Jagannathan (2012b) that proper quality control is needed while casting ferrocement slabs, care has been taken to ensure use of materials of high quality and good workmanship. While the fiber reinforced mortar is being produced, the selected fiber (Stainless Steel Fiber with specified percentage of 0.5%-2.5%, and properties in Table 2) is added to the cement mortar. The SS fibers were spread/ mixed preferably by hand (ACI 544) in order to obtain a homogenous dry mixture which has greatly helped to prevent clumping of fibers and also to achieve even consistency, without any addition of water (Cavdar, 2012). The required amount of sand and cement were weighed carefully and dry-mixed and then requisite amount quantity of water was gradually added while the ferrocement mortar was continuously stirred, and then the fibers were added to the ferrocement mortar. The dry components of the mortar mix were first combined with approximately 25% of the total water required. The fibers, along with the remaining 75% of the water, were intermittently added as the mixing process progressed. The fibers were added slowly, while mixing continued, in a sprinkling fashion in order to distribute the fibers thoroughly throughout the mix, and this procedure is as per the recommendation of ACI 544. Also, it has been ensured here that water used for the mortar and curing purposes is potable, clean, and free from harmful salts or foreign materials, in order to avoid impairment of strength and resistance of the mortar. Since the aspect ratio of the stainless steel fiber used in this study is less than 50, the fibers was dispensed directly without any risk of balling; and with, visual inspection during pouring, proper fiber distribution was also ensured (Abou-Taleb and Sakr, 2009). The test specimens were removed from the moulds after 24 hours and the specimens were initially cured by wrapping the specimens in wet gunny sacks. Subsequently the specimens were immersed in the curing tank for 28 days (Chean and Ramli, 2012) as curing is very much necessary for enhancing the degree of hydration of cement paste (Singh and Singhal, 2011) and minimizing the entrapped air.
Impact Test
The impact study was conducted using a simple free-fall velocity method, using 1 kg steel ball, dropped from a height of 600 mm in a repeated manner and the number of blows received on initial and final cracks (on ultimate failure) were studied (Sakthivel and Jagannathan, 2012b). During the impact test on each slab specimen, the average number of blows required for the appearance of the first crack and at crack at ultimate specimen failure were noted, and shown in Table 3. The impact energy absorbed by the mortar slab specimens were calculated and presented in Table 4, based on the average number of blows required to initiate the first crack and the number of blows required to cause ultimate failure using simple free velocity impact tests (Ramakrishna et al., 2010), as in Table 3. The Residual Impact Strength (IRS) Ratio have been computed (i.e., impact energy absorption at final failure divided by the impact energy at initial crack) and shown in Table 4.
Results and Discussions Impact Energy Absorption, IRS Ratio and Crack Width
The results of impact energy absorbed by the slabs and IRS ratios obtained from the above experimental tests are analyzed and presented in Table 3 and 4 below.
Table 3: Impact Blows & Crack-width for Varying Mesh Layers and Fibers in Ferrocement Slabs
Ferrocement Slabs (25 mm thick) Reinforced with PVC Coated Weld Mesh and SS Fibers % of SS III Layer Mesh IV Layer Mesh V Layer Mesh Fibersused No. of Impact Crack Width No. of Impact Crack Width No. of Impact Crack Width (mm) Blows (mm) Blows (mm) Blows Initial Final Initial Final Initial Final Initial Final Initial Final Initial Final 0.0% 6 72 0.12 0.47 7 89 0.11 0.22 15 193 0.08 0.13 0.5% 9 126 0.11 0.26 12 171 0.10 0.16 16 253 0.07 0.08 1.0% 11 165 0.10 0.24 14 218 0.09 0.11 17 271 0.06 0.07 1.5% 13 198 0.09 0.19 17 278 0.06 0.08 18 301 0.04 0.05 2.0% 17 270 0.07 0.15 19 330 0.04 0.07 20 356 0.02 0.03 2.5% 18 309 0.05 0.07 20 351 0.02 0.06 21 379 0.01 0.01
Table 4: Impact Energy of Slabs (using 'P' Mesh, with and without SS fibers) & IRS Ratios
Stainless Steel (SS) Fiber % used Ferrocement Slabs III LAYERS Impact Energy (J) At Initial At Crack Ultimate (A) Failure (B) 35.316 52.974 64.746 76.518 100.062 105.948 423.792 741.636 971.190 1165.420 1589.220 1818.774 (25 mm thick) Reinforced with PVC Coated Weld Mesh and SS Fibers IV LAYERS V LAYERS IRS Impact Energy (J) IRS Impact Energy (J) IRS Ratio Ratio Ratio At Initial At At Initial At (B/A) (D/C) (F/E) Crack Ultimate Crack Ultimate (E) Failure (C) Failure (F) (D) 12.00 41.202 523.854 12.71 88.290 1135.998 12.87 14.00 70.632 1006.506 14.25 94.176 1489.158 15.81 15.00 82.404 1283.148 15.57 100.062 1595.106 15.94 15.23 100.062 1638.308 16.35 105.948 1771.686 16.72 15.88 111.834 1942.380 17.37 117.720 2095.416 17.80 17.17 111.720 2065.986 17.55 123.606 2230.784 18.05
0.0% 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0% 2.5%
The impact energy of ferrocement slabs at initial crack and ultimate failure which are shown in Joules (in Table 4) are calculated from the initial and final number of blows (as in Table 3). The impact energy of ferrocement slabs with III Layer 'P' mesh is 423.792 J. The influence of SS fibers on III, IV and V layers can be well understood from Table 3 and 4 and Fig.1 and Fig.2. Also, from Table 4 and Fig.1, it is seen that when SS fibers are added in ferrocement slabs with III layer 'P' mesh in the proportion of 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0% and 2.5% (by volume of specimens), it was found that there is an increase in energy absorption capacity of about 1.75, 2.29, 2.75, 3.75 and 4.29 times of 423.792 J (i.e., 741,636 J, 971.190 J, 1165.42 J, 1589.22 J, 1818.774 J respectively). Similarly, from Table 4 and Fig.1, it can be observed that the IV Layer 'P' mesh gives energy absorption of 523.854 J, and when SS fibers are added in 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0% and 2.5% (by volume of specimens) in ferrocement slabs reinforced with IV layer 'P' mesh, an increase in energy absorption of about 1.92, 2.45, 3.13, 3.71 and 3.94 times of 523.854 J (i.e., 1006.506 J, 1283.148 J, 1638.308 J, 1942.380 J and 2065.986 J respectively) is seen. Also, V Layer 'P' mesh gives impact energy of 1135.998 J. When the SS fibers are added in 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2% and 2.5% (by volume of specimens), it shows an increase of about 1.31, 1.40, 1.60, 1.84 and 1.96 times of 1135.998 J (i.e., 1489.158 J, 1595.106 J, 1771.686 J, 2095.416 J, and 2230.784 J respectively). It can be understood from previous studies (Hodhod and Abdeen, 2010) that the fibers increase impact strength mainly via the fiber pull-out mechanism. It was also found from Table 4 and Fig.2 that the Residual Impact Strength (IRS) ratios for III, IV and V layer 'P' meshes are 12, 12.71 and 12.87 respectively, which matches with the IRS values of 'P' meshes of previous studies of Sakthivel and Jagannathan (2012b) which gives 11.66, 12 and 12.33 respectively. When SS fibers (0.5 to 2.5%) are added to III, IV and V layer 'P' mesh, the IRS values range from 14 to 17.17, 14.25 to 17.55, and 15.81 to 18.05, as seen in Table 4. More elaborately (from Table 4 and Fig.2), III, IV and V layer 'P' mesh gives IRS values of 14, 14.25 and 15.81 respectively, when 0.5% SS fibers are added; IRS values of 15, 15.57 and 15.94 respectively, with addition of 1% SS; IRS values of 15.23, 16.35 and 16.72 with 1.5% SS; IRS values of 15.88, 17.37 and 17.80 for 2% SS; and IRS values of 17.17, 17.55 and 18.05 for SS 2.5%. From this, we can infer that there is an increasing value of IRS when mesh and/or fiber are increased.
Out of all proba able combina ations of 'P' mesh m and SS S fibers (as in n Table 4 an nd Fig.2), the highest value of f IRS ratio of 18.05 was found for th he ferroceme ent slabs wit th V layer 'P P' mesh and 2.5% SS fibers, and the corresponding en nergy absorpt tion at ultima ate failure of f the slab is 2 2230.784 Jo oules. But we cann not actually come c to a co onclusion tha at higher IRS S values obta ained are be etter and safe e. This is because e on impact loading, quicker initial crack with delayed d ultim mate crack g gives better IRS I ratio than de elayed initial crack with delayed ult timate crack k. But delaye ed initial cra ack in the specimen s demonst trates highe er bonding capacity, whereas qu uicker initia al crack sh hows poor bonding characte eristics of the e weld mesh with the cem mentitious ma atrix.
Energy Abs sorption of Ferr rocement Slabs (wit th PVC-coated Weld Mesh) for r varying SS Fib ber %
Energy ASborption (Joules)
2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0.00% % 0.50% 1. .00% 1.50% 2.00% 2.50% % 3 LAYER 4 LAYER 5 LAYER
Fig. 1: Energy Absorption of Ferrocement t Slabs for Varying V 'P' Me eshes I, IV & V Lay yers) and SS Fibers (0-2.5 5%) (III
Residual Impac ct Strength (IRS) Ratio R of Ferrocem ment Slabs for Var rying SS Fiber %
3 Layer PVC-coated Weld W Mesh
4 Lay yer PVC-coated Weld d Mesh
5 Layer PVC-coated Weld Mesh M
15.81 12.87 12.71 14 12 1 14.25 15 15 5.57
15.94 16.35 15.23
1 16.72
8 17.8 17.37 15.88
18.05 17.55 17.17
0.00% % 0.50% 1.00% 1.50% 2.00% 2.50% 3
Fig. 2: R Residual Imp pact Strength h (IRS) Ratio of Ferrocement Slabs for r Varying 'P' Me eshes (III, IV and V) and SS S Fibers (0-2.5%)
Crack Patterns in Ferrocement Slabs

The photographs shown in Figs. 3-7 show the crack patterns of the ferrocement slabs on ultimate failure, for example, in Fig. 3a, the slab is identified by P-III-(3) B, wherein 'P' represents PVC-coated weld mesh, III means 3 layers and (3) gives the specimen no. and B indicates bottom side of the slab. Similarly, in Fig. 4a, the slab is identified by SS 12.5-III-0.5% (1) B, wherein SS 12.5 represents Stainless Steel of 12.5 mm length, III means 3 layers and (1) means the specimen no. and B indicates bottom side of the slab. The crack-width is measured using Brinell's crack-measuring microscope. From Table 3 (relating to each Fig.3-7), the initial crack width is 0.12 mm, 0.11 mm and 0.08 mm for slabs with P III, IV and V meshes only. When SS fibers are added as additional reinforcement in slabs with P III, IV and V layer meshes, the initial crack values shows 0.11 mm, 0.10 mm and 0.07 mm respectively for SS 0.5%; 0.10, 0.09 and 0.06 mm respectively for SS 1%; 0.09, 0.06 and 0.04 mm respectively for SS 1.5%; 0.07, 0.04 and 0.02 mm respectively for SS 2%; and 0.05, 0.02 and 0.01 mm respectively for SS 2.5%. When the cracks at ultimate failure were evaluated, it was found that the crack width for P III, IV and V layer is 0.47, 0.22 and 0.13 mm respectively. On addition of SS fibers of 0.5%, the crack width corresponding to III, IV and V layer 'P' mesh was found to be 0.26, 0.16 and 0.08 mm respectively; and crack-width values of 0.24, 0.11 and 0.07 mm for SS 1%; 0.19, 0.08 and 0.05 mm for SS 1.5%; 0.15, 0.07 and 0.03 mm for SS 2%; and 0.07, 0.06 and 0.01 mm for SS 2.5%. Overall, it can be inferred (from Table 3 and Figs. 3-7) that higher the proportion of SS fibers in ferrocement slabs reinforced with III, IV and V layer 'P' mesh, lower is the crack width at initial and ultimate failure stages.
(a) Using III Layer 'P' Mesh
(b) Using IV Layer 'P' Mesh
(c) Using V Layer 'P' Mesh
Fig. 3: Crack Pattern of Ferrocement Slabs with 'P' Meshes (III, IV & V Layers)
(a) III Layer 'P' Mesh + 0.5% SS Fiber
(b) IV Layer 'P' Mesh + 0.5% SS Fiber
(c) V Layer 'P' Mesh + 0.5% SS Fiber
Fig. 4: Crack Pattern of Ferrocement Slabs with 'P' Meshes (III, IV and V) and SS Fibers (0.5%)
(a) III Layer 'P' Mesh + 1% SS Fiber
(b) IV Layer 'P' Mesh + 1% SS Fiber
(c) V Layer 'P' Mesh + 1% SS Fiber
Fig. 4: Crack Pattern of Ferrocement Slabs with 'P' Meshes (III, IV and V) and SS Fibers (1%)
(c) V Layer 'P' Mesh + 1.5% SS Fiber
Fig. 5: Crack Pattern of Ferrocement Slabs with 'P' Meshes (III, IV and V) and SS Fibers (1.5%)
(a) III Layer 'P' Mesh + 2% SS Fiber
(b) IV Layer 'P' Mesh + 2% SS Fiber
(c) V Layer 'P' Mesh + 2% SS Fiber
(c) V Layer 'P' Mesh+2.5% SS Fiber
Overall, it was found (from Tables 3 and 4 and Figs. 1-7) that as the percentage of SS fibers is increased (from 0.5% to 2.5%) with corresponding increase in layer of 'P' meshes (III to V layers), there is a decrease in the crack-width during initial crack and ultimate specimen failure stages. The advantage of lower crack-width on ultimate failure is that the ferrocement elements can be used in water-retaining structures
CONCLUSION
1. Ferrocement is certainly a sustainable product with savings in consumption of materials (less use of cement, sand and steel; and no use of coarse aggregates when compared to RCC). 2. Both PVC-coated weld mesh and discontinuous Stainless Steel fibers can be effectively used as non-corrosive reinforcing materials in ferrocement. 3. The addition of Stainless Steel fibers in ferrocement slabs (reinforced with PVC coated weld mesh) increases the energy absorption capacity of slabs. 4. Higher the number of PVC weld mesh layers (5 nos.) and higher the percentage of Stainless Steel fibers (2.5%) as reinforcement in ferrocement slabs, more is the energy absorption capacity of cementitious slab specimens. 5. Increase in percentage of Stainless Steel fibers from 0.5% to 2.5% in slabs reinforced with PVC-coated weld mesh (5 layers) gives lesser crack width (of 0.01 mm) on ultimate failure of ferrocement specimens (of 25 mm thickness). With lesser crack width of 0.01 mm on ultimate failure, the applications of ferrocement are many, including use as water-retaining structures or in marine environments. 6. It is recommended by the present authors that flexure studies may be conducted in the future on ferrocement slabs with PVC-coated weld mesh, with and without fibers, which will support the impact studies conducted here to a great extent.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The present authors, Dr. P.B. Sakthivel, Professor of Civil Engineering, Jerusalem College of Engineering (Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai), Dr. A. Jagannathan, Associate Professor of Civil Engineering, Pondicherry Engineering College, Puducherry, and Mr. R. Padmanaban, PG Student (Construction Engineering and Management) thank the Managements of Jerusalem College of Engineering, Chennai and Pondicherry Engineering College, Puducherry for encouraging research works on Ferrocement/ Thin Reinforced Cementitious Composites and providing facilities to conduct the experimental works.
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Abou-Taleb, H. and Sakr, A. (2009), Low Velocity Impact of Composite Crop Straw Panels, AUTEX Research Journal, 9(1). ACI Committee 549, State-of-the-Art Report on Ferrocement, ACI 549-R97, in Manual of Concrete Practice, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 1997, 26. [3] ACI 544.2R-99, "Measurement of Properties of Fiber Reinforced Concrete", American Concrete Institute, 1999. [4] ACI 544.1R 82-96, "State of the Art Report on Fiber Reinforced Concrete", American Concrete Institute, 1996. [5] Bremner, T.W. (2010), The Future of Construction Materials in a Sustainable World, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies, The University of Wisconsin Milwaukee Centre for Byproducts Utilization, June 28-30, 2010, Ancona, Italy. [6] Cavdar, A. (2012), A study on the effects of high temperature on mechanical properties of fiber reinforced cementitious composites, Composites, 43, 2452-2463. [7] Chean, C.B. and Ramli, M. (2012), Load capacity and crack development characteristics of HCWA-DSF high strength mortar ferrocement panels in flexure, Construction and Building Materials, 36, 348-357. [8] Hameed., R., Turatsinze, A., Duprat, F. and Selliar, A. (2009), Metallic Fiber Reinforced Concrete: Effect of Fiber Aspect Ratio on the Flexural Properties, ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 4(.5), 67-72, 2009. [9] Ibrahim,. H.M. (2011), Experimental Investigation of Ultimate Capacity of Wired mesh-reinforced cementiious slabs", Construction and Building Materials, 25, 251-259. [10] IS 12269: 1989, Specification for 53 Grade Ordinary Portland Cement, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. [1] [2]
290 Twenty-eighth NCCE & National Seminar on Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development [11] IS 383: 1970 - Specifications for Coarse and Fine Aggregates from Natural Sources for concrete, BIS, New Delhi, India. [12] Kar, A., Ray, I., Unnikrishnan, A.and Davalos, J.F. (2012), Microanalysis and optimization-based estimation of C-S-H contents of cementitious systems containing fly ash and silica fume, Cement & Concrete Composites, 34, 419-429. [13] Mobasher, B. and Li, C.Y. (1996), Mechanical Properties of Hybrid Cement-Based Composites, ACI Materials Journal, MayJune. [14] Naaman, A.E. (2000), Ferrocement and Laminated Cementitious Composites, Techno Press 3000, Michigan, USA. [15] Ramakrishna, G., Sundararajan, T. and Kothandaraman, S. (2010), "Evaluation of Durability of Natural Fibre Reinforced Cement Mortar Composite- A New Approach", ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 5 (6),44-51. [16] Singh, A.P. and Singhal, D. (2011), Permeability of Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete Influence of Fibre Parameters, Procedia Engineering, 14, pp.2823-2829. [17] Hodhod, H. and Abdeen, M.A.M.. (2010), Experimental Investigation and Numerical Modelling of the Effect of Natural and Steel Fibers on the Performance of Concrete, International Journal of Engineering, 4 (5), 321-337, 2010. [18] ACI-544 (1993). Guide for Specifying, Proportioning, Mixing, Placing and Finishing Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete, 544.3R93., American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI, pp. 241-253. [19] Jagannathan, A. and Sundararajan, T. (2006), Flexural Characteristics of Ferrocement Panels reinforced with Polymer Mesh and Polyproplene Fibers, Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium and Workshop on Ferrocement and Thin Reinforced Cement Composites, Bangkok, Thailand, 2006, pp.65-75. [20] Nouri, M.R. and Morshedian, J. (1995), Impact, Compressive and Flow Properties of fibre Reinforced Cementitious Composites, Iranian Journal of Polymer Science and Technology, Vol.4 No.2, pp.134-140, 1995. [21] Qian, C.X. and Stroeven, P. (2000), Development of hybrid polypropylene-steel fibre-reinforced concrete, Cement Concrete Res., 30,.63-68. [22] Sakthivel, P.B., and Jagannathan A, Ferrocement & its Durability Aspects A Review, Proceedings of the National Conference on Ferrocement (FS-2011), Pune, India, May 13-14, 2011, pp.69-76. [23] Sakthivel, P.B. and Jagannathan, A. (2011), Ferrocement Construction Technology and its Applications A Review, Proceedings of the International Conference on Structural Engineering, Construction and Management (ICSECM-2011) [24] Sakthivel, P.B., and Jagannathan, A (2012), Fiber Reinforced Ferrocement A Review Study, Proceedings of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical, Manufacturing and Building Sciences (ICAMB-2012), held at V.I.T. University, Vellore. [25] Sakthivel, P.B. and Jagannathan (2012a), A., Study on Flexural Behaviour of Ferrocement Slabs Reinforced with PVC-coated Weld Mesh, International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, 1 (12),.50-57. [26] Sakthivel, P.B. and Jagannathan, A. (2012b), "Corrosion-free Cementitious Composites for Sustainability", Proceedings of the 37th Conference on Our World in Concrete & Structures, Singapore, 29-31 August,.361-371. [27] Sivakumar, A. and Gomathi, P. (2012), Pelletized Fly Ash Lightweight Aggregate Concrete: A promising material, Journal of Civil Engineering and Construction Technology, Vol.3 (2), pp.42-48, 2012.
Polypropylene and Polyester Fiber Reinforced ConcreteA Performance Study

Raghunandan V. Kadaba1, R. Nagendra2 and K.R.S. Narayan3
1Principal Engineer, Civil-Aid Technoclinic Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore, India Director, Civil-Aid Technoclinic Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore, India; r.nagendra@in.bureauveritas.com 3General Manager-Recron3S Business, Reliance Industries Ltd., Bangalore, India; rajagopalan.narayan@ril.com 2Technical
AbstractSynthetic fibers are man-made fibers resulting from research and development in the petrochemical and textile industries. There are two different physical fiber forms: monofilament fibers and fibers produced from fibrillated tape. Currently there are two different synthetic fiber volumes used in application, namely low-volume percentage (0.1 to 0.3% by volume) and high-volume percentage (0.4 to 0.8% by volume). Most synthetic fiber applications are at the 0.1% by volume level. At this level, the strength of the concrete is considered unaffected and crack- control characteristics are achieved. A comprehensive study was made in the laboratory with an objective of comparing the performance characteristics of concretes made with two different fibers namely; Polypropylene fibers (CTP 2024) and Polyester fibers (CT 2024), both supplied by Ms. Reliance Industries Ltd., against that of control concrete (Concrete without fibers). The dosage of fibers adopted (both polypropylene and polyester) for concretes with fibers were 125 gms per bag of cement. The control concrete had no fibers in it. Two grades of concrete, M25 and M40 were chosen for the above study. Both fresh concrete as well as hardened concrete properties like compressive strength, flexural strength, splitting tensile strength, abrasion resistance, water permeability, RCPT, drying shrinkage and plastic shrinkage were studied on concrete specimens with and without fibers. The study indicated that at the same water/cement ratio, there was a significant reduction in the workability of concrete in terms of slump when fibers were added to it. There was a marginal improvement in parameters like compressive strength, flexural strength, splitting tensile strength, abrasion resistance, water permeability, RCPT and drying shrinkage for concretes made with fibers over that of control concrete. However, there was a significant improvement in the plastic shrinkage reduction potential of concretes incorporating fibers over that of control concrete. It was also observed that the plastic shrinkage reduction potential of concrete with polyester fibers (CT 2024) was more than that of concrete with polypropylene fibers (CTP 2024).
INTRODUCTION
Synthetic fibers are man-made fibers resulting from research and development in the petrochemical and textile industries. There are two different physical fiber forms: monofilament fibers and fibers produced from fibrillated tape. Currently there are two different synthetic fiber volumes used in application, namely low-volume percentage (0.1 to 0.3% by volume) and high-volume percentage (0.4 to 0.8% by volume). Most synthetic fiber applications are at the 0.1% by volume level. At this level, the strength of the concrete is considered unaffected and crack- control characteristics are achieved. No elaborate study has been made prior to this study regarding the shrinkage reduction characteristics (both plastic and drying) of concretes made with low modulus synthetic fibers, particularly with reference to monofilament polyester fibers, though much emphasis has been previously given towards testing of strength properties.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY Scope of Study

The main scope of this study was testing of two polymeric fibers designated by CTP2024 (Polypropylene fibers) and CT2024 (Polyester fibers). The primary objective of this study was to
evaluate the performance of these two low modulus polymeric fibers when incorporated in concrete. Both fresh concrete as well as a few pre-designated hardened concrete properties were studied in comparison with a concrete made without fibers.
Materials Used
Fibers: Polypropylene fibers designated by CTP2024 & Polyester fibers designated by CT2024 Coarse Aggregate: Granite, angular crushed of maximum size 20mm confirming to IS 383:1970. Fine Aggregate: Natural river sand confirming to Zone II as per Table 4 of IS 383:1970. Water: Potable water was used for all mixes. Cement: Cement used was OPC 53 Grade.
Testing Methodology
Methodology adopted to conduct the above mentioned study was as follows: Two grades of concrete were chosen for conducting the study namely, M25 and M40. The cement content and w/c ratio selected for M25 grade were 330 kg/cu.m and 0.50 respectively. The cement content and w/c ratio selected for M40 grade were 410 kg/cu.m and 0.39 respectively. The concrete mix adopted for plastic shrinkage test also. Control concrete (concrete without fibers) was used as the reference for comparing the performance of the two fibers namely CTP2024 (Polypropylene fibers) and CT2024 (Polyester fibers). The dosage of the fibers adopted for the concrete mixes with fibers was 125 gms/bag of cement. Extreme care was taken to simulate similar conditions for all concrete mixes cast in a day including the materials used. The following tests were conducted on samples made from concrete without fibers (control) and with fibers (polypropyleneCTP2024 and polyesterCT2024) for two different grades of concrete (M25 and M40) except for plastic shrinkage test where a nominal specially designed mix was proposed. For hardened concrete properties, the concrete samples were cured appropriately as per IS 456 2000 (Reaffirmed 2011) before commencement of the actual tests.
Fresh Concrete Properties

Fresh concrete properties such as slump, air content and density of fresh concrete were measured as per IS 1199:1959 (Reaffirmed 2008). The fresh concrete properties were shown in Table 1.
Compressive Strength
The test for compressive strength as per IS 516:1959 (Reaffirmed 2008) at 7days and 28 days was conducted for concrete with and without fibers. The test results of compressive strength are tabulated in Fig 1.
Flexural Strength
The test for flexural strength as per IS 516:1959 (Reaffirmed 2008) at 28 days was conducted for concrete with and without fibers. The test results of flexural strength are tabulated in Fig 2.
Splitting Tensile Strength

The test for splitting tensile strength of concrete was conducted as per IS 5816:1999 (Reaffirmed 2008) for concrete with and without fibers. The test results on the splitting tensile strength are tabulated in Fig 3.
Water Permeability Test

Water permeability test was conducted as per DIN 1048 speculations for concrete with and without fibers. The test results of the permeability test are tabulated in Fig 4.
Polypropylene and Polyester Fiber Reinforced ConcreteA Performance Study 293
Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT)

Rapid chloride permeability test was conducted on concrete samples with and without fibers as per ASTM C 1202-10. The RCPT results are tabulated in Fig 5.
Abrasion Resistance
The test for abrasion resistance of concrete was conducted as per IS 1237 80 (Reaffirmed 2011) on concrete samples with and without fibers. The test results on abrasion resistance of concrete are tabulated in Fig 6.
Drying Shrinkage
The test for drying shrinkage was conducted on concrete samples with and without fibers as per IS 1199-59 (Reaffirmed 2008). The results of drying shrinkage test are tabulated in Fig 7.
Plastic Shrinkage Test

The test for plastic shrinkage reduction potential of fibers was conducted as per the procedure mentioned below: a. A hollow cylindrical ring of matrix consisting of two annular rings was used for the test. b. The diameter of the inner and outer rings was 280 mm and 580 mm respectively resulting in a concrete ring that is 150 mm wide. The height of the ring was 80 mm. c. Twelve steel ribs were welded to the outer ring on the inner side to provide restraint (Hold the matrix to the outer ring).
d. The concrete mix was specially designed to obtain a high potential of plastic shrinkage to facilitate the study. The cement content and w/c ratio were 340 kg/cu.m and 0.55 respectively, which imparts higher water content to the mix and in turn, makes the concrete viable to plastic shrinkage. The percentage of fine aggregate used in all the mixes (with and without fibers) was 50%. e. Concrete with and without fibers were poured into three separate ring-assemblies clearly marked and were compacted well with a smooth finish with the help of a straight edge aluminium float. f. The initial bleeding water was carefully removed by refloating the surface after a few minutes. g. The specimens were dried on the top using an air stream with the help of a fan at a speed of 4m/sec. h. The temperature and humidity of the surrounding area was kept constant throughout the test. i. j. The drying operation was culminated at the end of 6 hrs, by which time almost all the plastic shrinkage cracks will appear. The crack areas of plain and fiber reinforced matrices were compared to evaluate the effectiveness of the fibers expressed as plastic shrinkage reduction potential.
k. Total sum of the crack areas of all the cracks gives the crack area for a particular specimen. Area of an individual crack is the product of the total length of that crack and the average width of the crack measured along its length (using a crack scope) at approximately 25 mm intervals l. The crack area in the plain mortar matrix is taken as 100 percent and the crack area of the fiber reinforced specimens is expressed as a percentage of the plain matrix crack area. The test results of the plastic shrinkage test are tabulated in Fig 8.
m. The amount of crack area reduction is taken as an indicator of the effectiveness of the fibers.
TEST RESULTS Fresh Concrete Properties

The slump of concrete made with fibers (both polypropylene and polyester) was significantly lesser than that of control concrete, which shows that the addition of fibers had a significant effect on the workability of the concrete mixes. The addition of fibers however showed no significant difference in properties such as air content and density of fresh concrete.
Table 1: Properties of Fresh Concrete
Sl. No. 1 2 3 Sample Control Concrete Concrete with PP Fibers Concrete with Polyester Fibers Grade of Concrete M25 M40 M25 M40 M25 M40 Slump (mm) 60 50 25 20 25 20 Air Content (%) 1.8 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.9 1.5 Density (kg/m3) 2384 2410 2388 2408 2390 2416
The 7 days compressive strength of concrete made with polypropylene fibers (CTP2024) was found to be 103.5% and 102.4% that of control concrete for M25 and M40 grades of concrete respectively. The 7 days compressive strength of concrete made with polyester fibers (CT2024) was found to be 102.4% and 100.8% that of control concrete for M25 and M40 grades of concrete respectively. The 28 days compressive strength of concrete made with polypropylene fibers (CTP2024) was found to be 101.8% and 101.0% that of control concrete for M25 and M40 grades of concrete respectively. The 28 days compressive strength of concrete made with polyester fibers (CT2024) was found to be 101.5% and 101.2% that of control concrete for M25 and M40 grades of concrete respectively.
55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 M 25 M 40 7 days M 25 28 days M 40
Compressive Strenth, N/mm2
Control Polypropylene Polyester
Fig. 1: Text Result on Compressive Strength of Concrete
Flexural Strength
The flexural strength at 28 days of the concrete made with polypropylene fibers (CTP2024) was found to be 100.7% and 101.1% that of control concrete for M25 and M40 grades of concrete respectively. The flexural strength at 28 days of the concrete made with polyester fibers (CT2024) was found to be 100.5% and 100.2% that of control concrete for M25 and M40 grades of concrete respectively.
Splitting Tensile Strength

The splitting tensile strength at 28 days of the concrete made with polypropylene fibers (CTP2024) was found to be 108.5% and 104.1% that of control concrete for M25 and M40 grades of concrete
Polypropylene and Polyester Fiber Reinforced ConcreteA Performance Study 295
respectively. The splitting tensile strength at 28 days of the concrete made with polyester fibers (CT2024) was found to be 105.4% and 100.8% that of control concrete for M25 and M40 grades of concrete respectively.
6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 Control Polypropylene Polyester
Flexural Strength, N/mm2
M 25 M 40
Fig. 2: Text Result on Flexural Strength of Concrete 4.5 Splitting Tensile Strength, N/mm2 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 Control Polypropylene Polyester M 25 M 40
Fig. 3: The Results pn Spliting Tensile Strength of Concrete
Water Permeability Test

The penetration of water was found to be 17 mm and 13 mm for concretes with polypropylene and polyester fibers respectively as compared to 18 mm in control concrete, for M25 grade of concrete. The penetration of water was found to be 4 mm and 4 mm for concretes with polypropylene and polyester fibers respectively as compared to 6 mm in control concrete, for M40 grade of concrete.
Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT)

The RCPT values were found to be 1834 Coulombs and 1889 Coulombs for concretes with polypropylene and polyester fibers respectively as compared to 1940 Coulombs in control concrete, for M25 grade of concrete. The RCPT values were found to be 1198 Coulombs and 1210 Coulombs for concretes with polypropylene and polyester fibers respectively as compared to 1230 Coulombs in control concrete, for M40 grade of concrete.
30 Penetration of Water, mm 25 20 15 10 5 0 Control Polypropylene Polyester M 25 M 40

Acceptable limit as per DIN 1048 = 25 mm
Fig. 4: Test Results on Water Premeability of Concrete 2000 1900 1800 1700 1600 1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 Control Polypropylene Polyester
RCPT value, Coulombs
M 25 M 40
Fig. 5: Test Resuls on Rapid Chloride Permeability of Concrete (RCPT)
Abrasion Resistance of Concrete

The average loss in thickness (Wear due to abrasion) was found to be 1.55 mm and 1.60 mm for concretes with polypropylene and polyester fibers respectively as compared to 1.63 mm in control concrete, for M25 grade of concrete. The average loss in thickness (Wear due to abrasion) was found to be 1.02 mm and 1.30 mm for concretes with polypropylene and polyester fibers respectively as compared to 1.40 mm in control concrete, for M40 grade of concrete.
1.8 Average loss in thickness, mm 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 Control Polypropylene Polyester M 25 M 40
Fig. 6: Test Results on Resistance to Wear Due to Abrasion on Concrete
Polypropylene e and Polyester Fiber Reinforce ed ConcreteA A Performance Study S 297
Drying Shrinkage e Test

The dry ying shrinkag ge was found d to be 0.01 15% and 0.0 016% for co oncretes with h polypropylene and polyeste er fibers respe ectively as co ompared to 0.018% 0 in co ontrol concre ete, for M25 grade of con ncrete. The drying shrin nkage was fo ound to be 0. .006% and 0.008% 0 for concretes c wit th polypropy ylene and polyeste er fibers respe ectively as co ompared to 0.009% 0 in co ontrol concre ete, for M40 grade of con ncrete.
0.02 0.018 0.016 0.014 0.012 0.01 0.008 0.006 0.004 0.002 0 Cont trol Polypropylene Polyester
Drying Shrinkage, Shrinkage %
M 25 M 40
Fig. 7: Test T Results on Drying Sh hrinkage of Concrete C
Plastic c Shrinkage e Test

The tota al crack area a was found d to be 17.5 55% and 3. .85% for co oncretes with h polypropyl lene and polyeste er fibers resp pectively whe en expressed d as a perce entage of tota al crack area a in control concrete taken as s 100%.
240 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Con ntrol Polypr ropylene Pol lyester
Crack Area,
mm2
Fig. 8: Test T Results on Plastic Sh hrinkage of Concrete C
Photo 1: View of the Set Up
Photo 2: Me easurement o of Crack Leng gth
Photo 3: Crack Measu urement of Co ontrol Specim men
Photo P 4: Cont trol Specime en after Crack king
P Photo 5: Spec cimen of Polyester Fiber af fter Cracking g
oto 6: Specim men of PP Fib bers after Cr racking Pho
CONCL LUSION
The com mprehensive e study indic cated that at a the same water/cement ratio, the ere was a si ignificant reductio on in the wor rkability of concrete c in te erms of slum mp when fibe ers were added to it. The ere was a margina al improvem ment in parameters like compressive e strength, flexural f stren ngth, splittin ng tensile strength, abrasion resistance, r w water permea ability, RCPT T and dryin ng shrinkage for concret tes made with fibe ers over that t of control concrete. c However, there e was a signi ificant impro ovement in th he plastic shrinkag ge reduction potential of f concretes incorporating i g fibers over r that of con ntrol concret te. It was also obs served that the plastic shrinkage s re eduction pot tential of concrete with polyester fib bers (CT e fibers. The 2024) was w more tha an that of con ncrete with polypropylen p e test results o obtained cor rroborate the fact that low modulus synthe etic monofila ament fibers can be effec ctively incorp porated even n at lower level do osages in co oncrete struc ctures (Espe ecially thin section mem mbers) more e susceptible e to dry weathers and other severely s exp posed conditi ions to effect tively control the plastic a and drying shrinkage s characte eristics. Thou ugh at higher dosages, they are ev ven expecte ed to have s significant effects on flexural toughness ch haracteristics s.
REFER RENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Perum malswamy N. Ba alaguru and Sure endra P. Shah; Fiber Reinforced d Cement Comp posites, McGraw w Hill Internation nal Editions; Civil Engineering Ser ries; 1992. D.J. Hannant. Fiber-reinforced concr rete. Advanced Concrete C Technology Set,2003, Pages 1-17. Elsevier Science Lt td . A. Siv vakumar and Ma anu Santhanam m. Mechanical pro operties of high strength concret te reinforced wit th metallic and non-metallic n fibers s. Cement and Concrete C Composites, Volume 29 9, Issue 8,Septem mber 2007, Page es 603-608 Elsev vier Science Ltd. Ceme ent and Concrete e Research, Volu ume 35, Issue 12 2,December 200 05, Pages 2350-2 2359Elsevier Sci ience Ltd S. Mi indess and A.J. Boyd High perfo ormance fiber re einforced concre ete Advances in Building Techno ology,2002, Pag ges 873-880 Elsev vier Science Ltd
Experimental Investigation on Behavior of SFRC Beam Column Joints with Haunch Effect
A. Murugesan1 and G.S. Thirugnanam2
1Research 2Professor
Scholar, CED, Sona College of Technology, Salem, India; murugesan_stru2004@yahoo.co.in and Head, CED, Institute of Road and Transport Technology, Erode; gst_irtt@yahoo.co.in
AbstractBeam column joint is an important component of a reinforced concrete moment resisting frame and should be designed and detailed properly, especially when the frame is subjected to earthquake loading. Failure of beam column joints during earthquake is governed by bond and shear failure mechanism which are brittle in nature. Therefore, current international code of practices gives more importance to provide adequate anchorage to longitudinal bars and confinement of core concrete in resisting shear. Modern codes provide for reduction of seismic forces through provision of special ductility requirements. Details for achieving ductility in reinforced concrete structures are given in IS 13920-1993. In the present study, a two bay five storey reinforced cement concrete moment resisting frame for a general building has been analyzed and designed by using STAAD Pro as per IS 1893-2002 code procedures and detailed as per IS 13920-1993 recommendations. An exterior beam column joint has been modeled to 1/5th scale of the prototype and the specimen has been subjected to cyclic loading to study its behavior during earthquake loading. The experimental program consists of SFRC interior beam-column joint specimen with haunch effect represented as SFRCH. The interior top middle joint beamcolumn joints are examined in terms of Load carrying capacity, Load-Deflection behavior, Stiffness degradation, Energy dissipation capacity, Ductility factor and cracking characteristics. A modern code suggests provision of special ductility recommendations for the reduction of seismic forces. Based on the experimental results significant conclusions are drawn and the advantage of using haunch effect in the beam-column joint region has been established. Keywords: Earthquake resistant structure, Beam- Column joint, Seismic load, Cyclic loading, Ductility, Stiffness, SFRC
INTRODUCTION
The easy availability, low cost and great stiffness make reinforced cement concrete (RCC) the most widely used construction material. Well designed and well constructed RCC is suitable for most structures in earthquake-prone areas. However, achieving these pre-requisites almost always pose a challenge to engineers. The stiffness of RCC can be used to advantage, to minimize seismic deformations and hence reduce damage to non-structural members. Reinforced concrete buildings may be monolithic, precast or pre-stressed types, of which the first is the most popular earthquakeresistant structural system. The behavior of reinforced concrete moment resisting frame structures in recent earthquakes all over the world has highlighted the consequences of poor performance of beam column joints. Beam column joints in a reinforced concrete moment resisting frame are crucial zones for transfer of loads effectively between the connecting elements (i.e. beam sand columns) in the structure. In the analysis of reinforced concrete moment resisting frames, the joints are generally assumed as rigid. In Indian practice, the joint is usually neglected for specific design with attention being restricted to provision of sufficient anchorage for beam longitudinal reinforcement. This may be acceptable when the frame is not subjected to earthquake loads. There have been many catastrophic failures reported in the past earthquakes, in particular with Turkey and Taiwan earthquakes occurred in 1999, which have been attributed to beam column joints. The poor design practice of beam column joints is compounded by the high demand imposed by the adjoining flexural members which are dissipating seismic energy.
Unsafe design and detailing wi ithin the joi int region je eopardize the entire stru ucture, even n if other structura al members confirm c to th he design req quirements. Since past three decade es, extensive research has bee en carried out on stu udying the behavior of f joints und der seismic conditions through experim mental and an nalytical stud dies. Various s internation nal codes of practices ha ave been un ndergoing periodic c revisions to o incorporat te the research findings into practic ce. In RC b buildings, po ortions of columns s that are com mmon to bea ams at their intersections s are called beam b column n joints. The joints have e limited for rce carrying capacity sin nce their co onstituent materials have e limited strengths s. When forc ces larger tha an these are applied duri ing earthqua akes, joints ar re severely damaged. d Repairin ng damaged joints is dif fficult, and so s damage must m be avo oided. Thus, beam colum mn joints must be designed to o resist earthq quake effects s. Under earthquake sha aking, the bea ams adjoinin ng a joint are subj jected to moments m in the t same (c clockwise or r counter clo ockwise) dir rection. Und der these moment ts, the top ba ars in the be eam column joint are pu ulled in one direction d and d the bottom m ones in the opposite directio on. These fo orces are bal lanced by bond stress developed d be etween conc crete and steel in the t joint region. If the co olumn is not t wide enoug gh or if the strength s of co oncrete in th he joint is low, the ere is insuffic cient grip of concrete c on the steel bar rs. In such circumstances s, the bar sli ips inside the joint t region, and d beams lose e their capac city to carry load. Furthe er, under the e action of th he above pull push forces at to op and botto om ends, joi ints undergo o geometric distortion, d on ne diagonal length of the joint t elongates and the oth her compress ses. If the co olumn cross sectional siz ze is insuffic cient, the concrete e in the joint t develops diagonal crac cks.Figure1 shows the effects e interio or beam-colu umn with seismic loading. l
Fig. 1: Seism mic Loading Effects E of Int terior Beam-c column Joint t
EXPER RIMENTAL L INVESTIG GATION

A Two bay b five stor rey RC mom ment resisting g framed stru ucture shown n in figure 2 has been analyzed by using g STAAD.pro o software as s per IS 189 93-2002 code e procedures s. The struct ture is assum med to be located in seismic zo oneIII. The design is ca arried out as per IS 456-2 2000 proced dures and de etailed as per IS 13 3920-1993 recommenda r ations. The top middle e joints of the t structure e which is T shape was w taken f for the expe erimental investiga ation. The str ructure has been b force ca arrying mech hanism of be eam- column n joint.
F Fig. 2: Two Bay B FrameEl levation View w and Types of Specimen ns
Experime ental Investigati ion on Behavior r of SFRC Beam m Column Joints s with Haunch Effect E 301
Details s of Specim men

In this present p inves stigation SFR RCH beam-c column joint ts were cast and tested u under cyclic loading. The test t specimen was w reduced d to 1/5th scale s to suit the loading g arrangement and test facilities. Prototyp pe specimen n having bea am dimensio on of 305 X 460 includ ding slab th hickness and d column dimensio on of 305 X 460. The di imension of the beam an nd column was w fixed as 1 120 x 170 an nd 120 x 230 resp pectively. Th he length of the t beam an nd height of column for test t specimen n was 1130 mm and 620 mm m respectively y.
Reinfor rcement Details D

The ove erall dimensi ions and det tails of reinfo orcement wi ith haunch beam b column joint are shown s in figure 3. . The column n was reinfor rced with eig ght numbers 8 mm diame eter high yie eld strength deformed d (HYSD) bars and th he beam wa as provided two t number rs of 8 mm diameter HY YSD bars at top and bottom. HYSD bars of 6 mm dia ameter were used for tran nsverse ties in columns a and stirrups in n beams. The stirr rups are at 40 mm c/c for r a distance of o 2d, i.e. 30 00 mm from the face of t the column and a at 80 mm c/c for remainin ng length of f the beam. The reinforc cement details for haunc ch specimen n are two Nos 8 mm m diameter inclined bar rs provided at a the haunch hes.
Fig. 3: Reinforcemen R nt Detailing of Beam Column Joint as s Per IS 1392 201993
CASTIN NG OF SP PECIMENS S Materia al Used

Ordinary y Portland cement c (53 grades) g conf firming to IS S: 8112-1989 9 was used for the inves stigation. Fine agg gregate used was river sa and passing through t 4.75 5 mm IS siev ve and having a fineness modulus of 2.65. Crushed coarse aggrega ates passing 12.5 mm an nd retained on o 4.75 mm and having modulus of 2.70.w were used. The T round crimpled c stee el fiber has been b used whose proper rties have be een given below:
T Table 1: The e Proportions s of the Fibre es
Prop perties Steel fiber r Length L 30mm Diameter D 0.50mm Aspect Ratio 60 Modulus of Elasticity 2100 000 Mpa Tensile Strength 1100 Mpa M
Casting g and Curi ing

The mould is arrang ged properly y and placed over a smooth surface. The sides o of the mould exposed to concr rete were oile ed well to pre event the sid de walls of th he mould from absorbing g water from concrete and to facilitate f easy y removal of the specim men. The rein nforcement cages c were p placed in the e moulds and cov ver between cage and for rm kept as 20 2 mm. M30 0 grade conc crete has bee en designed as per IS 10262-2 2007 recomm mendations (1:1.17:2.60/ ( /0.40) and used u for casting of the tes st specimens. . Cement mortar block b pieces were used as a cover bloc cks. The conc crete content ts such as ce ement, fine aggregate a
and coarse aggregate and water were weighed accurately and mixed. The mixing was done till uniform mix was obtained. The concrete was placed into the mould immediately after mixing and well compacted. Control cubes and cylinders were prepared for all the mixes along with concreting. The test specimens were stripped from the mould at the end of 24 hours and cured under wet gunny bags for 28 days. The details of specimen before casting is shown in figure 4 and preparation of concrete with fibre is shown in fig. 5.
Fig. 4: Details of Specimen before Casting
Fig. (5)a: Preparation of Concrete with Fibres
Fig. 5(b): Casting of Specimen
TEST SETUP AND INSTRUMENTATION

The specimen was tested. The test setup for SFRCH is shown in figure 6. A hydraulic jack was used to apply the axial load for column. To record the load precisely a proving ring was used. The load was applied forward cyclic loading and unloading up to certain predetermined levels. The deflection was measured by using dial gauge at the tip of the beam. The beam column joint specimen SFRCH was tested subject to quasi- static cyclic loading simulating earthquake loads. The Load was applied by using screw jack. The beam-column joint was gradually loaded by increasing the load level during each cycle. The deflection measured at tip during the cycle of loading. As the load level was increased in each cycle and corresponding deflection was also increased.
Fig. 6: Test Setup for Loading
Experimental Investigation on Behavior of SFRC Beam Column Joints with Haunch Effect 303
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Load Carrying Capacity

The first crack was witnessed in SFRCH during 2nd cycle at the load level of 21 KN. The ultimate load carrying capacity of the RC beam-column joint was 39KN recorded at 4th cycle. The load sequence diagram is shown in figure 7.
Load Deflection Behavior

The load deflection behavior of all the beam-column specimens is shown in figure 8.Envelope curve is obtained by joining the peak points of each cycle.
Fig. 7: Load Sequence Diagram
Fig. 8: Load vs. Deflection Diagram
Ductility Characteristics
The first yield deformation was determined as the deflection corresponding to the beginning of horizontal path. Ductility factor for any cycle of loading may be calculated as the maximum deflection at that cycle to the first yield deflection.
Cumulative Ductility
Cumulative ductility means when a structure is subjected to cyclic loading up to any load point is defined as the sum of the ductility at maximum load level attained in each cycles up to the cycles considered. The cumulative ductility for the specimen SFRCH is shown in figure 9.
Energy Absorption Capacity

The energy absorption capacities during various load cycles were calculated as the sum of the areas under the hysteric loops from the load deflection diagram. The figure 10 shows the cumulative energy to load cycles.
Fig. 9: Cumulative Ductility Factor Diagram
Fig. 10: Cumulative Energy Absorption Diagram
Stiffness Degradation
The stiffness of the joints gets reduced when the joint is subjected to cyclic loading. The reduction in stiffness is due to the following reasons. During cyclic loading, the material viz. concrete and steel is subjected to loading, unloading and reloading process. This will cause initiation of micro cracks inside the joint and sometimes leads to fatigue limit of the materials. Thus in turn increases the deformation inside the joints resulting in the reduction in stiffness. Hence it is necessary to evaluate degradation of stiffness in the beam-column joints subjected to cyclic loading. The figure 11 shows the stiffness degradation of the SFRCH beamcolumn joints.
25 Stiffness in KN/mm 20 15 10 5 0 0 1 2 3 Load Cycles 4 5
Fig. 11: Stiffness Degradation
TEST RESULTS
The experimental results of SFRCH beam column joint are given in Table 2. The result of the SFRCH Beam Column Joint specimen is given in Table 3.
Table 2: Experimental Results of SFRCH Beam Column Joint Cyclic Loading (y= 1.00 mm)
Cyclic Number Max Load (kN) Max Deflection (mm) 0.78 1.44 3.14 6.83 Ductility Factor Cumulative Ductility Factor 0.580 2.800 8.610 20.350 Relative Energy Absorption (KN-mm) 3.75 5.25 36.75 132.50 Cumulative Energy Absorption (KN-mm) 3.75 9 45.75 191.25 Stiffness (KN/mm)
1 2 3 4
15 24 36 39
0.580 2.220 5.360 12.190
20.0 13.60 11.0 8.77
Table 3: Comparative Results of SFRC and SFRCH

S. No 1 2 3 4 5 Description Load carrying capacity in kN Cumulative ductility factor Cumulative energy absorption capacity in kN-mm Initial stiffness in kN/mm Stiffness degradation in kN/mm SFRCH 39.0 20.35 191.25 30.0 8.77
MODE OF FAILURE
In the SFRCH specimen, cracks appeared near the joint after the first crack load. With further increase in loading, the cracks propagated up to the beam and initial cracks started widening. Large number of closely spaced finer cracks appeared in SFRCH beam-column join specimens. The typical failure pattern of SFRCH is shown in figure 12.
Experimental Investigation on Behavior of SFRC Beam Column Joints with Haunch Effect 305
Failures of Haunch Specimens with Steel Fiber(SFRCH) Fig. 12: Failure Pattern of SFRCH
CONCLUSION
Based on the investigation, the following conclusions are drawn. 1. The ultimate load carrying capacity of Beam-Column Joint by the provision of haunch at the junction (SFRCH) is 39 kN. 2. The calculated Cumulative ductility factor for SFRCH is 20.35. 3. The cumulative energy absorption capacity SFRCH is 191.25 kN-mm. 4. The initial stiffness of the specimen is increased 30 kN/mm by the presence of haunch. 5. The provision of haunches has displayed the crack pattern well little in the beam away from the junction. 6. The stiffness degradation of the haunch specimen is 8.77 kN/mm.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] Tsonos. A.G, Tegos. I.A and Penelis. G. Gr [1992]. Seismic resistance of Type 2 Exterior Beam column joints reinforced with inclined bars The ACI structural Journal, Title No.89S1, JanFeb1992. Lakshmi. G.A, Anjan Dutta and S.K. Deb[2008] Numerical studies of strengthening of beam column joint under cyclic excitation using FRP composites Journals of structural Engineering, Vol 35,No 1, Apr May 2008, pp 5965. Preeda chaimahawan & Amorn pimanmas [2008] Seismic retrofit of substandard beam column joint by planer joint expansion, Materials and structures, DOI 10, June May 2008, Ramesh. S [2008] Experimental study on behavior of Exterior RC beam column joints subjected to cyclic loading M.E. thesis report, Anna University, Chennai, July2008. Thirugnanam. G.S [2001]Ductile behavior of SIFCON structural member Journals of structural engineering, April June 2001, Volume 28, No.1. YungChih Wang and Kai Hsu[2009] Shear Strength of RC Jacketed Interior Beam Column Joints without Horizontal Shear Reinforcement The ACI structural Journal, Title No.106S24,MarApr2009.. Rajaram P. Murugesan. A. and. Thirugnanam G.S Experimental study on behavior of RC interior beam column joints subjected t o cyclic loading, International journal of Applied Engineering Research Volume 1, No1, 2010. Rajagopalan, K. Parameswaran, V.S. and Ramaswamy, G.S., Strength of steel fibre reinforced concrete beam. The Indian concrete journal, Vol. 48, No.1, Jan 1974, pp.17-25 Andre Filiatrault, Sylvin Pineau, and Houde seismic behavior of steelFiber Reinforced Concrete Interior Beam-Column Joints, ACI Structural Journal, v.92, No.5, Sep-Oct 1995, pp 543-552.
Performance of Hybrid Fiber Reinforced ConcreteRecron 3s Polyester Fibers & Dramix Steel Fibers
A.S.S. Sekar1, D. Kesavan2 and K.R.S. Narayan3
1Prof.
of Civil Engineering Dept, AC College of Engineering & Technology, Karaikudi Sivagamgao, Tamilnadu, India 2PG Student, AC College of Engineering & Technology, Karaikudi.Sivagamgao, Tamilnadu, India 3General Manager-Reliance Industries Ltd., Mumbai, India; rajagopalan.narayan@ril.com
AbstractThis paper focuses on the experimental investigation carried out on hybrid fiber reinforced concrete (combination of Dramix steel fiber with hooked end and Recron3s-polyester fiber) up to a total fiber volume fraction of 0.5%, 1%, 1.5% and 2% which was prepared by normal mixing, compaction and curing. The workability and mechanical properties namely, compressive strength, modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity, flexural strength, loaddeflection curve and stress-strain relationships were studied. Pulse velocity test was also conducted at different ages to assess the quality of concrete. It was found that all concrete specimens could be classified under good quality. As a result of hybridization it had the ability to arrest cracks, increase ductility and tensile strength, both at first crack and at ultimate, particularly under flexural loading and the fibers are able to hold the matrix together even after extensive cracking. The net result of all these is to impart to the fiber composite, pronounced postcracking ductility which is unheard of in ordinary concrete. In addition, fiber addition was seen to enhance an increase in flexural strength and ductility, respectively, addition of hybrid fibers generally contributed towards the energy absorbing mechanism (bridging action) whereas, the nonmetallic Recron3S fibers resulted in delaying the formation of micro-cracks.
INTRODUCTION
Fiber Reinforced Cement and Concrete materials (FRC) have been developed progressively since the early work by Romualdi and Batson in the 1960s. By the 1990s, a wide range of fiber cement composites and FRC products were commercially available and novel manufacturing techniques were developed for use with high fiber contents. In parallel with the commercial development of FRC materials and products, an extensive research program was undertaken to quantify the enhanced properties of FRC materials and more specifically to allow comparisons to be made between various types of fibers. Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC) is a composite material consisting of cement, sand, coarse aggregate, water and fibers. In this composite material, short discrete fibers are randomly distributed throughout the concrete mass. The behavioral efficiency of this composite material is far superior to that of plain concrete and many other construction materials of equal cost. Due to this benefit, the use of FRC has steadily increased during the last two decades and its current field of application includes airport and highway pavements, earthquake-resistant and explosive-resistant structures, mine and tunnel linings, bridge deck overlays, hydraulic structures, rock-slope stabilization, etc. The addition of various types of fibers such as metallic and non-metallic fibers like glass, synthetic, and carbon, in plain concrete improves strength, toughness, ductility, post-cracking resistance, etc. These Dramix hooked end steel fibers and Recron3s fibers can effectively be used for making high-strength FRC after exploring their suitability. In this investigation, therefore, an attempt has been made to study the feasibility of using two kinds of fibers for making FRC. Cementitious materials are generally quite brittle, with relatively low strength and strain capacity under tension. Hence a hand-laid steel bar reinforcement is usually necessary to increase tensile strength. For low reinforcement levels, the partial or even complete replacement of this conventional reinforcement by
Performance of Hybrid Fiber Reinforced ConcreteRecron 3s Polyester Fibers & Dramix Steel Fibers 307
fibers is an advantageous alternative. For special applications, highly ductile fiber reinforced cementitious materials like ultra-high performance concrete or engineered cementitious composites have been developed. Fibers may also be applied to control the detrimental effects of shrinkage. A significant reduction in crack width and crack spacing is possible, especially at early ages. They possess a high tensile strength (>5001000 MPa) and a high elastic modulus (>200 GPa) and are available at relatively low costs. The high modulus, which is much higher than concrete (3040 GPa) or cement paste (1520 MPa), prevents the fiber from stretching or cross contraction upon load, which hence leads to a good fibermatrix bond and smaller crack widths. A variety of tests have been performed to determine the actual characteristics and advantages of fibrous materials. The addition of steel fibers helps in converting the brittle characteristics to ductile ones. To faster the compressive strength without sacrificing the ductility, a strategy adopted is to add discrete steel fibers as reinforcement in concrete. It is obvious that the behavior of HFRC depends on the orientations, distributions, aspect ratios, geometrical shapes and mechanical properties of fibers in concrete mixtures. The orientations and distributions of fibers affect the properties of FRC such as toughness, strength, ductility and crack width. A compromise to obtain good fresh concrete properties (including workability and reduced early-age cracking) and good toughness of hardened concrete can be obtained by adding two different fiber types, which can function individually at different scales to yield optimum performance. The addition of non-metallic fibers results in good fresh concrete properties and reduced early age cracking. The beneficial effects of non-metallic fibers were attributed to their high aspect ratios and increased fiber availability at a given volume fraction. Because of their lower stiffness, these fibers were particularly effective in controlling the propagation of micro cracks in the plastic stage of concrete. The hybrid combination of metallic and non-metallic fibers had potential advantages in improving concrete properties as well as reducing the overall cost of concrete production. It was important to have a combination of low and high modulus fibers to arrest the micro and macro cracks, respectively. Another beneficial combination of fibers was that of long and short fibers.
MATERIALS & MIX PROPORTION Materials

The materials used in this experimental investigation are: 1. Cement: Ultra Tech 43 grade Fly Ash based Portland pozzolana Cement (PPC) (IS 1489 Part I 1991). 2. Fine Aggregate: Locally available river sand Zone II having a specific gravity of 2.43, fineness modulus of 3.425. 3. Coarse Aggregate: crushed granite coarse aggregate of maximum size 20 mm and having a specific gravity of 2.99, fineness modulus of 7.54. 4. Water: water available in the college campus conforming to the requirements of water for concreting and curing as per IS: 456 2000. 5. Fibers: (i) Commercially available Dramix Hooked End Steel Fiber having properties of Length 30mm Diameter: 0.5mm Aspect ratio:60 (ii) Commercially available Recron3s fibers is Polyester fibers having properties of Length : 12mm, Diameter : 0.036mm, Aspect ratio : 334
Mix Proportion
Mix design as per BIS for M20 grade concrete with water cement ratio of 0.55 used for the study and given in Table 1.
Table 1: Mix Proportion

Materials Kg/m3 Ratio Cement 348.33 1 Fine aggregate 551.27 1.58 Coarse aggregate 1316.22 3.78 Water 191.6 0.55 (w/c)
Experimental Program Specimens

In this experimental work, concrete specimens were cast with and without fibers. The 51 specimens were cast consisting 150 x150x 150 mm cubes, 150x300 mm cylinders and 100 mm 100 mm 500 mm size prisms. The different types of fibre had been shown in Photo 1-6.
Photo 1: Steel & Recron3s Fibers
Photo 2: Dramix Steel Fiber
Photo 3: Dramix Steel Fiber (Collated & Loose State)
Photo 4: Recron3s Fiber
Photo 5: Mixture of Steel & Recron Fibers
Fresh concrete was cast in steel moulds with hand compaction. 1. 150x150x150 mm cubes (for compressive strength as per IS 516-1959 2. 150x300 mm cylinders 3. 100x100x500 mm prism specimens for flexural test as per IS 516-1959) and also as per ASTM test method. Three specimens each were tested in the each case for compressive, flexural and modulus of elasticity. The average of these tests is reported. In flexural test the loaddeflection plot was used for calculating the various parameters. The specimens were demoulded after 24 h, and placed inside a water tank until the age of testing.
Mixing, Casting & Curing Details

All ingredients were weighed separately as per the mix details. The uniformity of concrete and proper distribution of fibres were mainly depends on the mixing procedure. Cement and aggregates were mixed thoroughly by using rotary mixer machine and then fibers are added manually. The total fiber volume fraction used for casting is 0.5%, 1%, 1.5% & 2%. In this total fiber volume fraction the proportion of Steel and Recron3s fiber fraction is given in Table 2.
Table 2: Ratio of Steel and Polyester Fiber

Steel % Recron3s % 100 0 80 20 70 30 60 40
Recron3s fibers are polyester fibers have special triangular shape for better anchoring with other ingredients of the mix. The fibres are made from polymerization of pure teraphthalic acid and Mono Ethylene Glycol using catalyst. Recron3s fibers are available in 6mm and 12mm length. While the mixing operation is in progress, 80% of water is added first and mixed for about 5 min then the remaining water is added and mixed thoroughly.
Testing Methodology
The specimens were taken out from the curing tank just prior to the test. The results are Tabluated in Table 3.
Table 3: Mechanical Properties of HFRC
Type of Concrete Plain Concrete 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 2% 2% 2% 2% SteelRecron3s (%) 0 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-40 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-40 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-40 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-40 Compressive Strength (N/mm2) 28.88 31.44 33 31 32.27 44.44 46.44 36.66 34.34 46.55 48 41.66 33.34 48.88 50 42.55 38.88 Modulus of Rupture (N/mm2) 0.72 0.84 0.96 1.08 1.12 1.64 1.78 1.8 1.84 1.76 1.88 1.92 1.84 1.92 2 2.16 1.88 % Increase in Compressive Strength 0 8.86 14.26 7.34 11.73 53.87 60.8 26.93 18.90 61.18 66.20 44.25 15.44 69.23 73.13 47.33 34.62 % Increase in Modulus of Rupture 0 16.66 33.33 50 55.55 127.77 147.22 150 155.55 144.44 161.11 166.67 155.55 166.67 177.77 200 161.11
DISCUSSIONS
Experimental results given in the above Table 3 indicates that Compressive Strength and Flexural Strength (modulus of rupture) is observed in the case of plain concrete increase with addition of Steel and Recron3s fiber, compared to steel fiber concrete, whereas hybrid fiber concretes is showed better compressive strength, flexural strength & crack control features. The total crack area is reduced with increased addition of non-metallic fibres i.e. Recron3s fiber. The reduction in crack width using hybrid fiber combinations significantly contributed to the reduction of the overall crack area. The improved performance of hybrid fiber combinations can be attributed to the increase in fibre availability compared to the steel fibre concrete, since all nonmetallic Recron3s (polyester fibre) fibre had considerably lower specific gravity than steel. The increase in fibre availability reduces the fibre spacing and also the propensity for crack origination. However, the performance is not linked only to the fibre availability amongst the hybrid fibre concretes the performance was further affected by the length and stiffness of the non-metallic fibres.
StressStrain Relationship Behaviour of Cylinder under Compression

Youngs Modulus of Elasticity is derived from the experimental set up of cylinder under compression using compressometer (longitudinal strain) and extensometer (lateral strain) arrangement as Shown in Table 4. Equivalent energy and deflection ductility & energy ductility has been given Table 5 and 6.
Table 4: Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete (Ec)

Type of Concrete (Total Fibre Volume Fraction) Plain concrete 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 2% 2% 2% 2% Steel-Recron3s (%) 0 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-40 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-40 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-40 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-40 Modulus of Elasticity (Ec) (N/MM2) 16980 20590 22323 24810 20893 22740 26570 29600 22620 23763 28463 30631 23370 24834 29762 32500 23214 Modulus of Elasticity (Ec) Increases in Percent 0 21.26 31.46 46.11 23.04 33.92 56.47 74.32 33.21 39.94 67.62 80.39 37.63 46.25 75.27 91.40 36.71
Table 5: Equivalent Energy Calculations at Yield & Ultimate Point

Fibre Volume Fraction(%) 0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 2 2 2 2 Steel-Recron3S (%) 0 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-40 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-40 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-40 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-40 Equivalent Energy at Yield (Nmm) 181.67 326.67 363.34 520.23 420 620 730 760 720 638.34 768.34 634 1145 1006.66 1026.70 1330 1181.66 Equivalent Energy at Ultimate (Nmm) 228.90 571.67 788.44 1238.14 961.8 1407.4 1773.90 2021.6 1627.20 1480.94 1920.85 1642.06 2599.15 2456.25 2669.42 3617.66 2776.90
Table 6: Deflection Ductility & Energy Ductility

Type of Concrete (Total Fibre Volume Fraction) Plain Concrete 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 2% 2% 2% 2% Steel-Recron3s (%) 0 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-40 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-40 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-40 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-40 Deflection Ductility 1.2 1.52 2 1.75 2 2.1 2.4 1.88 1.70 2.15 2.72 2.30 1.818 2.125 2.42 2.20 1.9 Energy Ductility 1.26 1.75 2.17 2.38 2.29 2.27 2.43 2.66 2.26 2.32 2.50 2.59 2.27 2.44 2.60 2.72 2.35 % Increase in Deflection Ductility 0 26.66 66.66 45.83 66.66 75 100 56.66 41.66 79.16 126.67 91.66 51.50 77.08 101.66 83.33 58.33 % Increase in Energy Ductility 0 38.88 72.22 88.88 81.74 80.15 92.85 111.11 79.36 84.12 98.41 105.55 80.15 93.65 106.34 115.87 86.50
Computation of Ductility
Deflection Ductility & Energy Ductility a) Deflection = Deflection at Ultimate load Ductility Deflection at Yield load b) Energy = Energy at Ultimate load Ductility Energy at Yield load
Fig. 1: Above Graph Shows Stress-Strain Relation for 2% of Total Fibre Volume Fraction
From the above experimental investigation Discussion of modulus of elasticity of concrete (Ec), Equivalent Energy at Yield & Ultimate Point and Deflection Ductility & Energy Ductility Results, by comparing with ordinary plain control concrete 1. Volume Fraction at 0.5%: Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete (Ec) increases from 21.26% to 46.11% Deflection Ductility increases from 26.66% to 66.66% & Energy Ductility increases from 38.87% to 81.74% 2. Volume Fraction at 1%: Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete (Ec) increases from 33.21% to 74.32% Deflection Ductility increases from 41.66% to 100% & Energy Ductility increases from 79.36% to 111.11% 3. Volume Fraction at 1.5%: Modulus of elasticity of concrete (Ec) increases from 37.63% to 80.39% Deflection Ductility increases from 51.50% to 126.67% & Energy Ductility increases from 80.15% to 105.55% 4. Volume Fraction at 2%: Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete (Ec) increases from 36.71% to 91.40% Deflection Ductility increases from 58.33% to 101.66% & Energy Ductility increases from 86.50% to 115.87% Deflection Ductility & Energy Ductility increases for each volume fraction gives good results at 80%-20% & 70%-30% combination of Steel- Recron3s fibre fraction respectively.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test Results

Pulse velocity is measured using Ultrasonic Concrete Tester (PUNDIT) as per IS: 13311 Part I 1992. Testing is done 2 hrs after the specimens are taken out from the curing tank at all ages. Average pulse velocity is reported in Table 7. It is observed that the pulse velocity of HFRC increases marginally with the increase in fibre content. The increase in pulse velocity on 28 days is significant for 20 MPa concrete.. This is true both for plain and fibre concrete. The pulse velocity for hybrid fibre reinforced concrete is higher compared to that of plain concrete.
Table 7: Pulse Velocity Hybrid Fibre Reinforced Concrete

Fibre Volume Fraction (%) 0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 2 2 2 2 Steel-Recron3s 0 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-20 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-40 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-40 100-0 80-20 70-30 60-40 Pulse Velocity (M/Sec) 4350 4466.88 4656 4418.03 4680 4983.38 5172.41 4823.15 5000 4918.03 4918.03 4672.89 4918 5172.41 4807.69 4983.38 4411.76 Classification (Quality) Good Good Excellent Good Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Good
CONCLUSION
The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the action of Hybrid Fibers at different volume fractions to obtain a good High Strength Concrete. The above mentioned investigations allow the two different fibre influences to be distinguished for green concrete and for hardened concrete. The experimental results of this study have led to the following conclusions: 1. The addition of steel fibers makes concrete a ductile material whereas Steel fibers with Recron3s fibers further improve its mechanical properties. 2. Compressive Strength of hybrid fibre reinforced concrete (HFRC) increases in each combined fibre volume fraction from 0.5% to 2% but in each volume fraction, the combination of SteelRecron3s fibre in the ratio of 80%-20% provides good results. 3. Flexural Strength of Hybrid also increases in for each total volume fraction 0.5% to 2% where as total Steel-Recron3s fibre in the ratio of 70%-30% gives better results. 4. Modulus of elasticity of concrete (Ec) increases for increase in volume fraction and SteelRecron3s fibre in the ratio of 70%-30% combination of Steel-Recron3s fibre fraction. 5. Deflection Ductility & Energy Ductility increases with each fibre fraction and gives good results for ratio of 80%-20% & 70%-30% of Steel-Recron3s fibre fraction respectively. Addition of hybrid fibres generally contributed towards the energy absorbing mechanism (bridging action) whereas, the non-metallic fibres Recron3s (Polyester) resulted in delaying the formation of micro-cracks. 6. The Pulse Velocity for HFRC varies depending on the volume fraction of the fibers and about 4575 m/s in all the cases. 7. The percentage of crack widths greater than 2 mm was found to be more than 90% in controlled concrete and 60% in Steel fibre concrete and almost zero in the case of hybrid fibre concretes. These secondary cracks were finer than the main crack. 8. Addition of Recron3s fibers improves the energy absorption capacity of concrete. The energy absorption of concrete with total fibre volume fraction of 0.5% to 2% was about 5.46 to15 times that of plain concrete. 9. Among Hybrid Fiber combinations, Steel and Polyester fibres combination performed better in all respects compared to the Mono-Steel Fibre Concrete and Ordinary Concrete. 10. Non-metallic Recron3s fibres (Polyester) reduced the number of cracks and width of cracks at comparable load levels.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] Perumalsamy N. Balaguru, Sarendra P. Shah (1992), Fiber reinforced cement composites, Mc Graw Hill International Editions. D.J. Hannant (2003), Fibre-reinforced concrete. Advanced Concrete Technology Set, 1-17. Elsevier Science Ltd. M. K. Lee and B. I. G. Barr. Strength and fracture properties of industrially prepared steel fibre reinforced concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites, 25(3), 321-332 Elsevier Science Ltd. Josef Kaufmann (2007), Jorn Lubben, Eugen Schwitter. Mechanical reinforcement of concrete with bi-component fibers Composites. A. Sivakumar and Manu Santhanam (2007), Mechanical properties of high strength concrete reinforced with metallic and nonmetallic fibres. Cement and Concrete Composites, 29(8), 603-608 Elsevier Science Ltd. Steffen Grnewald and Joost C. Walraven (2001), Parameter-study on the influence of steel fibers and coarse aggregate content on the fresh properties of self-compacting concrete Cement and Concrete Research, 31(12) ,1793-1798 Elsevier Science Ltd. Josef Kaufmann, Jrn Lbben and Eugen Schwitter (2007), Mechanical reinforcement of concrete with bi-component fibers Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 38(9), 1975-1984 Elsevier Science Ltd. M.C. Nataraja, T.S. Nagaraj and S.B. Basavaraja (2005), Reproportioning of steel fibre reinforced concrete mixes and their impact resistance, Cement and Concrete Research, 35(12), 2350-2359 Elsevier Science Ltd. Ali R. Khaloo and Majid Afshari (2005), Flexural behaviour of small steel fibre reinforced concrete slabs, Cement and Concrete Composites, 27(1), 141-149 Elsevier Science Ltd. Yining Ding and Wolfgang Kusterle (2000), Compressive stressstrain relationship of steel fibre-reinforced concrete at early age. Cement and Concrete Research, 30(10), 1573-1579 Elsevier Science Ltd. Sofren Leo Suhaendi and Takashi Horiguchi (2006), Effect of short fibers on residual permeability and mechanical properties of hybrid fibre reinforced high strength concrete after heat exposition Cement and Concrete Research, 36, 1672-1678 Elsevier Science Ltd. S. Mindess and A.J. Boyd (2002), High performance fibre reinforced concrete Advances in Building Technology, 873-880 Elsevier Science Ltd. O. Kayali, M. N. Haque and B. Zhu (2003), some characteristics of high strength fiber reinforced lightweight aggregate concrete Cement and Concrete Composites, 25(2), 207-213 Elsevier Science Ltd. N. Banthia and M. Sappakittipakorn (2007), Toughness enhancement in steel fiber reinforced concrete through fiber hybridization Cem ConRes, 37(9), 1366-1372 Elsevier Science Ltd. Qian CX, Stroeven P. (2000), Development of hybrid polypropylenesteel fibre-reinforced concrete. Cem Concr Res, 30, 638. Yao W, Lib J, Wu K. (2003), Mechanical properties of hybrid fiber reinforced concrete at low fiber volume fraction. Cem Concr Res, 33, 2730. Banthia N, Nandakumar N. (2003), Crack growth resistance of hybrid fibre reinforced cement composites. Cem Concr Compos, 25, 39. Indian Standard Designation, IS516-1999, Methods of tests for strength of concrete. New Delhi, India: Bureau of Indian Standards. N. Banthia, M. Sappakittipakorn (2007), Toughness enhancement in steel fiber reinforced concrete through fiber hybridization. A. Sivakumar, Manu Santhanam. (2007), A quantitative study on the plastic shrinkage cracking in high strength hybrid fibre reinforced concrete, Cement & concrete composite. Yining Ding, Wolfgang Kusterle (2000), Compressive stress strain relationship of steel fibre-reinforced concrete at early age, Cement & concrete research. Sofren 'Leo Suhaendi, Takashi Horiguchi' (2006), Effect of short fibers on residual permeability and mechanical properties of hybrid fibre reinforced high strength concrete after heat exposition, cement & concrete research. M.C. Nataraja, 'T.S. Nagaraj, S.B. Basavaraja' (2005), Reproportioning of steel fibre reinforced concrete mixes and their impact resistance, Cement & concrete research. Singh S.P., mohammadi Y., Madan S.K. (2006), Flexural fatigue strength of steel fibrous concrete containing mixed steel fibres.
Section D Tall buildings and Special Structures
Measurement of Different Wind Characteristics in Wind Tunnel and Comparison with Codal Values
Nikhil Agrawal1, V.K. Gupta2 and Achal K. Mittal3
Scholar, CED, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; nikky1827@gmail.com CED, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; vkgsufce@iitr.ernet.in 3Principal Scientist, Structural Engineering Group, CSIR-CBRI Roorkee, India; achal_cbri@rediffmail.com
2Professor, 1Research
AbstractThis paper presents a comparative study of different wind characteristics for three terrain categories namely: sub-urban, heavy sub-urban and urban as given in wind codes and measured in wind tunnel. The different codes used in the present study include Hong-Kong, Indian (1987) and Indian (2011). Wind characteristics include mean wind velocity, turbulent intensity profiles, integral length scale of turbulence and power spectral density. Keywords: Wind characteristics, Wind codes, Terrain categories, Velocity profile.
INTRODUCTION
Wind loads are the typical dynamic loads on buildings and the wind-induced effects on buildings are determined by wind characteristics, aerodynamic and dynamic properties. The approaching wind characteristics are largely controlled by the roughness of the upwind fetch over which it blows (assuming that the fetch is relatively flat). The ways in which characteristics of the approaching wind are incorporated by various wind codes and standards are very different. Several studies have been carried out in past that focus on the comparison of wind loads and corresponding building responses, estimated with different codes and standards. Limited information is available on comparison of wind characteristics. A few relevant studies are presented in the following text. Zhou et. al. (2002) presented a comparative study on maximum wind load effects in the along wind direction for open and urban terrains, highlighting that each code and standard employs unique definitions of wind field characteristics such as mean velocity profile, turbulent intensity profile, wind spectra, turbulence length scale and wind correlation. Different mathematical forms and properties of wind spectra for along wind response have been discussed in detail by Tamura et. al. (2005). Spectral densities used in various wind codes and standards are tabulated, apart from a comparison of gust loading factors. Emphasis on the topics of terrain and exposure, shielding and amplification, topographic effects, tropical cyclone and hurricane wind have been given for their codification in wind loading codes and standards by Holmes et.al. (2005). Choi (2009) discussed the roughness classification, terrain category and wind profiles in different wind codes. In addition, a set of terrain categories and corresponding wind profiles were proposed. Lee and Ng (1988) and Kikitsu et. al. (2003) compared international building codes for dynamic along wind response and peak pressure coefficients. Inconsistencies have been observed among codes due to differences in the different wind parameters. Although sufficient work has been carried out on codes and standards but a comprehensive review of different wind characteristics, particularly for rough terrains has not been carried out in the past. The Codes considered are: Code of Practice on Wind Effects in Hong-Kong (CPWEHK-2004) Code of Practice for Design Loads for Buildings and Structures IS: 875(Part-3)-1987 (Existing) Code of Practice for Design Loads for Buildings and Structures IS: 875(Part-3)-2011 (Proposed)
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME

The experiments have been carried out in the BLWT at Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee. This is an open circuit, continuous flow, suction type tunnel using single blower fan (125 HP) having a test section of 2.1 m 2.0 m size. The length of test section is 15 m. Further details regarding wind tunnel at IIT Roorkee are pronounced in Asawa et. al. (1985). Part of an experimental study reported in this paper, has focused on wind flow characteristics generated in the BLWT. Five numbers Counihan type elliptical wedge vortex generator elements, along with a 15cm high barrier wall and cubical roughness blocks of 5cm, 7cm, 10cm and 15cm have been used for generating the different boundary layer profiles in the tunnel. For the measurement of velocity fluctuations, constant temperature hot-wire anemometer system from Dentec was used. Static velocity head was measured using a standard pitot-tube connected to a highly sensitive MKS Baratron (capacitance type) and its digital display unit. Corresponding head was converted to velocities and simultaneous values of voltage output at mean value unit of hot-wire system were recorded for a range of wind speed between 2m/s and 12m/s.
DESCRIPTION OF WIND CHARACTERISTICS FOR DIFFERENT CODES

Table 1 shows how the methods (presented in this paper for mean velocity and turbulent intensity profiles) are adopted by codes. It is to be noted that the number of terrain specified in various codes are different and vary from 1 to 4. For example, Hong Kong has only one terrain type.
Table 1: Summary of Terrain-Height and Averaging Time Format in Various Wind Codes
Code/ Standard IS:875 (Part 3)-1987 IS:875 (Part 3)-2011 HK-2004 Number of Terrain Categories 4 4 1 Velocity and Turbulence Intensity Profiles Power Law Log Law Log Law Averaging Time for Basic Wind Velocity Definition 3-sec 3-sec 1 hr
The averaging time for basic wind velocity employed in different codes are also summarized in Table 1. For the purpose of comparison, the conversion factor for 3second gust velocity and 10minute mean from 1hour mean wind velocity is given in Table 2 (Simiu and Scanlan 1996). For example, a 3sec. gust velocity for sub-urban terrain will be 1.4 times the mean velocity for 1hour.
Table 2: Conversion Factors for 1-hour Averaging Time
Terrain Categories/Averaging Time Sub-Urban (zo=0.2m) Heavy Sub-Urban (zo=0.7m) Urban (zo=2m) 3 Seconds 1.40 1.47 1.54 10 Minutes 1.05 1.06 1.07
Basic wind speed profile simulation parameters specified in different codes are presented in Table 3 for sub-urban, heavy sub urban and urban terrains. Indian Standards (both existing as well as proposed) and do not specify any value for heavy suburban terrain. It may be noted that a large gap exist in Indian Standards between suburban (=0.18) and urban (=0.36) terrain, that affects the design of any structures. As sub-urban terrain gives conservative values while urban provides unsafe values for design forces.
Table 3: Values of Basic Wind Speed Profile Simulation Parameters in Different Codes
Code/Standard Sub-Urban Exponent Roughness Length (m) 0.18 0.12 0.20 0.20 0.11 0.0035 Heavy Sub-Urban Exponent Roughness Length (m) 0.11 0.0035 Urban/ City Centre Exponent Roughness Length (m) 0.36 1.96 0.31 2.0 0.11 0.0035
IS:875 (Part 3)-1987 IS:875 (Proposed) HK-2004
Note-(1) Values in Italics font are estimated by given conversation formulae or logarithmic plot of velocity profile.
Measurement of Different Wind Characteristics in Wind Tunnel and Comparison with Codal Values 319
Basic Wind Velocity

The basic wind velocity in most of the codes and standards is based on measurements at 10 m height in an open terrain associated with different mean recurrence intervals and averaging times. The basic wind velocity is converted to the design reference wind velocity for a particular site by introducing the influence of local environment, directionality, mean recurrence interval, and significance factors associated with the planned structure as shown below
VZ = VO k1 k 2 k 3 k 4 k 5
(1)
where V0 = basic mean wind velocity; k1= probability factor (risk coefficient); k2= terrain-height factor k3= topographic factor; k4= building importance factor; and k5= directionality factor. For simplicity, these (k1 k3 k4 k5) factors are ignored in this study. Terrain-height factor (k2) has been discussed in next section. A Tall building with H=240m is used as an example in this study to compare the wind characteristics estimated with different codes and standards. The building is located at Bombay (India) far from sea. As per IS: 875 (Part3)-1987, the basic 3 second gust wind velocity at 10m height is 44m/s (reference wind speed). This building model has been tested at IIT Roorkee wind tunnel for three different Terrain Categories. Wind Characteristics obtained experimentally are verified by comparison to the above mentioned codes/standards and available literature data.
Terrain, Height Factor (k2)

The terrain and height factor allow for the increase in wind speed with height in the atmospheric boundary layer, for various terrain types. It reflects changes in wind speed and height and also the effects of variations in the surrounding terrain. A slight change in the size of structure or surface obstructions will result in drastic change in the design wind velocity and the design forces. The factor k2 depends upon surface roughness (zo and ), gradient height and size of the structure. Table 5 provides the information on terrain-height factor or terrain multiplier factor used in different codes and standards. The existing Indian code (IS 875, 1987) and Hong-Kong (HK-2004) give the value of this factor in tabulated form in Table 33 and Table F3 respectively.
Table 5: Wind Speed Profile Factor/ Exposure Factor in Codes and Standards
Codes/Standards IS:875 (Part 3)-1987 IS:875 (Proposed) Table 33
Z (Z )0.0706 0.1423 ln o.i Z o, i Z o , i =surface roughness for different terrain categories
Terrain Multipliers
HK-2004
Table F3
Mean Wind Velocity and Turbulent Intensity Profiles

Generally, the variation of wind velocity with height is influenced by various factors such as the local topography, surrounding terrain, and averaging time. The local topography may also have a speedup effect on the wind profile. However for simplicity its effect is not considered. The effect of averaging time on wind-velocity profile is significant and has already been discussed in previous section. Comparison of mean wind velocity and turbulent intensity profiles for three terrains is shown in Figures 1 to 3. Differences noted in different codes and standards are discussed below.
Sub-Urban terrain
Fig. 1 represents the variation of mean wind velocity and turbulent intensity with height for sub-urban terrain (0.17 < 0.21). Wind speed increases with the increase in the height irrespective of terrain categories (i.e. different values of power law exponent and surface roughness length). The trend of variation of mean wind velocity with height is generally similar as expected, although values may differ at various heights. This Difference is attributed to terrain factor, average wind velocity, profile measurement methods etc. Present experimental data follow the Indian Standard velocity profile up-to 100m building height. For H>100m, the experimental values become higher than the Indian Standard but the trend is similar.
400 350 IS-875-1987 (0.18) 300 250 Ht (m) 200 150 100 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 HK-2004 (0.11) IS-875-2011 (0.18) Ht (m) 300 250 IS:875-2011(0.18) 200 150 100 50 0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 Velocity (m/s) HK-2004 (0.11) IS:875-1987 (0.18) 400 350
Present Study (0.19)
Present Study (0.19)
Turbulent Intensity(%)
Fig. 1: Mean Wind Velocity and Turbulent Intensity Profile for Sub-urban Terrain in Codes for Corresponding Value of
Turbulent intensity decreases with the increase in height. The trend of variation of turbulent intensity with height is generally similar as expected but the values are different at various heights due to difference in their formula (see Table 6) and adopted methods (described in previous section). Turbulent intensity curve of Indian Standard (proposed) lies near the middle of the curves by other codes/standards and the values are close to Japanese code at lower heights. The existing and proposed Indian Standards show similar trend but with a significant difference (approximately 21%) in turbulent intensity values.
Heavy Sub Urban terrain

Fig. 2 represents the variation of mean wind velocity and turbulent intensity with height for heavy sub-urban terrain (0.21 < 0.29). Present experimental data shows similar trend for mean wind velocity as other codes, but lower values up-to 175m. This heavy sub urban terrain does not exist in Indian standards (1987 and 2011), and a very large gap exists between terrain category III (=0.18) and category IV (=0.36). Thus, there appears to be a need for more refined terrain category classification for Indian Standards. HK code shows same values as in the suburban and urban terrain category.
400 350 300 250

Ht (m)
400 350 300 HK-2004 (0.11)

Ht (m)
250 200 150
HK-2004(0.11)
200 150 Present Study (0.25) 100 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Velocity (m/s) 70 80
Present Study (0.25) 100 50 0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 Turbulent Intensity (%)
Fig. 2: Mean Wind Velocity and Turbulent Intensity Profile for Heavy-Suburban Terrain in Codes for Corresponding Value of
Urban Terrain
Fig. 3 shows mean velocity and turbulent intensity profiles for urban terrain ( > 0.29). The existing and proposed Indian Standards give the same values of velocity at all height despite of using different approach for velocity estimation.
400 350 300 250 Ht (m) 200 150 100 50 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 HK-2004 (0.11) IS:875-1987 (0.36) 300 IS:875-2011 (0.31) Ht (m) 250 IS-875-2011 (0.31) 200 150 Present Study (0.33) 100 Present Study (0.33) 50 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Velocity (m/s) 60 70 80 HK-2004 (0.11) IS-875-1987 (0.36) 400 350
Turbulent Intensity (%)
Fig. 3: Mean Wind Velocity and Turbulent Intensity Profile for Urban Terrain in Codes for Corresponding Value of
Present experiment results are in good correlation with other codes. At H>100m experimental values follow Indian Standard (1987) and at lower heights trend is different from Indian Standard (1987).
Table 6: Turbulent Intensity Profile in Codes and Standards
Sub-Urban 3 I Z ,4 I Z ,1 = I Z ,1 + 7 Turbulent Intensity Profile Heavy Sub-Urban _
0.11
IS-875 (Proposed) HK-2004
I Z ,3
Urban
Z I Z ,4 = 0.466 0.1358 Log10 2 .0
H I Z = 0 .1055 90
0.11
H I Z = 0 .1055 90
0.11
H I Z = 0 .1055 90
Z I Z ,1 = 0.3507 0.0535 Log10 0.002
Indian Standard (1987) provides high value of turbulent intensity for H<75m and lower values at greater height (H>200m) as compare to other codes. The proposed and existing Indian Standards have significant variation in their turbulent intensity values at all heights. It is noted that Indian Standard (1987) does not provide any value of turbulent intensity below 40m. It is observed from Fig. 1, 2 & 3 that there is large variation among the values of turbulent intensity as the terrain category changes from sub-urban to urban terrain. Since there is a large variation in turbulent intensity as the terrain category moves from sub-urban to urban terrain, it appears to be logical that wind tunnel study should be carried out for rougher terrains.
Turbulent Length Scales

Table 7. shows the different formule used for estimating turbulent length scale in codes. Hong-Kong code gives the maximum value of length scale at all heights and for all three terrains due a multiplier of thousand in its length scale formula as shown in the the Table 7. The existing Indian code show slightly lower values of turbulent length scale than Hong-Kong, but much higher than others code. Length scales in existing Indian code has been determined by Fig. 8 in (IS:875 (Part 3) 1987). This log-log graph is plotted between length scale and building height for different terrains. It is interesting to note that HK code, length scale depends only on height and is independent of roughness of terrain. Only the Indian Standards take the variation of both height and terrain roughness, as also specified in the Table shown below.
Table 7: Turbulent Length Scales in Different Codes and Standards
Codes/Standards IS-875 (Proposed) Turbulent Length Scale (m)
h c 10
0.25
HK-2004
c depends on terrain category (c=85 for I, II, III terrain and 70 for IV terrain category) 0.25
h 1000 10
*Note here h and z are in meter
For clear understanding about the variation in the LH the graph for all three terrain categories have been shown in Fig. 4. Experimental values obtained from wind tunnel tests are consistent with proposed Indian codes and not with the existing Indian Standard.
Fig. 4: Turbulent Length Scales Different Terrains in Codes for Corresponding Value of
Wind Spectra
Table 8 shows the expressions for wind spectra adopted by different codes/standards. The Indian, Hong-Kong code use Von-Karman spectra. From Fig. 5, it is clear that the experimental values for different terrains are consistent with the other spectra. On comparing the Von-Karman spectra with the spectra obtained from expermental values, length scale of turbulence was 172m, 140m and 108m for sub urban, heavy sub-urban and urban terrain respectively.
Table 8: Wind Spectra in Different Codes and Standards
Wind Spectra IS-875 (Proposed) HK-2004 Spectra Used Von-Karman Von-Karman
fSv( f )
v 2
fSv( f )
f .LH = , x= VH (1 + 70.8 x 2 ) 5 / 6
.x
v
1
0.47 x (2 + x )
2 5/ 6
, x=
f .LH VH
IS 875-1987 0.1 f S(u) f/2 IS 875-2011 HK-2004 0.01 Present Study (0.19) Present Study (0.25) 0.001 Present Study (0.33)
0.0001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 f (Hz) 1 10 100
Fig. 5: Wind Spectra in Codes
CONCLUSION
The results of expeimentes are compared with different codes for three different terrain categories namely suburban, heavy suburban and urban terrain. Differences in wind charateristics among different wind codes are highlighted in this paper with emphasis on Indian Standards Main conclusions from this study are: 1. The experiment results in the present study are comparable with the codes/standards. 2. Velocity and turbulent intensity profiles for different terrains generally displayed similar trends. However, differences in the values for codes exist due to choice formulation i.e. power law or log law. It is interesting to note that Hong-Kong code uses single general terrain category. Consequently, wind loads on buildings could be less or more conservative with respect to the Indian Standard (1987). 3. In general, It is easier to apply proposed Indian Standard (2011) than existing Indian Standard (1987). Heavy sub urban terrain does not exist in Indian standards (1987 and 2011), and therefore a large gap exists between terrain category III (=0.18) and category IV (=0.36). Thus, there appears to be a need for more refined terrain category classification for Indian Standards.
4. Only Indian Standards (existing and proposed) consider the variation of both height and terrain roughness.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] Asawa, G.L., Pathak, S.K., and Ahuja, A.K. (1985). "Industrial wind tunnel at University of Roorkee." 1st Asia-Pacific Symposium on Wind Engineering, Roorkee, India, 95102. Choi, E. C. C (2009), Proposal for unified terrain categories exposures and velocity profiles, Proceedings of 7th Asia Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, 8th -12th November, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan. Gupta, A (1996), Wind tunnel studies on aerodynamic interference in tall rectangular buildings, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India. Holmes, J. D., Baker, C. J., English, E. C. and Choi, E. C. C. (2005), ''Wind structure and codification'', Wind & Structures, 8 (4), 235-250. Holmes, J. D., Tamura, Y. and Krishna, P. (2009), Comparison of wind loads calculated by fifteen different codes and standards, for low, medium and high-rise buildings, Proceedings of 11th American Conference on Wind Engineering, SanJuan, Puerto Rico, June 22-26, 2009. Hong Kong (2004),Code of Practice on Wind Effects in Hong Kong. Indian Standards IS: 875 -Part 3 (1987), Code of practice for design wind loads (other than earthquake) for buildings and structures, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. Indian Standards IS: 875 -Part 3 (2011), Code of practice for design wind loads (other than earthquake) for buildings and structures, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. Khanduri, A, C. (1997), Wind-Induced interference effects on buildings-integrating experimental and computerized approach, Ph.D. thesis, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Lee, B. E., and Ng, W. K. (1988), ''Comparisons of estimated dynamic along-wind responses'', Journal of Wind. Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 30, pp 153-162. Simiu, E., and Scanlan, R. (1996), Wind effects on structures: Fundamentals and Applications to design, 3rd Ed., Wiley, New York. Tamura, Y., Kareem, A., Solari, G., Kwok, C. S. K., Holmes, J. D. and Melbourne, W. H. (2005), ''Aspects of the dynamic windinduced response of structures and codification'', Wind & Structures, 8 (4), 251-268. Zhou, Y., Kijewski, T. and Kareem, A. (2002), ''Along wind load effects on tall buildings: Comparative study of major international codes and standards'', Journal of Structural Engineering, 128(6), 788-796.
Large Deformation Curl out Study on Geometrical Shell Models

Ram Ranjan Sahu1 and Pramod Gupta2
1Ph.D 2Associate
Scholar, CED, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India; ramranjan.sahu@tatatechnologies.com Professor, CED, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India; pkgupfce@iitr.ernet.in
AbstractThin shell structures have been used for many structural engineering applications because of their energy absorbing capacity in the plastic deformation. Study of their deformation behavior is important for their use in critical design applications like nose cone of aircraft, launch vehicles and ballistic missiles, as these provide efficient energy absorption. In case of vehicles, shell structure takes major load and undergoes plastic deformation due to which the load transmitted to the inside electronic components is minimized. Shell structures response is very complex to different types of loadings. The participating parameters to responses are thickness, shape, diameter, diameter to thickness ratio of the shells and the physical state of the shell. Highly transient like impact and quasistatic loading makes the shell structure response more complex. In past, many studies were carried out by different researchers on shell structures for dynamic responses. There is large scope to understand complex phenomenon of shell structures to different types of loadings associated with large deformations. Curl out is an important phenomenon of large deformations. A study is planned on producing the curl out phenomenon. This is produced by making a geometry having cylindrical portion at top while conical at the bottom. The samples were made with aluminum by spinning process. Once this geometry is put on platen and pressed, the bottom conical is flared due to its apical angle. Its deformation effort depends on model and base platen character. The force displacement graphs were obtained and compared for base platen made of SS, MS, Aluminum, glass, sun mica and plywood. Theoretical investigations were done for different coefficient of friction between sample and base platens and different D/t ratio at the bottom of the samples. The curl out phenomenon was compared for thin and thick models. Keyword: Energy absorption, Plastic Deformation, LS-Dyna
INTRODUCTION
Now a days, the shell structures of many shapes and design are being used in structural engineering. The loading responses associated with large deformation of these shell structures are quite complex. A curl out phenomenon is a large deformation characteristic and has been attracting researchers for its smooth deformation phenomenon. Alghamdi [1] and Reid [2] reported one of the interesting energy absorber columns is the tube inversion or invertible that basically involves the turning inside out of a thin circular tube made of ductile material. The main advantage of this mode of deformation is the constant inversion load that can be obtained for a uniform tube. Splitting mode of deformation is a special case of tube inversion where the die radius is large enough to cause splitting instead of inversion [3]. Ezra and Fay [4] identified the combined modes of axial splitting and subsequent curling of the split ends of the tubes as an efficient means of energy dissipation in the absorber. The absorbed energy is dissipated in tearing of the metal of the tube into strips. Many researchers had been studying the basic shapes and their energy absorption capacity for crushing. Nia and Hamedani [5] studied the axial crushing on various section shapes (circular, square, rectangular, hexagonal, triangular, pyramidal and conical etc) which were made in workshop from sheets, by argon welding. These sheets chosen were of aluminium alloys, due to their lightweight. In this research, 1 and 1.5 mm thickness Al 3003 H12 plates were used. They found that in axial quasi-static tests, the larger the number of section edges, the greater the energy absorption capacity. This is due to an increase of the number of folds and plastic hinges in sections with larger number of edges. For their test the absorbed energy per unit mass was maximum for cylindrical tubes. A study on mode of collapse of varying wall
thickness of metallic frusta subjected to axial compression was done by Gupta [6]. The mode of collapse forms by the development of one concertina fold followed by the plastic zone. During the development of mode of collapse some portions of the frusta move radially inward and some radially outward. This paper discusses about the experimental and theoretical investigation on curling out process for conical bottomed and cylindrical top shell geometry with different base platens. Effect of coefficient of friction, base d/t ratio, thickness etc had been discussed for curling out process.
EXPERIMENTATION Experimental Setup

The experiment setup comprises of test samples, fixtures to position\hold the samples and the machine to apply compression force on samples through fixtures. Test samples of aluminum were made with spinning process. The sample had average thickness of 0.9mm. It had top cylindrical portion of mean diameter of 68mm and 50mm height while bottom had conical potion. The bottom D/t ratio is maintained around 150. The bottom apical angle measures around 30 degree. A synthetic plastic solid cylinder is tightly fitted inside the top cylindrical portion to avoid any buckling or necking at top portion and flaring can be ensured at the bottom portion. The test setup is shown in Fig. 1 below along with the photographs of bottom platens.
Fig. 1: Test Setup
Top platen is fixed to load cell while base platen is placed on the bottom fixture which is fixed to moving ram. The Instron universal testing machine with 40,000N load capacity was used for the test. The systems bottom side ram can move up and down with maximum ram stroke up to +/- 125 mm. The system is hydraulically operated and can operate at quasi static and at transient load conditions. The ram on which base platen is kept was moved up in speed of 5mm/min to ensure the quasi static condition. The alignment of sample and its fixture is assured with machine axis. The testing was done to maximum displacement up to 50 mm.
Large Deformation Curl out Study on Geometrical Shell Models 327
Material Properties
The tensile testing to material was done by preparing test pieces as per ASTM E8 specifications these test pieces were tensile tested with standard tensile testing machine at room temperature. With repeated test, the average value of stress strain is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2: Stress-strain Graph for the Aluminum Sample
From the graph, the material tensile strength is 110 N/mm2 @ 5% elongation, 0.2% proof stress is 65 N/mm2 as per ASTM E 8 [7]. The top and bottom fixtures were made of steel, having 0.2% proof stress of 800 MPa, and an elastic modulus, E, of 210 GPa, which is much greater than that of the samples; and hence the fixtures can be regarded as rigid.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Refer typical force-displacement (F-H) graph in Fig. 3, where it can be seen that the load rises quasilinearly from zero to initial maximum load depicted by point a. This is the process where the bottom is circumferentially expanded. Once sufficiently expanded then incubation starts till point b where the expanded portion curls out and force is dropped. After this point, the force again rises till point c where the actual curl out process starts. Once this point is crossed, the load displacement process stabilizes. Generally the graph trend becomes downward at stabilization zone, as the volume of rolling plastic hinge becomes less.
Fig. 3: Typical F-H Graph (Base Mild Steel Platen)
Below are few salient observations from the experimentsGood repeatability of tests was obtained as shown in Fig.4 for aluminum platen. This shows the reliability on the systems involved in the test.
Fig. 4: Test Result Repeatability for Aluminum Platen
Fig. 5 shows the different graphs, plotted together for different platens. Also analytical result is shown for coefficient of friction =0.1. The graph trend is same for all the cases. For mild steel platen, the highest initial effort was noticed as compared to others. Also its stabilized effort is more, as compared to others. Aluminum exhibits the least stabilized effort. Theoretical effort with =0.1 matches well with sun mica and glass platens.
Fig. 5: Test Result Comparison of Different Platens along with Analytical Result
It is also noticed that the process in which the less numbers of bottom edge lobs are formed, the stabilized portion of the graph is less spread and downturned, while it is wide spread for more numbers of lobs formation. Fig. 6a shows that for sun mica platen, the numbers of lobs are four and its F-H graph is less spread at stabilized zone. In Fig. 6b, the number of lobs formation is more than four and its F-H graph is widely spread as compared to Fig. 6a, in stabilized zone.
Fig. 6: Lobs Formation at Bottom Edge (Sun Mica Platen)
Ply wood did not allow the curl out process, rater it arrested the bottom of the test sample as shown in Fig. 7: Few folds started forming at top of the cylindrical portion, which advanced towards bottom on further press.
Fig. 7: Folding Formation at Straight Portion (Ply Wood Platen)
The test and theoretical results are summarized in table-1 below.

Table 1: Tests Results
Models Model Specifications D (Base Mean Dia in mm) t (Thickness in mm) D/t H (Disp in mm) Coefficient of Friction Energy (kJ) Weight of Deformed Portion (W kg) Specific Energy '' (kJ/kg)
Theoretical Model having same =0.1, but different D/t Model having same D/t but different
Model having same & D, but different 't' Experimen Aluminum-1 tal models: Aluminum-2 base Glass-1 plates(sam Glass-2 ples Glass-3 nos=1,2,3 Glass-4(conical etc) angle =20 deg) Mild Steel-1 Mild Steel-2 Sunmica-1 Sunmica-2 Steel-1 Steel-2 Steel-3(conical angle =20 deg) Wood
110 130 150 170 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
110.0 130.0 150.0 170.0 150.0 150.0 150.0 150.0 150.0 75.0 50.0 37.5 166.7 166.7 166.7 166.7 166.7 166.7 166.7 166.7 166.7 166.7 166.7 166.7 166.7 166.7
50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 45.5 49.5 45.33 46.53 44.54 29.61 48 50 48.29 48.82 44.71 45.37 27.19 38.71
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1
0.366 0.344 0.327 0.304 0.315 0.327 0.337 0.349 0.376 1.69 2.94 4.25 0.2 0.2 0.267 0.182 0.18 0.068 0.427 0.332 0.192 0.311 0.22 0.183 0.121 0.401
0.0423 0.0497 0.0594 0.0704 0.0594 0.0594 0.0594 0.0594 0.0594 0.118 0.1737 0.231 0.0492 0.0521 0.049 0.0506 0.0477 0.0349 0.0521 0.0534 0.0522 0.0524 0.048 0.049 0.0314 0.0431
8.65 6.92 5.51 4.32 5.30 5.51 5.67 5.88 6.33 14.32 16.93 18.40 4.07 3.84 5.45 3.60 3.77 1.95 8.20 6.22 3.68 5.94 4.58 3.73 3.85 9.30
FINITE ELEMENT SIMULATION

Finite element simulation was used to simulate the platens and the models experimental process. It was used to study in details, about the model deformation phenomenon, to extract salient features during experiments like deformation, its effort, energy associated, correlation to test data like F-H graph etc. The Altair product HyperMesh [8] is used for FE model building. Aluminum models are presented with 4 node shell elements at mid plane surface. Platens and top straight portion of model
were modeled with rigid material property. The LsDyna [9] which is a combined Implicit/Explicit solver was used as solver. It offers wide variety of material modeling and provides lot of contact algorithm. *MAT_RIGID (Mat-20) and *MAT_PIECEWISE_LINEAR_PLASTICITY (Mat-24) were used in the simulation. *CONTACT_AUTOMATIC_SURFACE_TO_SURFACE was used to define contacts between disjoint parts. Also self contact of models was defined through Single Surface contact. Coulomb friction type was used to define the coeeficient of friction between interfaces. The effect of friction has been dicussed in later part of this paper. Fig. 8 shows the FE shell model and it comparison with actual model. This FE model fully represents the geometry of the lattice and experimental arrangement. Shell element formulation choosen was Belytschko-Tsay.
Fig. 8: FE Model and its Shape Comparison to Actual Cut Model
Bottom Platen is pressed against model upto 50 mm. Result interpretation was done through LS-PREPOST
Simulation Results
Below studies were done with FE simulations.
Effect of Coefficient of Friction

The coefficient of friction () was changed for the model whose D/t ratio is 150 at the base. The effort variation is shown in Fig. 9. More is the value of , effort F is also more.
Fig. 9: F-H Graph for D/t=150 for Different Coefficient of Friction
Effort Variation with Different D/t

The FE simulation was used to draw F-H graph for different D/t ratio. For higher D/t ratio the effort is less as shown in Fig. 10. Meaning for same thickness sample, the effort required will be less for the model having larger diameter at the base. Similarly for the models having same mean diameter at the base, the less effort will be required, for the model of lesser thickness.
Fig.10: F-H for Different D/t Ratio (=0.1)
Energy Variation with Base D/t and

The FE simulations were done by varying base D/t ratio. It is evident form Fig 11, that the energy reduces with D/t increase in value. Also energy is plotted against the value. Energy increases for higher value.
Fig. 11: Energy Variation for Different D/t and Coefficient of Friction
DISCUSSION
It is apparent that the coefficient of friction plays an important role on large deformation phenomenon having disjointed parts in contacts. The FE approach is used to study on its effect on deformation pattern, if it is varied. A model as taken whose D/t is 150 at the base and thickness is 1 mm. A threshold value as =0.45 is found as shown in Fig. 12, where deformation characteristics changes. At this value the curl in phenomenon is observed at the joint of straight and conical portion. The straight portion pushes the conical portion inside. Also in this process, the initial peak is more as compared to curl out process (=0.30).
Fig. 12: Effect of Coefficient of Friction on Deformation Pattern
With the FE help, a study is made to see the thickness effect on F-H characteristics. The models had same base mean diameter of 150mm, while thickness were varied from 1mm to 4mm. It was noticed that the point c (start point of curl out) occurs late with increasing thickness as shown in Fig. 13. Higher thickness model make larger curl out length (l2) and to make this they take more time. The effort in higher thickness is also more as obvious.
Fig. 13: F-H Graph Comparison for Different Thickness Models having Same Base Mean Diameter (150mm)
CONCLUSION
An experimental and computational study of axial compression of geometrical shape for curl out process is studied for different base platens. It was found that geometry has undergone the curl out process properly. A Finite Element computational model of the development of curl out modes is also presented. The FE deformation and actual deformation shape matched well. Also FE help was taken for parametric kind of study which is easier with this approach. Models with different D/t and were studied for effort variation. Also the FE approach was adopted for increasing till a deformation mode change is obtained. It was found that the plays an important role for deformation mode and effort required.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of engineering research centre of TATA at Pune for the support for experimental works. Also thanks to the material testing group to provide the necessary support for getting the material non linear properties through test.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] Alghamdi A.A.A. (2001), Collapsible impact energy absorbers: an overview, Thin-Walled Structures, 39, 189213. Reid S.R. (1993), Plastic deformation mechanisms in axially compressed metal tubes used as impact energy absorbers. Int J Mech Science, 35(12), 103552. Al-Hassani et al (1972), Characteristics of inversion tube under axial loading, J Mech Engng Sci, 14, 37081.Ezra A, Fay R (1972), An assessment of energy absorbing devices for prospective use in aircraft impact situation, In: Herrmann G, Perrone N, editors. Dynamic response of structures. New York: 22534. Nia and Hamedani (2010), Comparative analysis of energy absorption and deformations of thin walled tubes with various section geometries, Thin-Walled Structures, 48(12), 946-954. P.K. Gupta (2008). A study on mode of collapse of varying wall thickness metallic frusta subjected to axial compression. ThinWalled Structures, 46, 561571. ASTM International: ASTM E8 / E8M - 09 Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials HyperMesh11. A product of Altair Engineering Hyper Works LsDyna software and its user manuals. Livermore Software Technology Corporation, Livermore, California 94550-1740.
Influence of Cross-Sectional Shape on Wind Loads on Tall Buildings

Ritu Raj1, Ashok Kumar Ahuja2 and Anupam Chakrabarti3
Student, CED, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; rituraj.ahirwar@gmail.com CED, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; ahujashok@gmail.com 2Assistant Professor, CED, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; anupam1965@yahoo.co.uk
AbstractArchitects generally deign low-rise buildings and multistoried apartment / office buildings in square or rectangular plan. However, they sometime make small changes in its cross section or elevation in order to improve its esthetic. Simplest way is to either attach or remove the edges or corners in them. Structural designers while designing such tall buildings for wind loads refer to relevant standers on wind loads to arrive at correct values of wind force which will be acting on the building. Whereas sufficient information about wind pressure and force coefficients is available in the standards for square and rectangular plan shape buildings with rectangular corners, such information is not available for building with irregular plan shapes. An attempt has therefore, been made to develop such information through wind tunnel studies. Rigid models of tall buildings with varying cross-sections are tested in an open circuit boundary layer wind tunnel to measure wind forces acting on it. The present paper describes details about the models used, testing procedure and important conclusions drawn from the study. It is observed that both base shear and base moments developed due to wind loads are not only influenced by wind directions, but these are also highly affected by cross-sectional shape. Keywords: Tall Buildings, Wind Loads, Cross-Sectional Shape
INTRODUCTION
Numerous tall buildings are being built or are being all over the world including India. A large number of these buildings have non-prismatic and irregular shapes. The shape of these buildings makes them more sensitive to wind excitation than those with a regular shape. Structural designer while designing such tall buildings for wind, refer to relevant standards on wind loads to arrive at correct values of wind forces which will be acting on the building at different floor levels. Since the design codes do not allow the estimation of wind effects on buildings with significantly irregular geometries, experimental studies in wind tunnels become necessary. Indian standard on wind loads [IS : 875 (Part-3) 1987] gives the external pressure coefficient values on square plan shape clad buildings with rectangular corners for wind incidence angle perpendicular to one of the surfaces only. Whereas it indicates the effect of height to width ratio on pressure coefficients as well as force coefficients, no information about force coefficients on buildings with varying cross-sectional shape but having same floor area and height, is available. This information is not available in the standards of other countries too [AS/NZS: 1170.2(2002), ASCE: 702(2002), BS: 63699 (1995), EN 1991-1-4 (2005)]. Review of recent research work indicates that very little work has been done in the area of influence of cross sectional shape on wind loads on tall buildings. Stathopoulos (1985) carried out the study on wind environmental condition around tall buildings with chamfered corners. Kwok (1988) and Kwok et. al. (1988) did wind tunnel model studies to investigate the effect of edge configuration on the wind induced response of tall buildings with rectangular cross section. The effectiveness of tall buildings with varying corner configurations has been reported by Hayashida and Iwasa (1990). Jamieson et.al (1992) reported about the wind induced external pressures on a tall building with various corner configurations. Miyashita et. al (1993) investigated the wind induced response of tall buildings having corner cut or openings in the buildings. Kawai (1998) presented the work on the
Influence of Cross-Sectional Shape on Wind Loads on Tall Buildings 335
effect of corner modification on aero-elastic instabilities of tall buildings. However, most of the above paper focused on the effect of corner configurations on wind loads on tall buildings, where floor or plan area of the building gets modified with the variation in corner configuration. Amin and Ahuja (2008) carried out an experimental study of wind pressures on irregular plan shape buildings. The authors considered the model with different shape having same floor area and height. Since available information is not enough for the structural designers to make use of it while designing tall buildings with varying cross-sectional shapes for wind loads, an experimental study has been carried out by the authors on the models of tall buildings with different cross-sectional shapes (Fig. 1) having same floor area and height. However, results of only three models are reported in the present paper due to paucity of space.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME Details of Model

The prototype building is assumed to have floor area of 400 m2 and a height of 60 m. Three crosssectional shapes namely A, B and C of Fig. 1 are considered. Whereas model-A has square shape, models- B and C have cross shape. Rigid models are made of plywood at a scale of 1:100. Thus all the models have a height of 600 mm and cross-sectional area of 40,000 mm. Detailed dimensions of these models can be seen in Fig. 2 and 3.
Flow Characteristics
In the present study, the models are tested under the boundary layer flow in an open circuit wind tunnel with a cross-section of 2 m (width) x 2 m (height) and the length of the test section as 15 m. Floor roughing devices namely vortex generators, barrier wall, cubical blocks of size 150 mm, 100 mm and 50 mm are used on the upstream end of the test sectionn to achieve the mean wind velocity profile corresponding to terrain category 2 as per Indian standard on wind loads. The models are placed one by one on force balance at a distance of 11.85 m from the upstream edge of the test section, and are tested under free stream wind velocity of 9.78 (Approx. 10) m/sec measured at 1 m height above the floor of the tunnel.
Fig. 1: Various Cross-Sectional Shapes of Tall Buildings
Model A
Model B
Model C
Fig. 2: Dimensions of Tall Building Models with Varying Cross-Sectional Shapes but with Same Floor Area
Model A
Model B
Model C
Fig. 3: Cross-Sectional Dimensions of Models A,B and C with Equal Floor Area
Measurement Technique
Rigid models of the tall buildings (Photo. 1) are placed on five component load cell one-by-one and base shear and base moments acting on the models are measured for wind incidence angles 0 to 180 at an interval of 15. Both base shear and base moment values are recorded for 30 seconds at an interval of 1 second and average values are calculated.
Model-A
Model-B Photo. 1: Wooden Models of Tall Buildings
Model-C
Influence of Cross-Sectional Shape on Wind Loads on Tall Buildings 337

Variation of base shear and base moment measured on three models namely A, B and C as a function of wind incidence angle are shown in Figs. 4 and 5 respectively. It is noticed from Fig. 4 that force Fx, i.e. base shear in the direction of the wind vary within a small range in case of models A and B. Further, its values are maximum at 45 and 135 wind incidence angles and minimum at 90 angle. In case of model C, maximum value of Fx occurs at 0 and 180 due to maximum exposed area with minimum at 90. Further, maximum value of Fx on model C is almost 2 times the maximum value Fx for models A and B. Model B is subjected to lesser force as compared to model A almost at all wind incidence angles except, 0 and 180. Figure 5 thus indicates that the variation in cross sectional shape can increase the base shear to a large extent for certain wind incidence angles even keeping the floor area of the building the same.
9.78 m/sec
1200 1000 Force Fx (in gm) 800 600 400 200 0 0 50 100 150 200 MODEL A MODEL B MODEL C
Wind Incidence Angle (in degree) Fig. 4: Comparison of along Wind Load on Different Models
9.78 m/sec
400 350 Moment My (in gm-m) 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 MODEL A MODEL B MODEL C
Wind Incidence Angle (in degree)
Fig. 5: Comparison of Base Moment Due to along Wind Load on Different Models
Variation of My, i.e. base moment, is identical to that of Fx. Its maximum value is about 2 times in case of model C as compared to the values in case of models A and B (Fig. 5).
CONCLUSION
The following conclusions are drawn from the study presented herein.
1. Wind force on the building is maximum where it has maximum exposed area. 2. Cross-sectional shape of the building influence the wind loads acting on the building to a great extent, even if the floor area and height of the buildings are kept the same for all buildings. 3. The percentage increase in the values of these forces depends upon relative dimensions of the buildings. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The work presented in this paper is part of the research work being done by the first author for his Ph.D. Degree under the supervision of remaining authors.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] Amin J. A. and Ahuja A.K. (2008), Experimental study of wind pressures on irregular plan shape buildings, BBAA VI Int. Collo. On Bluff Bodies Aerodynamics & Applications, Milano, Italy, 20-24. AS/NZS: 1170.2 (2002), Structural Design Actions, Part-2 : Wind Action ASCE: 7-02 (2002), Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures BS: 63699 (1995), Loading for Buildings: Part 2 Code of Practice for Wind Loads EN 1991-1-4 (2005), Euro code 1: Actions on Structures - Wind Actions Hayashida, H. and Iwasa, Y. (1990), Aerodynamic shape effects of tall building for vortex induced vibration, Jour.l of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 33, pp. 237-242. IS:875-Part-3 (1987), Code of Practice for Design Loads (other than Earthquake Loads) for Buildings and Structures- Wind Loads Jamieson, N.J., Carpenter, P. and Cenek, P.D. (1992), Wind induced external pressures on a tall building with various corner configurations, Jour. of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 41-44, pp. 2401-2412. Kawai, H. (1998), Effect of corner modifications on aeroelastic instabilities of tall buildings, Jour. of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 74-76, pp. 719-729. Kwok, K.C.S. (1988), Effect of building shape on wind-induced response of tall building, Jour. of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 28, pp. 381-390. Kwok, K.C.S., Wilhelm, P.A. and Wilkie, B.G. (1988), Effect of edge configuration on wind-induced response of tall buildings, Engineering Structures, 10, pp. 135-140. Miyashita, K., Katagiri, J., Nakamura, O., Ohkuma, T., Tamura, Y., Itoh, M. and Mimachi, T. (1993), Wind-induced response of high rise buildings, Jour. of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 50, pp. 319-328. Stathopoulos, T. (1985), Wind environmental conditions around tall buildings with chamfered corners, Jour. of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 21, pp. 71-87.
Estimation of Along-Wind Loads of a Tall Buildings by Equivalent Static Wind Load Method
K.R.C. Reddy
Associate Professor, CED KITS, Maharashtra, India; krcreddy22@rediffmail.com
AbstractThe oscillations of a building due to wind is mainly due to its gustiness and vortex shedding. Due to gustiness of wind, the tall buildings oscillates in along wind direction and due to vortex shedding it oscillates in the across wind direction. Most international codes and standards use the Gust loading factor (GLF) for assessing the dynamic along wind loads on tall structures. The estimation of along wind response with the help of gust factor approach is studied in the literature extensively. In this study wind analysis of a 200m reinforced concrete framed structure is taken up with a basic wind speed of 44 m/s which is assumed to be located in Nagpur region. For this, wind characteristics which include the basic wind speed, design wind speed, mean wind speed given by various expressions and design wind pressure are studied in detail. The force coefficient method and gust loading factor method to estimate the along-wind response a building is described. In the present study the peak base moment of the building of unit width has been estimated by multiplying the mean moment with gust loading factor. Then the equivalent static wind load components at various levels of the building have been evaluated from the base moment. Keywords: Wind loads, Gustiness, Gust loading factor, Along-wind response
INTRODUCTION
The prediction of response of a tall building to atmospheric wind is a complex problem. The validity of a simplified approach suited to a code, depends largely on the adequacy of the simplified assumptions on which it is found. Due to shortage of land and availability of advanced material, structures are now a day made tall. The design of tall structures is governed by wind loads which, in general has two main effects on the tall buildings, firstly it exerts forces and moments on the structure and its cladding. Secondly it distributes the air in and around the building mainly termed as wind pressure. It is randomly varying time dependent phenomenon having two aspects i.e. energy and load. It never flows at a uniform rate. When the undisturbed air flow approaches a building, it forces around and over the building which creates areas of pressure or suction on the building. Fifty years ago structures were, by present standards relatively massive. The massiveness of these structures did little to emphasize the importance of wind forces. The development of modern materials and construction techniques have resulted in the emerging of a new generation of structures that are remarkably flexible and light in weight. Such structures generally exhibit an increased susceptibility to the action of wind. Accordingly it has become necessary to develop tools enabling the designer to estimate wind effects with a higher degree of accuracy than were previously required. Wind consists of two components mean and fluctuating and is composed of multiple eddies of varying sizes and rotational characteristics. Effect of wind on tall building consists of along wind and across wind effect. Along wind effect occurs parallel to the direction of flow and is accompanied by gust whereas across wind effect occurs perpendicular to the direction of flow and is accompanied by vortex shedding. Along wind causes drag force on the building where as across wind causes lift force on the building. Here, tall buildings are referred as those buildings whose lateral dimension is more
than 5 or natural frequency of building in the first mode is less than 1 Hz. Often building having more than 10 stories is considered as a tall building. The oscillations of a structure is mainly due to gustiness of wind and vortex shedding. Due to gustiness of wind, the tall buildings oscillates in along wind direction and due to vortex shedding it oscillates in the across wind direction. Most international codes and standards utilize the Gust loading factor (GLF) for assessing the dynamic along wind loads and their effects on tall structures. The estimation of along wind response with the help of gust factor approach is studied by Davenport (1962, 1963) and has been subsequently modified by Vellozzi and Cohen(1968), Vickery and Kao (1972), Solari(1982) Menon and Rao (1998). In this study wind analysis of a 200m reinforced framed structure is taken up with a basic wind speed of 44 m/s. For this wind characteristics which include the basic wind speed, design wind speed, mean wind speed given by various expressions and design wind pressure are studied in details. Then the gust loading factor is discussed in detail and its application to estimate wind loads on a tall building is described.
WIND CHARACTERISTICS
In the formulation of the problem of wind loads on tall structures, it is required to study the characteristics of wind structure, which includes the basic wind speed, design and mean wind speed and design wind pressure. An overview of the description of these wind characteristics given in the literature are discussed here. In IS-875(Part-3)1984, it is given that the basic wind speed is based on peak gust velocity averaged over a short time interval of about 3 seconds and corresponds to mean heights above ground level in an open terrain (Category 2). The IS code gives basic wind speed map of India, as applicable to 10 m height above mean ground level for different zones of the country. Basic wind speeds presented in the table 3.1 have been worked out for a 50 year return period and shows basic wind speed for some important cities/ towns. As per Zhou et al (2002), the basic wind velocity in most codes and standards is based on wind measurements at 10 m height in an open terrain associated with different mean recurrence intervals and averaging times. The basic wind velocity is converted to the design reference wind velocity for a particular site by introducing the influence of local environment, directionality, mean recurrence interval, and significance factors associated with the planned structure as, V=V0.Cdirection. Cshield. Cimportance. Creturn (1) where V0 = basic mean wind velocity, Cdirection = directionality factor, Cshield = shielding factor, Cimportance = building importance factor and Creturn = a factor for adjusting wind mean recurrence interval. The basic wind speed (Vb) for any site shall be selected and shall be modified to include the effects of risk level, terrain roughness, height and size of structure and local topography, to obtain the design wind velocity (Vz) at any height for the chosen structure. It can be mathematically expressed as, Vz = Vb k1 k2 k3 (2) where Vz = design wind speed at any height z in m/s, k1 = probability factor (risk coefficient), k2 = terrain, height and structure size factor and k3 = topography factor. Design wind speed up to 10 m height from mean ground level shall be considered constant. Use of the existing theories of gust factor method requires knowledge of maximum wind speeds averaged over one hour at a particular location. As per IS-875(Part-3)1984, the variation of hourly mean wind speed with height is given by,
V z = Vb k 1 k 2 k 3
(3)
Estimation of Along-Wind Loads of A Tall Buildings by Equivalent Static Wind Load Method 341
where V z is the hourly mean wind speed in m/s, at height z, Vb is regional basic wind speed, k 2 is terrain and height factor. And as per the logarithmic law it is given by
Vz = u* z log e k z0
(4)
where k = von karman constant, u*= frictional velocity and z0 = roughness length. As per Power Law the variation of mean wind speed is given by,
z V z = V0 b 10
(5)
where V0 is basic wind speed specified, b is constant depending on terrain type equal to 1.0 in open flat country, z is height above ground level and is exponent change with the terrain roughness and height.
250 200 Height z in (m) 150 100 50 0 0 40 Design Wind Speed Vz in (m/s) 80 As Per IS 875 Logarithmic Law Zhou et al
Fig. 1: Mean Design Wind Speed Profiles
By keeping the same terrain category and class of structure design wind profiles are obtained by various methods and shown in Figure 1. From the profile it is found that logarithmic law is producing the results on the lower side where as the variation obtained by IS-875 code and power law are almost matching each other.
ALONG WIND LOADS ON TALL BUILDING

The international codes and standards provide guidelines and procedures for assessing the alongwind effects on tall structures and despite their common use of the gust loading factor (GLF) approach Zhou et al (2002). Considerable scatter exists among the wind effects predicted by the various codes and standards under similar flow conditions. It presented a comprehensive assessment of the source of this scatter through a comparison of the along-wind loads and their effects on tall buildings recommended by major international codes and standards. The comparisons consider the definition of wind characteristics, mean wind loads, GLF, equivalent static wind loads, and attendant wind load effects. It is noted that the scatter in the predicted wind loads and their effects arises primarily from the variations in the definition of wind field characteristics in the respective codes and standards.
Gust Load Factor

Gust is defined as a positive or negative departure of wind speed from its mean value, lasting for not more than, says, 2 minutes over a specified interval of time. Peak gust or peak gust speed is the wind speed associated with the maximum amplitude. The gust loading factor is defined as the ratio
between the peak fluctuating displacement response and the mean displacement response. Because the mean wind force and the mean responses are generally appreciated by the engineers, the wind induced peak dynamic displacement response can easily be obtained when the gust loading factor is available. The separation of wind loading into mean and fluctuating components is the basis of the so-called "gust-factor" approach, which is treated in many design codes. The mean load component is evaluated from the mean wind speed using pressure and load coefficients. Most international codes and standards utilize the gust loading factor (GLF) approach for assessing the dynamic along-wind loads and their effects on tall buildings. The concept of the GLF for civil engineering applications was first introduced by Davenport (1967). The peak equivalent static wind load (ESWL) on tall buildings provided in codes and standards is described by a product of the mean wind force and an appropriate amplification factor.
T P (z) = G P(z)
(6)
T = peak ESWL at height z during observation time T, usually one hour(1 h) or 10 where P ( z)
minutes (10 min); superscript
= averaging time used to evaluate the mean wind velocity; and
P = mean wind force with averaging t and G = Gust factor

= q C B P(z) (z) d
where Cd =drag force coefficient; B=width of the building normal to the oncoming wind; and (7)
q(z) =
1 V ( z2) =mean wind velocity pressure, 2

2
(8)
where =air density and V(z) =mean wind velocity evaluated at height z above ground. The gust factor G is given by
G = GT y /G q (T)
(9)
where G y =Gust Load Factor (GLF) for displacement

Gq (T ) = gust factor (GF) for wind velocity pressure.
The following GF is used to convert the mean wind-velocity pressure to an appropriate averaging period when the mean wind velocity or pressure with a shorter averaging time is used as an input in determining the mean wind load or response
Gq (T ) = q / q T
(10)
where q=wind velocity pressure. Following the current practice in the GLF approach, it can be evaluated by
T T GT y = Y( z ) / Y( z )
(11)
T and Y( T where Y z ) =peak and mean wind-induced displacement response, respectively. (z)
For the sake of completeness and quick reference, a general derivation of GLF based on displacement is expressed as
G y = 1 + g y ( z ) / Y( z )
where g= displacement peak factor taken as 4 and, =displacement peak factor in first mode taken as 0.01
(12)
Usually, the mean structural displacement Y in terms of the first mode mean displacement response is given by,
Y(z) = (
H
P1 ) 1 (z) k1
(13)
P1 = P(z)1 (z)dz
0
(14)
H= total height of building z=height at that point =mode shape exponent equal to unity Stiffness of the first mode is express as follows
k1 = (2f1 ) 2 m1
(15)
Mass of the first mode is given as
m = m ( z )12 ( z ) dz
1 0
(16)
where f1 = natural frequency of the first mode. m(z) = mass per unit height. The fundamental mode shape of a tall building can be approximated by
Application of Gust Loading Factor to Wind Load Effects

It is interesting that the equivalent static wind load (ESWL) obtained using the traditional (GLF) formulation in equation 6 does not represent the actual Equivalent static wind load (ESWL) acting on a tall building. The ESWL given in equation 6 can ensure the distribution of the mean wind load and accurate estimation of the first mode displacement; it may result in less reliable estimates of other wind effects. Hence it is necessary to express the traditional GLF It in terms of the base bending moment response. As outlined in a new GLF formulation by Zhou and Kareem (1999c, 2001), the actual peak base bending moment response can be estimated by
L = G M M y
(17)
where,
. .
=base bending moment under the mean wind load
= peak base bending moment response. M

The distribution of the ESWL components can be evaluated from the base bending moment following the procedure provided by Zhou and Kareem (2001), For example, the background ESWL component is given by
(z) = G P P B YB (z)
Where
(18)
G YB = g B r B
For the resonant ESWL component
(z) = P R
m(z)1 (z)
H
m(z) (z)zdz
1 0
M R
(19)
Where
1 (z) = (Z/H)
The procedure given by IS-875 seems to be satisfied method and the formulation given by Zhou et al (2002) for wind load effects on tall building is mainly based on Davenport approach.

To obtain the along wind loads, the mean wind velocity is evaluated using power law with basic wind speed of 44m/s and with power law exponent of 0.11. In this study the linear mode is considered. Density of the building per meter height (m1*) is adopted as 200kg/m3 and the other parameters are as follows. Height of building, H = 200 m Frequency of first mode, f1 = 0.2Hz Co-efficient of drag, Cd = 1.3 Basic wind velocity,Vb = 44 m/s Density of air, = 1.20kg/m3 Terrain factor, = 0.11 Mass of building per unit height, mz = 200kg/m
The results obtained for mean wind load, gust factor and peak wind load along the height of building at each 1m height and variation of mean load along the height of building is shown in Figure 2 and the variation of peak load is shown in Figure 3.
200
Height (m)
100
0 0 20000 Peak ESWL(kN/m) Fig. 2: Variation of Peak Wind Speed with the Height of Building 40000
200
Height (m)
100
0 0 20000 Mean ESWL(kN/m) 40000
Fig. 3: Variation of Mean Wind Speed with the Height of Building
It is observed that G.F is almost remains constant as 0.4 and gust displacement factor is found as 1.0. the mean wind load is varying and increasing along the height of building and is found maximum as 49,494 kN/m at the to of building and the peak wind is also varying parabolically along the height of building.
CONCLUSION
It has been recognized that in the case of modern tall structure which are more flexible lower in damping and lighter in weight than their predecessors, the natural frequencies of vibration may be in the same range as the average frequencies of occurrence of powerful gusts and that, therefore, large resonant motions induced by wind may occur, which must be taken into account in design. Davenport (1967) presented the procedure and formulation of dynamic gust factor. Structures that have performed inadequately or that have failed owing to lift and/or aerodynamic moment effects include slender towers and stacks, tall buildings, and suspended span bridges. Individual structural members, cables and power lines, may also be susceptible to aerodynamic, effects involving across wind and/ or torsional response. As it is found from the literature that the along wind loads on the tall buildings for various locations are estimated. To estimate wind load on a tall building in, the gust loading factor approach is used. To estimate wind load, a typical building of height 200m and of size 33 X 33m is taken. The detailed study of wind load on a tall building in the Nagpur region is taken up in this study. From this study following conclusions are drawn. By keeping the terrain category and class of structure same the design wind profile is obtained by various methods. From the profile it is found that logarithmic law is producing the result on the lower side whereas the results obtained by IS-875 code and power law are matching each other. With the assumed basic wind velocity the design wind velocity at the top of the building is obtained as 43.8m/s and the maximum gust loading factor is found as 1.0. The design wind pressure is noted as 1153 N/m2. The peak load that is obtained at the top of the building is noted as 49504 kN/m2.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] Baskaran, A., (1993). Wind Engineering Studies on Tall Building: Transitions in Research, Journal of Building and Environment, 28, 1-19. Davenport, A.G. (1967). Gust loading factors. J. of the structural Division, Proc. of the ASCE, 93(ST3),11-33. Devenport, A.G. (1962). The application of statistical concept to the wind loading of structures. Proc. of Institution of Civil Engineers, ASCE, 6480, 449-472. Devenport, A.G. (1963). The response of slender, line-like structures to a gusty wind. Proc. of Institution of Civil Engineers, ASCE, 6610, 389-408. Hajra, B., (2006). Along-wind response of tall buildings. M.Tech. Thesis submitted to VNIT Nagpur, 2006. nd IS 875 (Part 3): 1987. Code of Practice for Design Loads (Other than Earthquake) for Building and Structures. 2 revision, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1987. Zhou, Kijewski, T., Kareem, A. (2002). Along-Wind Load Effect on Tall Building: Comparative Study of Major International Codes and Standards, Journal of Structural Engineering, 128(6), 1-19. Zhou, Y., Xiang, H. (2000). Along-wind static Equivalent Wind Loads and Responses of Tall Buildings. Part I-Effects of Mode Shape, State Key Lab for Disaster Reduction in Civ. Engg., Depart of Bridge Eng., Tongi University, P.R. China, 1-8.
Construction of Large Shankh Shaped Ferrocement Structure: A Case Study

P.C. Sharma1, Rajeev Goel2, S.K. Singh3 and Suraj Parkash4
1Former
Head, Material Sciences Div, Structural Engineering Research Centre (G); premcshar@hotmail.com Scientist, CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi; rgoel67@gmail.com 3Principal Scientist, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee; sksingh_cbri@yahoo.co.in 4General Manager, National Highways Authority of India, New Delhi; suraj.crri@nic.in
2Principal
INTRODUCTION
Shree Manan Dham is a religious landmark on Delhi-Meerut road, Ghaziabad, UP. A concept of construction of large Shankh and domes has been envisaged on the top of the existing religious temple about 15 year back. Being unsymmetrical shape and on existing building, it is only possible with light weight durable materials, which can be moulded into any shape. Ferrocement is a form of reinforced concrete using closely spaced multiple layers of mesh and/ or small diameter rods completely infiltrated with, or encapsulated, in mortar. The most common type of reinforcement is steel mesh. Other materials such as selected organic, natural, or synthetic fibers may be combined with metallic mesh. The matrix of the ferrocement primarily consists of mortar made with Portland cement, water, and aggregate, with a sand to cement ratio of about 22.5 by weight, and water to cement ratio of about 0.40.6 by weight. A mineral admixture can also be used with cement for special type of applications. In addition, concrete usually exhibits signs of deterioration over the years in long-term performance owing to weak resistance offered by these materials to adverse environmental conditions Ferrocement can be used to address some of the above issues. Main advantage of ferrocement is that, it requires no formwork which allows great flexibility in fabrication. As the ferrocement contains steel (above 2.0%), it has the ability to sustain large deformations before cracking. Ferrocement is best suited for thin walled structures. Its main characteristic is the quantity and dispersion of the steel reinforcement. The closely spaced and uniformly distributed reinforcement turns the fragile cement mortar into a resistant composite, significantly different from the conventional reinforced concrete.[1-4]. Ferrocement is found best material for constrction of Shankh. Accordingly large Shankh shaped ferrocement structure of 6.4 m height and many other ferrocement structures have been constructed. This Shankh shaped ferrocement structure is hollow from inside, freely standing with its opening at the top of temple, at a height about 24 m from ground level. Other ferrocement structures constructed in the campus are domes, temple shikhers, walls and domes for assembly hall and staircases. This paper describes the adopted methodology for analysis& design, construction, selection of material; structural system etc. for this structure.
METHODOLOGY
Shankh has been constructed with ferrocement on top of the temple about 24 m. The approximately Shankh is about 6.4 m in height and 4.0 m wide. Fig. 1 shows the front elevation of Shree Manan Dham Temple at Ghaziabad. This Fig. also elaborately depicting the location of ferrocement Shankh and three other dome. The methodology adopted for construction of the Shankh over an existing RCC structure has been given below: Selection of a natural Shankh shell of 250 mm height Establishing geometry of natural Shankh including different shape coordinates along 16 axis Development of a 1 m high model in gypsum to establish geometry & modification in shape
Enlargement of coordinates in proportion for 6.4 m prototype Analysis of structure using finite element package Cosmos/M
Fig. 1: Front Elevation of Shree Manan Dham, Ghaziabad
Design of ferrocement and its thickness, reinforcement etc. Supporting structure, connections , mix for ferrocement Establishing construction sequence and methodology Fabrication and assembly of components of steel and supporting structure Design and fixing of micro-trusses Construction of connecting rings between micro-trusses and connector bars Fixing of skeletal steel & wire meshes Mortaring Compaction Finishing
For establishing of geometry of the natural Shankh, a digital camera and a rotating table have been used for taking photographs of the Shankh along 16 axes (Fig. 2). The photographs (Fig. 3) were then enlarged to actual Shankh size and coordinates were measured at regular interval of height (Fig. 4). These coordinates has been used to construct a 1 m high Shankh model, prepared with Plaster of Paris (Fig. 5), to establish geometry and its correctness of the approach for creation of the Shankh shape. The final coordinates of the Shankh prototype are computed and given in Table 1.
Construction of Large Shankh Shaped Ferrocement Structure: A Case Study 349
a) Axis Marked on Plan
b) Shankh Placed on Rotating Table
Fig. 2: Assessment of Geometry of Shankh Along 16 Equal Parts
Fig. 3: Photographs of Natural Shankh at Different Axis
Fig. 4: Generation of Geometry of Shankh
Fig. 5: Model of Shankh, 1.0m High, Made Using Plaster of Paris
SELECTION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

Different option for the construction of Shankh has been considered and examined for constructing the structure. These are as under: Reinforced cement concrete Fiber reinforcement concrete Fiber reinforcement plastic Metal sheeting Ferrocement
After performing several studies and discussions regarding durability, load, wind effect, the ferrocement has been selected due following reasons: Aesthetics Cost effectiveness, Lesser construction time, Total elimination of form work, Ease in fabrication and construction Improved finish, Durability of construction, and Lighter weight as compared to RCC
STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
Structural system for construction of the Shankh is shown in Fig. 6. It consists of steel pipes and steel rods to make the shape of the Shankh and to support the ferrocement.. Fig. 7 shows the typical forces on various nodes of the Shankh due to dead load and wind load.
Table-1 Coordinates of the Shankh

Axis LEVEL 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
200 257 360 445 610 779 1189 1490 1700 1851 1943 1995 2030 2010 1950 1755 1260 1120 822 760 465
200 283 385 455 640 809 1197 1500 1670 1775 1850 1890 1930 1920 1800 1720 1190 1068 797 695 465
220 310 400 480 685 893 1227 1460 1640 1760 1829 1880 1910 1845 1835 1640 1165 1058 741 635 465
220 300 402 475 655 971 1303 1495 1625 1702 1754 1780 1880 1866 1766 1610 1200 1050 672 590 465
200 & 200 & 560 444 224 & 220 & 574 464 339 & 267 & 690 541 425 & 320 & 820 645 510 & 380 & 945 770 570 & 450 & 1300 916 555 & 530 & 1664 1115 550 & 655 & 1880 1320 655 & 715 & 2075 1515 766 & 939 & 2190 1640 912 & 1230 & 2260 1710 1080 & 1515 & 2210 1870 1285 & 1900 2210 1545 & 1930 2192 1643 & 1930 2102 1595 & 1830 1845 1365 1800 & 1580 1203 1234 863 901 570 585 465 465
200 445 525 605 700 820 1008 1180 1355 1533 1687 1765 1800 1870 1870 1845 1740 1194 1014 630 465
200 305 435 580 680 806 919 1105 1320 1448 1583 1690 1790 1990 2000 1872 1752 1337 1024 666 465
200 295 445 565 660 825 957 1075 1295 1527 1693 1790 1860 1890 1950 1900 1708 1244 1083 690 465
200 325 437 550 645 751 890 1075 1290 1368 1624 1795 1870 1900 1900 1915 1700 1290 1104 690 465
200 335 455 540 635 700 848 1090 1290 1528 1655 1780 1855 1889 1947 1875 1685 1250 1124 690 465
200 345 435 510 615 685 855 1090 1300 1460 1610 1720 1790 1860 1875 1835 1610 1211 1068 690 465
200 225 310 460 570 718 857 1080 1305 1519 1680 1760 1840 1876 1858 1805 1495 1243 1093 690 465
200 228 303 430 550 690 810 1125 1365 1640 1838 1990 2045 2065 1935 1780 1345 1240 900 700 465
200 230 295 420 545 702 855 1235 1480 1706 1866 1965 2005 2007 1932 1830 1380 1266 1044 740 465
200 240 350 430 565 741 1008 1350 1600 1795 1933 2025 2055 2050 1988 1848 1430 1295 1065 770 465
Fig. 6: Typical Structural System
Fig. 7: Forces Due to Dead & Wind Load
The Shankh has been modeled and analyzed using finite element COSMOS/M software. Fig. 8 shows modeling views. Dead load and wind load are considered in the analysis and design of the Shankh. The thickness of ferrocement layer for Shankh at various elevations is as given below: 40mm 30mm 25mm from 0.0m to 2.0m, starting from point of rise from 2.0m to 4.4m from 4.4m to 6.4m
Fig. 8: Finite Element Analysis of Shankh/ Supporting Structure using Cosmos/ M
The details of steel reinforcement provided in the ferrocement layer is given below: 10 mm dia bars at 100mm c/c both ways Hot dip galvanised annealed square woven mesh Four layers of 1.2 mm dia wire woven at 10x10mm spacing in bottom portion of the structure Four layers of 1.2mm dia wire woven at 12.x12.5mm spacing in middle and top portions
MIX PROPORTIONING OF MORTAR MATRIX

Ferrocement mix has proportioned to achieve characteristic strength of mortar as 30 MPa. The smix used in construction has been given below: Ordinary Portland cement Graded sand medium coarse sieved crusher dust River sand Silica fumes Water cement ratio : : : : : 1 part by weight 0.8 part by weight 1.2 part by weight 5% of wt. of cement 0.40
Pore sealing + Plasticizing + Bond improving admixtures are also used
FINAL FINISHING
Finishing of the surface was done using white cement putty, reinforced with fibres. This finished surface was then coated with Solar + ultravoilet ray resistant transparent PU coating. Fig. 9 to Fig. 15 shows the various stages of the construction of the Shankh by ferrocement. Fig. 16 to Fig. 19 shows the construction of other ferrocement structures in the same complex.
CONCLUSION
The construction of Shankh and other structures by ferrocement has been completed in second half of year 2000. These structures have already faced 26th January, 2001 earthquake and wind storm, 70 kmph without any damage to it. The performance has been found excellent.
a) Drilling in Concrete
b) Opening in RCC Slab
c) Steel Column with Roof Beam
Fig. 9: Placing and Fixing New Steel Column with Roof Beam
Fig. 10: Fabrication of Pipe Support for Shankh
Fig. 11: Structural System for Pipe Support
Fig. 12: Shankh under-construction
Fig. 13: Shankh and Central Dome
Fig. 14: Construction of Shankh by Ferrocement
Fig. 15: View of Completed Shankh
Fig. 16: Construction of Ferrocement Dome
Fig. 17: View of Completed Dome
Fig. 18: Domes Using Precast FC Plates
Fig. 19: Ferrocement Dome and Wall
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] Sharma, P. C. and Kumar, G. V. S. (1976) An investigation of the ultimate and first crack strengths of ferrocement in flexure Indian concrete Journal, Nov. issue. Singh, S. K. 91994) Performance of concrete ferrocement composite beams, M. Tech. Dissertation, IIT Roorkee. ACI Committee 549 (2009) Guide for the design, construction, and repair of ferro-cement ACI Structural Journal, 85(3), 32551. Kondraivendhan, B. and Pradhan, B. (2009), Effect of ferrocement confinement on behaviour of concrete, Construction and Building Materials, 23,12181222. Shannag, M.J and Mourad, S. M.(2012),Flowable high strength cementitious matrices for Ferro-cement applications, Construction and Building Materials, 36, 933939. Moita, G.F., Casas, E. B. L., Carrasco, E. V. M and Bonifacio, S. N.(2003), Experimental and numerical analysis of large ferro-cement water tanks, Cement & Concrete Composites, 25, 243251. Kaish, A. B. M. A., Alam, M.R.,Jamil, Zain, M. F. M and Wahed, M. A.(2012), Improved ferrocement jacketing for restrengthening of square RC short column, Construction and Building Materials, 36, 228237.
Section E Design and Construction for Extreme Loads
Behaviour of Hybrid Fibre Reinforced Concrete Exposed to Fire

S.K. Singh1, M.M. Dalbehera2 and S.K. Bhattacharyya3
1Principal 2M.Tech
Scientist, CSIR, Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India; sksingh_cbri@yahoo.co.in Student, AcSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India; mickey2049@gmail.com 3Director, CSIR, Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India; director@cbri.in
AbstractConcrete is a relatively brittle material with a low strain capacity and develops micro cracks even during curing and initial stages of strength development, which may lead to reduced service life. Reinforcing concrete with randomly distributed short fibres delays the initiation and propagation of cracks by improving its mechanical properties. Adding randomly discrete fibres of one type into the concrete improves the mechanical properties to a certain extent only but not the whole level. Reinforcing concrete with two or more different types of fibres by using hybridization concept, more attractive engineering properties has been achieved. However, the behaviour of hybrid fibre reinforced concrete at elevated temperature is less studied. The present study aims at understanding the performance of hybrid fibre reinforced concrete (HyFRC) exposed to elevated temperature. The hooked end steel fibre and monofilament polypropylene fibre in combination have been used at 1.00%, 1.25% and 1.50% of fibre dosages by volume fraction of concrete. In the study, each fibre dosages, the two fibres were mixed with three different ratios i.e. 30-70%, 25-75% and 20-80% of polypropylene and steel fibre respectively. The experimental investigation consists of casting hundreds of cube, cylinder and prismatic specimen in M30 grade concrete with mono and hybrid fibres. It is found that in terms of overall residual strength, after exposed to fire, hybrid fibre reinforced concrete specimens performed better than the rest of the mixes. The PP fibre and hybrid fibre reinforced concrete performed better than the control specimens. The weight loss due fire exposure for PP fibre and HyFRC has found about 5% whereas the weight loss for control specimens has been about 6.23%. The weight loss of steel fibre reinforced concrete have been found more prominent and in order of 910%. The reduction in compressive strength of control specimens is 31.27% whereas in PP and steel fibres based concretes, this reduction has been observed in order of 20.20 to 24.81% and about 30% respectively. The reduction in compressive strength of HyFRC specimen is found only to 17.4% for volume fraction of 1.25%. Keywords: HFRC, polypropylene fibre, hybrid fibre, residual strength behaviour, elevated temperature
INTRODUCTION
Fire represents one of the most severe hazard to which structures may be subjected during their service life and hence the provision of appropriate measures of fire resistance is an important aspect of building design. Fire safety design can be achieved through active and passive fire protection measures. Active systems generally get self-activated once the fire is triggered and that include fire detectors, smoke control systems, and sprinklers. Passive systems are built into the structure, and do not require specific operation to control the fire. The need for passive fire protection systems or what is commonly referred to as fire resistance can be attributed to the fact that structural integrity is the last thing that can protect life and property when all other measures provided for the fire fail. In general, concrete is considered to be a non-combustible material which performs very well when exposed to fire. However, due to heterogeneous nature of concrete, each material present in it interacts differently with fire; hence the properties of concrete as whole may change radically when exposed to fire. The effects are dehydration of cement paste, increase in porosity, thermal expansion, thermal creep, spalling and reduction in its mechanical properties [1-4]. Concrete contains considerable amount of water in the form of free, and physically and chemically bound water, which depends on water to cement ratio, curing conditions etc. According to
Avogadro's law and Charles's law, if the density of water is taken as 1 g/cm3, 1 cm3 of water at 20 C will expand to 1579 cm3 of gas at 100C. Such an expansion increases the pore pressure in concrete when exposed to fire load. To deal with the change in volume there must be exit some mechanism to expel out excessive pressure. Bentz [5] has reported that big porous zones in normal strength concrete can be obtained by thick interfacial transition zones (ITZs) in which percolation from top to bottom can be achieved. Bentz [5] also proposed that if the capillary porosity in the individual ITZs remains percolated and the ITZs themselves are percolated, a convenient escape route for the vapour generated during fire exposure may exit. It can be said that the level of concrete permeability is governed by the porosities of ITZs. The breakdown of the ITZs reduces the solidity of the concrete and helps in dissipating excessive vapour pressure developed within it. In addition, nowadays, high performance & self compacting concrete is preferred over the normal strength concrete because of ease in placing & high durability. However, with increasing compressive strength, the brittleness of concrete also increases, resulting to explosive spalling at elevated temperature. This causes severe damages to structural elements often exposing reinforcing steel and sometimes it led to collapse of structures. The above mentioned problem can be overcome to a certain extent by incorporating various types of fibres in combination into the concrete matrix. The hybridisation of steel and polypropylene fibres has attracted most attention because high modulus steel fibre helps in bridging the propagation of cracks whereas polypropylene fibre provides outstanding post cracking toughness to concrete. Therefore, hybrid combinations of these fibres offer potential advantages in improving concrete properties [6-8]. Hybridisation of nylon-polypropylene fibre has also been tried by researchers for mitigation of cracks in concrete at elevated temperature [9-11]. The addition of fibers in concrete has been found beneficial in retaining its residual strength and protecting spalling effectively. This depends on the ability of the fiber incorporated in concrete to create connectivity between the pores after melting at elevated temperature [11]. The concept of hybridization of fibers has significant potential. Fibre cocktail reinforced concrete exhibits a enhanced mechanical properties and improved member integrity after exposure to high temperature [12]. From the available literature, it has also been seen that use of hybrid fibres exclusively increase the post-peak resistance resulting to increase in ductility [13]. The multiple cracking type of failure also observed with increasing hybrid fibres content [14]. Almost all the studies referred to date focused on mechanical properties of different combination of various types of fibres in the laboratory scale. Further, very limited studies on fire behavior of HyFRC have been carried out. Also, the optimization of hybrid fibre dosages has not been carried out for different types of fibres. No study on full scale structural element has been taken. Keeping in view of above aspects, the present studies has been undertaken. The present paper, deals in experimental investigations of properties of hybrid fibre reinforced concrete exposed standard fire of 1 hour duration.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES Material Used

The cement used in all mixtures is commercially available Portland cement (PC), conforming to IS 8112 [15] corresponding to OPC 43 grade cement. It has a consistency of 30% and Blaine fineness of 355m2/kg. River sand with a specific gravity of 2.64 and fineness modulus of 2.34 has been used as the fine aggregate; while natural crushed coarse aggregate of specific gravity 2.69 has been used as coarse aggregate. Third generation carboxylic ether based super-plasticizer confirming to IS: 91031999 [16] has been used to obtain the desired workability. The fibres used in the study are hooked end steel fibre and monofilament polypropylene fibre. The properties of fibres are listed in Table 1.
Mix Proportioning
In this study, concrete of M 30 grade has been proportioned in accordance with the Indian standard IS: 10262-2009 [17]. A number of trial mixes are prepared and examined to arrive for the selection
Behaviour of Hybrid Fibre Reinforced Concrete Exposed to Fire 361
of appropriate proportion of different ingredients of concrete, fulfilling the desired objectives in terms of strength and workability. As the experimental investigation involved fibres of varying dimensions, cement quantity has been kept towards higher side to make concrete mix having sufficient paste for fibres
Table 1: Physical and Mechanical Properties of the Steel and Polypropylene Fibres
Properties Form Length (mm) Diameter (mm) Aspect ratio (l/d) Specific gravity Tensile strength (MPa) Elastic modulus (GPa) Failure strain (%) Steel Fibre Hooked End 50.0 1.00 50.0 7.85 1140 2.10 3.80 Polypropylene Fibre Monofilament 54.0 0.34 158.8 0.91 7.80 0.68 19.1
In this study, apart from control mix, 21 concrete mixes of fibre reinforced concrete and hybrid fibre reinforced concrete have been studied. A total 3 nos of mixes incorporating polypropylene fibre with volume fraction of 0.20%, 0.25% and 0.30% has been studied. Similarly a total of 9 mixes incorporating both steel and polypropylene fibres in combination has been carried at volume fraction of 1.00%, 1.25% and 1.50% . The hybridisation of polypropylene and steel fibres have been made in three different mix proportions of 30-70%, 25-75%, 20-80% for each fibre hybrid volume fraction. Accordingly, steel fibres at volume fraction of 0.70%, 0.75%, 0.80%, 0.95%, 1.00%, 1.05%, 1.20%, 1.25%, and 1.30% has been studied to assess synergistic effect. The detailed mix proportion for control specimens are presented in Table 2, while the volume fractions of various types of fibres used in the mix are given in Table 3.
Table 2: Concrete Mixture Proportions Used in the Study
Cement (kg/m3) 420 Fine Aggregate (kg/m3) 690 Coarse Aggregate (kg/m3) 10 mm 20 mm 718 474 Water (kg/m3) 176.40 Super Plasticizer Dosage (kg/m3) 1.68
Table 3: Dosage of Different Fibre Combinations Used in the Study

Mixture ID Volume Fraction of Steel Fibre (%) 0 ------0.70 0.75 0.80 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.20 1.25 1.30 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.20 0.25 0.30 Volume Fraction of PP Fibre (%) 0 0.20 0.25 0.30 ------------------0.80 0.75 0.70 1.05 1.00 0.95 1.30 1.25 1.20 Fibre Dosage (kg/m3) S PP 0 0 --1.80 --2.25 --2.70 54.95 --58.87 --62.80 --74.57 --78.50 --82.42 --94.20 --98.12 --102.05 --62.80 1.80 58.87 2.25 54.95 2.70 82.42 1.80 78.50 2.25 74.57 2.70 102.05 1.80 98.12 2.25 94.2 2.70 Total Fibre Dosage (kg/m3) 0 1.80 2.25 2.70 54.95 58.87 62.80 74.57 78.50 82.42 94.20 98.12 102.05 64.60 61.12 57.65 84.22 80.75 77.27 103.85 100.37 96.90
C PP(0.20) PP(0.25) PP(0.30) SF(0.70) SF(0.75) SF(0.80) SF(0.95) SF(1.00) SF(1.05) SF(1.20) SF(1.25) SF(1.30) H(0.20+0.80). H(0.25+0.75) H(0.30 +0.70) H(0.20+1.05) H(0.25+1.00) H(0.30 +0.95) H(0.20+1.30) H(0.25+1.25) H(0.30+1.20)
Mixing and Casting Details

Fibre reinforced concrete mixes usually contain higher cement content and higher ratios of fine to coarse aggregate than ordinary concrete. It has been observed that with an increase in fibre volume fraction, workability of the mixes decreased. In order to increase the workability of the mix, dosage of high range water reducing admixtures i.e super plasticizers are usually increased. In this study, rotating drum type of batch mixer is used for the mixing the concrete ingredients. Workability of the mix is determined using Vee-Bee consist-meter according to IS: 1199-1959 [18]. Before each batching the mixer was cleaned and washed with fresh water, in order to ensure that, there is no chemical agent or foreign particle present in it. While making the concrete mix, first fine and part of coarse aggregate are poured into the mixer and mixed for 1 minute. Thereafter cement is added to the mixture along with balance coarse aggregate. After adding all the dry materials, the mixture has been rotated for one minute and then super-plasticizer mixed water (about part) has been added to mix, and the mixture is rotated for about 90 more seconds. When it is observed that the mix has become homogenous, fibres were added manually and balance water was added to the concrete mix. The final mixing is carried out for 2-3 minutes depending upon the dosage of fibres. During this process the mixture is critically observed in order to see whether any balling effect is taking place inside the mixture or not. Sufficient numbers of rotation were given to ensure the proper mixing of all the ingredients. The specimens are cast using standard size moulds as per IS-10086:1982 [19] specifications. The interior surface of the assembled mould is thinly coated with mould oil to prevent adhesion of the concrete, with mould surface. The test specimens are cast as soon as mix is taken out from the mixer. After checking the workability of the mix, the fresh concrete is poured into the moulds. The compaction was given to the mix by a vibrating table. The concrete was allowed to slide from the top edge of the mould during placing to ensure a symmetrical distribution of the concrete within the mould. Concrete has been placed in three layers and each layer has been vibrated at about 8 to 10 seconds to ensure good compaction of concrete inside the moulds. The HyFRC mixes usually took more time in vibration when fibre dosages are higher. The cast specimens are finished one hour after casting of the specimens. 24 hours after the casting, the samples were de-moulded and marked before immersing the specimen in the curing tank for water curing. The following specimens were prepared: i. ii. iii. 150 x150 x 150mm cubes for compressive strength as per IS 516-1999 [20] 150 x 300 mm cylinders for split tensile strength as per IS 5816-1999 [21] 100 x 100 x500 mm prism specimens for flexural tests per IS 516-1999[20]
Three specimens of each type (Before and after fire exposure) of 22 mixes are tested for compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strength. The average of these tests values are taken for discussion.
Experimental Investigation
In this study, concrete specimens are exposed to the 1 hour standard furnace fire temperature in controlled environment (as per ISO 834) as shown in the Fig.1. The specimens are cured for 90days in curing tank before fire exposure. The weights of specimens have been taken in surface saturated dry condition before keeping them into furnace to assess the mass loss due to elevated temperature. The ultrasonic pulse velocity tests are also carried out on specimens before and after fire exposure. The specimens were placed inside the furnace as per the plan shown in the Fig.2 in order to recognise the samples correctly after the fire load and to avoid direct exposure to fire of any furnace burners. The temperatures inside the furnace are monitored precisely with the help of four thermo couples installed in four walls of the furnace and recorded as shown in the Fig.3 [23]. The specimens are
allowed to cool in natural environment after fire exposure by removing part of roof top enclosure of the furnace. The temperatures of cooling phase of the furnace are also recorded up to about 3 hrs after closing the furnace burners. When the temperature, inside the furnace drops down to room temperature about 24 hours after fire exposure, the door of the furnace is opened and visual observations of the specimens are carried out. The views of specimens in furnace just before fire exposure, initiation of fire exposure and after fire exposure are shown in Fig.4, 5 and 6 respectively.
STANDARD FIRE SCENARIO FOR BUILDINGS (ISO 834 OR BS476) 1200 1000 1029 822 800 659 600 400 200 0 0 30 60 90
Time (Minutes)
1090
Furnace Temperature C
925
718
556 482
120
150
180
Fig. 1: Standard Heating Curve (ISO 834) [22]
Fig. 2: Plan View of Furnace with Specimens
1000 900 800 Heating Phase Cooling Phase
Temperature (C)
700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time( minutes)
Fig. 3: Av. Temperature-time Curve of Furnace during Heating and Cooling Phase
Fig. 4: Specimens in Furnace before Fire Exposure
Fig. 5: Start of Fire Inside the Furnace (Start of Burner)
Fig. 6: Concrete Specimens after Fire Exposure
The specimens are taken out from the furnace carefully and their weights are noted down. Residual mechanical properties of all the specimens like, residual compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strength, and weight loss are determined. The testing of control specimens after 90 days curing are also carried out to compare the results. To ascertain the degree of damage that the concrete specimens have suffered, ultra sonic pulse velocity tests have been carried out on the fire exposed specimens.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Properties of Fresh Concrete

Balling effect of fibres has not been observed in steel, polypropylene and hybrid fibre reinforced concrete during mixing. Stiff mix has been observed at volume fraction of 1.5% for HyFRC (Steel1.3% + PP-0.2%). The addition of steel fibres in concrete has showed adverse effect on its workability at higher volume fraction. The effects are more prominent as fibre volume fraction increased to 1.25% & 1.30%. The addition of PP fibre has no detrimental effect on workability till 0.25% volume fraction afterwards with further addition of fibres, the workability decreases. The slump and VB time of are 85 mm and 3.5 seconds for control specimens whereas for 0 mm and 15.5 seconds HyFRC of 1.25% volume fraction(1.05 steel+ 0.20 PP). The reduction in slump is prominent which is about 75% with addition of steel fibres of volume fraction of 0.70% only. It is because of fibres do not allow to roll the concrete to give slump vale. Therefore, VB test is best measure in case of fibre concrete. The VB time is 5.1 seconds even though PP fibres are added to 0.30% of volume fraction shows PP fibres has less effect in decreasing workability of concrete as compared to steel fibres.
Strength Properties
It is found that the addition of PP fibre in concrete have no significant effect on compressive strength. The dosages of PP fibre of 0.30 % volume fraction give maximum increase in compressive strength over the control specimens by 3.74% only. The maximum increase in split and flexural strength are found at fibre dosages of 0.25 % by 23.3% and 24.4% respectively over the control specimen. The PP dosage of 0.25% by volume fraction has been found to be optimal for PP fibres in present study. The effect of steel fibre on compressive strength of concrete is more pronounced at 1.3% volume fraction, and increases by 19.74%. The modulus of rupture and split tensile strength is observed maximum at fibre volume fraction of 1.05%. In the hybrid fibre reinforced concrete, the mix containing fibre dosages of 1.50% (steel 1.25%, PP of 0.20%) has showed maximum density of 2584 kg/m3. The maximum compressive strength has been observed at 1.25% (steel 1% + PP 0.25%)
volume fraction, with enhancement of 36.01% over the control specimen. Split tensile strength and modulus of rupture are found to be increased by 96.30% and 70.51% respectively at 1.25 % volume fraction. In hybrid fibre reinforced concrete group, fibre dosages of 1.25% (steel- 1%, PP-0.25%) is found to give optimal results. The graphical representation of compressive strength results has been shown in Fig. 7.
49.5 Compressive Strength(MPa) 49
Compressive Strength(MPa) CONTROL 0.2 0.25 PP fibre (% Vf) 0.3
59 57 55 53 51 49 47 45
48.5 48
47.5 47
46.5 46
45.5 45
Steel fibre(% Vf)
Fig. 7(a): Compressive Strength of PP Fibre
Fig. 7(b): Compressive Strength for Steel Fibre Based Concrete
70 Compressive Strength(MPa) 65 60 55 50 45
Hybrid fibre(% Vf)
Fig. 7(c): Compressive Strength for Hybrid Fibre Based Concrete
Residual Behaviour at Elevated Temperature

The addition of fibres in concrete improves its mechanical properties. The several papers [6-9] by different authors established that concrete stability is improved by incorporating polypropylene fibre in concrete. Since PP fibres melt at temperature of 160-175 C resulting into expansion channel helps in reduced spalling. IT was found that PP fibre and hybrid fibre reinforced concrete has performed better than the control specimens at elevated temperature.
Visual Observation
The specimens exposed to 1 hour standard furnace fire are thoroughly examined visually after 24 hours and observed that the colour of control specimens have been changed to whitish from grey colour. One of the possible reasons for the change in colour may be due to hydration of cement paste, which might have occurred when plain concrete samples are exposed to high temperature. As
the tests are carried out over M30 grade of concrete which is a normal strength concrete, spalling was not observed. This may be because of the fact that normal strength concrete have high porosity (912%)[25], which gives concrete to adjust the pore pressure developed inside it during the fire exposure. Though some control specimens (cubes) has lost their regular shape by deforming at the corners. The surface cracks are also observed as shown in Fig. 8. PP fibre based concrete has not shown any type of deformed shape. The surface of the concrete specimens looks porous in nature when observed through a magnifying lens. Melting of PP fbres present on the surface of the concrete specimens could be seen clearly. The colour of PP fibre based concrete are observed little darkishwhite colour due to melting & burning of PP fibres. More cracks of fine nature are observed on the surface of concrete specimen as shown in Fig. 9. In case of steel fibre based concrete, the surface has a definite type of cracking pattern, which give an idea how dense the concrete are made. When exposed to high temperature, the colour of steel fibre is observed to change to whitish colour, having significant cracking on the surface as shown in Fig. 10. As the surface cracking pattern observed was uniform in nature, which shows that the steel fibres are well distributed in the concrete specimen. Some specimens lost the regular shape at the corners. The fire exposed hybrid fibre reinforced specimens have no deformation in shape (at the corner). The cracks present in the specimens are interconnected among each other. The colour of hybrid fibre reinforced concrete are observed little darkish due to presence of PP fibre as shown in Fig.11. The concrete has showed cracking without spalling due to presence of PP fibres.
Spalling Phenomenon
There is no visible explosive spalling has been observed in specimens of different groups exposed to fire. The only small spalling has been observed in few specimens of steel fibres, probably due to lesser permeability and non availability of passage of vapour pressure.
Weight Loss
The weight loss due to fire exposure for PP and HyFRC is about 5% whereas this is 6.23% for control specimens. The reason for decrease in weight loss is probably due to creation of channels after melting of PP fibre in concrete, when exposed to fire. The weight loss in steel fibre reinforced concrete is more prominent and found in order of 9-10%.
Residual Strength
The reduction in compressive strength of control specimens is 31.27% whereas these reductions in PP fibres based concretes is in orders of 20.20 to 24.81%. The reduction in compressive strength of steel fibres is about 30% whereas for HyFRC specimen it has been found only 17.4% for volume fraction of 1.25%. The HyFRC has better compressive strength due to synergistic effects of two fibres at elevated temperature. The flexural compressive strength of control specimens has been reduced from 5.34 to 0.58 MPa which about only 10% of original value. This effect has been mitigated effectively in Steel and HyFRC, where flexural strength reduction are less than 50% except for a few specimens which are closed burner. Similar trend has been observed for splitting tensile strength.
Ultra-sonic Pulse Velocity Test

The ultra sonic pulse velocity (UPV) test has been carried out on the specimens before and fire exposure. The UPV results for PP fibre based concrete indicate that the velocities values are reduced drastically and found in order of 1.29-1.75 km/sec, which implies that concrete has become porous and poor concrete as per IS 13311 Pt I [24]. This is because of presence of excess voids in concrete due to melting of PP fibres. The UPV values for steel fibre are better probably due to effective bridging of cracks in concrete. The decrease in results of steel fibre for volume fraction of 1.20 to 1.30 was due to excessive cracking in specimens which are nearly in front burners.
Fig. 8: Fire Exposed Surface of Control Samples
Fig. 9: Fire Exposed Surface of PP Fibre (Vf-0.2)
Fig. 10: Fire Exposed Surface of Steel Fibre Based Concrete (Vf1%)
Fig. 11: Fire Exposed Surface of HyFRC Based Concrete (Vf1.25%)
The percentage variation in Compressive, flexural, UPV values, weight loss after fire exposed specimens as compared to their corresponding fire unexposed specimens has been shown graphically in the Fig. 12,13 and 14 for PP, steel and hybrid fibre based concrete respectively.
CONCLUSION
Followings are conclusion drawn from the present study: 1. Hybrid fibres when used in the concrete at relative higher volume fraction (1.5%) produces a stiff mix, (increased in vee bee time by 90%), however, it can be placed by giving proper vibration and compaction. 2. The addition of PP fibres in concrete does not have any significant effect on the compressive strength. Fibre dosage of 0.30% by volume fraction gives maximum enhancement in compressive strength over the control specimens by 3.74% only. Split and flexural strength are found to be increased by 23.3% and 24.4% respectively over the control specimen for 0.25% volume fraction.
3. The effect of steel fibre on compressive strength of concrete is more pronounced at 1.3% volume fraction, while split tensile and flexural strength are observed to be maximum at fibre volume fraction of 1.05%. The increase in compressive strength is 20.94% at volume fraction of 1.30%, whereas the increase in split tensile and flexural strength are observed to be 92.5% & 64.74% respectively at volume fraction of 1.05%. 4. In the hybrid fibre reinforced concrete, the maximum compressive strength is observed at 1.25% (steel 1% + PP 0.25%) volume fraction, which shows enhancement of 36.01% over the control specimen. Split tensile and flexural strength are found to be increased by 96.30% and 70.51% respectively at the same volume fraction. 5. The weight loss of PP and hybrid fibre based concrete has about 5% whereas as this is about 6.23% for control specimens. The weight loss in steel fibre reinforced concrete is more prominent and is about 9-10%. 6. The average UPV results of control, PP, steel and hybrid fire reinforced concrete reduced to 2.09, 1.02, 2.50 and 2.55 km/sec. The drastic reduction in UPV value of PP fibre based because of excessive voids due to melting of PP fires. 7. The reduction compressive strength of control specimens is 31.27% whereas in PP and steel fibres based concretes, this reduction has been observed in order of 20.20 to 24.81% and about 30% respectively. 8. The reduction in compressive strength of HyFRC specimen is found only to 17.4% for volume fraction of 1.25%. This is because of synergy effects of both the fibres. The PP fibre helps in decapitation of pore pressure by making channels and steel fibre helps in retaining the integrity of the concrete. It is evident from the results obtained in the experimental investigations that the strength enhancement was more than the individual fibres when used alone for the same volume fraction. Further, the synergistic effect of the two fibres when used simultaneously in the concrete mix can be visible in before and after fire exposure.
100 90 80 70 % Variation 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0.2 CONTR OL PP fibre(% Vf) 0.25 0.3 Weight loss Reduction in UPV Values Reduction in Flexural Strength Reduction in Compressive Strength
Fig. 12: % Variation in PP Fibre Reinforced Concrete after Fire Exposure
370 Twenty-eighth NCCE & National Seminar on Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development 100 90 80 70 % Variation 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 CONTROL SF (0.70) SF (0.75) SF (0.80) SF (0.95) SF (1.00) SF (1.05) SF (1.20) SF (1.25) SF (1.30)
Weight Loss Reduction in UPV Value Reduction in Flexural Strength Reduction in Compressive Strength
Steel fibre(% Vf)
Fig. 13: % Variation in Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete after Fire Exposure
100 90 80 70 60 50 % Variation 40 30 20 10 0 Weight Loss Reduction in UPV Value Reduction in Flexural Strength Reduction in Compressive Strength
Hybrid fibre(% Vf)
Fig. 14: % Variation in Hybrid Fibre Reinforced Concrete after Fire Exposure
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Director, CSIR-CBRI, Roorkee for granting permission to publish the paper.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] Khoury G.A., (2000) Effect of fire on concrete and concrete structures, Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials, 2(4), 429-447. Handoo, S.K.; Agarwal, S. and Agarwal, S.K. (2002) Physicochemical, mineralogical, and morphological characteristics of concrete exposed to elevated temperatures, Cement and Concrete Research, 32, 10091018. Drysdale, D. D. (2002), An Introduction to Fire Dynamics, John Wiley & Sons (2nd edition). Fletcher, Ian A.; Welch, Stephen; Torero, Jos L.; Carvel, Richard O. and Usmani, Asif (2007) The Behaviour of Concrete Structures In Fire BRE Research publication (TsJ07), 1-16. Bentz, D. P. (2000), Fibres percolation and spalling of high-performance concrete, ACI Material Journal, 97, 351359. Chen, B. and Liu, J. (2004), Residual strength of hybrid-fibre-reinforced high-strength concrete after exposure to high temperatures, Cement and Concrete Research, 34, 10651069. Bangi, M.R. and Horiguchi, T. (2011), Pore pressure development in hybrid fibre-reinforced high strength concrete at elevated temperatures, Cement and Concrete Research, 41, 1150-1156. Pliya, P.; Beaucour, A. L. and Noumow. A. (2011), Contribution of cocktail of polypropylene and steel fibres in improving the behaviour of high strength concrete subjected to high temperature, Construction and Building Materials, 25, 1926 1934. Singh S. K. (2011), Polypropylene reinforced concrete An overview, New Building Materials & Construction World, 17 (6), 200-210. Song, P. S.; Hwang, S. and Sheu, B. C.(2005), Strength properties of nylon and polypropylene fibre- reinforced concretes, Cement and Concrete Research, 35, 1546-1550. Lee, G.; Han, D.; Han, M.C.; Han, C. G. and Son, H. G. (2012), Combining polypropylene and nylon fibres to optimize fibre addition for spalling protection of high-strength concrete, Construction and Building Materials, 34, 313320. Ding, Y., Azevedo, C., Aguiar, A. J. and Jalali, S. (2012), Study on residual behaviour and flexural toughness of fibre cocktail reinforced self compacting high performance concrete after exposure to high temperature, Construction and Building Materials, 26, 2131. Dawood, E. T. and Ramli, M.(2012), Mechanical properties of high strength flowing concrete with hybrid fibers, Construction and Building Materials, 28, 193200. Akcay, B.(2012),Experimental investigation on uni-axial tensile strength of hybrid fibre concrete, Composites: Part B,43,766 778. IS: 8112-1989 43 Grade Ordinary Portland cement-specifications, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. IS: 9103-1999 Concrete admixtures- specifications, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. IS: 10262-2009 Concrete mix proportioning- guidelines, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. IS: 1199-1959 Methods of sampling and analysis of concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. IS: 10086-1982 Specifications for mould for use in test of and concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. IS: 516-1959 Methods of tests for strength of concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. IS: 5816-1999 Splitting tensile strength of concrete- method of test, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. ISO 834-1. Fire-resistance testsElements of building constructionpart 1: general requirements. International Organization of Standardization; 1999. Dalbehera, M. Mickey (2012) Performance evaluation of hybrid fibre reinforced concrete, M. Tech. dissertation, AcSIRCentral Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India, 100. IS: 13311PtI-1992 Non-dstructive Testing of Concrete Methods of Tests- UPV, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. Kumar, R. and Bhattacharjee, B. (2003),Porosity, pore size distribution and in situ strength of concrete, Cement and Concrete Research, 33, 155164.
Analytical Methods for Determining Fire Resistance of Reinforced Concrete Members

Hitesh Lakhani1, Tarvinder Singh2, G.R. Reddy3 and K.K. Vaze4
1,2,3,4Bhabha
Atomic Research Center, Mumbai, India; 1hitesh@barc.gov.in
AbstractFire load is one of the extreme loads which a structure may be subjected to during its life time. Fire load comes under the category of accidental load and its occurrence may have severe consequences. Thus there is a need to assess its effect on structural members. Conducting tests for this purpose is a costly affair leading to increased focus on the use of numerical methods like FEM. Such detailed analysis may not be necessary while assessing the fire resistance at element level. Moreover designers are interested in easy handy tools for designing. There are some analytical methods available for designers but there is a need to understand the assumptions under which a particular method is applicable. This paper presents an overview of the analytical methods for calculating the fire resistance of reinforced concrete (RC) structural members. Analytical methods developed to predict the fire resistance can be divided into two groups (SFPE, 2002): those for standard and nonstandard fire exposure. For standard fire exposure a large database of experimental results exists. Based on these databases empirical correlations have been developed along with minimum dimension requirements. For nonstandard fire exposure, the analysis is more complicated, requiring both heat transfer and structural analysis. The reduced strength of concrete and steel resulting from elevated temperature is taken into account. This approach is known as rational design method. Such design methods are more likely to be used as the fire protection field advances towards performance based engineering. This paper also discusses the various domains other than time domain in which fire resistance can be measured. The structural calculations for simply supported and continuous members are explained to demonstrate the basics of design concepts. Keywords: Fire Resistant Design, Fire Load, Rational Design Method
INTRODUCTION
Building codes require that the resistance to fire be considered for buildings. The fire safety of any building depends to a great extent on fire resistance of its main structural elements, i.e. slabs, beams and columns. For the most part, fire resistance ratings have been determined by the results of standard fire tests. Prescriptive building codes leave no opportunity for designer to take a rational engineering approach. Rational design methods have been developed which allow the fire resistance to be determined by calculations (ACI216-89, 1989). The rational design concept makes use of study and research into the properties of materials at high temperatures, the behavior of structures during a fire, and basic structural engineering principles. The design can be based on thermal actions given by either nominal fire exposure or those calculated using the physical parameters of the building. Thus the designer is looking for a design methodology which is safe, economical and easily applicable.
BASIS DESIGN EQUATION

The structural design for fire conditions is conceptually similar to structural design for normal temperature conditions with following main differences (NIST_Technical_Note_1681, 2010): 1. Load levels are less, 2. Additional internal forces are induced due to thermal expansion, 3. Degradation of material properties occurs, 4. There are chances of reduction in cross-section due to spalling,
Analytical Methods for Determining Fire Resistance of Reinforced Concrete Members 373
5. Smaller safety factors are used because of the low likelihood of the event, 6. Limiting deflections may be important as they may affect global stability, 7. There is a need of considering different failure mechanism. Fire resistance Fire severity (1) Fire resistance is the measure of the ability of the structure to resist collapse (load bearing capacity), fire spread (integrity), or other failure (insulation) during exposure to fire. And fire severity is measure of the forces or temperatures that could cause failure due to fire.
Table 1: Methods of Comparing Fire Severity with Fire Resistance
Domain Time Temperature Strength Units minutes/hrs C kN / kN m Fire Resistance Time to failure (FRR) Steel temperature to cause failure Load capacity Fire Severity Fire duration as calculated or specified by code Maximum steel temperature reached during the fire Applied load during the fire
The verification of design Eq. (1) need to be done in time domain, temperature domain or the strength domain as stated in Table 1. The first two domains are based on time to failure under standard fire, although expressed in different units both domains give the same result. The third domain is mostly used with realistic fire scenarios where it is to be shown that the structure will not fail at any point during the entire process of fire development and decay. The analysis of structural behaviour can be done at different levels i.e. single member analysis, analysis of sub assembly of the structure and global structural analysis. Along with these different levels from structural assembly point of view there are different levels of sophistication for design like tabulated data, simple calculation methods and advanced calculation methods. Association between design levels and structural levels is shown in Table 2 (Eurocode2, 2004). The present paper explains simple calculation methods for analysis of single members during fire.
Table 2: Alternative Methods of Verifying Fire Performance
Member Analysis Sub assembly Analysis Global structural Analysis Tabulated Data YES (Standard fire only) NO NO Simple Calculation Methods YES (Standard fire and parametric fire) YES (Parametric fire and parametric fire) NO Advanced Calculation Models YES (Parametric fire and real fire) YES (Parametric fire and real fire) YES (Parametric fire and real fire)
DESIGN APPROACH
Most widely used design approach is the prescriptive approach in which designers are told what parameter values to use rather than calculating/being able to calculate those values. This approach involves use of tables for minimum dimensions and minimum axis distance/cover to reinforcement. Such approach should be used for simple structures were low periods of fire resistance are required. Calculation methods can be too cumbersome for simple structures. Moreover it should be noted that the results of calculation methods may be unacceptable (Purkiss, 2007) i.e. may produce cover which are below those required to satisfy durability requirements.
Drawbacks of Prescriptive Approach

The data used in the prescriptive approach are obtained by interpreting the results from the standard fire test. Such tests are regulated on an international basis by ISO834 and at national levels by various national standards. The element is heated under loaded condition with the temperature regime in the furnace following a prescribed temperature time relation until failure of the element occurs due to any one of the following criteria:
1. Insulation (I)Average temperature on an unexposed face achieves a value of 140 C or a local value exceeds 180 C. 2. Integrity (E)Cracks or openings occur in a separating element such that there are possibilities of occurrence of ignition on the unexposed face. 3. Load bearing capacity (R)When the element is no longer able to carry the applied loading it has lost its bearing capacity. In practice deflection limits are imposed, partly due to the fact that at collapse large deflections occur due to the formation of plastic hinges or due to incipient buckling and partly to avoid the specimen collapsing into the furnace. It is to be stressed that the deformation or rate of deformation limits, only apply to performance in the standard furnace test and not to elements within structure (Purkiss, 2007). The final test grading is then expressed as the least time for any of the criteria rounded down to the nearest multiple of 30 minutes. Traditionally most building fires were considered to occur with the bulk of combustible material taken as cellulosic and this forms the basis of standard furnace temperature time curve. Some of the limitations of standard fire test inherited into prescriptive approach are as state below: 1. Specimen limitation: Test furnaces are restricted in size it is generally difficult to test large elements and thus representative elements are tested. It is also difficult to test realistic multi span beams or columns. 2. Effect of restraint/continuity: Because of the limitation of loading arrangements and limitations on specimen sizes it is generally possible to test specimen under idealized end conditions. Beams and slabs are simply supported and columns have some indeterminate degree of fixity. Clearly elements do not exist in isolation and in practice where fire is restricted to some part of the structure only, redistribution of load takes place. 3. Loading: During test load is applied so as to produce same stresses in members to which they would be subjected under service/working condition. Recently the load level considered is lower than the service loads. 4. Failure mode: The standard furnace test is capable of studying the failure mode of a single member and hence cannot be used to study the failure mode of complete structure. It has been observed that columns can fail in shear due to expansion of the structure (Purkiss, 2007). 5. Reproducibility: The first concern is that replicate tests are rarely undertaken. This is because the standards require only single member testing and secondly because of the cost involved. This fact indicates a possible danger of relying on single tests to establish code data. The prescriptive method is essentially very quick but is not likely to be economic in that calculations may show a thinner member with lower cover.
CALCULATION APPROACH
Even in calculation approach minimum dimensions are conveniently determined using tables when the exposure is standard temperaturetime curve. It is generally not possible to consider the deformation history of a structural element in design. It is normally sufficient to consider only the resistance to applied load and thus the analytical approach reduces to an end point calculation, where the design inequality (Eq. 1) is determined at a given time. The present paper focuses on simple hand methods. These methods are based on the assumption that the thermal and structural analysis may be decoupled.
Calculation of Temperature
Empirical or graphical solutions are available as design tools which are accurate enough to be used for the end point design of members under exposure to standard furnace temperature time curve. Some of the sources of graphical data are ISE and concrete society design guide (1978), FIB/CEB
report (1978) and Eurocode2. There are also some empirical methods available which are based on curve fitting on data derived from furnace tests or on the superposition of simple solutions to the fourier heat transfer equation. Two such approaches were proposed by Wickstrom (Wickstrom, 1986) and Hertz (Hertz, 1981).
Wickstrom Method
A set of very handy formulation was obtained by comparison with finite element calculations. A study of semi infinite structures exposed to fire was performed by him. The FE code includes a material model with varying thermal conductivity and influence of water evaporation at about 100 C as well as non linear boundary conditions. In general temperature rise x at a given distance from the exposed surface was given as: X = n X nW f (2) where f is the fire temperature of a standard or natural fire, nW and nX are the ratios between the temperature rises of the surface (W) and the fire (f) and of the interior point (X) and the surface respectively. Natural fires expressed as parametric fire can only be used. Various natural fires are obtained by altering the time scale by introducing the modified time. t* = . t where the dimensionless compartment time factor is as defined in Eurocode1, 2002. W = n W f where nW is a function of the scaled time variable tW as stated in Eq. (5) tW = ( / i ) t (5) where = and i is the ratio between thermal inertias of the actual structure and of normal weight concrete with a thermal conductivity according to Fig. 1, a density of 2400 kg/m3 and a specific heat of 1000 J/ kg K and a constant value of (k c)c = 1550 W s1/2 m-2 K-1 is assumed and i = (k c) / (k c)c nW = 1 0.0616 t
-0.88 W
(3) (4)
(6) (7)
where tW is given in hours.
Fig. 1: Thermal Conductivity of Concrete as a Function of Temperature
The temperature rise X in the structure at a given distance x from the surface can be obtained by Eq. (8, 9) assumes a constant thermal property with k = 1.0 W/ m K. X = n X W nX = 0.18 ln uX 0.81 uX = a t / x a = a / aC
2
(8) (9) (10) (11)
The coefficient a in Eq. (10) is the ratio of thermal diffusivities of the actual structure to a reference value of 417 X 10-9 m2/s (aC). The equations stated so far are for thermally semi-infinite one dimensional bodies. For two dimensional square corners Eq. (12) may be used. XY = (nW (nX + nY 2 nX nY) + nX nY)f (12) The values of nX and nY are obtained as described above for one dimensional configurations. The method is quite accurate for end point calculation for FRR of 1 hr and above. Only ambiguous point is regarding the selection of a constant thermal property of the concrete under analysis
Hertz Method
This method is basically superposition of simple solutions to the fourier heat transfer equation. The method can be used for both standard as well as natural fires. The uni-dimensional time dependant temperature (X, t) is given by Eq. (13) (X, t) = f1(X, t) + f2(X, t) + f3(X, t) (13) (14) (15) (16)
X f1 ( X , t ) = E 1 3.363 at
f 2 ( X , t ) = De
X 2 Ca
t sin C X 2Ca
L a
f3 ( X , t) =
L ( t C ) X D+E 1 e LC 2( e 1)
Where a is the thermal conductivity. Functions f1, f2 and f3 are set equal to zero respectively for the below stated conditions (17a), (17b) and (17c). The parameters E, D and C are dependent upon the heating regime and L is dependent on the temperature curve during cooling and is given by Eq. (18). Values of these parameters for different opening factors and fire loads could be found in reference (Hertz, 1981). If E 2D is negative, then E-2D is set equal to 0.02. The temperature rise on the surface during heating is given by D + E. For standard furnace exposure f3 is set equal to zero. For two dimensional heat flows, the above method needs modification as given by Eq. (19).
X 0 3.363 at
(17a) (17b) (17c) (18) (19)
t X 0 C 2Ca
L( t C ) X
L=
L 0 a
2 3D ln C E 2D
(x, y, t) = 0 (,x + ,y ,x,y)
0 is the surface temperature rise at time t and ,x 0 is the temperature rise at the point assuming uni-dimensional heat flow on the X-direction and ,y 0 is the temperature rise for heat flow on the Y-direction. Table 3 shows the comparison (Purkiss, 2007) of surface temperature rise between Wickstrom, Hertz and Eurocode2 for standard fire. Its noted that all three sets of results are within around 40 C of each other.
Table 3: Comparison of Surface Temperature Rise Predictions

Standard Fire Duration (hrs) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 Surface Temperatures ( C) Furnace Temperature Wickstrom Hertz 842 749 770 945 888 840 1003 963 930 1049 1015 980 1110 1084 1030 1153 1132 1080 Eurocode2 730 880 950 1010 1080 1120
FIRE ENDURANCE OF SIMPLY SUPPORTED SLABS AND BEAMS

When a simply supported member is exposed to fire from underside the bottom expands more as compared to the top resulting in increased deflections. Flexural collapse is expected to occur once the strength of the steel is reduced to stress in the steel. Fig. 2 illustrates the behaviour of simply supported member exposed to fire from underside. If the reinforcement is straight and uniform throughout the length the moment strength is constant throughout the length as defined by Eq. (20) for ambient temperature and Eq. (21) for elevated temperature.
Fig. 2: Moment Diagram for Simply Supported Slabs or Beams before and After Exposure
Mn = As fy ( d a/2) Mn = As fy ( d a/2) Where As is the area of the reinforcing steel fy is the yield strength of the reinforcing steel d is the distance from the centroid of the reinforcing steel to the extreme compression fiber
(20) (21)
a is the depth of the equivalent rectangular compressive stress block at ultimate load and is equal to As fy / 0.85 fc b (a = As fy / 0.85 fc b) where fc is the cylinder compressive strength of the concrete and b is the width of the slab/beam. signifies the effect of elevated temperature The compressive strength of concrete is reduced significantly at a critical temperature of approx 650 C for siliceous aggregate and 750 C for carbonate aggregate (SFPE 2002; Abrams, 1973). To account for this substantial reduction in strength regions of concrete in compression zone at temperature above the critical temperature are neglected in the design process. The depth and/or the width of compression zone are reduced. The factor of safety for material is equal to unity.
FIRE ENDURANCE OF CONTINUOUS UNRESTRAINED FLEXURAL MEMBER

Continuous unrestrained members have considerably longer fire endurance than simply supported members because of their ability to redistribute the applied moment (SFPE, 2002). Fig. 3, Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 shows the moment redistribution of continuous unrestrained member. When beam/slab is exposed to fire condition the redistribution may be sufficient to cause the negative reinforcement to yield (SFPE, 2002). Because of this reason the American Concrete Institute (ACI) warns that increasing the negative reinforcement will increase the attracted negative moment, possibly leading to a compression failure. To avoid such failure the negative reinforcement should be small enough so as to satisfy Eq. (22). (As fy) / (b d fc) < 0.30 (22)
Fig. 3: Moment Redistribution in Interior Span of Continuous Unrestrained Member Due to Fire Exposure
Fig. 4: Redistributed Moment Diagram at Structural end Point for Span of a Uniformly Loaded Continuous one Way Slab or Beam with Unequal Moments
Fig. 5: Redistributed Moment Diagram at Structural End Point for End Span of a Continuous One Way Slab or Beam
The member fails when the sum of the flexural strength is less than the applied moment wl2/8. The negative moments are calculated at the supports and the positive moments are calculated at the center of the span. The negative flexural strength is then used in the Eq. (23) for minimum positive flexural strength.
M n 1 =
Mn M n 1 M n 2 wL2 1 M n 2 + 2 wL2 2 2 8
(23)
If the minimum positive flexural strength required is less than the positive flexural strength, the member has the calculated fire endurance. The location of the maximum positive moment X1 is calculated from Eq. (24). For end span (as shown in Fig. 5) Eq. (23, 24) can be modified by equating moment at the end equal to zero.
X1 =
L Mn 1 M n 2 + 2 wL
(24)
CONCLUSION
Analytical methods can serve as an alternative to conventional destructive methods for establishing the required fire endurance. Such methods appear to be more rational. Since the designing advances into performance based engineering rational design approaches are more likely to be used. Calculation methods should be based on full-scale fire resistance test results. The drawbacks associated with prescriptive approach can be overcome using rational approach. In rational design approach, a design temperature time curve based on expected fire is used. The existing definition of fire resistance needs to be defined in a more elaborate manner. Like specify the required fire resistance separately for Stability, Integrity and Insulation. Hence the verification of fire resistance should be in time domain, strength domain and temperature domain.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] Abrams M.S., (1973) Compressive Strength of Concrete at Temperatures to 1600 deg F PCA R&D Bulletin RD016.01T.: Portland Cement Association. ACI216-89., (1989) Guide for Determining the Fire Endurance of Concrete Elements-Deteroit : American Concrete Institute. Eurocode1 (2002) Actions on Structures Part 1-2: General Actions-Actopns on structures exposed to fire (EN1991-1-2:2002)Brussels : Commission of European Communities. Eurocode2 (2004) Design of Concrete Structures art 1-2: General Rules-Structural Fire Design (EN1992-1-2:2004)-Brussels : Commission of European Communities. Hertz Kristian (1981) Simple Temperature Calculation of Fore Exposed Concrete Constructions: Report_No_159, Institute of Building Design, Technical University of Denmark. NIST_Technical_Note_1681 (2010) Best Practice Guideline for Structural Fire Resistance Design of Concrete and Steel Buildings : National Institute of Standards and Technology. Purkiss J.A., (2007) Fire Safety Engineering Design of Structures : Elsevier-Butterworth Heinemann. Second Edition. SFPE (2002) Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering. Third Edition. Wickstrom Ulf, (1986) A Very Simple Method for Estimating Temperature in Fire Exposed Concrete Structures New Technology to Reduce Fire Losses and Costs.-London and New York : Elsevier Applied Science ublishers.
Behavior of Corroded Reinforced Concrete Beams under Flexure-Numerical Simulation

Vinay Mahadik, Akanshu Sharma, Y.M. Parulekar, G.R. Reddy and K.K. Vaze
Reactor Safety Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, India; vinay.mahadik@gmail.com
AbstractReinforced Concrete (RC) construction is by far the most popular and widely used construction practice. Most RC structures are typically designed for a service life of 50 years. However, significant deterioration observed much before the end of service life in most RC structures calls for repair and retrofitting measures for attaining the desired service life. One of the major causes of this deterioration is corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete. For designing any repair or retrofitting strategy for a corrosion affected structure, it is required to quantify the effects of corrosion on the mechanical and structural properties of the RC members. The present work deals with the quantification of the flexural behavior of RC beams subjected to corrosion in reinforcing bars. An attempt is made to numerically simulate the various effects of corrosion within the framework of 3D FE modeling approach. In order to validate the procedures adopted in the numerical simulation, a comparison with experiments available in literature is provided. The behavior of corroded RC beams in flexure as obtained in numerical simulation agrees well with experimental observations. Keywords: Reinforcement Corrosion, Flexural Capacity
INTRODUCTION
Reinforced Concrete (RC) construction has evolved to be the most popular construction methodology where a designer can exploit the strength of concrete in compression and that of steel in tension while having varied shapes of the structural members. One main reason for this method to gain popularity in the twentieth century was a belief that the pH of concrete (12-13) kept the reinforcing steel in an alkaline environment, thereby culminating the very possibility of corrosion and increasing the durability of the structure. Over time with the gained experience of RC construction, it became evident that concrete is subject to deterioration of its useful characteristics depending on the quality of construction and the environmental condition. Improper mix designs and inappropriate curing during construction was seen to result into shrinkage cracks which provided a pathway to the elements of environment to attack the reinforcing steel leading to corrosion. Moreover, discovery of phenomena of carbonation established the fact that over time pH of the cover concrete dropped to a level at which the passivity provided to the reinforcing steel against corrosion is lost, which leads to corrosion. In addition to reduction of the structural steel cross-section, corrosion of reinforcement leads to formation of expansive products that lead to unnecessary stresses leading to spalling of the cover concrete. Today corrosion is one of the most alarming problems faced by the RC construction industry. Deterioration of structures due to corrosion is observed to reduce the structural capacity to an extent that rigorous repair and rehabilitation becomes essential. In order to arrive at any repair or retrofitting solution, the first step is to evaluate the residual capacity of the corroded structure. The present work deals with the numerical determination of the effect of corrosion on the structural capacity of RC structural members; beams in particular. In this work an attempt is made to identify the affecting factors which govern the residual structural capacity of beams subjected to corrosion. The work presents simplified approach of modeling the effect of these parameters in a way to simulate the actual force deformation behavior. For validation of the methodologies of modeling, a comparison of the numerical results is done with experimental observations available in the literature.
Behavior of Corroded Reinforced Concrete Beams under Flexure-Numerical Simulation 381
Corrosion Effects on RC Structures-Modeling Approach

The present work considers the modeling of corrosion effects on structural behavior of RC structures in a three dimensional finite element modeling (FEM). For this purpose, 3D FE code MASA (Obolt and IWB, 2010) has been employed. The code utilizes microplane model with relaxed kinematic constraint (Ozbolt, 2001) as the constitute law for concrete, and a trilinear behavior as a constitutive law for steel reinforcement. Concrete elements are modeled by eight node hexahedral elements. Steel reinforcement is modeled by two node bar elements. Bond between steel and concrete is modeled by zero length two node truss elements. Smeared crack approach is used for prediction of cracks at any given level of loading. The effects of corrosion are considered in the modeling by certain modification in the geometrical and material parameters of the above discussed elements. The approach used for consideration of the various affecting parameters is discussed in the following section.
Reduction in Cross-section and Ductility of Rebar

The reduction of steel area on account of corrosion is an obvious effect. Berto (2008) has indicated methods to consider the same in FE modeling of RC members. It has been pointed out that corrosion leads to a decrease in the strength as well as ductility of steel reinforcing bars. Apostolopoulos (2008) presents experimental studies indicating the consequences of reinforcement corrosion on the ductility of the steel bars. Consideration of reduced cross section is straightforward in any finite element analysis. In order to consider the reduction due to ductility, the reduction in percentage elongation of the rebars is evaluated using results presented by Apostolopoulos (2008). The hardening modulus governing the stress strain curve of steel bars can be appropriately modified to account for this reduced ductility.
Formation of Local Pits

The corrosion process of reinforcing steel involves alternate formation of localized anodes and cathodes along the length of the reinforcing bar. Thus localized pits are observed in case of concrete corrosion. Berto (2008) stressed on the importance of modeling of pits in a detailed FE modeling. In an experiment, knowing the maximum pit depth is possible by extraction of the reinforcing bar. However, for assessment of health of an actual structure which has underwent certain known degree of corrosion, models are required for obtaining the maximum pit depths. Gonzalez (1995) has developed relationships between the maximum pit depth and the uniform corrosion depth based on a series of experiments conducted for evaluation of the same. This makes it possible to estimate the maximum pit depths for any RC member with known degree of corrosion.
Deterioration of Cover Concrete

The expansive corrosion products lead to development of strains at the steel concrete interface which result in cracking of cover concrete. Andrade (1993) conducted experiments to evaluate the deterioration of concrete cover as a function of the reinforcement corrosion. Small reinforced beams were artificially corroded by an impressed current and the evolution of the crack widths in cover concrete were monitored against the total amount of current passed through the bars. Thus, a relation between the amount of corrosion and corresponding crack widths was experimentally established. The results indicated that a few micrometers of loss of rebar cross-section induced visible cracks (of the order of 0.1mm width) in the cover concrete. Molina (1993) developed a numerical model for simulation of cover cracking with the progress of reinforcement corrosion in which, the smeared crack approach was used to model the behavior of concrete finite elements while corrosion was modeled as a combination of initial strains due to expansion of corrosion products and change in the elastic properties of the steel elements due to softening. The model was validated against the experiments performed by Andrade (1993).
Deterioration in Bond Strength

Formation of corrosion products also affects the bond between the reinforcing steel and the concrete. A very large number of experimental studies are available in this area. However, very few numerical models are available for the simulation of the same. Bhargava (2006) proposed a model for prediction of time required for cover cracking and weight loss of reinforcing bars in corrosion affected RC structures. The model incorporates the residual strength of the cracked concrete and also the stiffening effects of the expansive corrosion products. Another alternate method for numerical simulation of the bond in the FE model by introduction of an additional damage parameter has been suggested by Berto (2008).
MODELING OF CORRODED SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

In order to assess the applicability of the aforementioned simplified procedure for modeling of the effects on corrosion on flexural behavior of beams, the investigations on load carrying capacity of concrete structures with corroded reinforcement done under the Brite/Euram project BE-4062 as available in literature (Rodriguez, 1997), is used. Out of six different types of beams addressed in Rodriguez (1997), one (Type-11) is taken up in the present work. The geometric dimensions of the beam along with the reinforcement detailing are shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1: Beams Considered in the Present Study
A total of five beams with the configuration as shown in Fig. 1 were tested to failure. Two out of five beams were control specimens with no corrosion in the reinforcing bars. Rest three beams were subjected to corrosion of varying degree depending on the number of days the impressed current was passed. Since impressed current was used for corroding the reinforcement, some amount of calcium chloride was added to the concrete mixture while casting the beams. The concrete cube strength of the two different types of concrete (one for control and other with CaCl2 for corroded) at the date of testing was available. All the five beams were subjected to failure under four point bending while recording the shear forces and the mode of failure. Details of the six beams are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Experimental Details for the Beams Considered in the Present Work
Beam B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 Concrete Strength (MPa) 50.0 50.0 34.0 34.0 34.0 Impressed Current (A/cm2) N.A. N.A. 100 100 100 No of Days N.A. N.A. 101 117 160 Ultimate Shear (kN) 20.7 21.6 15.9 14.4 13.9
Modeling of the Control Specimen (Non-Corroded)

A three dimensional FE model of the beam, its reinforcement and the loading plates was generated in MASA. For the control specimen, the mechanical properties of steel and concrete as obtained from (Rodriguez, 1997) were used. The beam was subjected to a monotonically increasing load under four point bending up to the point of failure. The numerically observed crack pattern (Fig. 2) indicates that the failure was governed by flexure mode, which was also as indicated in the experiment.
Behav vior of Corroded Reinforced Concrete Beams under u Flexure-N Numerical Simulation 383
Fig. 2: 2 Failure Cra acks of Width Greater Th han 1mm for Control Spec cimen
The load deform mation curve obtained nu umerically is shown in Fi ig. 3. The va alue of shear r force as obtained d in the expe eriment is plo otted as a do otted line for sake of com mparison. The e ultimate sh hear force from nu umerical simu ulation comp pares well wi ith the exper rimental obs servation. Fu urther, the du uctility as observed d in the forc ce deformat tion behavio or is another r indication of the obser rved ductile bending failure.
Fig. 3: Shear Force-D Displacement t Curved from m Numerical Simulation ( (B1 &B2)
Modeli ing of the Corrosion C Effects

The effe ect of reinforc cement corro osion on var rious mechan nical propert ties was prog gressively mo odeled to observe the significa ance of the in ndividual pro operties in go overning the e structural behavior of th he beam. Initially only the un niform loss in i the cross s section of the beam as a obtained in the expe erimental gravimetric analysis was introduc ced in the model by suita ably changin ng the steel cr ross section.
Cert tain reductio on in the ultim mate loads was w observed by modeli ing uniform corrosion. Moreover, M the beam m still had su ufficient duct tility, wherea as, it is obser rved that ductility is cons siderably red duced on account of corrosion n. The second d stage analy ysis was perf formed by modeling m max ximum pits fo ormed in the tens sile bars, com mpression ba ars and the links along with w the uniform reducti ion in the st teel area. This was done by in ntroducing a bar elemen nt with the geometrical g p properties of the pit at th he pitting zones. Fig. F 4 shows the t reinforce ement cage with w the pit elements e in re ed color. It w was observed d that the ductility of the bea am was con nsiderably re educed due e to modelin ng of pits. In third mo odel, the mechanical properties of the con ncrete eleme ent in the cover of the be eam were al ltered to con nsider the degrada ation of conc crete cover in addition to o modeling of the unifo orm loss in re ebar section n and the max pit depth. It is seen that the modeling of these thre ee parameters in an indi irect sense le eads to a numeric cal simulation n, the results s of which ar re in good ag greement wit th the experiment. A com mparison of the lo oad deforma ation curves obtained in n the progres ssive modeling discussed d above is presented p in Fig. 5
Fig. 4: Modeling M of Lo ocalized Pits s in the Reinf forcement
The same patter rn was obse erved for the e beams B4 and B5. The e load displa acement cur rves from numeric cal simulation n with mode eling of unifo orm mass los ss in reinforc cement, maximum pit de epths and degrada ation of concr rete cover ob btained for beams b B4 an nd B5 are giv ven in Fig. 6. The beams cons sidered in the e present stu udy had no sp plicing of rei inforcements s in its span. Thus the problem m of slip due to reduction n of bond strength was assumed a to be less signi ificant since sufficient development length is available for transfer of o stresses fro om reinforcem ment to conc crete.
Fig. 5: Numerical N Re esults for Pro ogressive Mod deling of Cor rrosion Effec cts for B3
Behavior of Corroded Reinforced Concrete Beams under Flexure-Numerical Simulation 385
(a) (b) Fig. 6: Force-displacement Behavior for Corroded Beams B4 (a) and B5 (b)
It is important to note here that the effect due to bond on the mechanical behavior of corroded RC members is neglected in the present case since considerably large development length is available for transfer of forces from reinforcement to the concrete. In cases of splicing of reinforcement, anchoring of reinforcement at ends for fixed beams, etc., where the development length is an issue, the consideration of reduction in bond strength on account of corrosion becomes important for a realistic numerical simulation.
CONCLUSION
In the present work, an indirect and relatively simple approach for modeling the effects of corrosion on the structural behavior of RC beams has been successfully applied. It is observed that modeling the uniform loss in the rebar section is not enough for predicting the behavior of corroded beams, since both ductility and strength of the corroded beam are overestimated in the numerical simulation. Consideration of maximum pit depths and the degradation of cover concrete are observed to have a significant impact on the ductility of the beam. For simply supported beams with no splicing of reinforcement, the consideration of uniform loss of reinforcement section, maximum pit depths and degradation of the cover concrete leads to sufficiently close simulation of the actual behavior of the beam with regard to strength and ductility.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] Andrade, C., Alonso, C., (1993), Cover cracking as a function of bar corrosion: Part-I-Experimental test, Materials and Structures, 26, 453464. Apostolopoulos, C.A., Papadakis, V.G. (2008), Consequences of steel corrosion on the ductility properties of reinforcement bar, Construction and Building Materials, 22, 2316-2324. Berto, L., Simioni, P., Saetta, A. (2008), Numerical modeling of bond behaviour in RC structures affected by reinforcement corrosion, Engineering Structures, 30, 1375-1385. Bhargava, K., Ghosh, A.K., Mori Yasuhiro, Ramanujam, S., (2006) Model for cover cracking due to rebar corrosion in RC structures, Engineering Structures, 26, 1093-1109. Gonzalez, J.A., Andrade, C., Alonso, C., Feliu, S., (1995), Comparison of rates of general corrosion and maximum pitting penetration of concrete embedded steel reinforcement, Cement and Concrete Research, 25, 257-264. Molina, F.J., Alonso, C., Andrade, C., (1993), Cover cracking as a function of bar corrosion: Part II Numerical model Materials and Structures, 26, 532-548. Obolt, J., Li, Y.J., Koar, I., (2001), Microplane model for concrete with relaxed kinematic constraint, International Journal of Solids and Structures, 38, 2683-2711. Rodriguez, J., Ortega, L.M., Casal, J., (1997), Load carrying capacity of concrete structures with corroded reinforcement, Construction and Building Materials, 11-4, 239-248.
Passive Confinement to Enhance Ductility and Compressibility of Concrete

Ziyad A. Khaudhair1, P.K. Gupta2 and A.K. Ahuja3
1Ph.D 2Associate
Candidate, CED, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India; ziyaddce@iitr.ernet.in Professor, CED, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India; kgupfce@iitr.ernet.in 3Professor, CED, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India; ahujafce@iitr.ernet.in
AbstractIn the present study, numerical investigations have been carried out to investigate the effect of steel tubes to enhance the concrete properties filled in. The investigations have been carried out using a Finite Element model developed using general Finite Element Code ANSYS. The parameters for this study are grade of concrete core and the geometric properties of circular steel tubes. Samples of concrete filled steel tubes having different geometries (different diameter of pipes and thickness) and filled with different grade of concrete have been simulated. All the samples have been selected in such a way that these should be short columns to avoid slenderness effect. The results of the simulations show that the use of steel tube will significantly increase the compressive strength of concrete and also the ductility. It has been also observed that the load carrying capacity of the concrete filled steel tube columns was more than the sum of load carrying capacities of steel tube and the concrete core acting alone. Keywords: Confined concrete, passive confinement, ANSYS, CFST, Ductility
INTRODUCTION
Steel-concrete composite systems are among the most widely used types of composite systems in the construction field. Steel-Concrete composite members are structural members, in which there is a high degree of interaction between structural steel and concrete. By combining these two materials, composite systems can get benefits from each material such as stiffness and economy from concrete and strength, ductility, and ease of construction from steel. Among the composite structural members, Concrete Filled Steel Tubular (CFST) columns have attracted special attention. A CFST column is a structural member that uses a combination of steel tubes and concrete to provide adequate load carrying capacity to sustain either axial or combined loadings. A CFST column is simply constructed by filling a structural steel tube with concrete. CFST columns have many excellent earthquake resistant properties such as high strength, high ductility and large energy absorption capacity, Shams & Saadeghvaziri(1997).The enhanced structural properties come from the composite action of constituent elements. The confinement effect created by steel casing enhances the material properties of concrete by putting the concrete under a tri axial state of stresses thereby increasing the strength and ductility of concrete. Richart et al.(1928) were the first to observe that confined concrete showed greatly increased maximum compressive strength, increased stiffness, and extended strain at which the peak stress was reached, Johansson (2002). As the lateral pressure increases, the longitudinal strength and deformation ability also increases. The longitudinal stress at failure was suggested as Eq. (1) Wight & MacGregor (2005). f f 4.1 f (1) Where, f = uniaxial compressive strength of confined concrete, f is the uniaxial compressive strength of unconfined concrete and f is the lateral pressure.Basically, there are two types of confinements can be provided to concrete: Active confinement and Passive confinement. Active confinement consists of constant lateral stress acting on the concrete as the axial load is applied. This is typically achieved by the use of hydrostatic fluid pressure. Passive confinement is achieved through the use of circular hoops, spirals, or tubing as a kinematic restraint. As the concrete dilates under axial load, the restraint is engaged, and a tensile hoop stress develops, Johansson (2002).
Passive Confinement to Enhance Ductility and Compressibility of Concrete 387
PREVIOUS STUDIES
The earliest investigation of this type was conducted by Richart et al (1928) on plain concrete cylinders. It was found that the incremental increase in peak compressive stress was 4.1 times the magnitude of the confining stress. Many studies have been carried out to investigate the influence of parameters on passive confinement effect such as diameter thickness ratio, and mechanical properties of materials. Gardner and Jacobson (1967) explained the mechanism of load transferring of short circular CFST as following. When a concentric axial load is applied to a short concrete filled steel tube column (assuming the load is applied uniformly across both materials), the steel and the concrete will both begin to deform longitudinally. During this stage of loading, Poissons ratio of the steel (0.3) exceeds Poissons ratio of the concrete (0.15 to 0.25) the steel and the concrete sustain load independently of one another. As the longitudinal strain increases, the Poissons ratio of concrete increases to almost 0.5 in the inelastic range the lateral expansion of the concrete gradually becomes greater than that of the steel. This happens due to the increased micro cracking of the concrete after reaching the level of the uniaxial strength. Therefore, the concrete expansion reinitiates interactive contact between the two materials, which induces bond stresses to develop, and results in biaxial stresses in the steel tube and tri axial stresses in the concrete core. Radial pressure is developed at the concrete-steel contact, which restrains the concrete core and produces a hoop tension in the steel tube. Knowles and Park (1969) studied twelve circular and seven square columns with D/t ratios of 15, 22, and 59, and L/D ratios ranging from 2 to 21. Their results showed that the columns with small slenderness ratio (L/D <11) carried axial load carrying capacity more than the calculated from the failure loads of the components (concrete and steel). It was concluded that the larger than expected capacity was due to the increase of concrete strength resulting from tri axial confinement effects. This confinement increased the overall load-resisting capacity of the CFT column. However, this increase was noted for circular tubes only, not for square or rectangular shapes. In the study undertaken by Schneider (1998), fourteen specimens with circular, square and rectangular cross sections were tested. The results showed that circular tubes offer much more post-yield axial ductility than the square or rectangular tube sections. The study also demonstrated that significant confinement was not present until the axial load reach 92% of the yield strength of the column. Susantha & Usami (2001) have presented a method to predict the complete stressstrain curve of concrete subjected to tri axial compressive stresses caused by axial load plus lateral pressure due to the confinement action in circular, square and octagonal shaped CFST. The highest confinement was found in circular shaped columns, while the lowest was in square columns. Johansson (2002) performed the experimental and analytical study on the circular CFST columns to study the behaviour of the circular CFST columns under the different loading conditions, and to study how it was influenced by the confinement and by the bond strength between the steel tube and the concrete core. He proved by both the experimental and the analytical studies that the behaviour was greatly influenced by the method of load application onto the column. He also proved that the bond strength had no influence when the steel and the concrete were loaded simultaneously but that it had a great influence if load was applied only on the concrete. In the present study the effects of passive confinement using steel tubes to enhance the mechanical properties of the concrete core have been investigated numerically using Finite Element Model developed by Gupta et al. (2012). The model has been developed using general Finite Element Code ANSYS.
FAILURE MECHANISM OF CFST SHORT COLUMNS

As it is concluded by Gardner and Jacobson (1967) that the concrete becomes confined at a strain of approximately 0.002 and additional axial strength is achieved. With confinement, the concrete can continue to sustain additional load until the steel tube fails (usually by extensive local buckling of the cross-section) marking the ultimate strength of the section. The failure of circular CFST is also may take place at the mid-height with extensive local buckling, and local buckling then spreads to the ends, Schneider (1998).
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE ADOPTED FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

Three-dimensional non-linear finite element model were developed to study the axial load behaviour of CFST Columns with circular cross sections. SOLID65 element (3-D Reinforced Concrete Solid) is adopted to simulate the concrete core elements. SOLID65 is a three-dimensional element which is defined by eight nodes having three translational degrees of freedom at each node. This solid element is also capable of cracking in tension and crushing in compression. Solid element SOLID45 type is adopted for the steel tube. SOLID45 is used for the 3-D modeling of solid structures. The element is defined by eight nodes having three degrees of freedom at each node: translations in the nodal x, y, and z directions. The element has plasticity, creep, swelling, stress stiffening, large deflection, and large strain capabilities. Surface to surface contact element with low order has been used (CONTA173). CONTA173 element is used to represent contact and sliding between 3-D target surfaces (TARGE170) and a deformable surface defined by this element. This element is applicable to three dimensional field contact analyses and its located on the surfaces of 3-D solid or shell elements without mid side nodes (like SOLID65 & SOLID45).(ANSYS Inc., 2009).Due to the interaction between the steel tube and the concrete core in circular CFST columns, a tri axial stress state is developed in concrete core which corresponding to confinement of concrete. Confined concrete can carry more loads with higher stiffness and higher ductility. Hence, confined concrete model proposed by Hu et al. (2003) to compute the uniaxial strength of concrete confined with circular steel tube has been adopted to simulate the confining pressure of concrete core. The adopted model is illustrated in Figure 1. For the details of the confined concrete model please see Hu et al. (2003). Steel Tube has been modeled as Elastic-Perfectly-Plastic.
NUMERICAL INVESTIGATIONS
The adopted model has been applied for twenty three columns selected from literature Schneider (1998), Johansson (2002), Huang, et al(2002), Giakoumelis & Lam(2004), Gupta, Sarda, & Kumar, (2007). The specimens taken from literature were chosen in such a way that the steel tubes of different lengths, diameters and wall thicknesses were used, and filled with different grades (strength) of concrete. Moreover it was also assured that the cross-sectional area of concrete core and steel tubes should get varied to study the effect of these parameters on axial load carrying capacity of such columns. The details of the simulated columns are listed in Table 1. For better understanding of load carrying mechanism the Finite Element model is employed to simulate thirteen virtual numerical specimens. The details of the specimens are listed in Table 2 and their numerical results are shown in Fig. 2 and 3. The numerical results collected from these specimens have been used to investigate the enhancements of concrete core due to passive confinement. Two parameters are investigated numerically, concrete compressibility enhancement factor and CFST ductility index.
Concrete Compressibility Enhancement Factor (CCEF)

In the present study, CCEF parameter is proposed as per Eq. 2 % 100 (2)
Where Pu is the measured ultimate axial load carrying capacity (from FE Model), Pn is the nominal ultimate axial load carrying capacity calculated as the sum of squash load of steel tube and concrete core acting alone: (3) Ac is the cross sectional area of concrete core, As is the cross sectional area of steel tube, is the uniaxial compressive strength of unconfined concrete and is the yield strength of steel tube. This parameter gives indication about the percentage of enhancement in concrete compressibility. The effects of CCEF are shown in Figures 4, 5 and 6.
Passive Confinement to Enhance Ductility and Compressibility of Concrete 389
Legends: -P.L: Proportional Limit = 0.5f -f : -f -fu: - c : Uniaxial compressive strength of un confined concrete, : Uniaxial compressive strength of confined concrete, Ultimate compressive strength of confined concrete Concrete strain corresponding to f
-cc: Concrete strain corresponding to f - u: Concrete strain corresponding to fu

Fig. 1: Equivalent Uniaxial Stress-strain Curve of Confined Concrete
Ductility Index (DI)

Ductility Index is proposed in this study as: (4) Where is the axial end shortening corresponding to ultimate load and is the axial end shortening corresponding to yield load. The effects of geometric properties of the specimens on this index are shown in Fig. 7 and 8.
Table 1: Details of Simulated Columns and Results to Verify the Proposed Model
Pu-EXP (Ultimate Experimental Axial Load) 881 1825 2715 2013 3025 2608 2180 2040 2860 3410 2740 3220 3710 1134 1787 1413 1067 998 1359 f'c (MPa) (Concrete Cylinder Compressive Strength) t (mm) (Wall Thickness of Steel Tube) D (mm) (Outer Diameter of Steel Tube) Pu-ANSYS (Ultimate Numerical Axial Load) 760 1523 2327 1902 2810 2741 2462 1958 2238 2813 2700 3024 3016 1307 1568 1287 1057 968 1373 (Table 1 Contd.) fy (MPa) (Yield Strength of Steel) 285 313 537 265.8 272.6 341.7 433 390 402 355 390 402 355 343 343 343 343 343 343
L (mm) (Sample Length)
Sample ID
C1 C2 C3 CU040 CU070 CU150 SFE1 SFE4 SFE5 SFE6 SFE7 SFE8 SFE9 C7 C8 C9 C11 C12 C14
63.64 608.02 616 600 840 900 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 300.5 300 300.5 300 300 300
140.8 141.4 140 200 280 300 159 159 159 159 159 159 159 114.88 115.04 115.02 114.29 114.3 114.54
Schneider (1998) 3 46.93 28.18 6.5 21.75 23.805 6.68 20.96 28.18 Huang et al. (2002) (Huang, et al., 2002) 5 40.00 27.15 4 70.00 31.15 2 150 27.23 Johansson (2002) 4.8 33.13 64.5 5 31.80 36.6 6.8 23.38 36.6 10 15.90 36.6 5 31.80 93.8 6.8 23.38 93.8 10 15.90 93.8 Giakoumelis and Lam (2004) 4.91 23.40 27.76 4.92 23.38 83.92 5.02 22.91 46.08 3.75 30.48 46.08 3.85 29.69 25.52 3.84 29.83 79.12
D/t
390 Twe enty-eighth NCC CE & National Seminar S on Role e of Infrastructur re for Sustainab ble Developmen nt (Table 1 Contd.) D3M3 3 D3M4 4 D4M3 3 D4M4 4 340 340 340 340 89.32 89.32 112.56 112.46 2.74 2.74 2.89 2.89 Gu upta et al. (200 07) 32.60 32.60 38.95 38.91 25.15 37.6 25.15 37.6 360 360 360 360 610 644 754 822 551 610 753 838
Table 2: 2 Details of Simulated S Numerical Spe ecimens

Samp ple C1 1 C2 2 C3 3 C4 4 C5 5 C6 6 C7 7 C8 8 C9 9 C10 0 C11 C12 2 C13 3 L( (mm) 4 495 4 495 4 495 4 495 4 495 4 495 4 495 4 495 4 495 4 495 4 495 4 495 4 495 D (mm) 165 165 165 165 165 165 165 165 165 165 165 165 165 t (mm) 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 4 4 4 4 4 f'c (Mpa) 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 30 40 60 80 100 fy (Mp pa) 310 0 310 0 310 0 310 0 310 0 310 0 310 0 310 0 310 0 310 0 310 0 310 0 310 0 D/t 165 1 82.5 55 41.25 33 27.5 20.625 16.5 41.25 41.25 41.25 41.25 41.25
Fig. 2: Load-Displacemen nts Curves for Sp pecimens C1-C8
Fig. 3: Lo oad-Displacem ment Curves for Specimens S C C9-C13
F Fig. 4: Effect t of D/t Ratio on on CCEF
Fig. 5: Effect of Concrete Co ompressive St trength on CCEF
Passive Confinement C to Enhance Ductility and Compre essibility of Concrete 391
Fig. 6: Eff fect of the Ra atio of cross Sectional S Ar rea of Steel to Cross C Section nal Area of Concrete on CCEF C
Fig. 7: Effect of D/t D Ratio on Ductility D Ind dex
Fig. 8: Effect the Ratio of Cro oss Sectional l Area of St teel to Cross Sectional Ar rea of Concre ete on Ductility Ind dex
CONCL LUSION
In the pr resent study, , use of steel l tube to enh hance the me echanical pro operties of concrete core e through passive confinement has been numerically investigated d. The inves stigations ha ave been car rried out using a three dimen nsional nonl linear finite element mo odel. The model m has be een developed using commer rcial finite el lement code ANSYS. Th he proposed d model is used u to inves stigate two proposed p paramet ters: Concret te Compressibility Enhan ncement Fact tor (CCEF) and a Ductility y Index (DI). It can be conclude ed that the enhancemen e nt of compre essibility of co oncrete core e with high s strength conc crete was lesser as s compared to t the norma al strength concrete core e. It can also o be conclude ed that by in ncreasing the thick kness of stee el tube the compressibilit ty of the con ncrete core and a the duct tility of the specimen s enhance es significant tly. It is also observed th hat with incre ease in outer r diameter to o wall thickn ness ratio (D/t) rati io the ductili ity index and d concrete co ompressibility y enhanceme ent factor de ecreases.
REFER RENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] ANSY YS Inc. (2009, April). A Element Refrence, R Release e 12. Gardner, J., & Jaco obson, R. (196 67). Structural behavior b of con ncrete filled ste eel tubes. ACI Journal, Title No. N 64-38, 404-4 413. Giako oumelis, G., & Lam, D. (2004) ). Axial capacity y of circular con ncrete-filled tube e columns. Jour rnal of Construc ctional Steel Resea arch, 60, 1049-1 1068. Gupta, P. K., Khaudh hair, Z. A., & Ah huja, A. K. (2012 2). A study on lo oad carrying cap pacity and behav viour of concrete e filled steel tubular members sub bjected to axial compression. c the e 11th Internatio onal Conference e on Concrete Engineering and Technology 2012 (pp. 337-342). Putrajaya, Malay ysia: CONCET 2012. 2 Gupta, P. K., Sarda, S., & Kumar, M. M (2007). Expe erimental and co omputational stu udy of concrete filled steel tubular columns under r axial loads. Jou urnal of Constru uctional Steel Res search, 63, 182 193.
392 Twenty-eighth NCCE & National Seminar on Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development Hu, H.-T., Huang, C.-S., & Wu, M.-H. (2003). Nonlinear Analysis of Axially loaded Concrete-Filled Tube Columns with Confinement Effect. Journal of Structural Engineering, 129(10), 1322-1329. [7] Huang, C., Yeh, Y., Liu, G., Hu, H. T., Tsai, K., Weng, Y., et al. (2002). Axial Load Behavior of Stiffened Concrete-Filled Steel Columns. Journal of Structural Engineering,ASCE, Vol. 128, No. 9, 1222-1230. [8] Johansson, M. ( 2002). The efficiency of passive confinement in CFT columns. Steel and Composite Structures, vol. 2, No. 5, 379-369. [9] Schneider, S. (1998). Axially Loaded Concrete-Filled Steel Tubes. Journal of Structural Engineeing, ASCE, Vol. 124, No. 10, 1125-1138. [10] Shams, M., & Saadeghvaziri, M. (1997). State of the Art of Concrete-Filled Steel Tubular Columns. ACI Structural Journal, Title No. 94-S51, 558-569. [11] Susanatha, K. A., GE, H., & Usami, T. (2001). A capacity prediction procedures for concrete-filled steel columns. Journal of Earth Quick Engineering, 5(4), 483-520. [12] Wight, J. K., & MacGregor, G. J. (2005). Reinforced Concrete Mechanics and Design. New Jersey, USA: Pearson. [6]
The Indian Oil Corporation Ltd (IOCL), Jaipur Explosion and FireLessons Learned
R.K. Sharma1 and B.R. Gurjar2
1
Centre for Excellence in Disaster Mitigation and Management, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, India; ravikrsharma@gmail.com 2 Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee; India, brgurjar@gmail.com
AbstractOn Thursday 29 October 2009, a severe unconfined vapour cloud explosion followed by multiple tanks fires has occurred at the Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. (IOCL) oil storage depot in Jaipur, India. The explosion has destroyed almost all sections of the depot, caused 11 causalities and more than 150 people were injured. The explosion has also resulted in very large overpressure (>1 bar), which resulted in significant damage to neighbouring commercial and residential structures. The intensity of explosion has been observed 2.3 on the Richter scale. The breaking of windows glasses has been observed up to 2 km from the site of the explosion. As a result of the blast wave and the ensuing fire, which lasted for about one week and encompassed an area of about 47 103 m2, all the eleven tanks has been destroyed. The fire engulfed and destroyed all buildings and equipments in the immediate vicinity. The vegetation around the storage facility has been completely consumed by the fire. The IOCL has estimated that the total loss from the fire and explosion was approximately INR 2800 million. This paper provides a qualitative analysis of the reasons behind the extent of the flammable vapour cloud that might have accumulated and the mechanism by which the overpressure was generated. It also summarizes some of the past incidents involving open-air vapour cloud explosions and the apparent similarities and parallels with the Jaipur IOCL incident. Keywords: Oil Storage Terminal, Vapor Cloud Explosion, Blast Waves, Fire Hazard,
INTRODUCTION
In the evening hours of Thursday, October 29, 2009, a number of explosions occurred at the Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. (IOCL) oil storage depot in Jaipur, India. At least one of the initial explosions was of massive proportions and there was a large fire, which engulfed a high proportion of the site. This was the one of the largest fires in India for last 2-3 decades. Over 11 people were died and more than 150 people were injured. Property damage was reported as far away as 2 km (MoPNG , 2010). Investigators reported that during the process of lining up the gasoline tank, at about 6:10 pm., a huge leak of the gasoline took place as a jet of the liquid from the "Hammer Blind Valve" on the delivery line of the tank 401-A connected to suction line to the gasoline pump. This was leading to an escape of unleaded petrol and the formation of a cloud of flammable vapor that ignited. After about 80 minutes of leak having started, there was a massive explosion followed by a huge fireball covering the entire installation. It is estimated that in this 80 minutes of uncontrolled leak, about 2000 tons of gasoline cloud escaped out, which would have generated enough vapour to cause a vapour cloud explosion with the equivalence of 40 tons of TNT. The source of ignition, which triggered the explosion and fire could have been from one of non flame proof electrical equipment or from a vehicle being started in the installation (MoPNG, 2010) .The fire which followed the explosion soon spread to all other tanks and continued to rage for about 7 days. Immediately following the incident, a number of statements were made that the Jaipur IOCL fire was one-of-a-kind and such a catastrophic incident in an oil depot had never occurred before. The argument being that, since it was a one-of-a-kind incident, there was no way to account for such an incident in the design, construction, and operation of the facility and emergency response plans. However, a review of literature and past incidents makes it abundantly clear that incidents in tank farms and oil storage depots are quite common. In fact, there are many incidents that have significant similarities with the above fire.
CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS
In the evening hours of October 29, 2009, the Indian Oil Corporation Limiteds Petroleum Oil Lubricants (POL) Terminal at Sanganer in Jaipur was preparing to transfer Kerosene and gasoline to the neighboring Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL) Terminal, a routine operation for these installations. The chronology of events that led to the accident is presented here is summarized from various reports and sources such as MoPNG Committee (2010) and Media news (2009) and listed below. At about 6:10 p.m., in the process of lining up the MS tank, a huge leak of the gasoline took place as a jet of liquid from the Hammer Blind Valve on the delivery line of the tank 401-A leading to the gasoline pump. The leakage was unabated for about 80 minutes. During this period estimation shows that approximately 2000 tones of gasoline were released from the tank 401-A. The vapor cloud started to spread on the oil depot, and then off site, to cover lastly a total area of 180,000 m2, with an average height of about 2 m. This led to the rapid formation of a rich fuelair mixture. Witness statements also corroborate the spread of a mist-like cloud and reports of the smell of gasoline. Eventually, a big explosion occurred at 7:30 p.m. when part of the vapor ignited causing mild quake measured 2.3 on the Richter scale. The first explosion was followed by further explosions and a large fire, which involved over 11 large storage tanks of various sizes. Which resulted completely destroyed the facilities and building within the Terminal. Half an hour later at 8:00 pm, fire turned into uncontrollable flames 40 feet high affecting buildings up to 1 km away from the site. At 9:00 pm entire area was evacuated. By 10:00 pm all the 11 containers exploded, each turned into an inferno.
THE RELEASE SCENARIO

The spillage of the gasoline occurred over a period of about 80 min prior to ignition. The nature of the liquid release plays a significant role in determining the extent of the vapor cloud and the quantity of aerosol droplets that may be entrained in the vapor. For example release of a liquid from a hole in the tank near the ground would produce relatively low volumes of vapor and liquid droplets as compared to a liquid releases from a height [T. Kletz, 1986]. As the intermingling sprays of the released liquid fell to the ground, large scale liquid strings were formed, which then start dividing into large droplets. Some of the initial liquid fragments rapidly shattered to form a range of secondary droplets (C.X. Bai, 2002). There will also have been the formation of aerosol droplets of various sizes. While the phenomenon described above was occurring, the air was drawn into the liquid cascade and vapor was also being produced from the liquid evaporating and mixing with the air. Some liquid droplets remained suspended in the vapor flow as it impacted on the dike or other tanks within the dike. Individual falling droplets dragged the air within the cascade downwards and the air would have been drawn in through the sides to compensate. It is likely that the splash zone at the base of the tank was an additional area where vapor and very finely divided liquid were vigorously mixed for a significant period of time. Inevitably, given the composition and properties of the released fluid, there would have been vaporization. Because of the drop from height and the droplet formation, the vaporization rate was enhanced. Given the release of 2000 tons of gasoline from Tank 401-A, and the release scenario described above, it was quite likely to have expected the formation of the cloud size that did form.
THE FORMATION AND SIZE OF THE CLOUD

The intensity of the explosion and the resulting overpressure is dependent amongst other things on the amount of flammable mixture (which is a function of the amount of released fuel), the length of
The Indian Oil Corporation Ltd (IOCL), Jaipur Explosion and FireLessons Learned 395
the release duration, and the fact that it was falling in droplets from a height. Whatever the actual size of the cloud, this was a massive cloud, both absolutely and as compared with the evidence from other incidents, and an important reason why the explosion was so large. There is evidence from some of the earlier incidents of much smaller clouds producing violent explosions, as one can see from the descriptions in Lenoir and Davenports list of previous incidents (Lenoir and Davenport, 1993). With regard to the development of the vapor cloud, the height of the cloud is also important. The nearest meteorological measurements indicate that on the evening of the incident, the weather was calm and stable. The weather at the time of the release was Pasquill stability category D, with a near 1.5 wind speed (MoPNG, 2010). In addition, the gasoline was reported to be incorporating about 10% butane (BMIIB, 2006), which would also have increased the rate of vapour generation. The main components of the vapour cloud were probably butane and pentane (Atkinson, Gant, Painter, Shirvill, & Ungut, 2008). The total area of the cloud was of the order of 180,000 m2 with an estimated height of at least 2 m over most of the area.
UNUSUAL ASPECTS OF THE EXPLOSION

Certain crucial aspects of the IOCL explosion at Jaipur those were unusual as described hereinafter: Sufficiently delayed and strong ignition after an accidental release of hydrocarbons generally leads to either a flash fire in an open area or a VCE in a confined area. The strength of the gas explosions mainly depends on geometric factors (size, confinement, and obstructions generating turbulence), gas mixture factors (composition, reactivity or nature, and quantity of fuel), and ignition source (location and strength) (Qiao and Zhang, 2010). As previously stated, the vapour cloud in the Jaipur IOC accident had covered a major area of the plant facilities and the simulated impact of the subsequent explosion and fire was indicative of the damage that was observed at site. Estimates show that the facilities covered by the vapour cloud would have been vulnerable in the event of an explosion. These include the plant, other buildings, truck loading facilities, fire water system, and portions of the pipeline terminal. Excluding the area immediately adjacent to the release source, the concentration of the vapour cloud ranged between 7.8% and 1.2%, which are the upper flammability limit (UFL) and lower flammability limit (LFL) of gasoline. The distances of the UFL and LFL mixes of the vapour cloud were estimated at 15.54 m and 375 m, respectively.
VAPOUR CLOUD EXPLOSION

For an explosion to occur, several conditions must be fulfilled. First, the substance released must be flammable. Second, there must be a certain delay in ignition, because if ignition occurs immediately, a jet fire scenario is realized. Third, the vapour cloud must reach a minimum size. If there is a significant delay in ignition, it is possible that a sufficiently large cloud of fuel-air mixture will develop. Fourth, part of the fuel-air cloud must be within the upper and lower flammability limits. Finally, the presence of turbulence is required. This turbulence can be produced either by the release mode in the case of a jet or by interaction of the cloud with obstacles that create a partial confinement (Casa, 2008). If the release is from a pressure-liquefied state, the initial behavior may be similar to that of a heavy gas even if at normal temperature and pressure the substance is lighter than air. This may be due to its initially low temperature, entrapped liquid droplets (condensed fuel vapour or water mist due to high humidity), and high release density. The resultant vapour cloud is, therefore, likely to hug the ground initially due to negative buoyancy, before slowly rising and moving away. This potential for a spillage of so-called cold gasoline resulting in a vapour cloud explosion has also been recognized (Kletz, 1986).
Any delay in arresting the release increases the radius of the impact zone. Dispersion of the dense vapour cloud in the Jaipur IOC accidental release was favored by the conditions of relatively high ambient temperature and very low wind speed, leading to a cloud that built up over an area of 180,000 m2. The strong source of ignition that subsequently triggered the explosion could have been from one of the flameproof electrical equipment or from a vehicle being started at the installation. The shock waves which are generated due to massive explosion travel with the velocity of 488 m/sec. Scenarios were analyzed to identify the largest explosive transient vapour cloud that built up after the accidental release and to quantify the potential overpressure due to the VCE that was experienced by the various facilities. The estimated maximum overpressure in this scenario is about 1.0 bar. The damage caused by this explosion resulted in further loss of containment and the subsequent multiple tank fires involved a number of fuel storage tanks on the site.
SUMMARY OF EVENTS LEADING TO THE JAIPUR INCIDENT

The elements that were involved in the explosion can be analysed to determine whether there was significant knowledge available to predict the possibility of the explosion. There are four major steps in the incident sequence: Rrelease of gasoline; Formation of a vapour cloud; Ignition; Vapour cloud explosion and subsequently multiple tank fire.
Of these, the release of gasoline and the ignition of a vapour cloud that extended over such a large area were doubtless anticipated. The expansion of the vapour cloud and the occurrence of the explosion must be considered further
ASSESSMENT OF VAPOUR CLOUD EXPLOSION HAZARDS

A number of aspects of the IOCL explosion at Jaipur (India) stand out as important issues for the assessment of vapour cloud explosion. Series of powerful explosions were heard up to 20 miles (32.2 km) away as the fire spread from one tank to another. The impact of one explosion measured 2.3 on the Richter scale (MoPNG, 2010). As a result of this powerful explosion, about 1.7 km of the 3 km boundary wall collapsed. There was extensive pressure damage to a number of buildings as shown in Fig. 1 &2, vehicles, instruments, and lubricating oil drums located within the vapour cloud. Most of the damage indicated that approximate overpressures were in excess of 1 bar, even in areas some distance from the congestion provided by the trees.
Source: IOCL 2011
Source: IOCL 2011
Fig. 1: Damaged Terminal Main Building
Fig. 2: View of the Damaged Car Parking
The Indian Oil Corporation Ltd (IOCL), Jaipur Explosion and FireLessons Learned 397
CONCLUSION
The paper has highlighted the potential of formation for very large flammable vapour clouds following undetected prolonged releases of gasoline. However, similar prolonged releases are equally possible from other equipment items such as pipelines and at other storage locations (not just petrol storage). The scale of potential consequences, from ignition of large vapour clouds, can be such that the likelihood of such events needs to be significantly low enough for the risk to be considered as low as is reasonably practicable. This requires good hazard identification, of potential large-scale vapour cloud formation events, and the measures being in place to reduce this cloud formation and ignition likelihood. Learning from Jaipur IOCL and previous events should be used to improve hazard identification and risk assessments for storage site. The focus should be on the prevention of loss of primary containment. Factors such as better inventory management and leakage protection should be in place. It should also include design of liquid containment and means for leak detection and response. Modeling of the consequences of large vapour clouds should also be checked. The formation of large clouds should be covered taking into consideration those factors which increase cloud size for dense and neutrally buoyant vapour clouds.
REFERENCES
Atkinson, G., Gant, S., Painter, D., Shirvill, L., & Ungut, A., (April 2008). Liquid dispersal and vapour production during overfilling incidents. In IChemE symposium series 154, Hazards XX University of Manchester, UK, 14-17. [2] Bai, C.X., Rusche, H., Gosman, A.D., (2002). Modeling of gasoline spray impingement, Journal of Atomization Sprays, 12, 127. [3] BMIIB (2006). Initial report to the Health and Safety Commission and the Environment Agency of the investigation into the explosions and fires at the Buncefield oil storage and transfer depot, Hemel Hempstead, on 11th December 2005. [4] Casal, J., (2008). Evaluation of the Effects and Consequence of Major Accidents in Industrial Plants. first Ed. Elsevier publication, The Netherlands. [5] Laheij ,G.M.H. , Post, J.G., Ale, B.J.M., (2000). Standard methods for land-use planning to determine the effects on societal risk, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 71 ,269282 [6] Kletz, T.A., (1986). Can cold petrol explode in the open air?. The Chemical Engineer. 63. Reprinted in Loss Prevention Bulletin, No. 188, April 2006, p. 9. [7] Lenoir E.M. and Davenport, J.A., (1993) A Survey of vapor cloud explosions: Second update, Process Saf Prog 12, 1233. [8] MoPNG Committee Govt. of India, (2010), Independent Inquiry Committee Report on Indian Oil Terminal Fire at Jaipur on 29th October 2009, completed 29th January 2010 http://oisd.nic.in/index.htm (Last Accessed 21 February 210). [9] Qiao A, Zhang S., (2010). Advanced CFD modeling on vapour dispersion and vapour cloud explosion .Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 23, 843-848. [10] Renjith.V.R 1 , Madhu, G., (2010) Individual and societal risk analysis and mapping of human vulnerability to chemical accidents in the vicinity of an industrial area, International Journal of Applied Engineering Research, Dindigul, 1,135-148 [11] URL: Media news Published On: (October 30, 2009) http://www.ndtv.com/video/player/news/jaipur-depot-fire-how-ithappened/110728/ (Last Accessed 21 Nov. 2009). [1]
Section F Repair and Rehabilitation of Structures
Failure Analysis of Structures: Case Studies

Ajay Chourasia1, S.K. Singh2 and S.K. Bhattacharyya3
1Principal 1Principal
Scientist, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India; ajayapc@yahoo.com Scientist, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India; sksingh_cbri@yahoo.co.in 3Director, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India; director@cbri.in
AbstractIn recent years, there has been significant increase in structural failure (natural or manmade reasons), which needs to be analyzed properly to understand the exact cause of failure and remedial measures. When a major component of a building fails, this leads to a series of failures. To identify the exact causes of failure, investigators must establish the sequence of individual building component failures. In addition, it is also necessary to establish that failure of a particular structure has occurred due to a particular reason or multiple reasons. This paper attempts to give emphasis on the different causes of structural failure in accordance with the factors responsible for the same. Later, these causes are visualized in different case studies taking insight to their causes of failure. The paper also discusses and stress upon the need of education in building structure failures. Keywords: Failure analysis, Building failures, Failure education, Structural failure
INTRODUCTION
Despite of the fact that advances in structural analysis and construct ion technologies, failures continue to occur, often accompanied by loss of life and property. The paper has made an attempt to provide an overview of the subject of failure analysis. Till now there have been several instances of building collapses in India as well as abroad due to various reasons. The reasons are well known but the most astonishing point is that repetition of building failure occurrences by the same reason. Usually, it is well established that the failure of any particular structure is not due to a single cause but there are combination of causes. The major causes are human factors which can be prevented by taking adequate precautions at design and construction stage. Importance of the topic lays in the fact that failure always lead to both social and economic loss; hence its prevention with proper assessment is of utmost importance. The purpose of this analysis is to highlight the causes of building failures through a number of different case studies of failure disasters viz. natural and man-made.
CAUSES OF STRUCTURAL COLLAPSE

To mitigate failure of structures, post analysis of the collapsed building should be done to establish the root cause of the failure which will help to avoid encountering similar problems in future. These causes are broadly classified into natural causes and man-made causes.
Natural Causes
These include various natural calamities like earthquake, cyclones, floods, snow storms, tsunamis, landslides etc. Occurrence and magnitude of these calamities are unpredictable leading to severe damage to the built environment, but can be minimized by adopting suitable preventive measures if taken at planning, design and construction stage.
Man-Made Causes
There are several causes responsible for failure of buildings. Few of them are discussed herein:
Faulty Design
It does not mean only errors of computation, but it should to take into account the loads on the structure subjected to its life span and proper design basis. Failures may occurs due to improper load
consideration, erroneous theories, reliance on inaccurate data, ignorance of the effects of repeated or impulsive stresses, and improper choice of materials or misunderstanding their properties etc. Sometimes the extreme loading to which structure is exposed are not taken at design stage. This calls for attention of designer and its detailing in drawing thereon its execution. Following factors may be visualized for the common causes of bad design as well as design failure: Internal factors/Human Errors The External Factors Inadequate Awareness
Unsuitable Materials
It is important to use good quality materials in construction otherwise structure starts showing early distresses in structure. Therefore, it is important to approve the source of materials well in advance after checking all compliance test report. In addition, regular testing of materials is necessary ensure flow of good materials.
Improper Construction
It is one of most important cause of structural failure. The site engineer is responsible to ensure good quality workmanship and best construction practices. In addition, regular inspection is utmost important to ensure basic principles of engineering concepts, detailing, good construction practice and use of quality materials. Construction techniques are greatly affected by the topography of the area. Many unique and inherent poor construction features significantly adheres the stability of the structures. Lack of appropriate building materials and transportation cost has led to the various substandard construction materials. It is critical to promote good construction practices with suitable alternative materials. The housing techniques should be such that at the time of unexpected loading the structure must evenly distribute the deformation which adds to energy dissipation capacity of the system. Locally available materials and traditional technologies which have proven their ability to resist loads should be restored with modern construction practices to have an appropriate design for strong and safe building. Compliance to the modern guidelines and construction codes must be enforced strictly to avoid faulty construction practices.
Poor Foundation Design

It is also responsible for failure of the building structure. Although the structure will carry its loads, the earth beneath it may not. The subsidence of footing due to improper foundation design may alter the stress distribution, if design of footings is done based on assumption of Safe Bearing Capacity without any geotechnical investigation. The several building failures are due to foundation failures, either due to undermining of safe support. It must be ensured by installation of temporary and permanent supports to the structure such as underpinnings. The load transfer failures which are responsible for the differential settlement or movement of the foundation, lateral movement which enables the foundation to move in any of the several ways are well during designing and construction of foundation. Foundation design failures also comprises of unequal support which is dependent on different soils with different and unequal soil-bearing resistances, drag down and heave due to which the supporting soil reacts by yielding and compressing to provide resistance when the footing is loaded. There is always certain probability of occurrence of design error, construction error which comprises of inadequate temporary protection measures, error relating to temporary shoring, bracings and temporary coffer dams and foundation work itself. Other factors that play significant role are floating and water level changes which will modify the bearing capacity and dimension of the supporting soil. The vibration effects will affect the earth masses which are not fully consolidated by changing in its volume, earthquakes can affect the foundations depending on the nature of earthquake or may cause liquefaction of the soil.
Failure Analysis of Structures: Case Studies 403
Extreme Loads
These are often natural, such as repeated heavy snowfalls, or shaking of an earthquake, or the winds of a hurricane or due to aggressive environmental loads. However, structures are also subjected to manmade extreme loads such as fire, blast, impact etc. sometimes. A building shall be designed to withstand for these challenges. A fragile flexible structure may avoid destruction in an earthquake, while a solid masonry building would be destroyed.
Unexpected Failure Modes

These are the most complex reasons for collapse. Any new type of structure is subject to unexpected failure, until its properties are well understood and design approach is well defined. Suspension bridges seem to be the answer to bridging large gaps. Everything has been supported by a strong cable in tension, a reliable and understood member. However, distressing experience has showed that the bridge deck is capable of galloping and twisting without restraint from the supporting cables.
CASE STUDIES Failure Analysis of Pier Cap of Delhi Metro

The failure of pier cap has occurred on 12th July 2009, while lifting the segments of superstructure. The pier cap has sheared from connection point of the pier. The incidence has also caused subsequent collapse of launching girder of span between P-66 and P-67. This girder has been launched and pre-stressed of the superstructure for the span between P-67 and P-68.
Fig. 1: Failure Due Inadequate Prop/ Jacketing
Fig. 2: Inadequate Development Length of Top Rebar ( Pier Cap)
Fig. 3: Failure of Launching Girder
Fig. 4: Failure of Cranes
The cause of the failure of pier cap is generally due to inadequate anchorage to pier. The pier cap has been initially designed as cantilever pier cap but it has developed cracks at the time of launching the girders. Rectification has been taken-up including grouting and strengthening by introducing prop and jacketing. It leads to change in behavior of structure from cantilever to simply supported beam, which could not sustain the load of segments. The support of prop/jacket has developed excessive shear stress in the connection due to inadequate section/welding (Fig.1). This has coupled with failure of cantilever pier cap due to inadequate development length of top reinforcement of cantilever pier cap (Fig. 2). subsequently it has followed by failure of launching girder and cranes (Fig.3 & 4). The failure of cranes is a result of operational inexperience for such synchronized crane operations which led to overloading in cranes.
Shanghai Building Collapse

A 13th story newly constructed apartment constructed on pile foundation toppled at around 5:30am on 27th June 2009(Fig.5). The main cause of collapse was due to improper construction & execution of building. The main structure of building has completed in all respects. After completion of work, an excavation adjoining to building has been carried out at the south side up to a depth of 4.6 m and the excavated material has been stacked on the north side of building, very close to outer bay of building to a height of 10 m. In the meantime heavy downpour led to water seepage into the ground and into the stacked material causing uneven lateral load from south side to an intensity over 3000 tons more than lateral resistance capacity of piles/pile groups. It has causing shearing off piles leading to overturning of superstructure (Fig.6).
Fig. 5: Toppled 13-Story Apartment Building
(a) Fig. 6: Pile Failure
(b)
Surat Apartment Building Collapse

A five storeyed apartment building constructed in 1980s for residential cum commercial purpose is collapsed in Surat on 13th December, 2011. The building has developed cracks due to ongoing construction work on adjacent plot. The deep excavation below the foundation level of existing building has taken up for construction of basement. It has caused excessive subsidence in the existing building which leads to the development of cracks in walls and beam-column junction resulting into collapse of the building. The building before the collapse has tilted and then it has collapsed like a pack of cards. (Fig.7) shows the failure view of the apartment.
Fig. 7: Failure View of the Apartment
Laxmi Nagar Building Failure

A 5-storeyed non-engineered building with basement located at the bank of river Yamuna in Lalita Park, Laxmi Nagar of East Delhi has collapsed at around 8 pm on 15th November 2010.
(a) Fig. 8: Collapsed 5-story Building at Delhi
(b)
The building is slender in elevation with lightly reinforced RC column and 115 mm thick brick masonry walls. Outer walls at 1, 2, 4th floors are constructed over a cantilever projection of 1.4m at one side of building. The possible main cause of the failure as reported by authorities indicates that the building is non-engineered, originally constructed for three stories with basement, and subsequently added two more storeys. Due to high water table being adjoining to river Yamuna, poor quality of construction materials and bad construction practices led to seepage and subsequent flooding in basement. The reduction in bearing capacity of soil, inadequate footing, poorly designed and constructed has caused differential settlement of column footings lead to collapse of building. (Fig.8).
Buildings Collapse in Bhuj Earthquake

A strong earthquake of magnitude 7.7 (USGS revised) has struck the Kutch area in Gujarat at 8:46 am on January 26, 2001. During this event numerous mid- to high-rise residential buildings has collapsed in the city of Ahmedabad leading to huge loss of life and property.
Fig. 9: Open Ground Story
Fig. 10: Connected RC Elevator CORE with Floor Slabs
Fig. 11: Overhang Floors in Buildings
Fig. 12: Poor Detailing of Reinforcement
The causes of collapse of buildings has been attributed to open ground storey (Fig. 9), short column effect and connection of RC elevator core with floor slabs (Fig.. 10), irregular structural configuration, water tanks on roofs, inefficient use of construction codes and guidelines, detailing, construction practices, overhangs and floating columns (Fig. 11), lack of confining reinforcement, poor quality control (Figure. 12), and plan asymmetry.
DISCUSSIONS
Most of the failures as per above studies are occurred mainly due to combinations of different causes i.e. foundation failure, improper design and detailing, unsuitable construction material and bad execution, poor quality control and quality assurance, most importantly is the Chalta Hai attitude towards civil engineering projects. This type of continuous failure sequence raises the importance to include the study of failure education in engineering curriculums. With the help of failure education, one can develop an effective engineering aptitude in designs and its implementation. It also provides an insight to the nature of design and engineering methods, they not only establish important links between classroom and working environment, but also help engineers to realize the importance of professionalism and values to be practiced in their fields of interest. Moreover the undergraduate students on completion of civil engineering courses independently handle design, construction, execution etc. without having any site experience. In addition, the knowledge of failures have been given usually by self-study, workshops, structural and forensic-related conferences, seminars targeting specific practice areas (such as designing for natural hazards, building assessment due to deterioration-related distress or historic preservation) and through web based courses but every aspiring engineer does not get an access to these facilities. Therefore, there is a need for technical education in failure analysis in civil engineering courses. A civil engineer must learn from the past failures and vigilant on the reasons of failure through their profession. Failure case studies provide a perfect opportunity to discuss ethical concerns in real life situations, as well as serving as a constant reminder of the repercussions of careless engineering. Curriculum will be helpful in identifying the human component of failure, which includes communication problems and procedural errors. Many researchers and experts have thought upon insertion of building failure education in curriculum and come out with many conclusions. As per the opinion of various experts, failure education can be introduced in the civil engineering curriculum through firstly inclusion of failure case study courses which could not be adopted in India due to other overcrowded curriculum. Secondly, through the various design oriented courses being made available with each student needs to take one course as per his field of interest. Thirdly, failure education can be included by integrating failure studies in the curriculum by linking courses, topics and their respective case studies. All in one, failure education needs to be incorporated in civil engineering curriculum by integrating it with different courses and topics so that a complete homogeneous relationship is established between classrooms and working environment. Broadly the content may be: 1. Importance and need of failure education. 2. Existence of different types of civil engineering structures (roads, railways, bridges, buildings etc.) and illustrating various modes of failure with case studies. Preventive measures to be adopted to prevent such failures based on causes of past failures.
CONCLUSION
The analyses of structural failures are utmost important parameter for establishing the exact cause or causes of failure and taking appropriate action to avoid such failure in future. But unfortunately repetition of failure has occurred several times. This is because of lack of awareness and poor understanding of engineering concept. Therefore, there is need to stress upon capacity building in this area. Further, failure analysis course should be included in civil engineering curriculum.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Director, CSIR-CBRI, Roorkee for granting permission to publish the paper.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] Alexander Adekoya and Abi Aghayere, (2006), The Use of Failure Case Studies to Enhance Students Understanding of Structural Behavior and Ethics, 9th International Conference on Engineering Education, July 23 28. B.M. Luccioni, R.D. Ambrosini & R.F. Danesi, (2004), Analysis of Building Collapse under Blast Loads, Engineering Structures, 26, 63-71. Cynthia G. Rouse, Breaking the Circle: Educating Undergraduates through Failure Case Studies, University of Alabama in Birmingham Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Birmingham, AL 35294. Daniel S. Cherono, (2011), Understanding the causes of collapse of buildings, David R. Bohnhoff, (2001), Investigating Building Failures, ASAE Meeting Presentation, USA July 30-August 1. D. R. H. Jones, (1993), Material Failure Analysis, Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK, Engineering Material, 3, 291314. M. Kevin Paritt & Elizabeth E. Parfitt, (2007), Failure Education-The Key To Better Engineering Design, Structure Magazine. M. Mahendran, (1995), Project-Based Civil Engineering Courses, Journal of Engineering Education, Norb Delatte, (2009), Failure Case Studies in the Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics Curriculum: A New Textbook, American Society for Engineering Education. Norbert J. Delatte, (2003), Using Failure Case Studies in Civil Engineering Courses, Proceedings of the American Society for Engineering Education Annual Conference & Exposition, American Society for Engineering Education. Pamalee A. Brady & John W. Lawson, Using Case Studies to Characterize the Broader Meaning of Engineering Design for Todays Student. Rachel Martin, Failure Case Studies in Civil Engineering Education. Rakesh K. Goel, M. EERI, Performance of Buildings during the January 26, 2001 Bhuj Earthquake, San Luis Obispo, CA 93407. S.Rajendran, Failure and Remedial Measures. Steve Alexander, Alexander Co Ltd, Auckland, ( 2007) Introduction to building failures, BUILD . Will Clem and Lillian Zhang, (2009), Fact behind Building Collapse in Shanghai,
Rehabilitation of Non-Ductile Reinforced Concrete Building using Steel System

S.H. Makade
Assistant Professor, Kavikulguru Institute of Technology and Science, Ramtek; sangeeta_makade151@yahoo.com
AbstractThis paper presents results of seismic analysis of a four storied non ductile reinforced concrete building. The building has been assumed to be designed and detailed for gravity load requirement only. Seismic analysis of non ductile reinforced concrete building is carried out on STAAD pro to determine the lateral displacement, axial force, bending moment and shear force. The results of un-braced and braced building are compared. In design, diagonal bracing and X bracing are used to rehabilitate the buildings. From results obtained, it is observed that X bracing is more effective than diagonal bracing to minimize the lateral displacement, shear and bending demand to resist the lateral load which exert on building during earthquake. Keywords: Non ductile reinforced concrete building, lateral displacement, axial force, diagonal bracing, X bracing
INTRODUCTION
Many buildings in seismic zones are designed for gravity loads only before advent of earthquake regulation. The provisions of ductile design are not done for these buildings. So they are insufficient to resist the lateral load during earthquake .As a result, there is serious damage to structures and unrepairable loss of life as well. These damages may be prevented by some extent by rehabilitating these building by steel bracing and shear wall or by strengthening the deficient structural elements. In this paper, diagonal bracing and X bracing is used to rehabilitate non ductile building has and o results has been compared.
PROBLEM STATEMENT
The details of building are described in Table 1.The plan and elevation of building is shown in Fig.1 and Fig. 2 respectively. Seismic load is applied on building as per 1893 -2002. Analysis is run for different load combination.
Table 1: Model Data of Building
Structure No. Of stories Storey height Type of building use Seismic zone Material Properties Youngs modulus of concrete, E Density of concrete Density of brick masonry Member Properties Thickness of slab Beam size Column size Thickness of wall Dead Load Intensities Floor finishes Live Load Intensities Roof and Floor Earthquake LL on slab as per Cl. 7.3.1 and 7.3.2 of IS 1893(part 1)-2002 Roof Floor Steel bracing (Single angle) SMRF G+4 3m Residential IV 22.36 x 106kN/m2 25 kN/m3 19.20kN/m3 0.125m 0.23x0.3m 0.23x0.6m 0.23m 1.0kN/m2 3.0kN/m2 0 0.25x3=0.75kN/m2 ISA (100x100x10)mm
Seismic Zone Zone factor, Z Importance factor, I Response reduction factor, R
IV 0.24 1.00 5.00
The load cases considered in the seismic analysis are as per IS 1893-2002.
Fig. 1: Plan of Building
Fig. 2: Elevation of Building
Fig. 3: Building with X Bracing
Fig. 4: Building with Diagonal Bracing
Rehabilitation of Non-Ductile Reinforced Concrete Building using Steel System 411
RESULTS Lateral Displacement

The results obtained for without bracing are compared with the results of diagonal bracing and Xbracing Table 2
Table 2: Maximum Lateral Displacement in mm. in X Direction for Zone IV
Floor Level 4th floor 3rd floor 2nd floor 1st floor Ground floor DL+LL 0.038 0.002 0.002 0.011 0.011 Without Bracing 77.53 72.36 61.45 45.16 19.75 Seismic Load Diagonal Bracing 35.477 33.817 28.873 20.932 09.027 X Bracing 29.35 28.24 24.10 17.30 7.33
Maximum Forces and Bending Moments in Columns

Maximum axial Force (Fx) is noted in Table 3, maximum shear force (Fy) and bending moment (Mz) in Table 4 and Table 5 respectively.
Table 3: Maximum Axial Forces in Column in kN for Zone IV
Table 4: Maximum Shear Forces in Column in kN for Zone IV

Table 5: Maximum Bending Moments in Column in kN-m for Zone IV

Floor level 4th floor 3rd floor 2nd floor 1st floor Ground floor DL+LL 0.068 0.004 0.040 0.042 0.043 Without Bracing 8.678 29.293 44.623 113.307 137.723 Seismic Load Diagonal Bracing 08.502 8.632 9.819 20.417 31.448 X Bracing 8.557 8.397 15.406 12.812 33.038
Comparison of Results for Displacements

The variation of displacements and the percentage reduction in displacement for the braced frame in comparison to that of unbraced frame is presented.
Table 6: Maximum Displacements in X Direction (mm)
No of Storey 4 Seismic Loads Without Bracing X- Bracing 77.53 29.35 % Reduction in Displacement 62.14%
CONCLUSION
1. The steel braced frame building gives better result than the building which is un braced under seismic effect. 2. Building is said to be earthquake resistant when it gives minimum displacement during the earthquake. Thus the displacement of building at the time of earthquake should be less. The displacement results of braced and un-braced building are presented in Table 2. From Table 2 it can be concluded that displacement of steel braced frame is reduced by great amount as compared to building without braced frame thereby greater ability to resist earthquake lateral load. 3. The X-bracing type is the most effective type of bracing system which can reduce the displacement, moments and shear demand in the structure. 4. The steel bracing in RC frame is light in weight by comparison with shear wall hence reduces cost of structure.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] Bush T.D. ,Jones E.A. and Jisra J.O.(1991) , Behaviour of R.C. frame strengthened using structural steel bracing ,Journal of structural Engineering ,117(4) Desai J.P. ,Jain A.K. and Arya A.S.(1988),Seismic response of R.C. braced frames ,Computers and Structure ,29(4),557-568 Ghaffarazdeh H. And Meheri M.R.(2006) , Cyclic tests on the internally braced R.C. Frames ,DPT. Of Civil Engineering, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran. IS 1893 (Part 1)-2002, Criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures, Part 1 general provision and buildings, Fifth revision, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. Marc Badoux and James O.Tirsa (1990), Steel bracing of R.C. frames for seismic retrofitting, Journal of Structural Engineering, 116(1), 145-168. Maheri M.R. and Sahebi A.(1997), Use of steel bracing in reinforced concrete frames .Engineering structure, 19(12),1018-1024. Ravikumar G. And Kalyanaraman V. (2005), Seismic design and retrofit of R.C. multi-storeyed building with steel bracing, National Programme on earthquake Engineering Education. Shrikhande M., Agrawal P. (2010). Earthquake resistant design of structure ,Mac-Grath ,144-156 Vishwanath K.G., Prakash K.B. , Desai A. (2010).Seismic Analysis of steel braced concrete frame. Journal of Structural Engineering, 1(1),114-122.
Health Assessment of Building using Vibration Characteristics

Ajay Chourasia1, S.K. Singh2 and Jalaj Parashar3
2Principal
Scientist, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India; ajayapc@yahoo.com Scientist, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India; sksingh_cbri@yahoo.co.in 3Technical Officer, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India; jalajp@rediffmail.com
1Principal
AbstractExposure of buildings to harsh loading, deterioration with age, and environmental influences may cause local or global damage in structures. In order to avoid failure of structure, it is imperative to identify such kind of damages at early stage and take appropriate retrofitting strategies, which calls for continuous health monitoring. The vibration based damage detection methods use measured changes in dynamic characteristic to evaluate changes in physical properties that may indicate structural damage or degradation. The basic idea of modal parameters viz. frequencies, mode shapes and damping, are function of physical properties of the structure (mass, damping and stiffness). Thus, change in physical properties cause changes in the modal properties. Any reduction in structural stiffness and increase in damping in the structure may indicate structural damage. This basis has been utilized to predict the existing condition of the building based on regular/continuous monitoring the vibration signature. The paper outlines utilities, cautions, instrumentation, and detailed procedure for carrying out ambient vibration survey of buildings. An attempt has been made to illustrate through a case study of two storey prefab frame structure constructed at CSIR-CBRI. From ambient vibration record of the building during lateral load test, it was concluded that there is appreciable change in dynamic characteristics with stiffness degradation. Keywords: Health monitoring, vibration, dynamic properties, time and frequency domain, prefabricated buildings.
INTRODUCTION
The interest in the ability to monitor a structure for its health assessment and damage detection is an upcoming new area of research throughout the civil engineering. Current methods are either visual or localized experimental methods such as acoustic or ultrasonic methods, magnet field methods, radiographs, eddy-current or thermal field methods and require that vicinity of damage is known a priori and the portion of the structure being inspected is readily accessible. Also, these experimental methods can detect damage on or near the surface of the structure. The need for additional global Health monitoring method that can be applied to complex structures has led to the development of methods that examine changes in vibration characteristics of structure. Damage or fault detection, as determined by changes in the dynamic properties or response of structures, is a subject that has received considerable attention in literature. The basic idea is that modal parameters (frequencies, mode shapes, and modal damping) are functions of physical properties of structure (mass, damping, and stiffness). Therefore, changes in physical properties will cause changes in modal properties. Ideally speaking, a robust damage detection scheme will be able to identify that damage has occurred at a very early stage, locate the damage within the sensor resolution being used, provide some estimate of the severity of the damage, and predict the remaining useful life of structure. The effects of damage on a structure can be classified as linear or nonlinear. A linear damage situation is defined as the case when the initially linear-elastic structure remains linear-elastic after damage. The changes in modal properties are a result of changes in geometry and/or the material properties of the structure, but the structural response can still be modeled using a linear equation of motion. Nonlinear damage is defined as the case when the initially linear-elastic structure behaves in a
nonlinear manner after the damage has been introduced. One example of nonlinear damage is the formation of a fatigue crack that subsequently opens and closes under the normal operating vibration environment. A detection method will be applicable to both of these general types of damage. However, the paper is restricted to linear health monitoring scheme.
AMBIENT VIBRATION SURVEY

Ambient vibration survey is restricted to the extraction of modal parameters (frequencies, damping ratios and mode shapes) from dynamic measurements of building. These modal parameters will serve as basis to the finite element model updating, detecting and locating the possible damage in structures, long-term health monitoring of structures and safety evaluation against earthquakes and wind loads. Mainly there are three types of dynamic testing viz. forced vibration testing; free vibration testing; and ambient vibration testing. Health Monitoring using ambient vibration data presents a challenge that needs the use of special identification techniques, which can deal with very small magnitudes of ambient vibrations contaminated by noise without the knowledge of input forces. Over the past decades, the techniques of system identification using ambient vibration data of civil engineering structures are being developed very fast. There are various techniques suggested such as peak-picking from power spectral densities (Bendat and Piersol 1993)1, auto regressive-moving average model based on discrete time data (Andersen et al 1996)2, Natural excitation technique (James et al. 1995)3 and stochastic subspace identification (Van Overschee and Moor 19964; Peeters and De Roeck 20005).
Use of Ambient Vibration Measurement

The data from ambient vibration is used in a variety of applications, like: 1. Generation of database on dynamic characteristics of multistoried building with different parameters like structural type, soil characteristics, seismic zones, foundation type etc. 2. Model verification and updating 3. Stiffness / Strength degradation 4. Assessment of effectiveness of strengthening measures through health monitoring before and after strengthening 5. To understand soil-structure interaction effects 6. To determine amplitude of motion and thereby justify the need of stiffening 7. Damage detection methodology for structural assessment 8. To estimate effect of non-structural elements on natural frequencies and damping during construction and at different times 9. Structural integrity testing through signature analysis 10. To arrive at solution to vibration problem due to machine, wind, blast, wave, impact etc. 11. To develop empirical relations for time-period calculation.
Caution in using Ambient Vibration Data

The data from ambient vibration shall be used judiciously, due to following reasons: 1. At low amplitudes, the dynamic response of building or structure is substantially affected by non-structural components (exterior cladding, internal walls and partitions, stairwells, etc.). Changes in these components or loosening of connections with the structural system can easily be confused with structural damage. 2. The damping values obtained from these tests may be on lower side because of low levels of excitation and amplitude of vibrations.
Health Assessment of Building using Vibration Characteristics 415
Measuring Equipment
Velocity sensors having natural period of instruments close to 1 sec. and damping to 0.7% of the critical are usually deployed. The output of velocity sensors is amplified through signal conditioner and recorded in a recorder in digital format. Subsequently, the data is filtered, processed for extraction of modal parameters.
Measurement Procedure
While measuring ambient vibration of the building, it is usually assumed that the structure can be approximated by a one-dimensional, damped discrete or continuous system. In most of the cases, measurements indicate that for the level of excitation applied, floor structures are sufficiently stiff so that the above assumption is acceptable. Further, it is assumed that the resulting motions can be expressed as the superposition of modes associated with discrete frequencies. This approach thus requires a simultaneous measurement of motion in a given direction, at least two different floors to obtain their relative amplitude and phase; the two quantities needed to determine mode shapes. During the measurement of ambient vibration survey, it is not necessary to find the actual amplitude that is recorded because in determining mode shapes, it is the relative amplitude of the same two instruments which is required. The modal frequencies can be obtained by placing triaxial velocity sensors, preferably at the centre of the building in plan, and subsequently by placing them at different floors. The sensors can be oriented so that the signals from the sensors correspond to x, y and vertical (z) direction frequencies. For determining the modes, one triaxial velocity sensor is placed always on the roof floor, as a reference sensor, while the other sensor (moving sensor) is oriented in same manner and relocated successively on each floor, including at roof, to allow the evaluation of modal response over the height of the building. The modal frequencies are determined directly by taking the data into frequency domain whereas the mode shape is obtained by taking the ratio of two pairs of readings normalized to reference sensor. By taking the ratio of amplitude spectrum of the reference sensor to moving sensor at successive floors, one obtains amplitude proportional to the mode shape amplitude at that floor for a given frequency of vibration. It is shown in the past by various researchers that this simple approach gives mode shape, which compares well with the independently obtained mode shapes. Since amplitude spectra gives only the modulus of the amplitude, phase spectra are also used to determine the positive (in phase) or negative (180o out of phase) sign of mode amplitude.
PEAK-PICKING (PP) METHOD

Ambient vibration testing does not directly lend itself to Frequency Response Functions (FRFs) or Impulse Response Functions (IRFs) calculations because the input forces are not measured. The PP Method is simplest known method for identifying the modal parameters of civil engineering structures subjected to ambient vibration loading. The method is initially based on the fact that FRF goes through extreme values around the natural frequencies. The frequency at which this extreme value occurs is a good estimate for the frequency of the system. In this context of ambient vibration measurements, the FRF is only replaced by auto-spectra of the ambient outputs. In such a way the natural frequencies are simply determined from the observations of peaks on the graphs of the averaged normalized power spectral densities (ANPSDs). These are basically obtained by converting the measured accelerations in frequency domain by discrete Fourier transform (DFT). Although the input forces are not measured in ambient vibration study, this problem is often being circumvented by adopting a derived modal parameter identification technique where the reference sensor is used as an input and the FRFs and coherence functions are computed for each measurement point with respect to this reference sensor. It not only helps in identification of resonances, but also yields the operational shapes that are not the mode shapes but almost always
corresponds to mode shape of structure. The coherence function computed for two simultaneously recorded output signals has values close to one at the resonance frequency because of the high signal-noise ratio at these frequencies. The components of mode shapes are determined by the values of transfer function at the natural frequencies. It is to be noted here that in context of ambient vibration testing, transfer function does not mean the ratio of response over input force but rather the ratio of response measured by a moving sensor over response measured by reference sensor. So every transfer function yields a mode shape component related to the reference sensor. Here it is assumed that the dynamic response at resonance is only dominated by one mode. The validity of this assumption increases as the modes are better separated and the damping in the structure is lower. The peak picking is a kind of frequency based technique. Frequency domain algorithms are most popular, mainly due to their simplicity and processing speed, and also for historical reasons. These algorithms, however, involve averaging temporal information, thus discarding most of their details. Peak-picking technique has some theoretical drawbacks such as: 1. Picking the peaks is always a subjective task; 2. Operational deflection shapes are obtained instead of mode shapes; 3. Only real modes or proportionally damped structures can be deduced by the method; 4. Damping estimates are not reliable In spite of these drawbacks, many civil engineering cases exists where the PP technique is successfully applied. The popularity of the technique is due to its implementation, simplicity, and speed.
Data Analysis
It is convenient to use Fourier transform to analyze low level structural vibrations, i.e. ambient vibration and exhibit the frequency content of recorded vibration, thus identifying modal frequencies when the input force frequency spectrum is reasonably flat. Comparing measured amplitude and phase between various floors on the structure, provides estimation of mode shapes.
Frequency Analysis
The representation of vibration signal in time-domain gives in-sight into properties of signal and understanding of the structure performing it. The most important procedure in time domain is the frequency analysis through Discrete Fourier Transformation (DFT).6 Let us investigate, a time series x(n) where n varies from 0 to N-1. Its DFT is defined as:
X (m) = x(n)e i 2nm / N

n =0
N 1
Where X(m) represents the mth Fourier-Term and m is the index of the Fourier terms. They start as the time series also at 0 and go to N-1, i.e. we have N Fourier-terms X(0), X(1), X(2),.. upto X(N-1). Each Fourier term has a real and an imaginary part. The power spectrum is obtained by addition the square of the real and of the imaginary part. Taking the square root of the power spectrum leads to the amplitude spectrum. It is this amplitude spectrum which is of importance to extract modal frequencies and the ratios to find out modal shapes as described earlier.
Damping
The critical damping is obtained by calculating the exponential decay between two maxima in a time series. The decay curve is plotted on the top of the signal in order to provide a visual check on the appropriateness of the calculated damping value.
The damping evaluation is done assuming the structure to SDOF. A decay of the form is assumed.
x (t ) = Ao e Dt sin(t + )
Now the two peaks viz. A1 and A2 are selected with increments D from zero in step of 0.001 until the condition given below is met:
1 e D ( t 2 t1 ) >
A1 A2 A1
The damping D, thus obtained is stated as percent of critical damping.
Formulation of Analytical Model

The modal parameters obtained using field ambient vibration measurements are verified by generating numerical model. The basic model of buildings is formulated as a system of beams and columns connected by floor diaphragm which are rigid in its own plane and fixed at foundation level, with appropriate material properties. The model is subjected to free vibration analysis to extract analytical modal frequencies and corresponding mode shapes
Health Assessment of Prefab Structure: A Case Study

A study of prefab frame structure, wherein vibration measurements are taken prior and after imposing lateral load on the structure. The prefabricated structural members of model are constructed using M30 grade of concrete. The slabs are of light-weight autoclaved cellular concrete. The building configuration is presented at Fig. 1, further all material properties of members are computed through appropriate tests in accordance with BIS/ASTM.
Fig. 1: Prefab Structural Model
The vibration measurements are taken using SYSCOM system identification equipment, which comprises of MR2003+ triaxial velocity sensors, recorder and software for data acquisition and its analysis. The sensors are first oriented in such a way that measured response corresponds to X-
component and Y-components. The vibration measurements are taken at center of all floors simultaneously with a sampling rate of 202 sps. To capture the vibration, trigger levels in all the three direction are set appropriately. The length of the record varies from place to place and later truncated to 2n data points (where, n=real number).
Modal Parameters
The vibration signatures are obtained at different floors along with their Discrete Fourier Transformation (DFT) depicting amplitude spectrum. A spectral characteristic of the structure varies with the applied cyclic loading if the given loading induces inelastic behavior. This mainly occurs due to stiffness degradation in the structure due to inelastic loading. Hence, in the present study frequency of the structure with the progress of cyclic loading is calculated. The FFT analysis of recorded data corresponding to before and after test at 1st and 2nd floor levels have been presented at Fig. 2 thru 5 respectively. While comparing the frequencies at first floor level before and after the loading, it computed at 8.54 Hz and 5.91 Hz while corresponding values at second floors obtained as 8.42 Hz and 5.88 Hz respectively. Thus, there is approximately reduction of around 30% in frequencies in both the directions, this itself attribute the corresponding stiffness degradation.
Fig. 2: FFT at First Floor Level along X-Direction of Prefab Model (Before Loading)
Fig. 3: FFT at Second Floor Level Along X-Direction of Prefab Model (Before Loading)
Fig. 4: FFT at First Floor Level along x-Direction of Prefab Model (After Loading)
Fig. 5: FFT at Second Floor Level along x-Direction of Prefab Model (After Loading)
CONCLUSION
Vibration measurements are commonly used in the assessment and structural health monitoring of civil engineering structures such as buildings, bridges and towers since it is a cheap and fast process. The dynamic characteristics of the system (global level) can be estimated using modal extraction technique. Furthermore, the extracted modal properties such as natural periods, mode shapes and
damping ratios can also be used for verifying the design characteristics of a civil engineering structure and validating the numerical model that can be used to predict the response of a structure under an extreme loading condition. High sensitivity accelerometers or seismographs are placed in different setups on critical point of the structure, to measure the vibration caused by traffic, wind or micro-tremors. Averages of a large number of measurements are used to obtain general trends, while eliminating noise and effects of specific inputs. By spectral analysis of the signals, natural frequencies of vibration and modal shapes can be determined, along with correlations between vibrations of different parts of the structure. When these measurements are repeated after several years or after a significant earthquake occurred, changes in dynamic properties can be detected, which can be consequences of damage or of degradation of the structure.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Director, CSIR-CBRI, Roorkee for granting permission to publish the paper. The study presented is part of sponsored research project at CSIR- CBRI.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Bendat, J.S. and Piersol, A.G., (1993), Engineering Applications of Correlation and Spectral Analysis. 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. Andersen, P., Brincker, R. and Kirkegaard, P.H. (1996), Theory of covariance equivalent ARMAV models of civil engineering structures, Proc. IMAC14, the 14th Int. Modal Analysis Conf., Dearborn, MI, 518-524. James III, G.H., Carne, T.G. and Lauffer, J.P. (1995), The natural excitation technique (NExT) for modal parameter extraction from operating structures, Int. J. Analytical and Experimental Modal Analysis, 10(4), 260-277. Van Overschee, P. and De Moor, B., (1996), Subspace Identification for Linear Systems: Theory, Implementation and Applications, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands. Peeters, B. and De Roeck, G. (2000), Reference based stochastic subspace identification in civil engineering, Inverse Problems in Engineering, 8(1), 47-74. Chourasia Ajay, Singh S.K., Parashar Jalaj (2010), Testing and Evaluation of 3-S Prefabricated System to Establish Behavior of Various Joints under all Design Loads including seismic (Zone IV) on Full Scale Building CBRI Report.
Optimum Design of FRP Sandwich Core Bridge Deck

Tushar Kanti Dey1, Anupam Chakrabarti2 and Umesh Kumar Sharma3
2Assistant
Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India; tkdiitr@gmail.com Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India; anupam1965@yahoo.co.uk 3Assistant Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India; umuksfce@iitr.ernet.in
1Research
AbstractIn this paper, an optimum design scheme has been proposed for Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) sandwich core bridge deck. Various representative bridge panels are considered in the present study for the optimization. The FRP sandwich core bridge deck panels considered in this study are simply supported on two opposite edges while the other two edges are free. The bridge deck panels are subjected to self weight and imposed live load as per IRC 70R[3] loading for the tracked vehicle. Structural optimisation has been performed considering depth of core, thickness of top and bottom face plates as the basic design parameters. The design parameters are varied to obtain different trial solutions in different steps while the material properties for different components are treated as invariable. The optimization has been carried out using criteria based on the maximum deflection and it is also checked for critical buckling load and failure load. The process of optimization has been done by using modified PYTHON script generated by Graphical User Interface (GUI) of ABAQUS CAE[1]. The values of the design parameters are finalised based on the solutions corresponding to the minimum volume of the FRP materials used. Thus a comprehensive optimisation scheme is adopted in the present study to get a cost effective FRP bridge deck panel. Keywords: Plates, Sandwich Core, Finite element analysis (FEA), Optimization
INTRODUCTION
High initial cost of FRP has restricted the use of light weight FRP laminated panels in civil engineering applications. Therefore, optimisation of structures made of FRP is very important to limit the cost. It is observed in the literature that very little work has been done on the optimisation of such FRP structures. In this structure (Fig. 1), the core is made of solid foam while the laminated face sheets are manufactured by stacking GFRP composite layers with different orientations. Different studies of demonstration projects have recognized that FRP bridges/walkways are highly stiffness driven. The development of high flexural stiffness- to-weight panel systems in the form of FRP sandwich core structures has, therefore, received a great deal of attention in recent times. In the study a simple methodology is proposed for the optimization of FRP bridge deck structures using the commercial FEA package ABAQUS CAE 6.8 [1]. The PYTHON script which has been generated by using the above package is modified to perform multiple trials by varying the structural design parameters (i.e., thicknesses of top and bottom face plates; thickness, depth). The initial dimensions of the design parameters are chosen in view of the manufacturing criteria as a arbitrary value qualifying deflection criteria. The trials which satisfy the design constraints (i.e., the deflection criteria) are further considered for optimization. The optimization function is defined corresponding to the minimum volume leading to the optimum cost of material. Finally, the optimum design configurations of the bridge deck are analyzed to satisfy the buckling and failure load criteria.
GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS
A typical representative sandwich core bridge panel (Fig. 1) is considered in the present study for the optimization. The sandwich core bridge deck panel considered in this present study is of dimension 7.5m x 1m. The panel is simply supported on two opposite edges while the other two edges are taken
Optimum Design of FRP Sandwich Core Bridge Deck 421
as free. The panel is subjected to self weight and imposed live load as per IRC 70R [3] loading in the form of patch loading to represent the tracked vehicle. Structural optimisation has been performed considering depth thickness of top and bottom face plates as the basic design parameters. The design parameters are varied to obtain different trial solutions in different steps while the material properties for different components are treated as invariable.
Fig. 1: Cross Sectional View of a Typical Bridge Deck
OBJECTIVE FUNCTION
Very limited optimization techniques are reported in the literature on the present problem of FRP sandwich bridge deck structure. In the present study the material optimization is not considered. To make the structural optimization simple and self generated, python scripting is modified using the Graphical User Interface (GUI) of ABAQUS CAE 6.8[1]. For optimization, an objective function is chosen to minimize the volume of the structural system. The following objective function is used in the present study: (1) where L, D, W, tb, tt are the panel length, depth, width, thickness of bottom plate, thickness of top plate, respectively.
DESIGN OPTIMISATION
The full optimization coding is done in python scripting language with the help of graphical user interface (GUI) of ABAQUS CAE 6.8 [1]. A typical looping is incorporated in python script is used in the present study. The algorithm for the modified code used in the present study is also illustrated by a typical flowchart in Fig. 2. Thus the proposed optimization scheme has a wide range of application due to the availability of multiple looping function which helps in handling multiple design parameters.
Fig. 2: Typical Flowchart for the Proposed Optimization Code
MODELING
The model comprises of three components i.e. bottom face plate, sandwich core, and top face plate. The various components of the structure are generated in GUI of ABAQUS CAE 6.8 [1] and assembled The elements used for the present FE analysis are conventional shell elements having three displacements and three rotational degrees of freedom. The element type used is: S4R (S4R: Conventional Stress/Displacement Shell, 4-node, Reduced Integration) and the core is modeled as solid 3D element. The shape of the element is quadrilateral having linear element geometry. The mesh density is increased repeatedly and the model is re-analyzed until the results converge satisfactorily. In this module, top and bottom face plate are meshed by 80 by 80 divisions and the sandwich core is meshed with a global seed size of 80 mm. The interaction between the common nodes of the individual components is defined by using the tie elements. These tie elements ensure perfect bond between the adjacent components. The analysis is done using the general static loading option. The 70R tracked vehicle loading specification as per IRC: 6-2000 [3] has been adopted by including the effect of impact and applied along with the self weight. After obtaining the optimum configuration of the FRP bridge deck, it is also checked for buckling and failure criteria. The buckling analysis is performed using the linear perturbation option. For the failure analysis Tsai-Hill [6] and Tsai-Wu [7] failure criteria are adopted in the present study.
RESULT
In the present study a thorough optimization is performed for the FRP sandwich core bridge deck based on the deflection criteria (permissible deflection limit = Span /800, provided in AASHTO[2]) obtain the minimum volume using iteration method. The design parameters to be optimized are the thicknesses of top face plate, bottom face plate and foam core. The depth of the core is varied from 40mm to 200 mm to obtain different optimized configurations for practical applications. Fig. 3 represents the plot of the total volume of the FRP requires in bridge deck corresponding to different trial configurations.
1.04 1.02 1.00
volume (m)3
0.98 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.90 0.88 0.86 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Trial number
Fig. 3: Convergence of Solutions
The best range of configurations with least volume is selected in this stage of optimization for each configuration. Further refinement in the iteration process is performed on the range of configurations obtained in the previous step to get the optimum design. Typical deflection profile and the stress contours under general static load obtained in the present analysis are shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 respectively.
Fig. 4: Deflection Contour under General Static Load of the Bridge Deck System
Fig. 5: Stress Contours of the Bridge Deck System
A typical buckling mode shape for the optimized bridge deck system is also shown in Fig. 6 for the applied load. The results of a typical failure analysis [6-7] carried out on the optimized configuration are shown in Fig.7. Sensitivity analysis has been performed to find the effect of different design parameters on deflection.
Fig. 6: Deflection Contours under Buckling Load of the Bridge Deck System
Fig. 7: Failure Contours under Tsai-Hill Theory of the Bridge Deck System
The sensitivity analysis for deflection with the variations of design parameters are shown in the Fig. 8. Optimizations of various combinations performed are summarized in the Table 6. The results obtained from different analyses are presented in Table 7.
1.1
1.0
Thickness of top plate Thickness of bottom plate Depth of core
Deflection (mm)
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5 60 80 100 120 140
Varation(%)
Fig. 8: Deflection-Sensitivity Table 2: Ply Stacking Sequence

Description Bottom Plate Top Bottom Ply Stacking Sequence (0/90/0) (0/90/0)
Table 3: Elastic Properties

Composite Laminate Elastic Properties of FRP Glass EL 118GPa ET 6 GPa GLT 2 GPa LT 0.3 Density 1000 kg/m3
Table 4: Elastic Properties

E Elastic properties of Foam 130 MPa 0.3
Table 5: Ultimate Strength Properties

Composite Laminate Elastic Properties of FRP Glass LU 1200 MPa TU 600 MPa LTU 60 MPa
Table 6: Summary of Optimum Design

Case Span (m) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Width (m) 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 Depth (mm) 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Optimized Configuration (mm) Top Bottom Plate Plate Thickness Thickness 18 23 18.5 20 16 19.25 13 18.5 12 17.5 11 16 9 14.75 8 13.25 7 12 Volume (m3) 0.9225 0.8662 0.7931 0.7087 0.6637 0.6075 0.5343 0.4781 0.4275
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Table 7: Result of the Structural Analysis

Description Stress in Fiber Direction (MPa) Stress in Transverse Direction (MPa) In-plane Shear Stress (MPa) Tsai-Hill failure Criteria Tsai-Wu failure Criteria Buckling Strength (N/sq. mm) Maximum Deflection of Depth (L/800, mm) Design Limits 1200 600 60 <1.0 <1.0 49.27 1.25 Results of Analysis 9.603 1.886 0.406 0.019 0.015 0.110 1.244 Factor of Safety 124.96 318.13 147.78 52.63 66.66 447.97 1.004
Finally, interaction curves are plotted in Fig. 9 to show the variations of thicknesses of top and bottom face sheet for different depth of the sandwich foam core. The curve shown in Fig. 9 is useful for design purpose also.
24 22 20
Thickness of top plate Thickness of bottom plate
Thickness(mm)
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Depth of core(mm)
Fig. 9: Design Interaction Curve
CONCLUSION
In this study detailed analyses as well as optimization are performed for various configurations. The structural analysis results obtained for different cases are shown in Table 7. It is found that the results are well below different design limits for the structure. The sensitivity study reveals the effect of different structural components on the design constraints. It is found that the bottom plate is more sensitive and has greater contribution in deflection. The best optimum design of each configuration also reveals that with the increase in the depth of the bridge panel, the volume reduces drastically. The depth of bridge panel is limited to a certain extent due to some practical application consideration.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] ABAQUS CAE 6.8. Dassault Systmes Simulia Corp, 2008. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). LRFD Bridge design specifications. 2nd Ed.; 1998. Indian Road Congress (IRC). Standard specifications and code of practice for road bridges. Section: II Loads and stresses. IRC: 6-2000 (Fourth revision); 2000. Kim HY, Choi YM, Hwang YK, Cho HN. Optimum design of a pultruded FRP bridge deck. ECI conference on Advanced Materials for Construction of Bridges, Buildings, and Other Structures III 2003. Qiao P, Fan W, Davalos JF, Zou G. Homogenization and optimization of sinusoidal honeycomb cores for transverse shear stiffness. Journal of Sandwich Structures and Materials 2008; 10:385-412. Tsai, SW and Wu EM. A General theory of Strength for Anisotropic Materials. Journal of Composite Materials, 1971; 5:5880. Tsai, SW. Composite design (3rd edition). Dayton, OH: Think Composites, 1987; 123-124.
Shear Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Elements with FRP

Franklin F.R. Frederick1 and V.K. Gupta2
Scholar in the Civil Engineering Department, IIT Roorkee; sheebu4174@yahoo.com in the Civil Engineering Department, IIT Roorkee; vkgsufce@iitr.ernet.in
AbstractShear strengthening is required when an RC beam is found deficient in shear or upgraded loading requirements, damage caused by accidents and environmental conditions, initial design errors, seismic retrofit to satisfy current code requirements and change of usage. Strengthening with Fiber Reinforced Plastics (FRP) is a practically efficient and technically sound method of strengthening and deteriorating Reinforced Concrete (RC) members. Different applications of Fiber Reinforced Plastics (FRP) for external shear strengthening of RC elements are reviewed in this paper. Keywords: FRP, Strengthening, Epoxy bonding, Anchorage System, NSM system.
INTRODUCTION
The repair and rehabilitation of structural members are perhaps the most crucial problems in the civil engineering applications. Moreover, a large number of structures constructed in the past using the older design codes in different parts of the world are structurally unsafe according to the new design codes. Since replacement of such deficient elements of structures incurs a huge amount of public money and time, strengthening has become the acceptable way of improving their load carrying capacity and extending their service lives. Infrastructure decay caused by premature deterioration of building and structures has lead to the investigation of several processes for repairing or strengthening purposes. One of the challenges in strengthening of concrete structures is selection of a strengthening method that will enhance the strength and serviceability of the structure while addressing limitations such as constructability, building operations, and budget. Structural strengthening may be required due to many different situations like additional strength may be needed to allow for higher loads to be placed on the structure. This is often required when the use of the structure changes and a higher load-carrying capacity is needed. This can also occur if additional mechanical equipment, filling systems, planters, or other items are being added to a structure. Strengthening may be needed to allow the structure to resist loads that were not anticipated in the original design. This may be encountered when structural strengthening is required for loads resulting from wind and seismic forces or to improve resistance to blast loading. Additional strength may be needed due to a deficiency in the structures ability to carry the original design loads. Deficiencies may be the result of deterioration (e.g. corrosion of steel reinforcement and loss of concrete section), structural damage (e.g. vehicular impact, excessive wear, excessive loading, and fire), or errors in the original design or construction (e.g. misplaced or missing reinforcing steel and inadequate concrete strength). When dealing with such circumstances, each project has its own set of restrictions and demands. Whether addressing space restrictions, constructability restrictions, durability demands, or any number of other issues, each project requires a great deal of creativity in arriving at a strengthening solution.
STRENGTHENING OF REINFORCED CONCRETE (RC) MEMBERS

Structural strengthening is also required because of degradation problems which may arise from environmental exposure, inadequate design, poor quality construction and a need to meet current design requirement. Therefore, structural repair and strengthening have received much attention over
the past two decades throughout the world. Recent experimental and analytical research have demonstrated that the use of composite materials for retrofitting existing structural components is more cost-effective and requires less effort and time than the traditional means. Steel bonding technique is simple, cost-effective and efficient for strengthening. However, it was found that it suffers from a serious problem of deterioration of bond at the steel and concrete interphase due to corrosion of steel. Strengthening technique involves construction of steel jackets which is quite effective from strength, stiffness and ductility considerations. However, it increases overall cross sectional dimensions, leading to increase in self-weight of structures and is labour intensive. To eliminate these problems, steel plate was replaced by corrosion resistant and lightweight fiber reinforced plastics (FRP). FRP help to increase strength and ductility with-out excessive increase in stiffness. Seasonal and daily temperature variations cause freezing and thawing cycles, differential thermal expansion between concrete and FRP substrate, resulting in premature FRP separation and ultimately failure of strengthened system. FRP were less sensitive to environmental effects.
SHEAR STRENGTHENING OF RC BEAMS BY FRP

It was observed from the past experimental studies that the shear strength of virgin beam can be increased by 60120% using FRPC sheets. If fibers are placed perpendicular to cracks, a large increase in strength and stiffness is achieved compared to situation where fibers are placed oblique to the cracks [15, 29]. Fiber orientation may be vertical or perpendicular to the shear cracks. Shear contribution to the total shear capacity of strengthened RC beams depends on several parameter including surface preparation, composite fabric shear reinforcement ratio, amount of main and shear reinforcement, shear span to effective depth ratio, strength of FRPC, number of FRPC layers, wrapping schemes, depth of sheet across beam section [4,12,24,25]. U-wrap of sheet provided the most effective strengthening for RC beams with about 119% increase in shear strength. FRP materials for strengthening civil engineering structures have several disadvantages too. They in general behave in a linear elastic manner and fails at large strains (no yielding point and reduced ductility). This is contrary to the conventional steel which behaves in an elasto-plastic manner. As a result strengthened beams generally exhibit large deflection, wide as well as closer cracks and brittle failure mode [9, 34]. Effect of reinforcement ratio on cracking moment, crack spacing, cracking patterns and crack width was experimentally investigated by Masmoudi et al. [27]. Experiments have indicated catastrophic failure of strengthened beams due to low ductility. Spadea et al. [36] and Bencardino et al. [32] have suggested anchorage system to increase ductility, which is not affected by the change in the loading rate [42]. Compared to externally bonded FRP reinforcement, the Near Surface Mounted (NSM) system has a number of advantages: (a) the amount of site installation work may be reduced, as surface preparation other than grooving is no longer required; (b) NSM bars are protected by the concrete cover and so are less exposed to accidental impact and mechanical damage, fire, and vandalism; this aspect makes this technology particularly suitable for the strengthening of negative moment regions of beams/ slabs; (c) the aesthetic of the strengthened structure is virtually unchanged ( 26).
FRP STRENGTHENING METHODS

FRP systems have been shown to increase the shear strength of existing concrete beams by wrapping or partially wrapping the members. Orienting the fibers transverse to the axis of the member or perpendicular to potential shear cracks is effective in providing additional shear strength. Increasing the shear strength can also result in flexural failures, which are relatively more ductile in nature as compared to shear failures.
Shear Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Elements with FRP 429
Wrapping Schemes
The three types of FRP wrapping schemes used to increase the shear strength of prismatic, rectangular beams. Completely wrapping the FRP system around the section on all four sides is the most efficient wrapping scheme and is most commonly used in column applications where access to all four sides of the column is usually available. Whereas beams cast integrally with slabs allow partial wrapping around three sides only. Wrapping on three sides is commonly referred to as a U-wrap (continuous) or U-strip (discrete) configuration. Different wrapping configurations commonly employed to increase shear strength are shown in Figure 1. The FRP system can be installed continuously along the length of a member or in the form of discrete strips (Figure 1). Maximum shear resistance through wrapping can be achieved by wrapping as many sides of the beam as possible. Wrapping on all sides provides confinement-related benefits such as enhanced bending and shear strength for a reinforced concrete section.
Fig. 1: Wrapping Configurations for Increasing Shear Strength
Externally Bonded Reinforcement (EBR) System

Beams, Plates and columns may be strengthened in flexure through the use of FRP composites bonded to their tension zone using epoxy as a common adhesive for this purpose. The direction of fibers is parallel to that of high tensile stresses. Both prefabricated FRP strips, as well as sheets (wetlayup) are applied. Shear strengthening is usually provided by bonding the external FRP reinforcement on the sides of the webs with the principal fiber direction perpendicular or with an angle of e.g. 45 to the member axis. Research studies on shear strengthening with FRP are a few, a number of important contributions involving the experimental studies on RC rectangular beams, strengthened with FRP in shear have been carried out by several researchers (Triantafillou 1998; Khalifa et al . 1998; Khalifa & Nanni 2002; Adhikary et al. 2004; Sundarraja & Rajamohan 2009). Similarly the experimental studies on RC T-beams, strengthened with FRP in shear are also observed in the literature (Khalifa & Nanni 2000; Chaallal et al . 2002; Deniaud & Cheng 2003; Bousselham & Chaallal 2006; Panda et al . 2010). The researchers have shown that the shear strength of reinforced concrete beams may be substantially increased by bonding fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) strips or sheets as external shear reinforcement.
Near Surface Mounted (NSM) System

The externally bonded FRP to RC structures is susceptible to damage from collision, high temperature, fire and ultraviolet rays. To overcome these drawbacks, (NSM) system has been proposed. Slits are cut into the concrete structure with a depth smaller than concrete cover. FRP strips
or bars are bonded into these slits. Tests have shown that a higher anchoring capacity compared with FRP strips glued onto the surface of a RC structure is obtained (fib 2001). Research has shown that a significant increase in shear resistance of RC beams is reachable using the NSM FRP method (De Lorenzi s and Nanni 2001; Barros and Dias 2005). The effectiveness of the NSM technique with CFRP laminates for the shear strengthening of rectangular cross sectional RC beams was already well proved (Barros JAO, Dias SJE 2006; Rizzo A, De Lorenzis L 2009; Dias SJE, Barros JAO 2010; J.A.O. Barros et al. 2009; Khaldoun et al. 2011; Andrea Rizzo, Laura DE Lorenzis 2009). The NSM shear strengthening technique with CFRP laminates is more effective when applied to RC beams of high-strength concrete, not only in terms of increasing the load carrying capacity of the beams, but also in assuring higher mobilization of the tensile properties of the CFRP (S.J.E. Dias, J.A.O. Barros 2012).
Anchorage System
The failure of RC structures retrofitted with FRP almost always occurs by debonding of the FRP from the concrete substrate. To prevent this type of failure, national standards and design guidelines impose strict limitations on the allowable strain level in the FRP which may be safely utilised in design. In order to achieve acceptable levels of concrete-FRP contact bond stress, allowable strains are lower in cases where a higher degree of strengthening is required and can be as low as 10-25% of the material rupture strain (Kalfat & Al-Mahaidi 2010). Low levels of efficiency are often the result of using higher modulus fibers and multiple layers of FRP. In practice these limitations result in severe underutilisation of the FRP material properties. Anchorage of the FRP is one means to significantly improve the efficiency of FRP systems and hence provide a solution to these shortcomings. Debonding failure modes can change due to the addition of FRP U-jackets. Smith and Teng (2003) showed that with the addition of plate end U-jackets, the critical debonding failure mode could be shifted from concrete cover separation to IC debonding. Therefore, in an effort to prevent failure by IC debonding, the placement of U-jackets throughout the span or in the flexural-shear zones (at certain spacing) has been investigated by several researchers to date (Al-Amery & Al-Mahaidi 2006; Khan & Ayub 2010; Pham & Al-Mahaidi 2006; Yalim et al. 2008). Properly designed end-anchorage systems can achieve a superior contribution to shear resistance compared with specimens strengthened using EB FRP with no anchorage, NSM, or ETS methods (Amir Mofidi et al.2012).
CIVIL STRUCTURAL APPLICATIONS USING FRP

FRP strengthening applications were cited by Nanni (1995), Increase of the load rate of the Tokando Highway bridge at Hiyoshikura, a reinforced concrete deck supported on steel girders, causing a 3040% reduction of stress in the internal rebar, strengthening and stiffening of the concrete lining of the Yoshino Route tunnels on Kyushu Island, necessary due to cracking which arose from unexpected fluctuations in the underground water pressure. No loss of the tunnel cross-sectional area occurred and the road remained open during the bonding work. Longitudinal strengthening of the sides of a culvert at the Fujimi Bridge in Tokyo, Strengthening of a cantilever slab of the Hata Bridge along the Kyushu Highway in order to accommodate large parapet walls which caused elevated bending moments due to the higher wind force. Confinement of RC columns applying CFRP fabric (wet-layup technique) of the Reggio Emilia football stadium in Italy, 50 km from Bologna. Analysis of the stadium with the new Italian seismic code showed that the existing stirrups at the base of the columns were not sufficient to withstand the seismic loads. Therefore, the columns were confined in March 2006. Seismic retrofitting of Aigaleo football stadium in Athens, Greece. The column-beam joint is retrofitted using CFRP fabrics (wetlayup technique). The CFRP fabric is anchored to the RC deck using steel plates. The wooden bridge at Sins in Switzerland was stiffened in 1992 to meet increased traffic loading (Meier et al., 1992), the upgrading of a supermarket roof using laminate 15.5m in length to allow the removal of a supporting wall, ground floor strengthening of the Rail Terminal in Zurich, and the strengthening of a multistory car park in Films. A chimney wall at the nuclear power plant in Leibstadt has also been post strengthened for wind and seismic loading after the installation of ducts.
Shear Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Elements with FRP 431
Retrofitting of Masonry Structures

A number of historical buildings especially in Italy, Greece and Portugal were retrofitted applying FRP composites. Aramid and Glass FRP were applied for re-storing the Basilica of St. Francis of Assisi in Italy. The historical building was severely damaged by earthquakes and aftershocks in September and early October 1997 (Borri et al. 2002). Retrofitting of one of the masonry towers of the ancient Vercelli castle in Italy by applying CFRP rods bonded into the space between the bricks. It has been done by putting horizontal CFRP rods around the tower to prevent further opening of the cracks. Rods were bonded using epoxy resin. The strengthening was completed in May 2004. Seismic upgrading of the masonry shear walls of a school building in Bern, Switzerland. GFRP fabrics were glued to the walls surface followed by CFRP strips, which were applied crosswise on the GFRP fabric layer. The strip ends were anchored in the RC decks using steel plates.
CONCLUSION
The building structures have been successfully strengthened or retrofitted with FRP materials in many countries. Composite materials made of fibers in a polymeric resin, also known as fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP), have emerged as an alternative to traditional materials and techniques. They are light weight and easy to install on site. Following general concluding remarks are made: Externally bonded FRP products are efficient when additional reinforcing is needed to improve shearing capacity. On the other hand FRP composites are brittle, exhibit anisotropic behaviour and their mechanical properties may be affected by the rate of loading, temperature and environmental conditions. Generally, wrapping FRP sheets around the cross section is the most effective way to increase the beam shear capacity, while bonding FRP on beam sides is the least effective way. NSM requires no surface preparation work and significantly reduce the probability of harm resulting from acts of vandalism, mechanical damage and aging effects. In NSM strengthening technique, decreasing the spacing of the transverse steel reinforcement resulted in a lower gain of shear capacity. The use of mechanical anchorage eliminates the debonding of the FRP jacket, and consequently results in a better utilization of the full capacity of the FRP sheet. Anchoraged FRP straps were carried more shear load than the FRP straps with-out anchorages. Strain values at anchoraged FRP straps was measured larger than the strain values of FRP straps at which no anchoraging was applied. Anchorages were prevented peeling of the FRP straps from concrete surfaces.
REFERENCES
ACI 440.2R-08 (2008). Guide for design and construction of externally bonded FRP systems for strengthening concrete structures, ACI Committee 440. [2] Adhikary, B. B., Mutsuyoshi, H. and Ashrof, M. (2004). Shear strengthening of reinforced concrete beams using fibre reinforced polymer sheets with bonded anchorage, ACI Structural Journal, 101(5), 660-668. [3] Amir Mofidi, Omar Chaallal, Brahim Benmokrane and Kenneth Neale (2012). Performance of End-Anchorage Systems for RC Beams Strengthened in Shear with Epoxy-Bonded FRP, J. Compos. Constr., 16, 322-331. [4] Adhikary BB, Mutsuyoshi H. (2004). Behavior of concrete beams strengthened in shear with carbon fiber sheets. ASCE J Compos Const., 8(3), 25864. [5] Al-Amery, R & Al-Mahaidi, R (2006). Coupled flexural-shear retrofitting of RC beams using CFRP straps, Composite Structures, 75, 457-64. [6] Andrea Rizzo, Laura De Lorenzis (2009). Behavior and capacity of RC beams strengthened in shear with NSM FRP reinforcement, Construction and Building Materials, 23, 15551567. [7] Borri, A, M. Corradi, et al. (2002). New Materials for Strengthening and Seismic Upgrading Interventions, International Workshop Ariadne 10, Arcchip, Prague, Czech Republic. [8] Bousselham A. and Chaallal O. (2006). Effect of transverse steel and shear span on the performance of RC beams strengthened in shear with CFRP, Composites, Part B, 37-46. [9] Bencardino F, Spadea G, Swamy RN. (2002). Strength and ductility of reinforced concrete beams externally reinforced with carbon fiber fabric, ACI Struct. J., 99(2), 16371. [10] Barros, J. A. O., and Dias, S. J. E. (2005). Near surface mounted CFRP laminates for shear strengthening of concrete beams, Cement Concrete Compos., 28(3), 28994. [11] Barros, J. A. O., and Dias, S. J. E. (2006). Near surface mounted CFRP laminates for shear strengthening of concrete beams, Cem. Concr.Compos., 28(3), 276292. [1]
432 Twenty-eighth NCCE & National Seminar on Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development [12] Chaallal, O, Shahawy M, Hussan M. (2002). Performance of reinforced concrete T-girders strengthened in shear with carbon fiber-reinforced polymer fabric, ACI Struct. J., 99(3), 33543. [13] Deniaud, C and Cheng, J. J. R. (2003). Reinforced concrete T-beams strengthened in shear with fibre reinforced polymer sheets, Journal of Composites for Construction, 7(4). [14] De Lorenzis, L and Nanni, A. (2001). Shear strengthening of reinforced concrete beams with near-surface mounted fiberreinforced polymer rods, ACI Struct. J., 98(1), 6068. [15] Grace NF, Sayed GA, Soliman AK, Saleh KR. (1999). Strengthening reinforced concrete beams using fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) laminate, ACI Struct. J., 96(5), 86574. [16] fib (2001). Externally bonded FRP reinforcement for RC structures - Bulletin 14, International Federation for Structural Concrete (fib), Switzerland. [17] J. A. O. Barros, Vincenzo Bianco, and Giorgio Monti (2009). NSM CFRP Strips for Shear Strengthening of RC Beams: Tests and Mechanical Model, The Open Construction and Building Technology Journal, 3, 12-32 [18] Khaldoun, N. Rahal, Hatem A. Rumaih (2011). Tests on reinforced concrete beams strengthened in shear using near surface mounted CFRP and steel bars, Engineering Structures, 33, 5362. [19] Khalifa, A. and Nanni, A. (2000). Improving shear capacity of existing RC T-section beams using CFRP composites, Cement and Concrete Composites, 22, 165-174. [20] Khalifa, A. Gold, W. J., Nanni, A. and Aziz, A. (1998). Contribution of externally bonded FRP to shear capacity of RC flexural members, Journal of Composites for Construction, 2(4), 195-201. [21] Khan, A & Ayub, T (2010). Effectiveness of U-shaped CFRP wraps as end anchorages in predominant flexure and shear region, Proceedings, 5th International Conference on FRP. [22] Khalifa, A. and Nanni, A. (2002). Rehabilitation of rectangular simply supported RC beams with shear deficiencies using CFRP composites, Construction and Building Materials, 16, 135-146. [23] Kalfat, R & Al-Mahaidi, R (2010). Investigation into bond behaviour of a new CFRP anchorage system for concrete utilising a mechanically strengthened substrate, Composite Structures, 92, 27382746. [24] Li A, Diagana C, Delmas Y. (2001). CFRP contribution to shear capacity of strengthened RC beams. Eng. Struct., 23, 121220. [25] Li A, Assih J, Delmas Y. (2001). Shear strengthening of RC beams with externally bonded CFRP sheets. ASCE J., Struct. Eng., 127(4), 37480. [26] L. De Lorenzis, J.G. Teng(2007). Near-surface mounted FRP reinforcement: An emerging technique for strengthening structures, Composites, Part B, 38, 119143. [27] Masmoudi R, Benmokrane B, Chaallal O. (1996). Cracking behaviour of concrete beams reinforced with fiber reinforced plastic rebars, Can., J., Civil Eng., 23, 11729. [28] Meier, U., M. Deuring. (1992). Strengthening of Structures with CFRP Laminates: Research and Applications in Switzerland. 1st Intl. Conf. on Advanced Composite Materials in Bridges and Structures, 243, Sherbrooke, Canada. [29] Norris T, Saadatmanesh H, Ehsani MR. (1997). Shear and flexural strengthening of R/C beams with carbon fiber sheets, ASCE J., Struct. Eng., 23(7), 90311. [30] Nanni, A., (1995) Concrete Repair with Externally Bonded FRP Reinforcement, Concrete International, 17(6), 22-26. [31] Panda, K. C., Bhattacharyya, S. K. and Barai, S. V. (2010). Shear behaviour of reinforced concrete T-beams with U-bonded glass fibre reinforced plastic sheet, The Indian Concrete Journal, 84(10), 61-71. [32] Pecce M, Manfredi G, Cosenza E. (2000). Experimental response and code models of GFRP RC beams in bending, ASCE J. Compos. Const., 4(4), 18290. [33] Pham, HB & Al-Mahaidi, R (2006). Prediction models for debonding failure loads of carbon fiber reinforced polymer retrofitted reinforced concrete beams, Journal of Composites for Construction, ASCE, 10(1), 48-59. [34] Razaqpur AG, Svecova D, Cheung MS. (2000). Rational method for calculating deflection of fiber-reinforced polymer beams, ACI Struct. J., 97(1), 17584. [35] Rizzo, A., and De Lorenzis, L. (2009). Behavior and capacity of RC beams strengthened in shear with NSM FRP reinforcement. Constr. Build. Mater., 23(4), 15551567. [36] Spadea G, Bencardino F, Swamy RN. (1998). Structural behavior of composite RC beams with externally bonded CFRP. ASCE J. Compos. Const., 2(3), 1327. [37] Sundarraja M.C, Rajamohan S. (2009). Strengthening of RC beams in shear using GFRP inclined strips An experimental study, J. Construction and Building Materials, 23, 856864. [38] S.J.E. Dias, J.A.O. Barros (2010). Performance of reinforced concrete T beams strengthened in shear with NSM CFRP laminates, Engineering Structures, 32, 373-384. [39] S.J.E. Dias, J.A.O. Barros (2012). NSM shear strengthening technique with CFRP laminates applied in high-strength concrete beams with or without precracking , Composites, Part B, 43, 290301. [40] Smith, ST and Teng, JG (2003), Shear-bending interaction in debonding failures of FRP-plated RC beams, Advances in Structural Engineering, 6(3), 183-199. [41] Triantafillou, T. C. (1998). Shear strengthening of reinforced concrete beams using epoxy bonded FRP composites, ACI Structural Journal, 95(2), 107-115. [42] White TW, Soudki KA, Erki MA. (2001). Response of RC beams strengthened with CFRP laminates and subjected to a high rate of loading, ASCE J. Compos. Const., 5(3), 15362. [43] Yalim, B, Kalayci, AS & Mirmiran, A (2008). Performance of FRP-strengthened RC beams with different concrete surface profiles, Journal of Composites for Construction, ASCE, 12(6), 626-34.
Corrosion Control in Steel Reinforced Concrete Structures for Sustainability

S.R. Karade
Principal Scientist, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee247667; srkarade@cbri.res.in
AbstractConcrete is a widely used material, but it deteriorates with time mainly due to corrosion of steel reinforcing bars. Corrosion causes harm to various structures, resources, environment and economy. The repair of corrosion affected structure has significant environmental impact. The paper discusses various methods of control of corrosion in concrete structures and the related sustainability issues. Keywords: Corrosion, Concrete, Steel, Protection, Coatings, Inhibitors, Cathodic Protection, Sustainabilty.
INTRODUCTION
The construction industry plays an important role in modern life by providing facilities for various human activities. In this process it consumes large amounts of natural resources and adversely affects the environment. During the last century cement concrete had become one of the essential components of most of the structures. Presently it is the largest manmade material on the earth. In general, concrete is considered to be a durable material and provides long service life. However, depending upon the exposure conditions concrete structures deteriorate due to various causes, such as alkali aggregate reaction, sulphate attack, leaching, freeze thaw and frost damage, abrasion and corrosion of reinforcement (Broomfield, 2007). Corrosion of reinforcing steel bars is the main cause of concrete deterioration (Karade et al., 2008). If the deteriorated concrete structures are demolished and replaced with new structures, it will result in a significant loss of resources and embodied energy in the existing concrete. Therefore, a proper repair and maintenance of the concrete structures will not only prolong the service life of the structure, it will also reduce landfill volume and emission of carbon dioxide and other pollutants. Moreover, the embodied energy in the existing concrete will continue to be used. Thus, while repairing concrete structures the sustainability issues are becoming important parameters. Despite a considerable progress has been made in development of methods of corrosion control, repair and maintenance of corrosion affected concrete structures are still a major problem in India. Several methods of treatment are available but the selection of the most suitable method meeting the requirements of long-term durability and sustainability is difficult. This paper describes the corrosion process in reinforced concrete (RC), the methods available for corrosion mitigation and the relevant sustainability issues.
CORROSION OF REINFORCING STEEL

Corrosion of steel is a worldwide problem, costing 3-4 % of gross domestic product (GDP) of industrialized countries annually (Schmitt, 2009). In India, it is estimated that annual estimated direct loss due to corrosion is over Rs 2 lakh crore (Annon, 2010). In addition to the economic losses, corrosion causes various damages and threats to the public safety, disrupts operations and requires extensive repair and replacement of failed components. Steel rebars in concrete are normally well protected against corrosion due to formation of a thin and impermeable dense passive layer of oxide or hydroxide, such as ferric oxide (Fe2O3) in the alkaline medium of the pore solution of concrete (pH 12.5 to 13.3). As shown in Fig. 1, this passive
layer can break down due to penetration of chlorides or by carbonation of the concrete. Once the passive layer breaks down, anode and cathode are formed and corrosion initiates, which lead to severe deterioration of the steel and the concrete.
Fig. 1: Corrosion of Steel Reinforcemnt in Concrete
Basically corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete is an electrochemical process, which includes two equal and opposite reactions. These are anodic or oxidation reactions and cathodic or reduction reactions as given below:
FeFe+++2e- (at anode) O2+2H2O+4e-4OH- (at cathode) (1) (2)
Subsequently, ferrous hydroxide (Fe(OH)2), ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH)3) and hydrated ferric oxide (rust) are formed. The corrosion products have volume of upto 10 times that of steel they are converted from (Broomfield, 2007). This increase in volume causes cracking and spalling of cover concrete. The corrosion damage in concrete is a multi-stage process as shown in Fig. 2. Initially, the detrimental elements like chloride ions or carbon dioxide penetrate through the concrete cover to the steel and start depassivation of the passive layer leading to corrosion initiation. In the second stage, corrosion proceeds at a rate depending upon the availability of moisture and oxygen. Consequently, corrosion products are formed inducing tensile stresses in the cover concrete leading to cracks. Subsequent expansion due to corrosion proceeds until spalling of cover concrete. Ultimately there is a considerable reduction in reinforcing bar, which results in decrease in load carrying capacity and may lead to collapse of the structure. The service life design methods generally model the initiation period only (Fig. 2). However, recently attempts have been made to include the propagation period also (Podler et al., 2012).
Fig. 2: Various Stages of Corrosion in RC (1) Depassivation, (2) Cracking, (3) Spalling of Cover and (4) Collapse (Bertolini et al., 2004)
Corrosion Control in Steel Reinforced Concrete Structures for Sustainability 435
SELECTION OF A REPAIR METHOD

Detection of corrosion at the early stages through proper monitoring and non-destructive testing methods is providing cost effective repair measures. It enables selection of suitable measures, such as preventative treatments, repair of damaged concrete and treatments for stopping corrosion to be taken at an early stage and resulting in minimization of the overall costs of maintenance of the structure. The selection of repair materials and technique is the next important step. The repair materials account for several environmental impacts during their life cycle. In recent years, new materials with innovative features have been developed. Selection of a suitable repair material from the available wide range of materials such as cementitious mortars, polymer-modified mortars, grouts, epoxy mortars, different coatings and their combinations is not an easy task. The difficulty further increases as the requirements for each application vary. Proper selection of a repair material is very important for a successful repair work. The other important influencing parameters are methods of surface preparation and application. Traditionally, the construction agencies choose a repair material based on its initial cost, but over the last decade, this trend has been replaced by the concept of using life-cycle costs. The required time for repairing is important to the user, because the longer time taken for repair cause lot of inconvenience and it may need additional budget. Prior to selection of a repair material the purpose and location of the repair should be clearly known, so that the relevant material properties could be identified and matched with the requirements. Strength is often considered as the major parameter for selection of repair material and manufacturers also sometimes make high early strength as their selling point. However, it must be noted that the higher rate of strength gain may shorten the service life of the repair because the chemical admixtures used for this purpose such as rapid-setting cement, accelerators, water-reducing agents, etc. can result in higher shrinkage cracking and more brittleness than the substrate concrete. Although most patch repairs are not supposed to be load-bearing, but the minimum strength requirement is often considered as an approximate estimation of durability. In repair materials, shrinkage and thermal expansion are more critical than strength, but generally the specifications do not mention requirements of these properties. A repair system must resist the deterioration processes by providing a barrier against oxygen, water and chloride ions. However, the performance depends upon exposure environment. The selection of corrosion control measure also depends upon the type of structure viz. new or old structures. Some of the appropriate options are given below:
New Construction
High quality concrete Use of pozzolana Low w/c ratio Quality workmanship Corrosion resistant reinforcement Corrosion inhibitors Surface coating Cathodic prevention
Existing Structures Overlay mortar Surface coatings Cathodic protection Realkalkalization Chloride extraction Surface applied corrosion inhibitors FRP wrapping
Sustainability Aspects
All construction and repair activities use large amount of resources and affect the landscape and environment. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the concerned engineers to keep air and water clean by selecting appropriate materials and technologies leading to sustainable development, which can be defined as: Development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Thus it maintains the necessary balance between society, economy/resources and environment as shown in Fig. 3 (Anon, 2012). To make concrete structures durable for a long service life, various options should be assessed from the life cycle point of view (Fig. 4). Any structure or component can be evaluated based on the quantity of resources it needs and amount of wastes that comes out from it till its end of service life. Various analyses show that concrete repairs can have more environmental impact of a structure than new construction on a unit Fig. 3: Scheme of Sustainable Development at the volume basis. It is because energy and Confluence of Three Constituent Parts (Anon, 2012) resources would be required for removal and disposal of deteriorated concrete. The repair materials usually have more embodied energy than the original concrete because of use of polymers and long transportation distances. It has been reported that the embodied energy of a plain 1:3 sand: cement mortar has about 1.5 times as much embodied energy as conventional concrete and that a 1:10 polymer: sand mortar has more than 250 times greater embodied energy per unit of weight (Goodwin, 2012). Further, a replacement would consume 100 m3 of concrete with a carbon footprint of about 30 tonnes (Lemay et al., 2008). Besides, the loss of use and site disruption also have significant impact. On the other hand demolition of concrete structures is very energy intensive process. Thus, prevention of the need to repair concrete seems to be more beneficial to the environment and is more cost effective through service life extension than the current pattern of placement/wait for deterioration/remove-patch/repeat or the even more common scenario of waiting for extensive deterioration or obsolescence and then replacing the structure. Moreover, repaired concrete deteriorates at a faster rate than a well maintained structure of the same age that did not require repair. Failures of repairs are attributable to design or evaluation errors, material performance, and installation or construction errors. From the above discussion it is clear that the most effective strategy to sustainability in concrete repair is to avoid requirement of repairs by adopting suitable measures. These measures are proper construction methods, periodic monitoring, inspection, and maintenance. Good quality concrete can prevent initiation of corrosion at first place. Proper monitoring and inspection help in identifying the issues to be Fig. 4: Flow Process during Life Cycle addressed and to plan actions with the least cost (After Menzies et al., 2007) and interruptions. Further, provisions should be made to prevent entrance of moisture in concrete so that besides corrosion other deteriorations such as freezing and thawing damage, alkali aggregate reaction and sulfate attack cannot take place. It can be achieved by periodic treatment with penetrating sealers, surface coatings or membranes, and cathodic prevention. If these treatments are provided, repairs can be delayed for a long time. If repairs are inevitable, use of polymers should be minimized because of high embodied energy and volatile organic content (VOC) issues.
Corrosion Control in Steel Reinforced Concrete Structures for Sustainability 437
CONCLUSION
Concrete is durable material, but it deteriorates with time due to various environmental actions. Corrosion of reinforcing bars is the main cause of deterioration of concrete structures. However, if the concrete is made with proper care maintaining good quality, it can have a long service life. Use of suitable admixtures, protective coatings or cathodic prevention can postpone the need of repairs for a long period. Polymeric repair materials have more environmental impact than cementitious materials. Therefore, their need should be prevented using eco-friendly materials and techniques. If repair is essential, the selection of the repair materials should be done keeping in mind the life cycle cost and sustainability.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The paper is presented with kind permission of the Director, CSIR-CBRI, Roorkee.
REFERENCES
Anon (2010), India should have mandatory 'corrosion audit', say experts, Economic Times, Mumbai (September 28, 2010). Anon (2012), Sustainability, Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability accessed on 16th Aug. 2012). Bertolini, L., Elsener, B. Pedeferri, P. Polder, R. B. (2004) Corrosion of Steel in Concrete: Prevention, Diagnosis, Repair, WileyVCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim [4] Broomfield, J. (2007), Corrosion of Steel in Concrete: Understanding, Investigation and Repair, 2nd edition, Taylor & Francis, London. [5] Das, S.C., Pouya, H.S. and Ganjian, E.G. (2011), Corrosion mitigation of chloride contaminated reinforced concrete structures: a state-of-the-art review. Construction Materials. 164 : 2128. [6] Menzies, G. F., Turan S. and Banfill P. F. G. (2007), Life-cycle assessment and embodied energy: a review. Construction Materials. 160 : 135-143. [7] Goodwin F.(2012), Concrete Repair: The Ultimate Sustainability. (http://www.sspc.org/media/documents/tech/ Feb_Tech_12.pdf accessed on 27th July, 2012). [8] Karade, S.R., Mittal, A.K. Thapliyal, P.C. and Agrawal, S.P. (2008). Deterioration and Repair of Concrete Structures in Thermal Power Plants. Proc. Structural Engineers Congress (SEC-2008), Chennai, Dec. 18-20, pp. 1227-1236. [9] Lemay L. (2008), Concrete & Climate Change. Concrete in Focus. Summer, 38-43. [10] Polder R. B., Peelen, W. H. A., Raupach, M. and Reichling, K. (2012). Economic effects of full corrosion surveys for aging concrete structures. Materials and Corrosion (DOI: 10.1002/maco.201206709). [11] Schmitt, G. (2009) Global Needs for Knowledge Dissemination, Research, and Development in Materials Deterioration and Corrosion Control. World Corrosion Organization. (http://www.corrosion.org/images_index/ whitepaper.pdf accessed on 15th Nov., 2011) [1] [2] [3]
Corrosion Monitoring of Reinforced Concrete Structures

D.V.M. Bhaskar1 and S.R. Karade2
1Student 2Principal
Trainee, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee; bhaskar.dvm@gmail.com Scientist, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee; srkarade@cbri.res.in
AbstractReinforced concrete is a widely used structural material owing to the fact that it can hold humongous weights and does not wear easily. Although concrete acts as a barrier to external disturbances, corrosion of the steel causes an early deterioration of the structures causing it to collapse. Thus for maintenance and repair of infrastructure to make them safe, effective inspection, monitoring and assessment of reinforcement corrosion is required. Techniques which address the durability problems and resolve through non-destructive tests are of prime importance. This paper reviews some of the corrosion assessment techniques which make use of the electrochemical properties of concrete. Keywords: Concrete, steel, reinforcement corrosion, electrochemical techniques, monitoring methods
INTRODUCTION
Reinforced concrete structures have demonstrated that they are a place of safety from the potentially devastating effects of natural calamities. Concrete can be molded to different shapes and thus provides viable and cost-effective solutions in a variety of applications. Ageing, improper designing, external environmental factors and unanticipated circumstances lead to an inadequate performance of reinforced concrete. Corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete is a destructive chemical reaction between the reinforcement bar and its environment, which adversely affects the strength of the structure. An increase in volume due to the formation of rust exerts internal pressure which results in subsequent cracking and spalling of concrete. Concrete be permeable and reactive, it is susceptible to chloride and carbonation corrosion. The ingress of these ions changes the chemical dynamics of the metalconcrete interface. When steel in concrete corrodes it gives up electrons. Corrosion occurs by the movement of electrical charge from an anode to cathode by an electrochemical reaction. The key troubles linked with reinforcement corrosion are that its commencement and early stages of proliferation cannot be noticed visibly. Yet premature recognition of corrosion in a reinforced concrete structures can provide the opportunity to plan suitable maintenance measures, thus ensuring the protection of the structure. If corrosion remains unnoticed until cracking and spalling occur, then the expenditure of repair are considerably higher because all of the concrete cover and much of the reinforcement must be replaced. Furthermore, patch repair at this time can add to active corrosion in the adjacent original reinforcement and lead to a continuous series of repairs. The most frequently used techniques for evaluating the situation of embedded reinforcement are based on the electrochemical nature of the process (Song & Saraswathy, 2007). are: The methods reviewed in this paper to evaluate the corrosion of reinforced concrete structures Half-cell potential (HCP) measurement Concrete resistivity measurement Linear polarization resistance (LPR) measurement Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)
Corro osion Monitoring g of Reinforced Concrete Structures 439
CORRO OSION MO ONITORIN NG TECHN NIQUES Half-ce ell Potentia al Measure ement
Half-cell l potential measurement m (Fig. 1) is th he most exte ensively used d technique t to detect cor rrosion of steel rein nforcement in i concrete. ASTM C 876 entails det termining the e electrochem mical potent tial of the steel reinforcement with respect t to a coppe er/copper su ulfate referen nce electrode e by connec cting one wire of a high impe edance voltm meter to the reinforceme ent and the other to the e reference electrode e placed on o the surfac ce of the con ncrete. The voltage v can offer o an indic cation of the e probability of active corrosion of the ste eel. Potential l readings, alone, a is not t a decisive factor, since e various fac ctors like tion owing to t restricted diffusion of f oxygen du ue to existen nce of highly y resistive layers and polarizat porosity of concrete affect the po otential meas surement. asuring half-cell potentia al is a non-d destructive test t that enc capsulates hu uge amount t of data Mea encomp passing vast structural s are ea. According ASTM C876 using this s technique t the half-cell potential of steel in concrete e happens to o be more negative tha an -350 mV V vs. Cu/CuS SO4 there is s a 90% probabil lity that corro osion will tak ke place. AST TM C876 su uggests that potential mapping of structures is the most vi iable electrochemical process to analyze e the corro osion in rei inforced con ncrete struc ctures. Even n though consistent c relations ships are de epicted betw ween half-cell l potential and a corrosion rate, the t technique sh hould be accompa anied by other methods s. A small deviation d in potential wo ould cause a broad var riation in corrosion rate; therefore a generalized formu ulation canno ot be postula ated.
Table 1: The Suggested ASTM C8 876 Explanat tion of the Measure ements is as Follows (AS STM C 876-09 9, 2009)
H Half-cell Poten ntial Reading vs. v Cu/CuSO4 More positive than -200 mV m Between -200 and -350 mV m More neg gative than -350 mV C Corrosion Acti ivity 90% probability p of no corrosion An increased probabili ity of corrosion 90% probability p of cor rrosion
Limitations of th his technique e are: Other factor rs affecting th he negative potential are e not consid dered, except t for corrosio on (Song & Saraswath hy, 2007) Rate of corro osion cannot t be measure ed The period since s the cor rrosion starte ed is not know wn
Concre ete Resistiv vity Measu urement

The ext tent of dama age of the commenced c corrosion can c be analy yzed by mea asuring the electrical resistivity y of concret te. Corrosion n in concrete e is inversely y related to its i resistivity i.e. in conc crete with low resis stivity corros sion rate would be high as there is free f moveme ent of curren nt amid cath hode and anode areas. a Wen nner array is the most commonly used surface e mounted probe. A fo our probe method m is employe ed in which electrical cu urrent is pas ssed through h the outer probes p and the potentia al drop is measure ed by the in nner probes. From the current c & vo oltage drop measureme ents, the resi istivity of concrete e can be mea asured. (Cav valier & Vassie, 1981) The measured re esistance using wenner fo our probe method m (R):
Whe ere, I is the current c impr ressed curren nt on outer probes p and V is the pote ential drop measured m by inner r probes.
The concrete res sistivity ( = 2aR
) is calculated d as:
Whe ere, a is the inner i electrod de distance and a R is the measured re esistance Fact tors affecting g resistivity ar re: Cathodic pro otection syst tems Stray curren nt Concrete pa atch repair Carbonation n Coated surfa ace Atmospheric c condition
Fig. 1 1: Measurement of Half Cell C Potential l (Perth Constructio on Testing Se ervices, 2012 2)
Fig. 2: Resis stivity Measu urement using g Wenner Probe (Material Testing g Equipment t, 2012)
Table 2: Relationship R between Corrosion and Resistivity R Meas sured using Wenners W Prob be (Browne, 1982)
Resis stivity (Ohm-C Cm) <5000 5000-10000 10000-20000 >20000 Likelihood of Cor rrosion Very High High Low/Moderat te Low
Linear Polarizatio on Resista ance (LPR)

1. Linear relationship is observed betwe een potentia al and curren nt when a ver ry small elect trical potential is applied a to the corroding steel. The po olarization re esistance is the ratio of o the applied pote ential to resu ulting current and is inver rsely proporti ional to the c corrosion rat te (Millard, 200 00). Assu umptions ma ade to calcula ate a corrosion rate with the LPR technique are: Corrosion damage is uniform throug ghout the stru ucture rocess is gov verned by a particular p an nodic and cat thodic reactio on Corrosion pr The proport tionality cons stant i.e. Ster rn-Geary con nstant must be b predicted The concrete e electrical re esistance is considered c in nsignificant The half-cell l potential is stable
Adv vantages of LPR L techniq que are that it is a non-destructive technique, simple to ap pply and corrosion rate can be e determined d immediate ely. Therefore e, an increas sing number of viable ins struments are acce essible for fie eld measurem ments of LPR R. Measurem ments are ca arried out by y applying a potential in the ra ange of 10 to 30 mV (L Linear Polariz zation Resist tance, 2012). The technique can c be accom mplished by y examining the current decay by ch hanging the potential (E) of the reinfor rcement and d by monit toring the change c in potential p by applying a minute current (I) The polarization n resistance, Rp of the stee el can thus be b calculated from the equation: (E) Rp= (I) B ICoor= Rp
Thereby the corr rosion rate can c be calcula ated from th he equation:
Whe ere, B is the Stern-Geary y constant (2 25 mV and 52 mV (And drade et al., 1990)) and d A is the surface area a of the st teel that is po olarized. The corrosion cu urrent densit ty can be det termined by: iCoor= ICoor A
Limitations of th his technique e are: It is not poss sible to know w the area of steel which is being pola arized by the e applied pot tential, or the area whi ich is vigorou usly corrodin ng Corrosion ra ate is instanta aneous Gives no ind dication of ho ow long corr rosion has be een going on n No sign on how h the corr rosion rate va aries with tim me and ambi ient conditions
Fig. 3: 3 Linear Polarization Curve (Annon, 2012) 2
o to over rcome the lim mitation of not n knowing g the polarize ed area, a s secondary gu uard ring In order electrode (sensor) is introduced surrounding s the inner au uxiliary from which the pe erturbation is s applied
(Linear Polarization P Resistance & Stern-Geary equation, 2012). This s secondary e electrode ma aintains a confinem ment current t, which the ereby preven nts the sprea ading of the applied cur rrent beyond d certain area.
T Table 3: Corr rosion Curren nt vs. Conditi ion of the Re ebar with Sen nsor (Andrad de et al., 1990 0)
Corrosion n current (Icoor) Icoor< 0.1 A/ cm2 Icoor 0.1 -0 0.5 A/ cm2 Icoor0.5 -1.0 A/ cm2 Icoor> 1.0 A/ cm2 Likelihood of corrosion n of the rebar Passive e Low/ moderate m Modera ate/high High
Tab ble 4: Corros sion Current vs. Conditio on of the Rebar without Sensor (Andra ade et al., 19 990)
Corrosion current (Icoor) Icoor< 0.2 2 A/ cm2 Icoor0.21 1.0 A/ cm2 Icoor1.0 -1 10 A/ cm2 Icoor> 10 A/ cm2 Condi ition of the rebar r No co orrosion expected d Corrosion possible in 10-15 yrs Corrosion expected in n 2-10years Corrosion expected in n 2 years or less
Electro ochemical Impedance e Spectros scopy (EIS) )

Investiga ating the res sponse of co orroding elec ctrodes to sm mall-amplitud de alternating g potential signals s of broadly varying freq quency is th he basis of EIS. E It has tu urned out to o be a popu ular tool of corrosion c measure ement and monitoring m applications for f which tra aditional DC C methods ha ave been ob bsolete. It has been n used widel ly for coated and painted d materials to o identify the e impact of fl laws in the coating. c It has also o been engag ged to estim mate the effic ciency of cat thodic protection and co orrosion inhi ibitors as well as chloride c diffu usivity in con ncrete and ele ectrical resist tance of conc crete (ASTM M G106, 2010 0). The ratio of AC C voltage to AC A current is i impedance e (Z). The re esponse to a an alternating g voltage input i.e e. the current t and phase angle are measured. m Th he resultant impedance i is s a complex function comprisi ing real and imaginary components. c The semi-circular plot thus t obtained d by plotting g the real part on the X-axis and a the imag ginary part on o the Y-axis s is called th he Nyquist pl lot. The poin nt on the plot illus strates the im mpedance at a frequency. The impedance is repre esented as a vector and the t angle made by y this vector with the X-a axis is the phase angle.
Fig g. 4: Nyquist Plot
Limitations of th his technique e are: The measure ements take long time The system is susceptible e to electrica al interference e a the point cannot c be determined Frequency at Provide inac ccurate result ts if the syste em is not in steady s state
Bod de plot is a further rep presentation of the imp pedance valu ues. Unlike in Nyquist plot the impedan nce and the phase p shift values v are compared against the frequ uency.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5: Bode Plot (a) Impedance vs. Frequenc cy (b) Phase Angle vs. Fre equency
CONCL LUSION
The eva aluation of co orrosion and d appropriate counteract tive action to o corrosion affected area as allows the cost effective us se of structur re. The rate of corrosion n determines s how long a any structure e can be suitably and secure ely utilized. A prematu ure warning of a forthc coming dam mage would help in producin ng a correlat tion among changes in process p para ameters and their effect o on corrosion n. A nondestructi ive test woul ld prove a go ood deal in assessing a cor rrosion intens sity. Diffe erent techniques have been review wed in the paper whos se assumptions, limitati ions and advanta ages were dis scussed. No single techn nique can gi ive complete ely accurate results and thus one cannot completely c r rely on any one o particula ar technique. Since corro osion might be localized in some cases an nd uniform in n others ther refore it is re equired to use combinat tion of variou us technique es, which furnishes an accurate e idea of cor rrosion.
ACKNO OWLEDGE EMENT

The auth hors would like l to thank k Prof. S. K. Bhattacharyy B ya, Director, CSIR-Centr ral Building Research R Institute (CBRI) for giving the opportunity to present the paper and a providin ng all the necessary n equipme ent.
REFER RENCES
Andra ade, C., Alonso o M.C., Gonzale ez J.A., (1990), An initial effort to use corrosio on rate measure ements for estim mating rebar durab bility corrosion ra ates of steel in co oncrete. [2] ASTM M C 876-09, (2 2009), Standard d test method for half-cell po otentials of unco oated reinforcin ng steel in concrete, West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM A C876; 20 009. [3] ASTM M G106-89, (20 010), Standard Practice for Ve erification of Algorithm and Equipment E for E Electrochemical Impedance Measurements, 2010 [4] Brow wne, R.D. (1982), Durability of Building Materials s-1. E & F Spon Pub., London. p.113. p [5] Cava alier, P.G., Vass sie, P.R. (1981), Investigation and repair of reinforced r corrosion in a bridg ge deck: In Proc ceedings of Institu ution of Civil Engineers Vol.70, Part P 1 Auguest 1981 1 p.461-480. . [6] Linea ar Polarization Resistance R -http:// /www.corrosion-club.com/lpr.htm m, accessed on 13 1 September, 2 2012. [7] Linea ar Polarization Resistance R and Stern-Geary S equ uation.-http://cor rrosiondoctors.o org/ MonitorBasics/lpr.htm, accessed on 13 Septe ember, 2012 [8] Millar rd, S.G. (2000), Measuring the e corrosion rate e of reinforced concrete using the linear polar rization resistance method, Conc crete Society / Ins stitute of Corrosi ion liaison comm mittee. [9] Mater rial Testing Equipment E (20 012) http://ww ww.matest.com/p products/concrete e/c411-07-wenn ner-four-point-probe-0.aspx, acces ssed on 3 Octobe er , 2012. [10] Perth h Construction Testing Serv vices (2012), -http://www.pcts s.com.au/concre ete-ndt/half-cell-p potential-measur rement.htm, acces ssed on 3 Octobe er, 2012 [11] Song, H.W., Saraswa athy, V. (2007), Corrosion Monit toring of Reinfor rced Concrete StructuresA Rev view, Int. J. Elect trochemical. Sci., 2, 2 1-28. [1]
Section G Tunnelling, Underground Construction and Ground Improvement
Excavation and Ground Improvement Techniques for Tunnels and Underground Structures
D.G. Kadkade
Chief Adviser, Jaiprakash Associates Ltd., New Delhi; dg.kadkade@jalindia.co.in
AbstractThe requirement of tunnels and underground structures has been steadily increasing for various amenities required to be provided, starting from water conductor system for power generation and irrigation to construction of road traffic tunnels and underground metro railways. Underground excavations have to be completed at a faster rate to see that there is a reasonable reduction in cost of construction due to reduction in cost of funding. It is relatively simpler to do underground excavations in hard rocks which constitute lava formations like basalt, and also formations like granite, quartzite, schist, limestone etc so long as they are not intersected by too many discontinuities and shears. In order to overcome difficulties which are generally encountered in metamorphic and soft rocks, various excavation and ground improvement methods have been devised over the last three to four decades. This article depicts todays status of technological developments in excavation and ground improvement techniques for tunnels and underground structures.
INTRODUCTION
The requirement of tunnels and underground structures has been steadily increasing for various amenities required to be provided, starting from water conductor system for power generation and irrigation to construction of road traffic tunnels and underground metro railways. Tunnels are also being constructed for underground parking places, sewerages, electrical cables in metropolitan cities and also underground oil storages and for extraction of valuable ores. In addition to this, a stadium has been constructed in the recent years at Gjovik in Norway called Underground Olympic Ice Hockey Stadium, which is a very massive underground excavation constructed in a very short period using most modern underground techniques for speedy excavation. During the course of this excavation, Norwegian Geotechnical Institute conducted rock movement studies and other geotechnical aspects of the rock formation adding considerable knowledge in the field of rock mechanics. With increasing demand of underground structures, the excavation and ground improvement techniques have also been developed to enable faster construction. This paper deals the development in excavation and ground improvement techniques.
EXCAVATION TECHNIQUES
Since it is necessary to do underground excavation at a fast rate, modern equipment has been developed for operations of underground works. Techniques of excavation and development of new equipment for tunnelling can be classified into different sectors: 1. development on drilling equipment, 2. explosives and method of charging, 3. ventilation, 4. mucking equipment, 5. development on temporary and permanent tunnelling supports,
6. fast concrete lining methods, 7. grouting, 8. drainage, and 9. Tunnelling in weak rocks. Some of these aspects are being detailed out in the following paragraphs:
DRILLING EQUIPMENT
A sketch pertaining to development of drilling equipment is given at Figure 1 for reference. It will be seen from Figure-1 that we have the technology available in the world today to reach a drilling speed of 300 metres per hour with use of a three-boom hydraulic jumbo with rocket boomers having COP 1838 hydraulic drifters. The penetration speed of this machine is as high as 3 metres per minute/drifters. In view of this, it has been possible to reduce the drilling time drastically. In order to have control on direction of drilling, use of computerised hydraulic boomers are being adopted to control geometry of peripheral holes in addition to getting fast speed. This has been very successfully carried out in many tunnels in India and abroad. In addition to saving of time in drilling, by use of computerized hydraulic boomers, it also provides control on geometry of all the peripheral holes. It would thus be seen that over the years, the technology improvement in drilling has reduced the time and manpower requirements for drilling more than 10%.
Fig. 1: Glimpse of Development in Drilling Technologies
Blasting Techniques Used for Jhakri Underground Powerhouse

For execution of Nathpa Jhakri underground power house, most modern equipment was used for the work of drilling, rock-bolting and shotcreting. This equipment consists of Atlas Copco boomers 352, 351 and automatic rock-bolting boomer. In view of this, the drilling performance was of a world class level. Also for shotcrete, wet shotcrete machines BPA-380 with robot arms were used.
Excavation and Ground Improvement Techniques for Tunnels and Underground Structures 449
Fig. 2: Drilling Pattern for Adit to Bottom of Pressure Shaft and Collection Gallery
The hydraulic boomers have electrical drives for operation of hydraulic pumps. There were fears of stray current from the electrical drives getting transmitted to the face under charging. Hence charging of the face by use of half second and milli-second detonators was not carried out as a parallel activity with drilling. It is executed as a parallel activity only when NONEL (non-electric sensitive) detonators are used. When drilling was done by use of pneumatically driven machines, charging of face was carried out as a parallel activity since possibility of stray electric current/ short circuit was not possible. Charging of holes could be done by placing explosives with detonators in long polythene pipes and then placing them in holes by the help of the basket boom available on drill jumbos. This helps in reducing the charging time to about an hour approximately. When hydro-boomers are used, it is convenient to follow parallel cut for drilling. Details of this cut are given in Figure 2. The cut is placed approx in the middle of the cross-section and quite low down to get minimum consumption of explosives. While designing the cut, the following parameters are taken into account: a. Diameter of large hole, b. Burden, and c. The charge concentration. In order to maintain flexibility in drilling of empty holes and deciding the cut hole pattern, the following basis as given in Figures 3 and 4 is adopted:
Fig. 3: Result when Blasting from Varying Distances towards an Empty Hole of Varying Diameter
Fig. 4: The Relation between Advance in Percent of the Drill Depth and Different Empty Hole Diameters
In an event of more number of empty holes being required to be drilled, the following equation is followed: D=D n Where D-fictitious empty large hole dia d-dia of empty large hole n-number of holes Calculations followed for first square are: a=1.5 O where a-centre to centre distance between the large hole and the blast hole O-dia of large hole In case of several large holes, this relation is expressed as: a=1.5 D where D-fictitious diameter of empty hole calculated on basis of D=d n Charging of the holes should not be too low as it will not break the rock. If it is too high, then the rock is likely to get re-compacted. Lot of experimentation done in this regard in Sweden has led to conclusions given in Figure 5.
Fig. 5: The Required Minimum Charge Concentration (kg/m) and Maximum C-C Distance (m) for Different Large Hole Diameters
Calculations for remaining cuts are worked out on the same basis as per calculations made for 1st square except that the breakage is towards a rectangular opening instead of a circular opening. The charge concentration obtained in Figure 5 is that of the column of the hole. In order to break the constructed bottom part, a bottom charge with twice the charge concentration and a height of 1.5B should be used. The stemming part of the hole has a length of 0.5B. This is given in Figure 6.
In most of recent constructions, all tunnels of sizes upto about 6 metres diameter, use of TBM is rampant since it reduces the time in construction and consequent cost. Use of TBM gives the following advantages: i. Considerable reduction of over break ii. Stopping ground vibration which damages any existing structure when tunnels are required to be made for underground metros in metropolitan cities iii. Having least dislodgement of rock which normally happens during the course of blasting iv. The speed of work by TBM is more than 6 times than that of a conventional Drill and Blast Method executed by use of hand-held equipment. Hence, wherever speed and safety becomes the main criteria, use of TBM despite its heavy capital cost is preferred. However, there has been one case in India of Dul-Hasti Hydroelectric Project where the type of rock, which is required to be bored by TBM, has a very adverse drilling rate and fracturing index and the rock has been one of the most abrasive rocks in the world. Besides the abrasive properties of the rock, the water table is almost 1000 metres above the tunnel invert in large number of places where the rock cover was in excess of 1.0 km height. There are lot of underground water reservoirs which were said to have been there due to melting of rock salts over years resulting in replacing salt by water and forming underground reservoirs. Due to this, whenever a shear zone got connected to the reservoir there was tremendous flow of water, both in terms of quantity and pressure. This disrupted the work for couple of months every time such a situation occurred. At DulHasti, when Jaiprakash Industries were crossing the 8th shear zone, the pressure and inrush of water became so large that the debris flowed up to 1.7 km and buried the entire TBM, which had bored little over 3,500 metres. In view of this, probably Drill & Blast Method for doing this type of tunnel from both the ends would have been a better solution.
Fig. 6: The Required Minimum Charge Concentration (kg/m) and Maximum Burden (m) for Different Widths of the Opening
Present technology has achieved design of TBM with single and double shields and also provision of EPBM machines to cater for any soft ground conditions, which may be required to be encountered during the course of driving. Methods have been evolved to do probe drilling well in advance upto a depth of 120 metres very fast by providing rocket boomers so that there is no loss of time and we have knowledge of the type of rock and the water bodies likely to be met with in advance. In the recent years, Georadars have been designed to get the knowledge of at least 100 metres of rock in advance so that we can prepare ourselves to treat the rock by grouting with or without chemicals and the problems of driving the TBM in such ground conditions can be catered for.
Advancement has been made in type of raise borers to have more precise drilling and subsequent widening required to achieve profile of the inclined line and vertical shaft. Up to now raise climbers were popular due to less capital cost. Raise borers are catching up now because of higher speed and less hazards. In case of raise climber, there are ventilation hazards which are avoided in case of use of raise borer. With the improvement in the technology, raise borers are likely to become more popular for boring of inclined and vertical shafts.
EXPLOSIVES AND METHOD OF CHARGING

In the case of explosives, there have been constant attempts to produce explosives of correct strength required to charge holes at various dispositions and it has been successfully achieved. In India such a situation has not been possible due to various production constraints. A method of using Ammonium Nitrate and fuel oil with inert material like sand or polystyrene has been deployed in India to get the correct concentration of column charge. Ammonium Nitrate with 7% fuel oil and 50% sand or polystyrene has been able to replace Gurit/Nabit which is used for peripheral holes in developed countries. Three types of alternatives are being adopted in India which are enumerated below: i. The base charge normally used is of high strength gelatine. Depending upon the depth of the hole, the concentration of charge in column charge is achieved by combination of gelatine + ammonium nitrate with fuel oil and 50% sand or polystyrene. The length of the hole to be charged with AN/FO with 50% sand and polystyrene will depend on the disposition of the holes. Peripheral holes need a small base charge and a low strength explosive column charge to avoid incidence of heavy overbreak.
ii. Use of 200 mm long bamboo lath spacers or a clear air gap of 200 mm using a detonating cord has been used to have a low concentration charge of explosives. Details of this arrangement are given in the two sketches in Figure 7.
Fig. 7: Arrangement of Bamboo Lath for Detonating the Explosive
One of the main items for getting correct pull is use of correct detonator. In India, we have halfsecond and mille-second detonators, sometimes combination of these two is used. However, reports obtained from various sites show that it is better to have only one type of detonator with a longer series, say upto 15 to 20 of same type of detonators, instead of having a mix of detonators, to assure a better result. Since the hydro booms have electric drive for hydraulic pump used for operating hydraulic drifters, a fear of getting an induced electric current still persists. Hence, the charging of the hole is started more or less after completing drilling. However, in order to have a reduction in the total drilling and blasting cycle, use of Nonel detonators, which are non-electric sensitive, are being used in India despite its cost ranging 4 times of a half-second and mille-second detonators. Use of detonating cord is also gaining popularity in Indian tunnels as this is one method which enables
blasting of tunnel with a low charge as given in above pares. As mentioned, Ammonium Nitrate and fuel oil can be used to have low strength column charge and wherever required this could be mixed with 50% and above sand or polystyrene to have less concentration of charge required for charging peripheral holes. In order to save time, these charges are placed in light PVC pipes so that sticks of more than two metres length are prepared along with correct detonators and placed in the holes drilled and kept ready. This saves considerable time in charging and blasting. Use of slurry explosives is also gaining momentum as it saves time and cost.
GREEN BINDER SYSTEMS FOR CONCRETE

Concrete ling required for permanent structures could be tried with Green Binder System of Concrete. Industrial wastes investigated for cement manufacture are given in the following Table:
Category Slags Materials Granulated blast furnace slag Steel slag Lead-Zinc slag Phosphorous furnace slag Paper sludge Sugar sludge Carbide sludge Chromium sludge Phospho-chalk Soda ash sludge Fly ash, bottom ash, Red mux Phospho-gympsum Jerosite Kimberlite Mine rejects
Lime sludges
Pozzolans, Additives, Set controllers
Source: Proceedings of International Seminar on Green Technologies for Sustainable Concrete Construction, April12, New Delhi
Mineral admixtures in concrete Can be incorporated in two ways: i. By separate addition in the concrete mixer, and ii. By inter-grinding with cement clinker during cement manufacture. Production of different varieties of cement in India as per 2008-09 data: i. OPC 24.8% ii. PPC 66.6% iii. PSC 8.3% iv. Others 0.3%
Durability Advantage
Binary or ternary blends of fly ash, granulated slag and silica fume with OPC impart increased resistance to rebar corrosion, sulphate attack and alkali-silica reaction in concrete. The reasons cited are: Denser microstructure, increased impermeability Chloride binding and arresting alkali ions in the solid solution of the hydrates Lower electrical conductivity of concrete Maintaining pH value in concrete to a safe level, in spite of pozzolanic reactions etc.
Ternary Cement Blends

There is a common conception that silica fume or other cement replacement additives are to be used with OPC only. That is not strictly true and ternary mixtures comprise efficient cement systems. The mechanisms of improved performance are the following: Synergic effect Improving aggregatematrix interfacial zone Reduction in porosity of the composite
VENTILATION
Basically the equipment for mucking in tunnels could be either of rubber tyred or on rails. It has been found that the equipment which are on rails or rubber tyre needs to be diesel driven and hence a powerful ventilation is required to get the working place free of toxic gases so that people working at the face are comfortable. The most effective ventilation which is recommended today is forced ventilation by pushing fresh air inside by use of flexible ducts made of special fabric required to withstand the pressure of air required to push out the toxic gases generated out of diesel equipment or blasting fumes material. Sometimes, picking up of gases from the face by sucking and throwing them out by secondary ventilation is used. However, getting this extended consumes lot of time and hence has not gained popularity. The design of the ventilation is one of the most important items, which requires parameters of pressure as well as the quantum of air per horse power of diesel equipment and number of men working at site to be provided with reasonable factor of safety. In order to see that the working conditions at the face of the tunnel being excavated are best, a very effective ventilation system is to be designed.
GROUND IMPROVEMENT
The main goal of most soil/ground improvement techniques used for reducing liquefaction hazards is to avoid large increases in pore water pressure during earthquake shaking. This can be achieved by densification of the soil and/or improvement of its drainage capacity.
Vibrofloatation
Vibroflotation involves the use of a vibrating probe that can penetrate granular soil to depths of over 100 feet. The vibrations of the probe cause the grain structure to collapse thereby densifying the soil surrounding the probe. To treat an area of potentially liquefiable soil, the vibrofloat is raised and lowered in a grid pattern. Vibro replacement is a combination of vibroflotation with a gravel backfill resulting in stone columns, which not only increases the amount of densifications, but provides a degree of reinforcement and a potentially effective means of drainage.
Dynamic Compaction
Densification by dynamic compaction is performed by dropping a heavy weight of steel or concrete in a grid pattern from heights of 30 to 100 ft. It provides an economical way of improving soil for mitigation of liquefaction hazards. Local liquefaction can be initiated beneath the drop point making it easier for the sand grains to densify. When the excess pore water pressure from the dynamic loading dissipates, additional densification occurs. However, the process is somewhat invasive; the surface of the soil may require shallow compaction with possible addition of granular fill following dynamic compaction.
Stone Columns
As described above, stone columns are columns of gravel constructed in the ground. Stone columns can be constructed by the vibroflotation method. They can also be installed in other ways, for
example, with help of a steel casing and a drop hammer as in the Franki Method. In this approach the steel casing is driven in to the soil and gravel is filled in from the top and tamped with a drop hammer as the steel casing is successively withdrawn.
Compaction Piles
Installing compaction piles is a very effective way of improving soil. Compaction piles are usually made of prestressed concrete or timber. Installation of compaction piles both densifies and reinforces the soil. The piles are generally installed in a grid pattern and are generally driven to depth of up to 60 ft.
Compaction Grouting
Compaction grouting is a technique whereby a slow-flowing water/sand/cement mix is injected under pressure into a granular soil. The grout forms a bulb that displaces and hence densifies the surrounding soil. Compaction grouting is a good option if the foundation of an existing building requires improvement, since it is possible to inject the grout from the side or at an inclined angle to reach beneath the building.
Drainage Techniques
Liquefaction hazards can be reduced by increasing the drainage ability of the soil. If the porewater within the soil can drain freely, the build-up of excess pore water pressure will be reduced. Drainage techniques include installation of drains of gravel, sand or synthetic materials. Synthetic wick drains can be installed at various angles, in contrast to gravel or sand drains that are usually installed vertically. Drainage techniques are often used in combination with other types of soil improvement techniques for more effective liquefaction hazard reduction.
Verification of Improvement
A number of methods can be used to verify the effectiveness of soil improvement. In situ techniques are popular because of the limitations of many laboratory techniques. Usually, in situ test are performed to evaluate the liquefaction potential of a soil deposit before the improvement was attempted. With the knowledge of the existing ground characteristics, one can then specify a necessary level of improvement in terms of in situ test parameters. Performing in situ tests after improvement has been completed allows one to decide if the degree of improvement was satisfactory. In some cases, the extent of the improvement is not reflected in insitu test results until sometime after the improvement has been completed.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
An attempt has been made to give some aspects of the present technology of excavation and ground improvement being used in tunnelling industry in India. Other methods like freezing of ground, jet grouting, compressed air tunnelling and many more are being used to match various ground conditions, but not discussed in the paper because of limitation of space.
Effect of Quarry Dust on Strength and Compaction Properties of Expansive Soils

T.R. Naveen1 and Muttana S. Balreddy2
1P.G. 2Assistant
Student, CED, Siddaganga Institute of Technology, Tumkur, India; naveentr16@gmail.com Professor, CED, Siddaganga Institute of Technology, Tumkur, India; msb@sit.ac.in
AbstractQuarries and aggregate crushers are basic requisites for construction industry. The byproduct obtained from the rubble crusher units is known as the quarry dust. Geotechnical properties of quarry dust and its interaction behavior with soils can lead to viable solution for its large scale utilization and disposal. The effect of quarry dust on geotechnical properties of black cotton soil stabilized with optimum percentage of quarry dust has been described in this paper. The black cotton soil stabilized with optimum percentage of quarry dust has been described in this paper. The quarry dust added were 10- 50 %. At an increment of 10% and the change in the soil properties were studied. Atterbergs limits, compaction, and unconfined compressive strength tests were conducted on these soil quarry dust mixtures. The effect of 7 and 14 days of unconfined compressive strength were studied on this mixture. It was concluded that addition of quarry dust decreases the plastic limit, liquid limit, plasticity index, optimum moisture content, and increases maximum dry density of the soil. The shear strength will be maximum for 40% addition of quarry dust. Keywords: Expansive Soil, Quarry Dust, Compaction, Shear Strength
INTRODUCTION
Expansive soils are the soils which expand when water is added, and shrink when they dry out. This change in soil volume can cause cracks and unevenness in the pavements constructed over this soil. This will cause adverse effects on structures. These soils expand and contract due to variation in the moisture content of the soil, causing structural problems through differential movement of the structure. If the moisture content and soil type differs at various locations under the foundation, localized or non-uniform movement may occur in the structure. This isolated movement of sections of the structure can cause damage to the foundation, by cracking on the surface of the structures or foundation. This type of movement is usually associated with slab on grade construction that is common in all the country.A numbers of innovative techniques are there for the construction on this type of soil. Physical and Chemical alteration of soil using solid wastes like fly ash, rice husk, marble dust, and granulated blast furnace slag, red mud, waste tyre, etc we can change the natural behavior of the expansive soil Utilization of solid wastes in this manner not only protects the environment from degradation but also improves the engineering properties of the expansive soil. Quarry dust exhibits high shear strength which is highly beneficial for its use as a geotechnical material. The annual production of quarry dust is approximately around 200 million tonnes (Soosan et al. 2005). There are number of geotechnical application for quarry dust as an embankment, back fills and as a sub-base in large quantities. Variation in water content and good permeability does not seriously affect the properties of soil. It can be used as a substitute for sand to improve the properties of soil. In the present study quarry dust were added in different percentages and their properties o the mixtures were studied in detail within this context and the usefulness of quarry dust is brought out. Improvement in the unconfined compressive strength and reduction in swelling pressure etc., has been found when expansive soil is stabilized using quarry dust and lime (Sabat et al., 2009). Optimal percentage of crusher dust was found to be 40% when Stabilization of black cotton soil is done using crusher dust (Gupta et al., 2002). The combined effect of stone dust and fly ash on swell and strength properties of an expansive soil has been studied by many researchers (Ali et al., 2011)
MATERIALS AND METHODS

The materials used in the experiment are
Expansive Soil
The expansive soil used in the experimental work was brought from Hungunda of Bagalkot district, Karnataka state. The geotechnical properties of the expansive soil are: Coarse sand (2.0-4.75mm) 4%, Medium sand (0.425-2.0 mm)-22%, Fine sand (0.075-0.425mm)-14%, Specific Gravity-2.69, Liquid Limit(wL)-80% Plastic Limit(wP)-35.68%, Plasticity Index(IP)-44.32%, Shrinkage Limit(wS)14.21%,Optimum moisture content (OMC)- 18.54%, Maximum dry density (MDD) 16.16kN/m,UCS-160kN/m, Unsoaked CBR 4.3%, Soaked CBR - 0.92%, IS Classification CH.
Quarry Dust
The quarry dust used in the experiment was brought from a crusher unit situated around 6 Km away from Tumkur. The geotechnical properties of quarry dust are: Gravel size- 3%, Sand size- 81%, Silt size -16%, Specific Gravity-2.636, OMC - 9.4%, MDD - 20.1kN/m2. To find optimum percentage of quarry dust, it was added to expansive soil up to 50% by an increment of 10%. Compaction, UCS, soaked CBR and swelling index tests were conducted on this soil-quarry dust mixesand based on these test results the expansive soil quarry dust ratio of 60:40 was found to be optimum. Different tests like Liquid limit, Plastic limit, Shrinkage limit, Modified Proctor tests were conducted on these samples/mixes as per relevant Indian standard codes. Plasticity index was determined from the numerical difference of liquid limit and plastic limit. Unconfined compressive tests were conducted on these samples at 0, 7 and 14 days.

The results obtained from the above laboratory tests are presented as follows:
Table 1: Properties of BC Soil and Quarry Dust Samples
Properties Grain Size Distribution Coarse sand (2.0-4.75mm) (%) Medium sand (0.425-2.0 mm) (%) Fine sand (0.075-0.425mm) (%) Liquid limit (%) Plastic limit (%) Plasticity index (%) Shrinkage limit (%) Specific gravity Maximum dry density (kN/m3) OMC (%) BC Soil 4 22 14 80 35.68 44.32 14.21 2.69 16.16 18.54 10%QD 5 14 8 67 28.65 38.35 15.63 2.71 16.25 17.45 20%QD 6 15 9 63 25.1 37.9 16.18 2.73 16.52 16.22 30%QD 8 10 20 57 21.65 35.35 18.2 2.75 17.09 15.11 40%QD 16 19 11 55 20.49 34.51 20.1 2.77 17.67 14.11 50%QD 12 27 13 42 19.28 22.72 21.7 2.78 17.77 13.21
Figure 1, 2, 3 shows the test results of liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index of expansive soil with quarry dust content. From these figures it is observed that as percentage of quarry dust increases both liquid limit and plastic limit decreases. The liquid limit varies from 80% to 40% after the addition of 50%quarry dust .The plastic limit decreased from 36% to 18%. Overall addition of quarry dust showing good reduction in plasticity index of soil which is of very desirable property of expansive soils to be used as a sub grade in road construction. The variations of compaction characteristics as OMC and MDD for the black cotton soil treated with quarry dust are presented in figures 4, 5 and 6. As the quarry dust percentage varies from 0 to 50% the maximum dry density values are increasing gradually and there by optimum moisture content decreases gradually. The MDD for the 0% addition of black cotton soil was found to be 16.2 KN/m3 and for the addition of 50% of quarry dust the MDD achieved will be 17.8 KN/m3
Effect of Quarry Dust on Strength and Compaction Properties of Expansive Soils 459
Fig. 1: Variation of Liquid Limit with Percentage of Quarry Dust
Fig. 2: Variation of Plastic Limit with Percentage of Quarry Dust
Fig. 3: Variation of Plasticity Index with Percentage of Quarry Dust
es F Fig. 4: Compa action Curves s for Quarry Dust and BC C Soil Sample
Fig. 5: Variation of f Maximum Dry D Density with w the Addi ition of Quar rry Dust
Fig. 6: Var riation of OM MC with the Addition A of Quarry Q Dust
Effect of Quarry y Dust on Stren ngth and Compa action Properties of Expansive Soils 461
Fig 7: Un nsoaked UCS S Results
Fig. 8: Soaked S UCS S Results
The variation in the shear str rength for th he black cotto on soil treate ed with quarr ry dust are presented p in figure es 7and 8.A As the quarry y dust conte ent varies fro om 0 to 50% the shear r strength va alues get increase ed for the ad ddition of 40 0% of the qu uarry dust af fter further in ncrease in dust content results r in decrease es in the shear strength. The T shear st trength for th he 0% additio on of black c cotton soil was w found to be 118 Kpa and d for the add dition of 40 0% of quarry y it was fou und to be 215Kpa for unsoaked u conditio on.
CONCL LUSION
Stabiliza ation of black k cotton soil using quarry y dust is an effective e mea an for enhan ncing the eng gineering performance of blac ck cotton soil l. Following are a the observation while e using quar rry dust as a stabilizer in black cotton soil (Hungunda). ( . A series of test were co onducted to study s the effe ect of quarry y dust on Atterber rgs limit, MDD, M OMC and uncon nfined comp pressive stre ength of qu uarry dust stabilized s expansiv ve soil mixes s following co onclusions ar re drawn fro om this study:
The addition of quarry dust decreases liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity index and increases shrinkage limit of the expansive soil. Compaction studies on soil quarry dust mixes showed considerable increase in maximum dry density (MOD) and decreases in OMC with steeper compaction curves. This is attributing to the grain size distribution being well graded. Strength characteristics on soil quarry dust mixes showed increase in shear strength for the 40% addition of the quarry dust for both soaked and unsoaked condition.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Gupta A.K., Sahu A.K. and Kumar S. (2002). Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil using Crusher Dust-A Waste Product of Bundelkhand region, Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical Conference. Allahabad, pp.308-311. Soosan T.G., Sridhran A., Jose B.T and Abraham B.M. (2005). Utilization of Quarry Dust to Improve the Geotechnical Properties of Soils in Highway Construction, Geotechnical testing Journal, 28, 391-400. Sabat A.K. and Das S.K. (2009). Design of Low Volume Rural Roads Using Lime Stabilized Expansive Soil Quarry Dust Mixes Sub grade, Indian Highways. 37 (9), 21-27. Sali M. and Korranne S.S. (2011). Performance Analysis of Expansive Soil Treated with Stone Dust and Fly ash, Electronics Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 16, 220-226. Sabat Akshaya Kumar (2012). A study on Some Geotechnical Properties of Lime Stabilized Expansive Soil Quarry Dust Mixes, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering ITER,SOA University
Closure Behaviour of Tunnels under Squeezing Conditions

R.D. Dwivedi1, M. Singh2, M.N. Viladkar2 and R.K. Goel1
1CIMFR 2Dept.
Regional Centre, CBRI Roorkee247 667, Uttarakhand; rddwivedi@hotmail.com of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee247667, Uttarakhand; msingh.civil@gmail.com
AbstractIn this paper, dimensionally correct empirical correlations have been developed using Joint Factor (Jf), Rock Mass Number (N) and Rock Quality (Q) separately with correlation factor of 0.95, 0.93 and 0.89 respectively to predict tunnel deformation in squeezing ground conditions. Data of 63 sections from various case histories of 14 adits/ tunnels/mine roadway were included for the study. A measure of rock mass quality (Jf or N or Q), vertical in situ stress (v), support stiffness (K) and radius of the tunnel (a) are the governing parameters, which have been considered for developing the correlations. Correlation using Jf was found to be the best correlation. Keywords: Squeezing, Joint Factor, Tunnel deformation, Empirical correlation, Coefficient of accordance
INTRODUCTION
Himalayan region is full of surprises with regard to the underground constructional activities due to frequently changing geology (Singh and Goel, 2006). The region is highly tectonically active and squeezing of underground structures has been a major problem faced by geologists and engineers (Panthi and Nilson, 2007). Due to the aforesaid problems, the region has been study centre for many researchers. Authors have also chosen the underground openings housed in the Himalayan region for study. Squeezing may be defined as following (Barla, 1995): Squeezing of rock is the time dependent large deformation, which occurs around a tunnel and other underground openings, and is essentially associated with creep caused by (stress) exceeding shear strength (limiting shear stress). Deformation may terminate during construction or continue over a long time period. The aforementioned definition of squeezing is qualitative. However, some researchers have tried to quantify the limiting value of tunnel deformation for squeezing grounds. According to Jethwa (1981), Goel (1994), Sakurai (1997), and Singh et al. (2007), when deformation of an unsupported underground opening exceeds 1% of the size of opening, the ground is categorized as squeezing ground which is likely to result in constructional problems. If the supports are inadequate, tunnel deformation in squeezing ground condition may continue for over a period of time (Jethwa, 1981).The undesirable deformation of tunnel can be arrested by providing adequate support system in appropriate time. Stiffer supports arrest larger tunnel deformations and vice-versa. In case, some deformation is allowed, less stiff supports will be required as the rock pressure to be handled by the supports decreases. Squeezing behaviour is a function of rock mass quality, size of the opening and in situ stress state (Goel, 1994). The best way to deal with severe squeezing is to build a strategy well in advance (during planning and design) regarding stability measures for minimizing stability problems and optimizing the supports (Panthi and Nilsen, 2007). In this view, an estimated value of tunnel deformation becomes highly useful while designing the tunnel supports. The proposed correlations have been established considering numerous data especially from Himalayan region where many surprises had been faced with regard to prediction of geology. Nowadays New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) has become a conventional tunneling technique and is being commonly adopted for tunneling especially in weak rock masses encountering with frequently changing geology. In this technique, deformation monitoring data plays a key role in
assessment of the quantity and quality of the required supports for a particular round of excavation. Predicted values of tunnel deformation using the developed correlations would help in support design and making preparatory support arrangements during tunneling in squeezing ground conditions. Data of adits/ tunnels from hydroelectric projects in Himalayan region i.e. Giri-Bata (1 tunnel), Chhibro-Khodri (2 adit/tunnel), Maneri stage-I (2 adit/ tunnel), Maneri stage II (2 adit/tunnel), Tala (1 tunnel), Kaligandaki (1 tunnel), Khimti-1 (4 adits); and a mine roadway of Noonidih-Jitpur Colliery have been analyzed for the study.
GEOLOGY AND TUNNELING PROBLEMS FACED IN THE STUDIED TUNNELS Giri-Bata Hydroelectric Project
This project with installed capacity of 120 MW was constructed on Giri river, a tributary to Yamuna. It is located near Girinagar in Sirmour district of the state of Himachal Pradesh in India. A 7.1 km long head race tunnel with finished diameter of 3.60 m was driven through a ridge separating the valleys of Giri and Bata rivers (Dube, 1979). The tunnel was excavated by drill & blast method and was supported by steel ribs. Plain cement concrete lining of 300mm average thickness was applied as final support. The tunnel traverses through Blaini series rock formations of carboniferous age for a length of about 1500 m and through highly jointed clay stones, highly crushed phyllites and siltstones for the rest length. The Blainis are dark grey to black quartzitic slates containing angular to round pebbles and boulders firmly embedded in a clay-silt matrix. The rock formations showed extensive jointing and shearing at places and the strike generally remained parallel to the tunnel alignment. The strata in the vicinity of the faults and thrusts were highly saturated, soft and plastic (Goel, 1994). Most of the tunneling problems were faced in zones of phyllites and slates. Joints were spaced at 45-50 mm dipping with 60-70o. These formations were highly crushed exhibiting angle of internal friction between 20 and 26o.
Chibbro-Khodri Hydroelectric Project

The project was constructed on river Tons, a tributary of Yamuna River located about 45 km North of Dehradun in the state of Uttarakhand, India. A tunnel with finished diameter of 7.5 m was constructed between Chhibro and Khodri to utilise discharge of the Chhibro powerhouse to generate 120 MW of power through a surface powerhouse at Khodri. The Chhibro-Khodri tunnel, passed through three geological series namely Mandhali series (Paleozoic), Subathu-Dagshai (Lower Miocene) and Nahan series (Upper Tertiary). Mandhali series consists of boulder slates, graphitic & quartzitic slates and Bhadraj quartzite unit with 5-10 m thick crushed quartzite along Krol thrust. Subathu-Dagshai series is comprised of 1-3m thick plastic black clays along the series thrust and red & purple crushed, brecciated and sheared shales and siltstones, minor grey and green crushed quartzites, 20-22 m thick black clays with thin bands of quartzites and 5-10 m thick soft and plastic black clays along the Nahan thrust (Jain et al., 1975). Nahan series is comprised of greenish grey to grey micaceous (Upper Tertiary) sandstones, purple siltstones, red, purple, grey and occasional mottled blue concretionary clays. General strike of these lithounits is nearly perpendicular to the tunnel axis with the dip ranging from 20o to 60o in NNW to NNE direction (Shome et al., 1973). There are two main boundary faults running from Punjab to Assam along the foothills of the Himalayas. The faults are known locally as the Nahan and the Krol thrusts. The dips of the Nahan and the Krol thrusts vary from 27o to 30o due N10oE to N10oW and 26o due N26o W respectively. The strike is almost normal to the tunnel alignment. Major tunneling problems were faced within the intra-thrust zones due to squeezing ground conditions. In order to minimize the frequent rock falls, multi-drift method was adopted at faces. Heavy steel arches of 300 x 140 mm and 150 x 150 mm sections, with 20-25 mm thick plates welded on both flanges were erected at 0.25-0.50 m spacing to cope with high squeezing pressures. The progress rate was tremendously slowed down to 5-6m per month.
Closure Behaviour of Tunnels under Squeezing Conditions 465
Severe buckling and bending of supports followed despite raising their capacity to 1.7MPa. The observed support pressure varied from 0.65 to 1.3 MPa giving an average support pressure of 0.975 MPa in the vertical direction (Jethwa et al., 1980).
Maneri Hydroelectric Project Stage-I

This project is constructed on river Bhagirathi, a tributary of the Ganga located in Uttarkashi, India to generate power of 84MW. A circular head race tunnel of 4.75 m finished diameter and 8.56 km length was constructed in Maneri-Bhali Hydel Scheme Stage-I. The rock masses exposed in the area are quartzites, quartzites interblended with thin bands of slates, chlorite schists, phyllites, metabasics and basic intrusives belonging to the Garhwal group (Jain et al., 1976). The general strike directions in Maneri, Heena and Tiloth areas are N 10-80o, N 250-280o, N 290-350o respectively whereas dip (directions) are 25-45o (N 100-170o), 25-35o (N160-190o) and 35-45o (N 20 - 80o) respectively. These litho logical units are intensely folded and faulted due to tectonic disturbances. The tectonic activity in the area has developed closely spaced jointing, brecciation and shearing even in the quartzites. The tunnel passed through metabasics and basic chlorite- schists initially and then enters into folded quartzites. Two 40 cm wide cross shear zones were intersecting above the tunnel crown (Goel et al., 1988). The presence of these two shear zones, their intersection at the tunnel crown triggered the collapse of the tunnel face and the sliding of a huge quantity of muck with heavy inrush of water due to delay in installation of supports. Tunneling activities at depths varying from 700 to 900m through moist and thinly foliated metabasics were beset with severe squeezing problems. The tunnel was supported by Indian Standard Medium weight Beams (ISMB) 150 x 150 mm ribs spaced at 80cm to 100 cm centre to centre initially but later found buckled. Thereafter, this portion was re-excavated and supported by ISMB 150 x 150 mm ribs spaced 60 cm centre to centre. The data analysis shows that the maximum deformation was 175mm which is 7.3 % at the contact of metabasics and quartzites. At other locations, the deformation varied from 10 mm to 20 mm (Goel, 1994).
Maneri Hydroelectric Project Stage-II

The project is constructed on river Bhagirathi, a tributary of Ganga and located in the lower Himalayas about 150 km North-West of the holy town Rishikesh, India with an installed capacity of 304 MW. It comprises of 16 km long head race tunnel (HRT) of 6.0 m finished diameter. The head race tunnel passes through quartzites, metavolcanics (also called metabasics), limestones and epidiorites of Garhwal group and phyllites, slates and greywackes of Tehri formations. The Garhwal group is thrusted over the Tehri formations. Rock masses, in general, are moderately jointed and a majority of these joints are open. Several cross shear zones are also encountered in the area. The general dip of foliations as well as of bedding planes varies from 40o to 80o in NE direction. The tunnel encountered moderately foliated, jointed and sheared metabasics (also called metavolcanics) and quartzites in a length of more than 3000m. The sheared and jointed metabasics, massive to moderately jointed quartzites, pyriteferous slates with thin intercalations of quartzites and jointed limestone, massive phyllites and greywacke with calcareous lenses, and thinly bedded greywacke were encountered during tunneling. The lithological contacts and the contacts between the formations were mostly sheared. Tectonically active and young rock masses of the lower Himalayas, as seen so far are highly shattered and weak causing frequent squeezing and flowing ground conditions. The Maneri stage-II tunnel was not an exception. Severe squeezing and flowing ground conditions were encountered in the zones of metabasics, sheared metabasics, greywacke and phyllites.
Noonidih-Jitpur Colliery
The Noonidih-Jitpur Colliery (a captive coal mine of M/S Indian Iron and steel Company Limited) is located in Jharia Coalfields near the Dhanbad town of Jharkhand State in India. Underground working of this colliery consisted of partially or fully goaved out or developed areas in two seams with thickness of 3.5m and 2.44m at depth of 134m and 73m respectively. These seams dipped at about
1 in 6.5. Two another 2.44m and 4.57m thick seams at respective depth of 233m and 268m were being worked by stowing method. These seams were worked through two shafts. A significant movement was observed in the 3.5m wide main roadway. The deformation was measured as 105mm (Jethwa, 1981).
Tala Hydroelectric Project

Tala hydroelectric project is situated in South-West Bhutan of Eastern Himalaya in the district of Tala and Chukha at 3km downstream of the existing 336MW Chukha Hydroelectric project on river Wangchu (Sripad et al., 2007). It has a 22km long head race tunnel (HRT) of 6.8m diameter. HRT traverses through highly weathered biotite schist associated with banded gneiss amphibolites and quartzites and faced squeezing problems at many sections due to poor rock mass. The support system in the tunnel is steel sets (ISMB 200 or SMB 250 at 0.5m c.c.), 5-6m long rock bolts of 25mm diameter at 2m spacing in combination with 175mm steel fibre shotcrete as a temporary lining and a final permanent concrete lining (Tripathy et al., 2000).
Kaligandaki A Hydroelectric Project

The Kaligandaki A hydroelectric project is located in the lesser Himalaya about 200km West of Kathmandu. The project is owned by Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA), an undertaking of Government of Nepal. The project has installed capacity of 144MW and to generate this energy, water of Kaligandaki river is diverted through a head race tunnel with cross sectional area of about 60m2. The project area is located in highly deformed rock formation of Lesser Himalaya. The rocks of this area are mainly comprised of Precambrian to lower Palaeozoic shallow marine sediments. The head race tunnel mainly passes through highly deformed siliceous and graphitic phyllites that vary in mineral composition and degree of metamorphism. As a result of tectonic movement, the rock mass in the area has been subjected to shearing, folding and faulting. The phyllites are of poor quality, thinly foliated and highly weathered (NEA, 2002). The orientation and dips of joints are highly scattered due to extreme folding and shearing, giving no distinct joint system except for foliation joints. In general, the foliation joints are oriented in South East-North West direction and dip towards South West. The alteration and weathering considerable and the joints are filled with highly sheared clay, quartz and calcite veins. The maximum rock cover above the tunnel is about 600m and more than 80% of the tunnel alignment has overburden exceeding 200m (Panthi and Nilsen, 2007). The head race tunnel faced severe squeezing due to above mentioned geological conditions. The tunnel was supported with steel ribs at 1m spacing c.c., 20-25cm thick reinforced shotcrete and radial bolting.
Khimti Hydroelectric Project

Khimti-1 hydropower project is located in Janakpur zone, central development region of Nepal at about 100 km East of Kathmandu. The river Khimti-Khola forms the boundary between the Ramechhap and Dolakha districts. It is a run of the river type of hydroelectric power project with an installed generating capacity of 60 MW utilizing a drop from 1272 m to 586 m average mean sea level in the Khimti-Khola with the highest head in Nepal. The project area lies in the Midland Schuppen zones of the Melung Augen Gneiss containing mainly grey, coarse-to very coarse-grained, porphyroblastic augen gneiss (63%), occasionally banded gneiss (12%), and granitic gneiss (7%) with bands of very weak, green chlorite and bright grey talcose schist (18%) parallel to the foliation at intervals of 5 to 15 m. The zone is bounded by two major faults namely Midland Thrust to the South and Jiri Thrust to the North. The area is also influenced by several minor thrust faults characterized by very weak sheared schist with clay gouge running parallel to the foliation plane. The foliation at the tailrace to the Adit 4 (the saddle of Pipal Danda) has steep dips (45o to 60o), whereas it is gently dipping (15o to 35o) in the area between Pipal Danda and the head works. Tunnels/adits of the project faced squeezing problems at various locations especially at the sections where schist or decomposed gneiss with 80 m to 420 m overburden depth was present.
Large deformations were recorded after two weeks at different sections of the tunnels at about 20m behind the face after two weeks. The maximum convergence recorded was 160.2 mm in Adit-1 at downstream Chainage 500 m (Shrestha, 2005).
STUDY PARAMETERS
Two correlations have been developed i.e. (i) using joint factor, Jf and (ii) using rock quality index, Q.
Joint Factor (Jf)

Joint factor (as a measure of rock mass quality), vertical in situ stress, support stiffness and radius of the tunnel are the governing parameters which have been considered for developing the correlation. The concept of joint factor was developed by Ramamurthy and his co-workers (Arora, 1987; Ramamurthy and Arora, 1994; Singh, 1997; Singh et al. 2002; Zhang, 2010). The most significant factors namely, joint frequency, joint orientation and joint strength influencing the strength of jointed rocks have been suitably clubbed together to evolve a single factor called the joint factor, designated by Jf. The joint factor has been defined by the following relation:
.
(1)
where Jn =joint frequency, i.e. number of joints per metre in the direction of loading, n = inclination parameter depending upon the orientation of the joint with respect to loading direction, and r =joint strength parameter dependent upon the joint condition (whether clean and rough or filled-up joints), thickness of the joint and joint alterations due to weathering. The joint factor reflects the quality reduction/weakness in the intact rock; the lower the joint factor, the higher the strength, i.e. less weakness. Figure 1 (a) depicts a circular tunnel excavated through inclined bedding planes. Loading direction on a rock mass element A near springing level has been shown by vertical arrows. Enlarged view of the element A is shown in Figure 1 (b). Joints are dipping at an angle of o. Joint spacing is PR. For computation of joint frequency, joint spacing in the loading direction i.e. value of PQ is considered and is determined in the following way: In PQR, PRQ = 90, PQR = 90o - = , and where value of PR and PQ are in cm.

(2) (3)
Joints
P R
Excavated tunnel
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1(a): Loading on a Rock Mass Element A Near Springing Level in a Circular Tunnel (b) Enlarged Element A
Inclination Parameter (n)

The strength of a jointed rock mainly depends on the orientation of the joint with respect to the direction of axial loading. A minimum value of strength has been observed when the joints are oriented at = 30-40o (Ramamurthy and Arora, 1994). Similar behaviour was also observed by Mclamore and Gray (1967), Attewell and Sandford (1974) and others. Values of n have been given in Table 1.
Table 1: Joint Inclination Factor n for Different Joint Orientation Angles (After Ramamurthy and Arora, 1994)
(Degrees) 0 10 20 n 0.82 0.46 0.11 Note: Angle of joint with loading direction. 30 0.05 40 0.09 50 0.30 60 0.46 70 0.64 80 0.82 90 0.95
Joint Strength Parameter (r)

The joint strength parameter r was evolved to depict the roughness condition of the joint and is expressed as r = tan j where j is friction angle of joints at very low normal stress level (n 0). This parameter is determined as the tangent of the friction angle operating along the joint. For clean joints, the strength of the joints can be subjected to direct shear test at low stress level and value of j can be obtained as the secant value of the friction angle. In absence of actual test, this parameter may be obtained from uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock material (ci). The suggested values of r for various values of ci are presented in Table 2. When a joint has gouge material of sufficient thickness to submerge the joint roughness, frictional parameter of gouge controls the joint strength during shear. Values of friction angles for various gouge materials present in a dense state or near the residual state and corresponding joint strength parameter are presented in Table 3.
Table 2: Parameter r for Different Ranges of ci (After Ramamurthy and Arora, 1994)
ci (MPa) 2.5 5.0 15.0 25.0 45.0 65.0 100.0 r Values 0.30 0.45 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 Remarks Fine-grained Micaceous to coarse-grained r = tan( ) 1.0 0.84 0.70 0.62 0.58 0.47 0.27 0.18 25 15 10
Table 3: Joint Strength Parameter r for Gouge Material in Joint Near Residual State (After Ramamurthy and Arora, 1994)
Gouge Material Gravelly sand Coarse sand Fine sand Silty sand Clayey sand Clay-silt Clay-25% Clay-50% Clay-75% Friction Angle,(Degrees) 45 40 35 32 30
Support Stiffness
Data of support stiffness has been collected either from the literature or calculated in following way (Hoek and Brown, 1980):
.
(4)
where K, p, and are stiffness of steel ribs with backfill, observed support pressure, tunnel radius and measured radial deformation respectively.
Vertical in Situ Stress

Vertical in situ stress has been calculated as following: .
3
(5)
, and H are vertical in situ stress, unit weight of rock mass: 0.027 MN/m (assumed) where and tunnel depth respectively.
Rock Mass Quality Index, Q

The Q-system was developed as a rock mass quality index by Barton et al. (1974). The system is based on evaluation of a large number of case histories of underground excavation stability, and is an index for the assessment of the rock mass quality. The numerical value of this index, Q is defined by: where RQD = rock quality designation, Jn = joint sent number, Jr = joint roughness number, Jw = joint water reduction number, and SRF = stress reduction factor. (6)
EMPIRICAL CORRELATION
Data has been collected from 63 sections and summary of the data base is presented in Table 4. Using the data, Figures 2, 3 and 4 have been plotted and following dimensionally correct empirical correlations have been obtained using Jf , N and Q with correlation coefficient of 0.95, 0.93 and 0.89 respectively (Figs. 2, 3 and 4):
Table 4: Data Collected from Various Case Histories
uobsd (cm)
Rock Type
Reference
Name of Tunnel
K (MPa)
H (m)
S. No
a (m)
Jn
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Maneri Stage II Tunnel Maneri Stage II Tunnel Maneri Stage II Tunnel Maneri Stage II Tunnel Maneri Stage II Tunnel Giri-Bata Tunnel Giri-Bata Tunnel Giri-Bata Tunnel
Sheared metabasics Metavolcanic Metavolcanic Metavolcanic Metavolcanic Crushed phyllites Crushed phyllites Crushed phyllites
Goel, 1994; Choudhary, 2007
Maneri Stage II Tunnel
Sheared metabasics
0.1 0.3 0.88 0.8 1 0.88 0.12 0.05 0.06
0.5 2.25 4.4 4 5 4.4 0.6 0.25 0.3
3.5 3.5 3.5 1.25 3.5 1.25 2.3 2.3 2.3
285 410 415 480 500 510 240 440 450
10.05 9.8 7.68 3.6 9.25 3.02 10.35 23.1 23.7
9.79 9.79 9.79 9.84 9.79 9.84 3.97 3.97 3.97
8 11.68 5.88 5.88 5.56 5.88 8.5 9.43 9.43
0.05 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.07
0.445 0.445 0.445 0.445 0.445 0.445 0.384 0.364 0.384
360 291 264 264 250 264 320 370 351
Dube, 1979; Goel, 1994; Choudhari, 2007
Table 4 (Contd.)
Jf
Table 4 (Contd.) 10 Giri-Bata Tunnel 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Giri-Bata Tunnel Giri-Bata Tunnel Giri-Bata Tunnel Giri-Bata Tunnel Chhibro-Khodri Tunnel Chhibro-Khodri Tunnel Chhibro-Khodri Tunnel Chhibro-Khodri Tunnel Maneri Stage I Tunnel Maneri Stage I Tunnel Maneri Stage I Tunnel Maneri Stage I Tunnel Maneri Stage I Tunnel Maneri Stage I Tunnel Noonidih Colliery Tala HRT, Bhutan
Crushed phyllites Crushed phyllites Crushed phyllites Crushed phyllites Crushed slates Jethwa, 1981; Goel, 1994; Choudhary, 2007 Crushed red shales Soft & plastic black clays Seamy crushed red shales Soft & plastic black clays Sheared metabasics Siliceous phyllites Foliated metabasics Siliceous phyllites Sheared metabasics Crushed quartzite Weak coal Adverse geological occurrences (AGO) Jethwa, 1981 Sripad et al., 2007 Jethwa, 1981; Goel, 1994
0.03 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.512
0.15 0.25 0.2 0.3 2.56
2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 1.5 1.5 4.5 4.5 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 3.5 3.4
400 400 200 325 400 280 280 680 280 700 550 635 650 450 750 450 337
24 17.5 14.25 20.12 15.85 4.2 6.75 27 9 14 7.7 6.75 6 14 12 10.5 12
3.98 3.98 2.98 2.98 2.98 9.8 5.96 9.9 48.56 9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81 5.1 8.1 9.67 8.97
9.43 0.07 9.43 0.07 9.43 0.07 9.43 0.07 9.43 0.07 14.3 12.9 14.3 12.9 23.6 19.6 15.7 15.7 23.6 20.2 71.4 16 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.82 0.09
0.364 0.384 0.364 0.384 0.488 0.466 0.384 0.445 0.384 0.364 0.364 0.364 0.364 0.364 0.344 0.344 0.445
370 350 370 350 276 341 373 357 373 295 245 196 196 295 267 253 399
0.05 0.375 0.022 0.05 0.022 0.3 1.7 4 0.11 0.5 0.11 2.25 8.5 20
4.12 20.62 0.31 0.5 0.59 0.011 6.2 10 5.9 0.1
27
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
Kaligandaki-A HRT Gaphic phyllites Kaligandaki-A HRT Gaphic phyllites Kaligandaki-A HRT Gaphic phyllites Kaligandaki-A HRT Gaphic phyllites Kaligandaki-A HRT Gaphic phyllites Kaligandaki-A HRT Gaphic phyllites Kaligandaki-A HRT Gaphic phyllites Kaligandaki-A HRT Gaphic phyllites Kaligandaki-A HRT Gaphic phyllites Kaligandaki-A HRT Siliceous phyllites
---------------NEA (2002); Panthi and Nilsen, 2007--------------
Kaligandaki-A HRT Siliceous and graphic phyllites
0.015
0.15
4.35
600
12.6
34.52
3.57 0.05
0.18
396
0.023 0.025 0.018 0.023 0.02 0.008 0.009 0.01 0.009 0.016
0.23 0.25 0.18 0.23 0.20 0.16 0.18 0.1 0.18 0.16
4.35 4.35 4.35 4.35 4.35 4.35 4.35 4.35 4.35 4.35
600 600 600 600 620 620 620 620 620 620
6.1 10 17 14 21.3 37 33.4 27.4 35.6 19.1
90.71 34.17 26.20 28.48 26.20 14.67 14.67 26.20 14.67 26.20
3.33 0.05 3.33 0.05 3.44 0.05 3.33 0.05 6.1 6.5 6.5 6.5 3.6 6.3 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.05 0.09
0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18
370 370 382 370 377 401 401 401 400 389
Table 4 (Contd.)

Table 4 (Contd.) 38 Kaligandaki-A HRT Siliceous phyllites 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 Kaligandaki-A HRT Siliceous phyllites Kaligandaki-A HRT Siliceous phyllites Kaligandaki-A HRT Siliceous phyllites Kaligandaki-A HRT Siliceous phyllites Kaligandaki-A HRT Siliceous phyllites Khimti-1 Hydro adit-1 d/s 475 Khimti-1 Hydro adit-1 d/s 580 Khimti-1 Hydro adit-1 d/s 665 Khimti-1 Hydro adit-2 d/s 441 Khimti-1 Hydro adit-2 d/s 601 Khimti-1 Hydro adit-2 d/s 895 Khimti-1 Hydro adit-2 u/s 1357 Khimti-1 Hydro adit-2 u/s 1730 Khimti-1 Hydro adit-3 u/s 15 Khimti-1 Hydro adit-3 u/s 59 Khimti-1 Hydro adit-3 u/s 200 Khimti-1 Hydro adit-3 u/s 210 Khimti-1 Hydro adit-3 d/s 220 Khimti-1 Hydro adit-3 u/s 345 Khimti-1 Hydro adit-4 u/s 503 Khimti-1 Hydro adit-4 u/s 550 Khimti-1 Hydro adit-4 u/s 852 Khimti-1 Hydro adit-4 u/s 876 Khimti-1 Hydro adit-4 u/s 974 Khimti-1 Hydro adit-4 u/s 1045 Augen gneiss, STS STC Augen gneiss and schist Augen gneiss STS Gneiss, Chlorite Schist Banded gneiss, CS AG with clay gauge Shear bands of AG & S Augen gneiss at crown; schist at wall Augen gneiss Schist Augen gneiss, SS GG, STS CSS Banded gneiss BGS Sheared augen gneiss Sheared augen gneiss with clay fill -------------------------------------------------------------Shrestha, 2005----------------------------
0.02 0.025 0.023 0.025 ----------0.001 0.025 0.08 0.008 0.06 0.3 0.013 0.14 0.095 0.065 0.2 0.23
0.2 0.25 0.23 0.25 0.02 0.25 0.42 0.07 0.42 0.55 0.17 1.67 0.44 0.55 1.94 0.63
4.35 4.35 4.35 4.35 4.35 4.35 2 2.15 2 2 2 2 2 2 2.5 2.05
620 620 580 580 575 550 98 111 112 126 138 198 261 95 130 158
17.8 10.9 16.1 7.4 26 10.4
26.20 56.96 26.20 74.66 34.17 39.87
6.1 6 6 6 7.6 6 8.6 8.5 9.5 8 4.9 11.5 14.9 9.3 12.7 9.2
0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.05 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09
0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.287 0.231 0.306 0.306 0.249 0.404 0.51 0.306 0.466 0.34
377 370 370 370 469 370 333 409 345 291 393 316 325 338 303 297
1.55 933.0 1.6 0.6 1936. 0 458.0
0.05 461.0 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.6 1934. 0 934.0 931.0 933.0
0.85 936.0 0.65 650.0
54 55 56 57 58 58 60 61 62 63
0.25 0.28 0.009 0.05 0.14 0.07 0.47 0.6 0.008 0.008
1.48 1.48 0.09 0.33 1.00 0.94 1.41 1.72 0.08 0.06
2.5 2.5 2 2.5 2 2 2 2 2 2
276 276 140 300 225 218 114 114 112 112
1.93 940.0 0.9 1.6 652.0 430.0
10.2 10.2 10.4 9.6 11.5 14 11.7 6.3 5.1 5.1
0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.05
0.38 0.38 0.287 0.306 0.404 0.466 0.466 0.466 0.249 0.249
295 295 403 349 316 334 279 270 409 409
0.45 1430. 0 0.5 0.3 1430. 0 739.0
0.05 648.0 0.5 0.4 0.2 556.0 936.0 651.0
Notations: AGO Weathered biotite schist associated with banded gneiss, amphibolites and quartzites in thin bands; AGAugen gneiss; STS- Sericite talcose schist; STC- Sheared talcose chlorite; CS- Chlorite schist; S- Schist; SS- Sericite schist; GGGranitic gneiss; CSS- Chlorite sericite schist; BGS-Banded gneiss with shear planes.
Using Jf: Using N Using Q: where
6 10 0.0197 0.0092
0.0057 0.0061 0.0071
(7) (8) (9)
up = predicted radial deformation of tunnel (m), a = radius of tunnel (m), Jf = joint factor, v = vertical in situ stress (0.027H), MPa, K = support stiffness, MPa, and Q = rock mass quality. For the set of available data, estimated values of tunnel deformation have also been calculated using empirical correlation (Eq.9) given by Goel, 1994.
.
(10) (11)
where N is rock mass number and is expressed as following (Goel, 1994): N = (Q)SRF=1 where Q is Bartons rock mass quality and SRF is stress reduction factor.
DISCUSSION
For comparison of predicted values of tunnel deformation from Eqs. 7, 8, 9 and 10, an index called coefficient of accordance (COA) has been computed. COA (2) is defined as follows:

(12)
where 2 is COA, uobs/a is observed tunnel deformation, up/a is estimated tunnel deformation and n is number of data sets. Lower the value of COA indicates better correlation. Values of tunnel deformation estimated from the correlation developed by the authors using joint factor give least coefficient of accordance (0.061) as compare to other correlations indicating best correlation among other studied correlations. In addition to the above method of comparison, estimated values of tunnel deformation have also been plotted with the respective values of observed tunnel deformation in Figure 5 for comparison. The plot also shows a line AB with 1:1 gradient. If predictions by a given approach are better, the points will lie close to 1:1 line. It is seen that the prediction made by the present approach using joint factor lie closer to the line AB as compared to the other approaches. Equation 7 uses joint factor as a measure of rock mass quality which takes into account the anisotropy of rock mass strength realistically and hence predicted values fit with very good accordance (2 = 0.061) with the observed values. Approaches suggested in present study using N (Eq.8) and Q (Eq.9) fit with accordance of 0.064 and 0.109 respectively. Correlations developed in the present study (Eq.7, 8 and 9) give correlation factors of 0.95, 0.93 and 0.89 respectively. Predicted values obtained from Eq.10 show accordance value of 0.155 with the observed values of tunnel deformation. Correlations developed in the present study (Eqs.7, 8 and 9) are dimensionally correct.
Closure Behaviour of Tunnels under Squeezing Conditions 473 0.12 uobs /a = 6x10-10Jf3*v /K + 0.0057 Cf = 0.95 0.1
0.08
uobs/a
0.06
0.04
0.02
0 0.0E+00 5.0E+07 1.0E+08 Jf3*v /K 1.5E+08 2.0E+08
Fig. 2: Plot of (uobs / a) Versus v Jf3/K

0.12 uobs/a = 0.0197(v/N0.33K) + 0.0061 Cf = 0.93
0.10
0.08 uobs/a
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00 0 1 2 3 v/ N0.33K 4 5 6
Fig. 3: Plot of (uobs/ a) Versus v / N0.33 K
0.12 Observed tunnel closure (uobs/a) uobs/a = 0.0092 v/(Q0.33*K) + 0.0071 Cf = 0.89 0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00 0 2 4 6 v/(Q0.33*K) 8 10 12
Fig. 4: Plot of (uobs / a) Versus v / Q0.33 K

0.12
0.10 Estimated tunnel closure (ue/a)
0.08
0.06
0.04 Present study using Joint Factor (Jf) 0.02 Goel (1994) using Rock Mass Number (N) Present study using rock quality index (Q) 0.00
A
0.00 0.02 0.04
Present study using Rock Mass Number (N) 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
Observed tunnel closure (uobs/a)
Fig. 5: Comparison between Predicted (up /a) by Various Approaches and Observed (uobs /a) Tunnel Closure in Squeezing Ground Condition
CONCLUSION
The dimensionally correct empirical correlations (Eqs.7, 8 and 9) developed in the present study with correlation factors of 0.95, 0.93 and 0.89 respectively (Figs. 2, 3 and 4) show coefficient of accordance of 0.061, 0.063 and 0.109 respectively. Predicted values obtained from Eq.10 show coefficient of accordance of 0.155 with the observed values of tunnel deformation. Figure 5 shows that predicted values obtained by Equation 7 lie closer to the 1:1 line AB indicating the best correlation. Thus, empirical correlation suggested by Eq.7 in the present study is the best correlation among others and can become a handy tool for the practicing engineers and geologists in prediction of tunnel deformation in squeezing ground conditions.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] Arora V.K., (1987). Strength and deformation behaviour of jointed rocks. Ph. D. Thesis. IIT Delhi, India. Attewell, P.B., Sandford M.R. (1974). Intrinsic shear strength of a brittle anisotropic rock-I: Experimental and mechanical interpretation. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr. 11(11), 423-430. Barla, G. (1995). Squeezing rocks in tunnels. ISRM News Journal, 2(3/4), 44-49. Barton, N., Lien, R., Lunde, J. (1974). Engineering classification of rock masses for the design of tunnel support. Rock Mech. Rock Engg. 6 (4): 189-236. Choudhari, J.B. (2007). Closure of Underground Opening in Jointed Rocks. Ph. D. Thesis. IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, India Dube, A.K. (1979). Geomechanical Evaluation of Tunnel Stability under Failing Rock Conditions in a Himalayan Tunnel. Ph.D. Thesis, Deptt. of Civil Engg., University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India. Goel, R.K., Jethwa, J.L., Singh, B. (1988). Case history of Maneri- Uttarkashi power tunnel. In: Proc. of 2nd Int. Conf. on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering, St. Louis, June 1-5. Goel, R.K. (1994). Correlations for Predicting Support Pressures and Deformations in Tunnels. Ph.D. Thesis, Deptt. of Mining Engg., Visvesvaraya Regional College of Engineering, Nagpur University, Nagpur, India. Hoek, E., Brown, E.T. (1980). Underground Excavations in Rock, Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London, 527 p. Jain, M.S., Andotra, B.S., Sondhi, S.N. (1975). Note on geological features of the Chhibro-Khodri tunnel and occurences of Subathu shales. Unpubl. Rep. of Geological Survey of India. Jain, M.S., Jaitle, G.S., Sondhi S.N., Rajagopalan, G. (1976). Geotechnical note on the alternative alignments between Heena and Tiloth adits, Memo. XIV Meeting, Board of Consultants, Maneri Stage I Project. Jethwa, J.L., Singh, B., Singh, Bhawani, Mithal, R.S. (1980). Influence of geology on tunnelling conditions and deformational behaviour of supports in the faulted Zones - a case history of Chhibro-Khodri tunnel in India. Eng. Geol. 16(3/4), 291-318. Jethwa, J.L. (1981). Evaluation of rock pressures in tunnels through squeezing ground in lower Himalayas. Ph. D. Thesis, University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India. Mclamore, R., Gray, K.E. (1967). The mechanical behaviour of anisotropic sedimentary rocks. Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs Ser. B 89, 62-79. Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) (2002). Project completion report. Geology and Geotechnical. Kaligandaki A hydroelectric project, Syanga, Nepal, Vol. IV-A and V-C. Panthi K.K., Nilsen B. (2007). Uncertainty analysis of tunnel squeezing for two tunnel cases from Nepal Himalaya. Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. 44 (1), 67-76. Ramamurthy T. Arora V.K. (1994). Strength prediction for jointed rocks in confined and unconfined states. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 31(1), 922. Sakurai, S. (1997). Lessons learned from field measurements in tunnelling. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 12(4), 453-460. Shome, S.K., Andotra, B.S., Jain, M.S. (1973). Review of failure patterns in the stage II tunnels of Yamuna hydroelectric scheme, Dehradun District. In: Proc. of Symp. Rock Mech. and Tunnelling Problems, Kurukshetra University 1, pp. 70-79. Shrestha, G.L. (2005). Stress Induced Problems in Himalayan Tunnels with Special Reference to Squeezing. Ph. D. Thesis, Deptt. of Geology and Mineral Resources, Faculty of Engineering Science and Technology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway. Singh, B., Goel R.K. (2006). Tunnelling in weak rocks. Ed: John, Elsevier Ltd, The Boulevard, Langford, Kidlington, Oxford (UK). Singh, M. (1997). Engineering behaviour of jointed model materials. Ph.D. Thesis, IIT, New Delhi, India. Singh, M., Rao, K.S., Ramamurthy, T. (2002). Strength and deformational behaviour of a jointed rock mass. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering 35, 4564. Singh M., Singh B., Choudhari, J. (2007). Critical strain and squeezing of rock mass in tunnels. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 22(3), 343-350. Sripad, S.K., Raju, G.D., Singh, Rajbal, Khazanchi, R.N. (2007). Instrumentation of underground excavations at Tala hydroelectric project in Bhutan. In: Singh, Rajbal, Sthapak, A.K. (Eds.), Proc. of International Workshop on experiences and Construction of tala Hydroelectric Project Bhutan,14-15 June, New Delhi, India, pp. 269-282. Tripathy, P.K., Kapadia, H., Kumar, S. (2000). Use of alkali free accelerators in Tala hydroelectric project. In: Kaushish S.P., Ramamurthy, T. (Eds.), Proc. of Tunnelling Asia 2000, 26-29 Sep., New Delhi, India, pp. 292-295. Zhang, L. (2010). Estimating the Strength of Jointed Rock Masses. Rock Mech. Rock Engg. 43(4), 391-402.
Pillar Design Practices in Coal Mines

Koushik Pandit1, Ajay Chourasia2 and S.K. Bhattacharyya3
1PG 2Principal
Student, AcSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India; mr.k.pandit@gmail.com Scientist, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India; ajayapc@yahoo.com 3Director, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India; director@cbri.in
AbstractModern and efficient coal mining facilities exploit superior control methods and large-scale mechanisation for rock/coal excavation to attain best possible productivity. Coal pillars of substantially large dimensions are left out in coal mines to support the huge burden of the overlying strata. In India, more than 3000 million ton of coal reserve is locked up in the form of coal pillars. Varying geo-mining conditions make it extremely difficult to extract more than 30% of the total coal reserve by room-andpillar (also known as bord-and-pillar) method, which is commonly adopted method in India. In fact, these reasons lead to huge loss of coal, their spontaneous heating, and accumulation of poisonous gases and formation of unsafe working environment. Ground subsidence on account of inappropriate mining practices endangers existing population nearby the surface. The obvious solution seems to optimize the dimensions of these pillars and retreat the coal by further de-pillaring or to devise artificial support system in lieu of these inherent pillars, by using roof bolting system, cable bolts and truss system etc. This paper attempts to compile most relevant and recent advancements being adopted world-over. The paper outlines a brief discussion on coal extraction scenario, empirical and analytical design practices prevalent, recent focus on numerical and physical modelling of stress distribution problems, probable location and types of artificial supports in practice. Keywords: Bord-and-pillar mining, depillaring, pillar loading, pillar strength, artificial roof supports.
INTRODUCTION
Coal at present has a share of around 30% as a source of primary energy and 41% of global electricity generation. Coal use is forecasted to rise over 50% by the year 2030, with developing countries responsible for 97% of this increase, primarily to meet improved electrification rates. In India, 90% of coal extraction from underground mines is done using bord-and-pillar method (Fig.1), yielding only 30% recovery due to geo-mining constraints (Singh et al., 2008). Room and pillar are the two basic initial structures for underground mining of coal. Under varying thicknesses of overlying strata, each of these two structures may face limiting situations where problems related with their instability become critical. Extreme situations may arise due to the presence of inadequate thickness of hard strata over an excavation at shallow depth of cover, under which the probability of collapse of the entire rock-mass column up to the surface is high leading to severe surface damage or due to high in-situ overburden stress at deeper cover, because the value of vertical stress over a pillar increases with increase in depth of cover (Fig. 2). Large numbers of coal seams have extensively been developed by formation of pillars to meet the increasing demand of coal. Reports indicates that around 3000 MT of coal reserve is locked in pillars under varying geomining conditions (Dixit and Mishra, 2010), and becomes challenge to extract such locked-up coal.
COAL MINING: INDIAN PERSPECTIVE

Indias energy domain comprises both non-renewable (coal, lignite, petroleum and natural gas) and renewable energy sources (wind, solar, small hydro, biogases etc.). Coal is the largest source of nonrenewable energy in India. As per Energy Statistics Report 2012 published by Government of India, the estimated reserve of coal was around 286 billion tones. The report also says coal production in India during the year 2010-11 was 533 MTs. The estimated total consumption of raw coal by industry
Pillar Design Practices in Coal Mines 477
has increased from 71.2 MTs during 1970-71 to 592.99 MTs during 2010-11, and coal had to be imported from other countries to meet the requirement. Coal is basically extracted by open-cast or surface mining near the ground surface and by underground mining at depths, mostly by longwall or room-and-pillar methods. In later one, galleries or roadways are created by driving mining equipments and in-situ coal pillars are left out in that process, which provide support to the overburden strata.
Fig. 1: Bord-and-Pillar Method of Mining
Fig. 2: Variation of in-situ Vertical Stress with Depth below Surface (After Hoek & Brown, 1980)
For roof stability concern, coal pillars are critically treated. If the pillar dimensions are increased, the strength or load carrying capacity of it also increases, but more quantity of coal remains as locked-up pillars and therefore, productivity of the mining operations in terms of recovery of coal and cost of excavation is hampered (Oraee et al., 2008). As per Regulation 99 of Coal Mines Regulation, 1957, India, it is stipulated that the width of galleries shall not exceed 4.8 m and the height of the galleries shall not exceed 3 m. From the guidelines, pillar dimensions can be inferred, as an example for depth of cover not exceeding 60 m, and for gallery width of 4.8 m, minimum pillar size is kept as almost 15 m, incurring huge loss of coal in terms of extraction.
LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM THROUGH COAL PILLARS

Underground excavations disturb the equilibrium state of the strata, resulting in setting up of different forces and redistribution of stresses to establish a new equilibrium state at a lower energy level; along with lateral movements and changes in slope in surface beds. Initially the beds bend downward which temporarily frees weight of the beds above and this overburden load above the roadways/galleries in the excavated mine is transferred to the sides of the excavation, resulting in the formation of pressure arch (Fig. 3), within which a zone of relieved stress exists (Poulsen, 2010). When an opening is made, the stresses shift outward on both sides of pillar, leaving a de-stressed zone, in the shape of an arch, around the pillar. The exact shape and size of the arch depends on the stress levels, age and shape/size of opening, and strata properties. Subsidence occurs when the arch reaches the surface. The de-stressed area inside the arch is called intradosal ground, while the area outside is called extradosal ground (Bieniawski, 1984). The stratum at the fringe of the intradosal ground gets compressed as part of the vertical stress is transferred to the abutments. The height of the intradosal ground is about 2-4 times the width of the extraction. For large excavations, the height is limited to 200 times the excavation height. Regions where pillars are being exploited can be thought of as large excavations (Nayak Ram Chandra, 2010). A disadvantage of this theory is that due to lack of a quantitative estimate of the pressure arch profile, it is difficult to design for coal pillars (how would
you estimate what the intradosal pressure on the roof of an opening is if you do not know where the arch begins). When an excavation exceeds a certain width, the pressure arch can reach all the way to the surface causing subsidence.
Fig. 3: The Pressure Arch Theory (Bieniawski, 1984)
Generally, coal seams are weak in strength, and excavations are done over a large area, which enhances chances of collapse of overlying strata. The lateral compressive forces acting along the roof compels the immediate roof to bend, thus causing bed separation and subsidence. This subsidence in bord and pillar workings doesnt follow a regular pattern and occurs at unexpected times as pillars or stocks left in the goaf hinder regular settlement (Singh2, 2011).
ESTIMATION OF PILLAR LOAD: TRIBUTARY AREA CONCEPT

As per Jeremic (1985), the mechanics of stress redistribution during underground coal extraction is related to the method of coal extraction in addition to other geo-mining parameters. Some assumptions are made for computing the pressure on pillars: 1. Any element of the ground at a depth H, below the surface is subjected to a pressure P0 , which depends on the weight of the overlying rock mass, i.e., P0 = .H, where, = weight per unit volume of the overlying rock mass. 2. Each pillar supports the volume of the rock over an area which is the sum of the cross-sectional area of the pillar plus a portion of the bord area, the later being equally shared by all the pillars. 3. The load is vertical only and is uniformly distributed over the cross-sectional area of the pillar. According to tributary area concept, a pillar takes the weight of overlying rock up to a distance of half the opening width surrounding it. In Fig. 4, WO and WP are widths of the opening and pillar respectively, while LP is the length of the pillar. For square pillars, WP = LP. Shaded portion represents the tributary area shared by an individual pillar.
Fig. 4: The Tributary Area Pillar Loading Concept (Bieniawski, 1984)
The load on the pillar, P, is, therefore, P = (LP+W0) * (WP+W0)*.H, And the stress on the pillar p is: p = P/Area of pillar = (LP+W0) * (WP+W0)*.H / (LP * WP) = (LP+W0) * (WP+W0)*v / (LP * WP), where v is the vertical stress. In general, tributary area method is used to estimate the value of mining induced stress around a symmetrical excavation with low percentage of extraction. The scope of the tributary area method ends with high percentage of extraction and roof strata failure (Singh1 et al., 2011). Calculation of the actual load on a pillar during different stages of mining is rather more complex than the determination of the pillar strength. Pillar stress may be calculated from the beam theory, numerical methods, or other techniques, but is most commonly estimated by the tributary area theory (Mark, 1999) and is expressed as a multiplier based on the extraction ratio of the in-situ vertical stress, which in turn is a function of an average overburden density. Pillar stress can be estimated by (Salamon, 1967) as, Pillar stress = gH / (1-e), where h=depth of cover, e is the extraction ratio between zero (no extraction) and one (100% extraction), =mass density of overlying rock mass. The original work of Salamon & Munro (1967) calculates the loading on square pillars of width w, bord width B and depth of mining h with tributary area theory as, Pillar stress = gH [(w+B)/w]2. Sheorey & Singh (1974) suggested the concept of beam deflection for the estimation of average pillar stress. The method is mainly for narrow workings, where loads are transferred on to the pillars due to deflections of the overburden strata. From literature survey, we get to know some analytical models, which are mostly based on longwall mining and give an estimation of the value and range of mining induced stress over pillars during underground coal mining. Considering an infinite, elastic, isotropic and homogeneous nature of coal measure formations, Salamon (1964) derived following analytical equation for stress distribution at the edge of a longwall (for x>L), where h = total stress, L = half width of the panel, x = distance panel:h x = from the centre of the panel and q = virgin in-situ stress, which is given as q = .H, H is the depth of cover and is unit weight of the overburden. Poulsen (2010) considered Load Transfer Distance (LTD) concept in bord and pillar mining for estimating the lateral extent of the base to the pressure arch between pillars (Abel, 1988). LTD is defined as the maximum distance to which any stress can be laterally transferred and is determined by measuring the maximum distance that any effect of mining can be detected. Within the LTD, the stress can be discarded between pillars. Relationships were developed to determine the value of LTD in terms of depth of cover (H) after statistical analysis of 55 measurements (Abel, 1988) done in flat lying sedimentary deposits and is given as, LTD = 1 X 10-4 H2 + 0.2701*H (m) Considering this LTD concept, Poulsen (2010) established following expression for estimating the average pillar stress in the lateral zone of influence (ZI), if excavation of area (ae) is made in the pillars zone of influence: Average pillar stress = gH * (2*LTD + We/2)2 / [*(2*LTD+We/2)2-ae], Where We is the effective width of pillar, is the average density of roof rock mass and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Poulsen (2010) established following expression between ZI and We: ZI = 2*LTD + We/2 (m) This is an important approach for automation of pillar load estimation, but LTD remains valid for symmetrical extraction and may not be suitable for a caving depillaring face.
EMPIRICAL DESIGN OF IN-SITU COAL PILLARS

The design of mine pillars has received considerable attention over the past several decades. The numerical design methods are by far the most precise from a mathematical viewpoint. However, the development of the numerical models and their computations is generally quite expensive and must be repeated if the size, shape, height, or geologic conditions, (i.e., roof and floor strata, etc.), of the mine pillars change significantly. As a result of these problems, practical mine pillar design still relies primarily on the local experience or precedent and empirical design equations. Most pillar design equations, although differing slightly in form, have two basic components in common. These are size-strength effect (in terms of uniaxial compressive strength) and shape-strength effect (width to height ratios of the coal pillars) components to each equation. The small specimens on which laboratory tests are done, do not contain all the weaknesses (i.e., discontinuities like microfractures, cleats, bedding planes, partings, shears and small faults) which coal pillars will normally have. Hence, attempts have been made to determine in-situ strength of coal on large blocks. Knowledge of in-situ coal pillar strength helps to fix the dimensions of it for roof stability. Some important empirical relations are mentioned below in chronological order to trace the trend of research and development in this domain.
Table 1: Empirical Relationship for Estimation of Coal Pillar Strength
Author(s) Baushinger Bunting Zern Holland & Gaddy Salamon & Munro Bieniawski Bieniawski Bogert Salamon et al. Oraee, K. & Hosseini, N. Year 1878 1911 1928 1964 1967 1968 1981 1995 1998 2007 Developed Empirical Formula P/C = 0.778 + 0.222 (w/h) P/1 = 0.70 + 0.30 (w/h) P/C = (w/h)0.5 P/C = (w/D)0.5 * h P/C = w0.46/h0.66 P/C = 0.645 + 0.355 (w/h) P/C = [0.64 + 0.36 (w/h)] , here = 1.4 for (w/h) > 5 and = 1.0 for (w/h) < 5 P (in Pa)= exp[2.49*ln(RQD) - 2.06] 6894.7, where RQD = Rock Quality Designation P/C = 7.2 * w0.46/h0.66 P/C = (D/12)0.5 * (w0.46/h0.66)
In Table 1, P is the pillar strength, 1 is the uniaxial compressive strength of a cubical specimen, w and h are width and height of pillar, respectively, C is the uniaxial compressive strength of intact coal, and D is the cube size dimension of specimen. All the units are as per F.P.S. system. In Indian context, Sheorey, (1992) suggested an empirical relationship to estimate pillar strength, which is widely used: S = 0.27 * c * h-0.36 * (H/250+1)*(We/h-1) MPa, where, S is strength of pillar, c is uniaxial compressive strength of one inch cube of coal sample (MPa), h is extraction height or working height (m), H is depth of cover (m) and We is effective pillar width (m). We is calculated as per We = 4 AP / CP (Wagner, 1980), where AP is area of pillar = L1*L2, Cp is perimeter of the pillar (corner to corner) = 2*(L1+L2), L1=length of pillar and L2=width of pillar.
NUMERICAL METHODS IN COAL PILLAR DESIGN

The majority of coal pillars are designed using empirical formulae to determine their strength. However, these can give misleading results in complex geo-mechanical environments and for pillars that are not square in plan section (Fama et al., 1995). Numerical models can incorporate the effects of differing geological media, joints, parting planes, complex geometries and in-situ stresses, but they are limited by the need for realistic estimates of a large number of in-situ material properties that are difficult to determine. The progress in this regard is presented in Table 2.
The ratio of a pillars estimated strength to the pillars stress is expressed as factor of safety (FoS). For the long-term stability of underground structures of a developed coal seam, the safety factor shall be 1.5; rather FoS as 2 or more is preferable (Singh, 2008).
Table 2: Progress in Numerical Analysis for Coal Pillar Design
Author(s) Iannacchione Gale & Mills Heasley & Salamon Gale Oraee Kazem et al. Year 1990 1992 & 1994 1996 1998 2008 Findings and/ or Recommendations For pillars of (w/h)>10, impact of slip along the roof & floor interfaces should be incorporated in pillar strength calculations. Used elasto-plastic finite difference models, such as FLAC (Cundall & Bord, 1988) to identify yield mechanisms in coal pillars & strata above it. Their study led to site specific pillar design guidelines. Developed a program, named LAMODEL, which uses back analysis to calibrate the model rock properties from empirical formula. This eliminates requirement of difficult laboratory testing for data acquisition. Introduced effect of interaction between the pillars and surrounding rock strata with time elapsed. Presented a new numerical method, based on Ground Reaction Curve (GRC), which can determine the elastic and plastic behaviour phases of pillar, depending on (w/h) ratio. Moreover, for each phase, a dedicated equation was presented. With measurement of coal pillar horizontal strain, and by using these new equations, the coal pillar strength was calculated accurately. Concluded that in room & pillar mining, tensile stress in central roof linearly decreases along with the increase of lateral pressure coefficient, which is useful for stope stability. Also found that pillar supporting capacity is reduced with the increase of pillar height, which reduces the stability of pillar. Roofs maximum tensile stress increases with the increase of room span. Concluded from analysis that it is not necessary to have a uniform size of pillars in the panel if it satisfies the panel stability criteria along with criteria of worst scenario. They found that percentage of coal recovery could be substantially improved with application of hybrid method of partial extraction.
Ye Haiwang et al.
2011
Jaiswal et al.
2012
SUBSIDENCE CONTROL IN COAL MINES

Mining subsidence occurs under the action of gravity on strata due to withdrawal of their natural support over a sufficiently large area. Consequences are vertical subsidence, lateral movements, change in slope at the surface, settlement of surface structures under differential strain. Some theories have been developed over the years for explaining subsidence events, such as trough theory (Hausse, 1907), vertical & normal theory (Briggs, 1929), dome theory (Young & Stoek, 1916; Adler & Sun, 1968), beam or plate theory (Denkhaus, 1964), etc. Subsidence due to underground excavations can be minimized by improving rock properties by surface stabilization and/or by underground control methods. The methods makes use of grout columns, constructing piers within the mine, hydraulic filling or backfilling by sand/crushed stone, fly-ash injection and blasting gallery.
ARTIFICIAL SUPPORTS FOR MINE ROOFS

Support is the application of a reactive force to the surface of an excavation and includes techniques and devices such as timber, fill, shotcrete, wire mesh and steel or concrete sets or liners. Reinforcement, on the other hand, is a means of conserving or improving the overall rock mass properties from within the rock mass by techniques such as rock bolts, cable bolts and ground anchors (Windsor & Thompson, 1993). In order to determine the system of support to be followed, Rock Mass Rating (RMR) is determined for the immediate roof, say, up to 2 m above gallery height. For this purpose, generally, the following parameters are considered: Layer thickness, Structural features, Rock weathering ability, Rock strength, and Ground water seepage. In this context, Coal Mine Roof Rating (CMRR) was first presented by Molinda and Mark (1993). CMRR incorporates uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of the intact rock, intensity (spacing and persistence) of discontinuities such as bedding planes and slickenside, shear strength (cohesion and roughness) of discontinuities, and moisture sensitivity of the rock. Thus CMMR can be used to predict the pillar stress and requirement of additional support if the pillars are under-designed. Some types of artificial supports in use are:
Timber Supports
Very common in Indian coal mines. Strength of these props varies from 60 to 380 KN with maximum deformation at breaking load as 45-80 mm. The average load bearing capacity (L) of wooden props in tonnes are, 1. L = 47.2*(h/d) for h > 3 m (Sinha et al., 1972) 2. L = 32.08*(h/d) for 1 m < h < 5 m (Kejriwal, 1981), Where h & d are the height & diameter of the prop in metre. Such timber props have higher load carrying capacities when cogs or chocks in form of sawn sleepers are used. Problems associated with use of timber supports is that these yield very slowly, and the resistance offered is not uniform, making it difficult to design for a support at face.
Steel Props
Basically are of two types, viz. rigid props and yielding props, later ones are further subdivided as friction props and hydraulic props. Yielding props yield as the roof weight comes upon them while offering almost constant resistance to it. This in turn, helps in maintaining sound roof conditions. Whereas, rigid props may cause damage to the roof or alternatively, they themselves may get buckled and damaged.
Roof Bolts
Are used mainly for supporting roadways in bord-and-pillar workings. These can be used with or without the conventional supports. The primary function served by roof bolting is to hold the weak rock lumps or thin strata together, and thus increases the effective thickness of roof beam. A single tensioned rock bolt usually consists of an anchorage, a steel shank, a face plate, a tightening nut and sometimes a deformable plate. For short term applications, the bolt may be left ungrouted, but for permanent or long term applications and use in corrosive environments, rock bolts are usually fully grouted with cement or resin grout for improving both pull-out strength and corrosion resistance.
Cable Bolts
Are long, grouted, high tensile strength steel elements used to reinforce rock masses. They may be used as pre-or post-reinforcement and may be left un-tensioned or be pre- or post-tensioned. Windsor (2001) defines the following terms associated with cable bolting:
Wire a single, solid section element. Strand a set of helically spun wires. Cable an arrangement of wires or strands. Tendon pre-tensioned wires or strand. Dowel un-tensioned wires or strand.
Shotcrete
Shotcrete is pneumatically applied concrete used to provide passive support to the rock surface. It consists of a mixture of Portland cement, aggregates, water and a range of admixtures such as accelerators or retarders, plasticisers, micro-silica and reinforcing fibres. Over the last 20 years, shotcrete has found increasing use in underground mining practice, initially for the support of the more permanent excavations but now increasingly for the support of stopes and stope accesses (Brown 1986, Brummer & Swan, 2001). It may also be used as part of the support and reinforcement system in mild rock burst conditions (Hoek et al., 1995).
The addition of 2050 mm long and 0.250.8 mm diameter deformed steel fibres, or plastic fibres, has been found to improve the toughness, shock resistance, durability, and shear and flexural strengths of shotcrete, and to reduce the formation of shrinkage cracks.
Wire Mesh
Chain-link or welded steel mesh is used to restrain small pieces of rock between bolts or dowels, and to reinforce shotcrete. For the latter application, welded mesh is preferred to chain-link mesh because of the difficulty of applying shotcrete satisfactorily through the smaller openings in chain-link mesh. Ortlepp (1997) gives a number of examples of the use of mesh and lacing in conjunction with rock bolts and grouted cables and steel rods to stabilise tunnels in the deep-level gold mines of South Africa.
Steel Arches or Steel Sets

Steel arches or steel sets are used where high load-carrying capacity elements are required to support tunnels or roadways. A wide range of rolled steel sections are available for this application. Where the rock is well jointed, or becomes fractured after the excavation is made, the spaces between the sets may be filled with steel mesh, steel or timber lagging, or steel plates. Steel sets provide support rather than reinforcement. They cannot be preloaded against the rock face and their efficacy largely depends on the quality of the blocking provided to transmit loads from the rock to the steel set. Steel arches are widely used to support roadways in coal mines where they are often required to sustain quite large deformations. These deformations may be accommodated by using yielding arches containing elements designed to slip at predetermined loads, or by permitting the splayed legs of the arches to punch into the floor.
CONCLUSION
During the development stage in bord-and-pillar mining, about 30% of the total coal reserve is extracted and the remaining gets locked-up due to different constraints like presence of surface/subsurface features. These pillars are slowly becoming unapproachable due to a variety of reasons like increasing time dependent complexity in geotechnical conditions of the pillars. Literature indicates that no established technology is available globally for extraction of coal using artificial pillars. Some initial work have been done for different purposes through construction of artificial pillars, mainly in the field of metal mining, especially for roof control in breast stoping area. Although, different procedures are available for estimating stress resultant at different sections of mines, however, these approaches do not cater to critical parameters, hence there is a need to put concerted efforts for numerical approaches to optimise pillar dimensions and develop artificial support system for optimal extraction of locked-up coal.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Director, CSIR-CBRI, Roorkee for permitting to publish the paper.
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Underground Horizontal Directional Drilling A Trenchless Technology

S.K. Panigrahi, Narendra Kumar and Sameer
CSIR-Central Buiding Research Institute, Roorkee, India; panigrahi1111@yahoo.com
AbstractThe services lines lay under the ground without disturbing the surface is known as Trenchless Technology. To enhance the quality of life without adverse impact on the environment, the optimum use of underground space is natural and leads to the importance of Trenchless Technology. The underground passages constructed without removing the overlaying soil may be used for the transportation of passengers, freight, water, sewage, gas pipe lines and electrical and construction network etc. under trenchless construction. Horizontal directional drilling is a trenchless method that requires a minimum amount of excavation to complete an installation. The main objective of the paper is to provide basic information on this technology, specifically underground directional drilling, its importance, how it works and different applications. Also various other methods of trenchless technology have been discussed in brief. The model of a horizontal drill machine for medium class contractors in India has also been presented. Keywords: Trenchless, Horizontal drilling, Underground, Boring, Construction
INTRODUCTION
The rapid growth of cities needs more and more underground infrastructures such as electrical and communication networks, water and sewer piping system and other small utility tunnels. In metropolitan cities, the jamming of road traffic is a severe problem for the society. The traffic problem gets increased when the infrastructure constructed by the traditional methods of open trench construction, because, it causes significantly disruption of traffic. In addition, unsafe trenches and risky conditions can cause the danger to pedestrians and workers. Besides, the traditional methods always disturb the environment, such as, site clean up difficulty and soil movement problem. In recent years, making horizontal bores under the ground has become the preferred construction method for installation of the new underground infrastructure. The most of the above problems can be eliminated by using trenchless technology which can be performed at the same or even lower cost than the conventional open trench methods. Being a trenchless method for installation, underground horizontal boring is particularly suited for locations that are inaccessible by conventional open cut techniques. This may include situations where the proposed installation lies in an environmentally sensitive location, crossing of buildings, roads, highways and railway lines. The low environmental and social impact of this technology has made the underground boring extremely viable and desirable by various departments and municipalities where there is a high investment in surface infrastructure and the commutation of traffic makes open cut alternatives inconvenient. The trenchless methods allow installation of most underground infrastructure systems with minimum surface disruption. With the view of demand for trenchless construction practices, the horizontal directional drilling, micro tunneling, impact moling & pipe jacking industry has grown substantially over the past few years. In this paper the basic information on these technologies, specifically underground directional drilling has been described. At present, no small machine is being manufactured indigenously for building construction works in India. The machines required for big projects are being imported which are of very high capacity and very expensive. The model of a horizontal drill machine for medium class contractors in India has also been presented
LIMITATIONS OF OPEN TRENCHING

Traditional open cut trenches are in general use for laying the underground services but have following inherent disadvantages, which can be eliminated / minimised by adopting the trenchless technology methods:
Traffic Hindrance
Traffic obstruction, accidents, extra cost in providing diversions and their maintenance etc.
Environment Pollution
Dust and air pollution by vehicles and machines, noise pollution to public, pollution of ground and surface water etc.
Citizens and Society

Increased cost in repair and rehabilitating the roads, compensation for damages, advantage of early availability of the utility and avoidance of public hindrance etc. Trenchless technology will prove competitive with its increased use considering the social cost aspect in the project. For a meaningful safe environment and public health in our cities the application and adoption of this advance technology may soon become imperative. The paper describes the Horizontal directional drilling method for installing utilities for infrastructural development under the ground. Also a model of a machine for medium class contractors in India is described.
TRENCHLESS BORING METHODS

Trenchless methods allow inspection, access to repair, expansion, up-gradation and the installation of most underground infrastructure systems with minimum surface disruption. There are many trenchless methods of making horizontal bores under the ground (Figure 1). Trenchless methods can be divided into two general categories. The first category deals with the inspection, repair and upgradation of existing facilities and the second with the installation of new facilities. Trenchless technologies that are expected to experience the greatest future growth are horizontal directional drilling for new construction and the pipe bursting methods for rehabilitation. Here, first some of the trenchless methods have been described and then the horizontal directional drilling technology method is described in brief:
Up-gradation of Existing Facilities

The existing facilities can be up-graded mainly by application of the following method.
Pipe Bursting
This is recognised as the only method of trenchless rehabilitation that can replace an existing pipe with a completely new pipe of equal or larger diameter to maintain or increase the flow capabilities. In general, pipe bursting is accompanied by the advancement of a cone-shaped bursting head through an original pipe that due to its geometry translates forward thrust into radial expansion forces. These radial expansion forces overcome the original pipes tensional and shear strength capabilities and subsequently bursts or splits the pipe. Attached to the rear of the bursting head is the new line, which is simultaneously installed as the bursting head advances and bursts the pipe. This technique has been used to replace cast iron, clay, reinforced concrete, PVC pipes.
Underground Horizontal Directional DrillingA Trenchless Technology 487
Fig. 1: Trenchless Methods
Installation of New Facilities

The installation of new facilities is done mainly by the following four methods.
Horizontal Directional Drilling

It is a two-stage process for small diameter bores. Directional hole is drilled to provide the pilot hole. The back reamer and other product are then pulled back through the pilot hole. Main applications are laying sewers & conduits, geotechnical investigation, laying of pipe lines etc.
Micro Tunneling
Remotely controlled, guided pipe-jacking process that provides continuous support to excavation face. Pipe installed from drive shaft to reception shaft. No person entry required in pipe. Main application is in gravity sewer installation.
Pipe Jacking
Pipe is jacked horizontally from drive shaft to reception shaft. Workers are required in pipe to perform excavation and/ or remove spoil. Excavation performed either manually or mechanically. Main applications are large diameter gravity sewers, force mains, diversion chambers.
Auger Boring
Pipe pushed from drive shaft to reception shaft, while rotating flight auger simultaneously removes spoil. This method does not apply pressure to cutting face. The main application is relatively short crossings (pipes and conduits).
Horizontal Directional Drilling

Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD) technology is evolved from the merging of oil field and water well drilling technologies. The main advantage of this technology over conventional services laying techniques is that it is a trenchless method that requires a minimum amount of excavation to complete an installation. This technique allows flexibility in installation of the pipes etc. as the path can be drilled straight or curved to avoid surface and subsurface obstacles. The directional drilling
industry has grown very fast and being utilized by several users. It was first used in the oil and gas industries and then expanded to include utility installations, environmental remediation and the installation of sewers etc. The installation of pipe utilizing directional drilling is a multi stage technique completed in two phase operations which includes the drilling of a pilot hole and its subsequent reaming to install the product pipe. Installation of pipe is conducted from the surface and commences with the drilling of a pilot hole along the path of installation. The pilot hole is launched from the surface at a certain angle and then gradually becomes horizontal when the required depth is reached. The hole can be steered and tracked from the surface using a walk over or wire line locator system to direct the hole to the exit location. Once the drill string reaches the surface at the exit location, a reamer is attached to the drill string and pulled back to the entry point. This process enlarges the hole for the installation of the product line. To achieve the require size of hole, the several reaming operations can be performed, Fig. 1. Generally, all reams prior to the actual product installation are referred to as pre-reams and the final ream to which the product pipe is attached is referred to as the back reaming.
Fig. 2: Horizontal Directional Drilling
The product line is installed once the borehole is enlarged to a diameter that is generally 1.5 times of the outside diameter of product pipe or conduit. This is necessary to allow for an annular void for return of drilling fluids & spoils and to allow for bend radius of the product line. There is a variety of different reamers for each type of soil. A blade reamer is used for soft soils, a barrel reamer for mixed soils and a rock reamer with tungsten carbide inserts is used for rock formations.
Cutting Fluids
The directional crossing process requires the use of large volumes of slurry that provide the following functions: 1. Hydraulic cutting with a jet 2. Provide energy to the drill motor 3. Lubricate the cutting head 4. Transport drill cuttings to the surface 5. Stabilise the hole against collapse The slurries most commonly used are bentonite based. Bentonite is naturally occurring Wyoming clay known for its hydrophilic characteristics
Underground Horizontal Directional DrillingA Trenchless Technology 489
Advantages
The advantage of using this method is its low operational cost, effectiveness in congested urban areas for crossing of roadways, Low restoration cost as it requires very small entrance pit. The following list is a sample of comments made by trenchless technology experts: This method will gain popularity as more contractors gain experience and can offer the service. Prices should drop and more use will be made. This technology is highly suited to the installation and rehabilitation of underground utilities. There may be saving of 20-35% in the cost of rehab using no dig solutions.
PROPOSED MODEL FOR LOW COST HORIZONTAL DRILLING MACHINE

At present, no small machine is being manufactured indigenously for building construction works in India. The machines required for big projects are being imported. These drilling rigs are of very high capacity and their cost is also very high (ranging between 1.0 to 1.5 crore). So, there is a need to develop an Underground Horizontal Drilling Machine of small capacity to carry out the under ground jobs economically and effectively to cater the needs of small to medium contractors engaged in building and allied construction activities, such as installation of sewer pipe lines, conduits, electrical cables, water lines, other transmission products under and sides of buildings and roads etc. The proposed machine may be capable of making horizontal bores under the ground at required depth with a boring capacity of upto 320 mm diameter and up to 10.0 meters length suitable for both the dry and wet boring methods. The machine consists of a base frame, a movable trolley to travel in horizontal direction along with a rotating cutter / water jet assembly for cutting the soil during boring operation. A double acting hydraulic jack is used for to and fro motion of the movable trolley. In dry boring the open flight auger is used for boring and in wet boring a chopper / cutting tool is used along with the water jet. A pit is required at the required place of required boring depth to place the Underground Horizontal drilling Machine for boring operation. The boring operation is continued to the length of 1.0 metre and than another piece of auger / boring bar is screwed to the first to increase its length further. In this way, by adding the number of auger lengths / boring bars the total length of boring can be achieved. The cut soil from the bore is automatically transferred to the pit through helical flights in case of dry boring and in case of wet boring operation the cut soil is conveyed into the pit mixed with water.
CONCLUSION
In a very short span of few years, the construction industry in India has adopted the trenchless technology to a great extent, specifically in metropolitan cities and has benefited the society by minimizing the disadvantages of environmental and social impacts. The underground construction methods used under trenchless technology are very fast in comparison to open trenching methods; however it requires mechanized process of construction, trained technical man power. The technology is still to be adopted by the construction industry for small projects for general awareness in common public towards trenchless construction for environment friendly urban development. In this paper, the importance of a horizontal drilling machine under trenchless technology has been discussed. Also a model of a horizontal directional drilling machine suitable both for dry and wet boring is presented for underground works. This machine may carry out under ground jobs economically and effectively to cater the needs of small to medium contractors engaged in building and allied construction activities, such as installation of sewer pipe lines, conduits, electrical cables, water lines, other transmission products under and sides of buildings and roads etc.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to Director, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee for the permission to present the paper.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] Gautam D.K., Kumar Narendra, Panigrahi S.K., Sameer, trenchless Technology for Underground Services, New Building Materials and Construction World, Vol. 14, Issue11, May 2009. Brig. Gunjal, D. K., (Retd.), Consulting Engineer, Civil Engineering and Construction Review, Trenchless Technology for Underground Utilities Infrastructure Development and Management, April 2004. Allouche, E. N., Ariaratnam, S. T., and Lueke, J. S. 2000. Horizontal directional drilling: a profile of an emerging underground construction industry. J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 126, 6876. Ariaratnam, S. T., and Allouche, E. N. 2000. Suggested practices for installations using horizontal directional drilling. Pract Period. Struct. Des. Constr., 54, 142149. Jain, V. K., Director, Cherrington Asia (India) Pvt. Ltd., No Dig India, Installation of Pipelines Under Railway Lines, March April 2002. Huxted Micro tunneling http://www.kerrconstruction.com/index.html, Printed on 8th April 2002. Lueke, J. S., and Ariaratnam, S. T. 2002,. Factors affecting surface heave in horizontal directional drilling operations. Proc., No-Dig Conf., North American Society for Trenchless Technology, Montreal. Horizontal Directional Drilling, http://www.HDDADV. HTM, Printed on 8th April 2002.
Underground Vertical Cuts with Nailing

Meenal Gosavi1, Satyenda Mittal2 and Swami Saran3
2Department 1Rural Engineering Services, Govt. of Uttarakhand, Dehradun, India of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee; satyendramittal@gmail.com 3Department of Earthquake Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India
AbstractDue to large scale infra-structure development and paucity of land available, many
underground basements, shopping malls etc are being constructed. For construction of basements, vertical cuts have to be made. The conventional practice of making vertical cuts is sheet piling, braces etc. Sheet piles are made of either wood or steel, and thus are expensive. Cost of sheet piling or contiguous piling is very high. It also requires expertise and skills. Soil nailing is a novel technique, which stabilizes the soil insitu. Design of soil nailing is generally not available anywhere. In the present paper, simplified design methodology is explained to design vertical cuts with the help of nailing. For the benefit of the readers, ready design charts are also given for designs.
INTRODUCTION
Soil nailing is a method of reinforcing the soil with steel bars or other materials. The purpose is to suppress the tensile and shear stresses in soil and restrain its lateral displacements. The nails are either placed in drilled bore holes or grouted along their total length to form grouted nails, or simply driven into the ground, called as driven nails. The technique helps stabilization of both natural slopes and vertical or inclined cuts. Many investigators (Gssler and Gudehus, 1981, 1983; Shen et al., 1981; Schlosser, 1982; Juran et al., 1988; 1990, Raju, 1996; Gupta, 2003) have proposed methods for investigating the stability of vertical/nearly vertical excavations. In each method, the assumed geometry of the slip surface is based on observations in either small scale model tests or full scale structures. The methods vary in the geometry of the assumed failure surface, the definition of the factor of safety and the forces assumed to act on the active zone. The methods proposed by Raju (1996) and Gupta (2003) are based on moment equilibrium approach assuming the rupture surface as log-spiral meeting the ground at 90o. The formation of log-spiral rupture surface is supported by earlier investigators (Jewell, 1989; Plumelle and Schlosser, 1990 including the observations of Raju (1996) in his small scale model tests and trench tests. The behaviour of soil nailed walls under dynamic loads has been studied by very few investigators. Mizuno and Chen (1984) performed seismic analysis of vertical slopes using plasticity models and compared the results with finite element method and limit analysis methods. Sabhahit et al. (1996) presented a seismic design of nailed slopes based on pseudo-dynamic approach. Saha et al. (2002) carried out dynamic analysis of soil nailed vertical cuts using an explicit finite difference tool FLAC (Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua) considering sinusoidal harmonic horizontal shear loading only. The Basic aim of this study is to find out the behaviour of the nailed cuts in cohesive-frictional soil. The study also helps in deciding the elementary profile of nails in the design and also states the effect of consideration of seismic coefficients on the value of factor of safety for the design of nailed vertical cuts.
ANALYSIS AND PARAMETRIC STUDY

In the present research work, a pseudo-static analysis for the stability of inclined nailed cut considering the log-spiral failure wedge (Fig. 1a) has been carried out. The forces acting on the sliding wedge are shown in Fig (1b). Considering all these forces, the equation of Factor of Safety (FOS) is obtained as:
FOS=
Re sisting moments Driving moments
(1) (2)
Therefore, FOS=
M T + M Tc + Mc M WV + M WH + M QV + M QH
The moments have been taken about the center of log spiral. The details of log spiral wedge, derivation of all the forces and their moments are given elsewhere (Gosavi, 2006; Gosavi et al. 2006, Saran et al., 2005). The aim of this paper is to study the effect of various parameters on FOS of the cut. The minimum FOS which was obtained by varying log spiral angle (Fig. 1a), was further dependent on the following factors: (i) Length and diameter of nails (L, d); (ii) Vertical and horizontal spacing between nails ( Sv and Sh); (iii) Yield strength of nail (fy); (iv) Coefficient of friction between soil and nail (f*); (v) Cohesion and frictional characteristics of soil (c, ); (vi) Density of soil (); (vii) Inclination of cut with vertical, (Fig. 1a); (viii) Inclination of nails with horizontal, (Fig. 1b); (ix) Height of cut (H); (x) Seismic coefficients (h, v), (xi) Surcharge intensity on the surface of cut, q (Fig. 1a).
Fig. 1(a): Geometry of Rupture Surface
For a given set of parameters, the minimum FOS was obtained using a computer program developed in this study. At a given site where a cut is required to be stabilized, the following parameters are usually known: (i) properties of the material of the cut - , c, ; (ii) Inclination of cut with vertical, ; (iii) Seismic coefficients h and v of the area in which cut is located; (iv) Surcharge intensity q if any on the surface of cut. For the above given parameters, FOS depends on (refer Fig. 1 a), d, L/H ratio, f*, H, Sv , Sh and fy factors. In this study it is assumed that Sv=Sh, and v=h/2. It is quite obvious that when the nails are provided at closer spacing, the factor of safety will be higher. Keeping this in view the effect of parameters listed from i) to xi) on FOS (Eq. 1) had been
Underground Vertical Cuts with Nailing 493
studied. In this study it is assumed that Sv=Sh. Further, number of nails, N in a single column of nails is equal to H / Sv. Following parameters were taken as the base for this study, Density of soil ( ) =16.5 kN/m3; Soil friction angle () =30o; Soil cohesion (c) =0, 10 kPa, 20 kPa; Surcharge intensity on failure wedge (q) =0, 80 kPa, 120 kPa; Nail cut inclination with vertical () =0o and 15o; Seismic coefficient in horizontal direction ( h) =0.0, 0.15.
Effect of Variation of Nail Inclination, on FOS

For studying the effect of variation of nail inclination () on FOS, values of H, L/H, d , f* and fy were adopted as 10.0 m, 0.8, 25 mm , 0.5 and 4.15 x 105 kPa respectively. For this case, the value of was varied from 0o to 30o at interval of 2o. Figs. 2 to 3 show the variation of FOS with for vertical and inclined cuts i.e. =0o and 15o, and seismic coefficient (h) as 0 and 0.15 respectively. In these two typical cases, values of N have been taken as 15 and 12 respectively. Each figure has different curves for different combinations of c and q. In general, it is evident from these figures that the FOS decreases with the increase in . Therefore FOS is maximum when =0o. This may be due to the fact that, when the nails are placed at inclination , the lever arm li for the moment of axial nail force Ti about o (Fig. 1b) decreases causing decrease in FOS. The li is found to be maximum when the nails are placed horizontally (=0). It is also observed that the value of effective nail length, lei, (i.e. length of nail beyond the failure surface) also depends on the value of . As the nail inclination () increases, the nail length within the failure surface, pn increases. In case of vertical cuts, this increase in nail length within the failure surface is only about 15% for the increase in nail inclination from 0o to 10o. As the length of nail within the failure wedge increases marginally, the effective nail length beyond the failure wedge decreases marginally causing lesser decrease in the value of FOS. It is also observed that for the increase in the nail inclination from 0o to 20o and 0o to 30o, length of nail within failure wedge increases by about 35% and 75% respectively. As the length of nail within the failure wedge increases, the effective nail length decreases, causing decrease in the value of FOS. Similar trend of decrease in FOS with increase in nail inclination , has been observed for other combination of given parameters.
Fig. 1(b): Forces Acting on Wedge abd
4.00 c=0,q=0 c=0,q=80kPa c=0,q=120kPa Factor of Safety c=10kPa,q=0 3.00 c=20kPa,q=0 c=10kPa,q=80kPa c=10kPa,q=120kPa 2.00 c=20kPa,q=80kPa c=20kPa,q=120kPa
1.00 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Nail Inclination with Horizontal
Fig. 2: Effect of Variation of Nail Inclination, on FOS (H=10 m, N=H/Sv=18, =30 , =16.5 kN/m3, =0, L/H=0.8, f *=0.5, h=0.0, v=h/2)
4.00 c=0,q=0 c=0,q=80kPa c=0,q=120kPa Factor of Safety c=10kPa,q=0 3.00 c=20kPa,q=0 c=10kPa,q=80kPa c=10kPa,q=120kPa 2.00 c=20kPa,q=80kPa c=20kPa,q=120kPa
1.00 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Nail Inclination with Horizontal
Fig. 3: Effect of Variation of Nail Inclination, on FOS (H=10m, N=H/Sv=15, =30, =16.5 KN/m3, =15, L/H=0.8, f *=0.5, h=0.15, v=h/2)
Effect of Variation of Nail Diameter d, on FOS

For studying the effect of variation of nail diameter (d) on FOS, the parameters have been considered as inclination of nails with horizontal () =0o, height of nail cut, H=10 m, L/H=0.8, f*=0.5 and fy=4.15 x 105 kPa. For this study, the value of d was varied as 16 mm, 20 mm, 25 mm, 28 mm, 32 mm and 36 mm. Figs. 4 and 5 show the variation of FOS with diameter of nail (d) for vertical nail cuts and nail cuts inclined at 15o, with seismic coefficient, h as 0 and 0.15 respectively. Each figure has different curves for different combinations of c and q. It is observed from the figures that the FOS increases with the increase in d. This increase in the value of FOS is because of more surface area of nails, which leads to increase in the value of nail axial force Ti and value of Tci and thus increase in the overall resisting moments.
6.00 5.00 Factor of Safety 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 15 20 25 30 35 Nail Diameter, d (mm) 40 c=0,q=0 c=0,q=80kPa c=0,q=120kPa c=10kPa,q=0 c=20kPa,q=0 c=10kPa,q=80kPa c=10kPa,q=120kPa c=20kPa,q=80kPa c=20kPa,q=120kPa
Fig. 4: Effect of Change in Nail Diameter, d on FOS (H=10 m, N=18, =30, =16.5 kN/m2, L/H=0.8, =00, =0o, f*=0.5, h=0.0, v=h/2)

5.50 c=0,q=0 c=0,q=80kPa 4.50 Factor of Safety c=0,q=120kPa c=10kPa,q=0 c=20kPa,q=0 3.50 c=10kPa,q=80kPa c=10kPa,q=120kPa c=20kPa,q=80kPa c=20kPa,q=120kPa 1.50
2.50
0.50 15 20 25 30 35 40 Nail Diameter, d (mm)
Fig. 5: Effect of Change in Nail Diameter, d on FOS (H=10 m, N=15, =30, =16.5 kN/m, L/H=0.8, =15, =0, f *=0.5, h=0.15, v=h/2)
In few typical cases, an exercise is done to compare the results of FOS obtained using Eq. 2 with the FOS determined using following simple correlation: x ( FOS ) d = x = ( FOS ) d = 25 25 (3) Where,
( FOS ) d = x =FOS
corresponding to any diameter of the nail, x mm, corresponding to 25 mm diameter nail calculated using Eq. 2.
x=Diameter of nail in mm,

( FOS ) d = 25 =FOS
In Table 1, columns 2, 5, 8, 11, 15, 18, 21 and 24 give the values of FOS calculated by Equation 2. Columns 3, 6, 9, 12, 16, 19, 22 and 25 give the values of FOS calculated by the correlation (Eq.3), for the diameter of nail as x mm, given in columns 1 and 14. Comparison is made in the values of that calculated by Equation 2 and FOS values calculated by correlation (Eq. 3) and % variation found in these values of FOS are presented in the columns 4, 7, 10, 13, 17, 20, 23 and 26 of Table 1. Positive increase in percentage means that the calculated value of FOS by correlation (Eq. 3) is less than the calculated value of FOS by Equation 2, and negative increase in percentage means that the calculated value of FOS by correlation (Eq. 3) is more than the calculated value of FOS from Equation 2. Further it may be seen that the maximum difference in the values computed using Eq. 2 and Eq. 3 is about 8%.
Effect of Variation of L/ H Ratio on FOS

For studying the effect of variation of length of nail to height of cut (L/H) ratio on FOS, the various parameters considered are- inclination of nails with horizontal () =0o, diameter of nail (d) =25 mm, height of nail cut H=10 m and f *=0.5. For studying the effect of variation of L/H ratio, values of L/H were taken as 0.6. 0.7, 0.8, 0.9 and 1. Figs. 6 and 7 show the variation of FOS with change in L/H ratio for vertical and inclined nail cuts i.e.=0o and 15o and seismic coefficient, h as 0 and 0.15 respectively. In each figure different curves represent different combinations of c and q. It is observed from the figures that the
Table 1: Effect of Change in Diameter of Nail (d) on FOS

D c=0, q=0, =0 h=0.0, N=18 FOS x/d % Variation (2) (3) (4) 1.69 1.80 -6.83 2.17 2.25 -3.66 2.82 2.82 0.00 3.22 3.16 2.07 3.78 3.61 4.69 4.37 4.06 7.17 c=10kPa, q=80kPa, =0 h=0.0, N=18 FOS (14) 16 20 25 28 32 36 (15) 1.79 2.22 2.77 3.11 3.58 4.06 x/d (16) 1.77 2.22 2.77 3.11 3.55 3.99 % Variation (17) 1.08 0.13 0.00 0.28 0.91 1.74 c=0, q=0, =0 h=0.15, N=18 FOS x/d % Variation (5) (6) (7) 1.24 1.33 -7.19 1.60 1.66 -3.85 2.07 2.07 0.00 2.37 2.32 2.17 2.79 2.66 4.91 3.23 2.99 7.50 c=10kPa, q=80kPa, =0 h=0.15, N=18 FOS (18) 1.37 1.69 2.11 2.37 2.72 3.09 x/d (19) 1.35 1.69 2.11 2.36 2.70 3.04 % Variation (20) 1.57 0.31 0.00 0.23 0.83 1.67 c=0, q=0, =15 c=0, q=0, =15 h=0.0, N=15 h=0.15, N=15 FOS x/d % Variation FOS x/d % Variation (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 2.16 2.27 -5.08 1.46 1.54 -5.48 2.76 2.84 -2.74 1.86 1.92 -2.95 3.55 3.55 0.00 2.40 2.40 0.00 4.04 3.98 1.56 2.73 2.69 1.68 4.71 4.54 3.57 3.19 3.07 3.80 5.41 5.11 5.48 3.67 3.46 5.81 c=10kPa, q=80kPa, c=10kPa, q=80kPa, =15 =15 h=0.0, N=15 h=0.15, N=15 FOS x/d % Variation FOS x/d % Variation (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) 2.32 2.26 2.86 1.66 1.60 3.59 2.85 2.82 1.10 2.03 2.00 1.40 3.53 3.53 0.00 2.50 2.50 0.00 3.94 3.95 -0.23 2.79 2.80 -0.34 4.50 4.51 -0.21 3.18 3.20 -0.43 5.08 5.08 0.06 3.59 3.60 -0.21
(1) 16 20 25 28 32 36 d
FOS increases linearly with the increase in L/H ratio. By keeping height of the cut constant, increase in L/H ratio leads to increase in overall length of nail causing increase in the effective nail length, which contributes in increasing the value of pull-out resistance of nail. Further, it may be noted that upto L/H 0.6, the increase in FOS is comparatively at a slower rate in comparison when L/H 0.6. Further, the increase in FOS for L/H>0.6 follows almost a linear trend. Nails provided in the upper part of the nail cuts remain inside the failure wedge and do not contribute to the nail axial force. In few typical cases (L/H 0.6) , an exercise is done to compare the results of FOS obtained using Eq. 2 with the FOS determined using following simple correlation:
(FOS) L
H =x
x ( FOS) L = 0.8 0.8

H
(4)
Where,
(FOS) L
H =x
=FOS corresponding to any L/H ratio, x,
x=Length of nail by height of cut (L/H) ratio,

( FOS) L
H = 0 .8
=FOS corresponding to L/H=0.8 calculated using Eq. 2.
In Table 2 columns 2, 5, 8, 11, 15, 18, 21 and 24 give the values of FOS calculated by Equation 2. Columns 3, 6, 9, 12, 16, 19, 22 and 25 give the values of FOS calculated by the correlation (Eq.4), for the L/H ratio as x given in columns 1 and 14. Comparison is made in the values of FOS calculated by Equation 2 and the FOS values calculated by correlation (Eq. 4) and % variation found in these values of FOS are presented in the columns 4, 7, 10, 13, 17, 20, 23 and 26 of Table 2. Positive increase in percentage means that the calculated value of FOS by correlation (Eq. 4) is less than the calculated value of FOS by equation 2, and negative increase in percentage means that the calculated value of FOS by correlation (Eq. 4) is more than the calculated value of FOS from Equation 2. Further a perusal of Table 2 shows that the maximum difference in the values of FOS computed using Eq. 2 and Eq. 4 is about 13%.
4.00
c=0,q=0 c=0,a=80kPa c=0,a=120kPa c=10kPa,q=0 c=20kPa,q=0 c=10kPa,q=80kPa c=10kPa,q=120kPa c=20kPa,q=80kPa c=20kPa,q=120kPa
3.00 Factor of Safety
2.00
1.00
0.00 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 Length of nail/Height of nailed cut (L/H)
Fig. 6: Effect of Variation in L/H Ratio on FOS (H=10 m, N=15, =16.5 kN/m, =30, =0o, =0o, f *=0.5, h=0.0, v=h/2 )
4.00 c=0,q=0 c=0,a=80kPa 3.00 Factor of Safety c=0,a=120kPa c=10kPa,q=0 c=20kPa,q=0 2.00 c=10kPa,q=80kPa c=10kPa,q=120kPa c=20kPa,q=80kPa 1.00 c=20kPa,q=120kPa
0.00 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 Length of nail/Height of nailed cut (L/H)
Fig. 7: Effect of Variation In L/H Ratio on FOS (H=10 m, N=12, =16.5 kN/m, =30, =15o, =0o, f *=0.5, h=0.15, v=h/2)
Effect of Variation of Apparent Coefficient of Friction between Nail and Soil, f* on FOS
Effect of variation of Apparent coefficient of friction between nail and soil, f * on the value of FOS is studied by keeping the parameters , H, d and L/H as 0o, 10 m, 25 mm and 0.8 respectively. In this study the inclination of nail cut with vertical was kept as 0o and 15o and the seismic coefficient h was considered as 0 and 0.15. All the combinations of the values of c and q were used to represent the various curves. Figures 8 and 9 showing the effect of variation of f * on FOS. It is observed from these figures that the FOS increases linearly with the increase in the value of apparent coefficient of friction f*. Nail axial force Ti calculated for pull out resistance of nail is based on the value of f *. As f * increases, nail axial force Ti due to pull-out resistance criteria increases causing increase in the value of FOS. As soon as the breakage strength of nail becomes smaller than the pull out resistance of nail, the increase of f * will no more affect the value of factor of safety of nail open cut.
( FOS ) f * = x = x ( FOS ) f * = 0.5 0 .5
(5)
Where,
(FOS) f *= x =FOS corresponding to any f *=x,
x=Apparent coefficient of friction between soil and nail,

( FOS) f *= 0.5 =FOS corresponding to f *=0.5 calculated using Eq. 2.
In Table 3 comparison of the values of FOS obtained from Eq. 2 (columns 2, 5, 8, 11, 15, 18, 21 and 24) and the correlation Eq. 5 (Columns, 3, 6, 9, 12, 16, 19, 22 and 25) was made and % variation found in these values of FOS are presented in the columns 4, 7, 10, 13, 17, 20, 23 and 26. A perusal of Table 3 shows that % variation in the value of FOS calculated by Eq. 2 and Eq. 5 is of the order of 6%. It is also observed that for the f * less than 0.5, FOS calculated by Eq. 5 is less than FOS calculated by Eq. 2 and for the f* greater than 0.5, reverse trend is observed. With increase in diameter of nail, the contact area of the nail with ground increases and thereby more friction is developed all along the periphery of nail (Because load taken by nail is proportional to d.L, where L is depth of embedment and d is the diameter of nail)
4.00
c=0q=0
Factor of Safety
3.00
c=0,q=80kPa c=0,q=120kPa c=10kPa,q=0 c=20kPa,q=0 c=10kPa,q=80kPa
2.00 1.00 0.00 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
c=10kPa,q=120kPa c=20kPa,q=80kPa c=20kPa,q=120kPa
0.7
Apparent Coefficient of Friction (f*)
Fig. 8: Effect of Variation In f * on FOS (H=10 m, N=15, =16.5 KN/m, =30, L/H=0.8, =0o, =0o, f *=0.5, h=0.0, v=h/2)
3.00
c=0q=0 c=0,q=80kPa c=0,q=120kPa c=10kPa,q=0 c=20kPa,q=0 c=10kPa,q=80kPa c=10kPa,q=120kPa c=20kPa,q=80kPa c=20kPa,q=120kPa
Factor of Safety
2.00
1.00
0.00 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 Apparent Coefficient of Friction (f*)
0.7
Fig. 9: Effect of Variation In f * on FOS (H=10 m, N=12, =16.5 KN/m, =30, L/H=0.8, =15o, =0o, f *=0.5, h=0.15, v=h/2)
Table 2: Effect of Change in L/H Ratio on FOS

c=0, q=0, =0, h=0.0, N=15 c=0, q=0, =0, h=0.15, N=15 c=0, q=0, =15, h=0.0, N=12 % x/(L/H) (9) 1.71 1.99 2.28 2.56 2.85 Variation (10) 2.03 0.90 0.00 -0.71 -1.43 (8) 1.74 2.01 2.28 2.54 2.81 c=0, q=0, =15, h=0.15, N=12 FOS (11 1.14 1.34 1.54 1.73 1.93 % x/(L/H) Variation (12) (13) 1.16 -1.32 1.35 -0.56 1.54 0.00 1.73 -0.14 1.93 0.26
L/H (1) 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 L/H (2) 1.38 1.67 1.96 2.25 2.53
FOS x/(L/H) % Variation FOS x/(L/H) % Variation FOS (3) 1.47 1.72 1.96 2.21 2.45 (4) -6.93 -2.61 0.00 1.70 2.98 (5) 0.96 1.21 1.44 1.67 1.90 (6) 1.08 1.26 1.44 1.63 1.81 (7) -12.55 -4.70 0.00 2.93 4.98
(14) 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
c =10 kPa, q=80 kPa, =0,, h=0.0, N =15 FOS x/(L/H) % Variation (15) (16) (17) 1.39 1.51 -8.55 1.70 1.76 -3.18 2.01 2.01 0.00 2.31 2.26 2.17 2.60 2.51 3.62
c =10 kPa, q=80 kPa, =0, h=0.15, N=15 FOS x/(L/H) % Variation (18) (19) (20) 1.03 1.15 -12.25 1.28 1.34 -5.09 1.53 1.53 0.00 1.78 1.73 3.13 2.02 1.92 5.22
c =10 kPa, q=80 kPa, c=10 kPa, q=80 kPa, =15, =15, h=0.0, N=12 h=0.15, N=12 FOS x/(L/H) % Variation FOS x/(L/H) % Variation (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) 1.84 1.80 2.39 1.28 1.29 -0.19 2.12 2.10 1.07 1.50 1.5 0.07 2.40 2.40 0.00 1.71 1.71 0.00 2.68 2.70 -0.85 1.92 1.93 -0.18 2.95 3.00 -1.67 2.13 2.14 -0.47
Table 3: Effect of Change in F*on FOS

f* c=0, q=0, =0, h=0.0, N=15 FOS (2) 1.64 1.80 1.96 2.13 2.29 c=10 x/f* % Variation (3) (4) 1.57 4.18 1.77 1.90 1.96 0.00 2.16 -1.62 2.36 -3.01 kPa, q=80 kPa =0, h=0.0, N=15 x/f* (16) 1.61 1.81 2.01 2.21 2.41 % Variation (17) 5.25 2.41 0.00 -2.06 -3.85 c=0, q=0, =0, h=0.15, N=15 FOS x/f* * % Variation (5) (6) (7) 1.21 1.16 4.39 1.33 1.30 2.00 1.44 1.44 0.00 1.56 1.59 -1.70 1.68 1.73 -3.17 c=10 kPa, q=80 kPa, =0, h=0.15, N=15 FOS (18) 1.30 1.42 1.53 1.65 1.77 x/f* * % Variation (19) (20) 1.23 5.62 1.38 2.59 1.53 0.00 1.69 -2.28 1.84 -4.27 c=0, q=0, =15, c=0, q=0, =15, h=0.0, N=10 h=0.15, N=10 x/f* x/f* % FOS * % Variation FOS * Variation (8) (9) (10) (11 (12) (13) 1.88 1.82 3.18 1.27 1.23 3.39 2.08 2.05 1.44 1.41 1.39 1.55 2.28 2.28 0.00 1.54 1.54 0.00 2.47 2.50 -1.21 1.67 1.69 -1.31 2.67 2.73 -2.24 1.80 1.85 -2.42 c=10 kPa, q=80 kPa, c=10kPa, q=80 kPa, =0, =0, h=0.0, N=10 h=0.15, N=10 x/f* x/f* % FOS * % Variation FOS * Variation (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) 2.03 1.92 5.45 1.46 1.37 5.98 2.22 2.16 2.50 1.59 1.54 2.78 2.40 2.40 0.00 1.71 1.71 0.00 2.59 2.64 -2.15 1.84 1.89 -2.40 2.77 2.88 -4.01 1.97 2.06 -4.50
(1) 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60
f* FOS (15) 1.69 1.85 2.01 2.16 2.32
(14) 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60
Effect of Variation in Height of Nail Open Cut, H on FOS

For studying the variation in Height of nail cut (H) on the value of FOS, values of , L/H, d and f * were adopted as 0o, 0.8, 25 mm and 0.5 respectively. For this case, values of horizontal and vertical spacing of nails are kept constant and equal to 0.5 m and the value of H was varied from 4 m to 14 m at interval of 2 m. Figs. 10 and 11 show the variation of FOS with H for vertical and inclined cuts (=0o and 15o), and seismic coefficient h as 0 and 0.15 respectively. Various combinations of c and q have been adopted for studying the change in the values of FOS with change in height of cut. For cohesionless backfill with different surcharge intensities, it is evident from these figures that the FOS increases with the increase in H. It is due to the fact that the pull-out capacities of nails near the base of the cut increase significantly. In nailed cuts having c- soil with zero surcharges, the FOS reduces in the beginning upto about height equal to 5.0 m, beyond it the FOS increases with the increase in height. It is due to the fact that nails become ineffective in the free standing heights of the cuts {
4c . tan(45 + ) }=2.42 m for c=10 kPa and equal to 4.84 m for c=20 kPa. For nailed cuts having c- 2
soil and surcharge on its surface, the FOS increases with the increase in height with the same reasoning that with surcharge intensity, pull-out capacities of nails increase.
6.00 Factor of Safety 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Height of Nailed cut (H)
c=0,q=0 c=0,q=80kPa c=0,q=120kPa c=10kPa,q=0 c=20kPa,q=0 c=10kPa,q=80kPa c=10kPa,q=120kPa c=20kPa,q=80kPa c=20kPa,q=120kPa
Fig. 10: Effect of Variation in H on FOS (d=25 mm, Sv=Sh=0.5, =16.5 KN/m, =30, L/H=0.8, =0o, =0o, f *=0.5, h=0.0, v=h/2)
8.00 Factor of Safety 6.00 4.00 2.00 0.00 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Height of Nailed cut (H)
c=0,q=0 c=0,q=80kPa c=0,q=120kPa c=10kPa,q=0 c=20kPa,q=0 c=10kPa,q=80kPa c=10kPa,q=120kPa c=20kPa,q=80kPa c=20kPa,q=120kPa
Fig. 11: Effect of Variation in H on FOS (d=25 mm Sv=Sh=0.5, =16.5 KN/m =30, L/H=0.8, =15o, =0o, f *=0.5, h=0.15, v=h/2)
Effect of Sv and Sh
This study is done considering the vertical spacing of nails same as the horizontal spacing of the nails and number of nails in one vertical column of nails as height of the cut divided by the vertical spacing of nails (i.e. H/Sv). For all the above said parameters, the value of factor of safety of the nailed cut was found to be increased with increase in the number of nails (Table 1). The higher factor of safety due to closer spacing of nails might be because the closer spacing of nails causes increase in density of backfill and increase in pull out resistance of nails.
Effect of Yield Strength of Nail (Fy)

For normal height nailed cuts, its factor of safety is governed by the pull-out resistance of nails instead of yield strength of nails. Only in very deep nailed cuts, nails placed near the bottom of the cut may have higher pull out resistance in comparison to their yield strength. In such cases, nails of higher yield strength will increase the factor of safety of nailed slope.
RESULTS
Keeping in the view of all above said parameters, the results obtained from the computer program were arranged in the tabular form. The design tables thus formed directly gives he number of nails required for the stabilization of that particular height of cut considering its overall stability. All the design tables were presented elsewhere (Gosavi, 2006) Tables 4 and 5 have been prepared to determine the FOS for the cases as: 1. Table 4: H=6 m, =30, h=0.05, 0.15 and 2. Table 5: H=10 m, =30, h=0.05, 0.15; by keeping the value of unit weight of soil () =16.5 kN/m3, cohesion (c) =0 kPa, 10 kPa and 20 kPa, surcharge intensity (q) =0 kPa, 80 kPa and 120 kPa, number of nails in a single column (N) =H/Sv, length of nail by height of cut ratio (L/H) =0.8, diameter of nail (d) =25 mm, inclination of nail with horizontal () =0 and vertical seismic coefficient (v) =h/2. For other values of parameter such as d=16 mm, 20 mm, 28 mm, 32 mm and 36 mm, L/H=0.6, 0.7, 0.9 and 1.0 and apparent coefficient of friction (f *) between nail and soil=0.4, 0.45, 0.55, 0.6, the FOS obtained from Tables 4 and 5 may be modified keeping in view the discussion and correlations given in above paras.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Design a nail cut of 8 m height inclined at 10 with vertical, carrying 80 kPa surcharges. The soil properties are c=10 kPa, =16.5 kN/m3, =30. The wall has to be designed by considering the effect of seismicity as. h=0.05.
Solution
Adopt nails of diameter (d) =32 mm, fy=4.15 x 105 kPa , L/H=0.7 and f* =0.55. From Table 5, for =30, H=10 m, =10, h=0.05, d=25 mm, L/H=0.8, f*=0.5, fy=4.15 x 105 kPa, c=10 kPa and q=80 kPa, we get FOS as 2.34, for N=14 (i.e. Sv=Sh=1.10 m). Now, considering correlation given in Equation 3, we get FOS for diameter d=32 mm as, (FOS) d=32 mm=(32 /25) x 2.34 Thus, (FOS)d=32 mm=2.99 The maximum difference in the value computed by using correlation Equation 3 and that obtained by detailed analysis as per equation 2 is only 8 %. Now, considering correlation given in Equation 4, we get FOS for L/H=0.7 as, (FOS)L/H=0.7=( 0.7 / 0.8) x 2.99 Or (FOS)L/H=0.7=2.62 The maximum difference in the value computed by using correlation Equation 4 and that obtained by detailed analysis as per equation 2 is only 13 %. Now considering correlation Equation given in Eq. 5, we get FOS for f*=0.55 as, (FOS) f*=0. 55=(0.55 / 0.5) x 2.62 Or (FOS) f*=0. 55 =2.88
The maximum difference in the value computed by using correlation Equation 5 and that obtained by detailed analysis as per equation 2 is only 6 %. Therefore the value of FOS for =30, H=10 m, =10, h=0.05, d=32 mm, L/H=0.7, f*=0.55, fy=4.15 x 105 kPa, c=20 kPa and q=120 kPa is 2.88. The value of FOS of the nailed cut considering above all said parameters found out by using a computer program developed in this research work is 2.7. The difference in the value of FOS calculated by correlation equations and the computer program is only 6.6 % which is very marginal.
CONCLUSION
1. Nails placed perpendicular to cut slope are more effective, as in this case FOS worked out maximum. FOS increases with increase in diameter of nail, length of nail and friction coefficient between nail and cut material. The increase in almost linear with the increase in these parameters. 2. In cohesion less cuts, the FOS increases with the increase in height of cut, due to significant increase in pullout capacities of nails placed near the base of cuts. 3. In nailed cuts having c- soil with zero surcharges, the FOS reduces in the beginning due to the fact that nails become ineffective in free standing heights of cut. 4. In nailed cuts, the FOS increases with the decrease in the horizontal and vertical spacing between nails as closer spaced nails increases the density of backfill.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] Gssler, G. and Gudehus, G. (1981), Soil Nailing Some Aspects of New Technique, Proc. of Xth ICSMFE, Stockholm, 3, 665-670. Gssler, G. and Gudehus, G. (1983), Soil Nailing Statistical Design, Proc. of VIIIth ECSMFE, Helsinki, 2, 491-494. Gosavi, Meenal (2006), Behaviour of Nailed Open Cuts, Ph. D. Thesis, Indian Institute of Technology,Roorkee, India. Gosavi, Meenal, Saran, S. and Mittal, S. (2006), Software Development for Design of Nailed Open Cuts, Souvenir of IndoAustralian Conference on Information Technology in Civil Engineering, I.I.T. Roorkee, India, 101-106. Gupta, R.P. (2003), A Study on Soil Nailing with Respect to Open Excavations and slopes, M.Tech Thesis, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee. Jewell, R.A. (1989), Theory of Reinforce wall: Revised Design Charts for Steep Reinforce Slopes, Proc. Of the Conc. On Reinforced Embankments, Theory and Practice in the British Isles, Cambridge University, 1-30. Juran, I., Baudrand, G., Khalid, F. and Elias, V. (1988), Kinematical Limit Analysis Approach for the Design of Nailed Soil Retaining Structures Int. Geotechnical Symposium on Theory and Practice of Earth Reinforcement, Fukuoka, Japan, Balkema, 301-305. Juran, I., Baudrand, G., Khalid, F. and Elias, V. (1990), Kinematic Limit Analysis for Design of Soil Nailed Structures, Journal of Geotechnical Engg., 116(1), 54-72. Mizuno, E. and Chen, W.F. (1984), Plasticity Models for Seismic Analysis of Slopes, International Journal of Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engg., 2-7. Plumelle, C and Schlosser, C. (1990), A French National Research Project on Soil Nailing: Clouterre, Performance of Reinforced Soil Structures, Proc. of Int. Reinforced Soil Conf., Glassgow, 219-223. Raju, G. V. R. (1996), Behaviour of Nailed Soil Retaining Structures, Ph. D. Thesis, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Sabhahit, N., Madhav, M. R. and Basudhar, P. K. (1996), Seismic Analysis of Nailed Soil Slopes A Pseudo-Dynamic Approach, Earth Reinforcement, Balkema, 821-824. Saha, S., Murthy, B.R. and Vatsala (2002), Soil Nailed Walls under Dynamic Loads, 12th Symp. On Earthquake Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, 434-441. Saran, S., Mittal, Satyendra and Gosavi, Meenal (2005), Pseudo Static Analysis of Nailed Vertical Excavations in Sands, Indian Geotechnical Journal, 35(4), 401-417. Schlosser, F. (1982), Behavior and Design of Soil Nailing, Symposium on Recent Developments in Ground Improvement Techniques, Bangkok, 399-413 Shen, C.K., Bang, S., Romstad, K.M., Kulchin, L. and Denatale, J.S. (1981), Field Measurements of an Earth Support System, ASCE Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 107(GT12), 1625-1642.
Behaviour of Soil-Tire Mixed Composite Soil

Satyendra Mittal1 and N. Muni Kumar2
2Former 1CED, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; satyendramittal@gmail.com P.G. Student, CED, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; munikumar215@yahoo.co.in
AbstractThe growing interest in utilizing waste material in civil engineering has opened the possibility of reinforced soil structures like roads and embankments. Large quantity of waste tires can be beneficially used by incorporating them into structural fill employed in earthwork projects such as highway embankments and backfills for retaining structures. Scrap tires are high profile, light weight, waste materials potentially suitable for harsh environment due to their chemical and corrosion resistant properties. Attempts have been made in this paper to determine the bearing capacity of soil-tire mixture. The results of an extensive laboratory study consisting of Proctor compaction test, Plate load test are also presented. These results indicate that improvement in strength of soil can be obtained by using shredded tire as reinforcing material. The potential uses for soil-tire mixture as lightweight, highly porous artificial soil are also discussed.
INTRODUCTION
One of the present day problems is the disposal of scrap tires produced every year. Over the decade considerable effort has been made to use shredded tire as an engineering material. Due to the low bulk unit weight of the tire shreds, the material is suitable for use as lightweight fill in roads and embankment constructed over a soft sub-grade material e.g. peat or clay (Saikia & Borthakur, 2003). It is possible to use rubber wastes as a fill material in a stabilized soil. The waste rubber is inert regarding the stabilizing effect. However, the rubber significantly affects the dry density of the soil as well as the strength and stiffness of soil, (Per Lindh & Mattsson 2004, Akram et al. 2004). Therefore, attempts have been made in this paper for preliminary assessment of this material by various laboratory tests, such as, Proctor compaction test, Plate load test and Triaxial test.
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION PROGRAMME

The various factors upon which the behaviour of soil-tire mixture depends are percentage of shredded tire, its size, type of soil, method of compaction, density, water content etc. The present study deals with two governing factors i.e size and percentage of shredded tire. The tire chips used in present study were obtained from the waste of cycle tire. Tire chips were cut to dimension 5mmx5 mm. Only one type of soil sample was used, which was collected from nearby village Dhanauri. The soil used in present study was black cotton soil. The lumps of black cotton soil were broken and powdered in grinder. Percentage of tire chips mixed with soil black cotton was 5%, 10%, 15% & 20%. The tests conducted for the study were Proctor compaction test, Plate load test and Triaxial test. Plate load tests were conducted in two conditions. In first condition soil was compacted dry and in second condition the soil was compacted at OMC, determined from Proctor test. The soil lumps were broken and powdered in grinder. The index properties of soil are shown in Table.1. On dry compacted black cotton soil, total 70 tests were conducted. The black cotton soil was mixed with tire chips in quantity of 5%, 10%, 15% & 20% by weight of soil. The composite soil was made by adding the tire chips in clayey soil. The tire chips were randomly mixed with the clayey soil. The soil was compacted in five layers. Each layer was compacted with a hammer of 2.6 kg by providing 25 blows per layer. The load was applied through the proving ring of 2 tonne capacity. The load was applied gradually on the composite soil. Settlements of the soil mass were recorded with the
corresponding loading. The load was also applied with an eccentricity of 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 times the size of footing. The Tilt of the Footing was also observed by tilt meter for the load applied with an eccentricity of 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 times the size of footing (B). The line diagram for the load applied at an eccentricity of 0.0B, 0.1B, 0.2B and 0.3B are shown in Fig. 2 to 5. The graphs between load Vs settlement were drawn for the different eccentricities of soil mass. Plots between Load Vs Tilt were also drawn for eccentricity of 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 times size of footing. Plots between load Vs settlement graph are shown in Fig. 6 to 10. The bearing capacity graph is shown in Fig. 11.
Table 1: Index Properties of Soil
Properties Specific Gravity Grain size analysis (a) Gravel (%) (b) Sand (%) (c) Fines (%) Plasticity characteristics (d) Liquid limit (%) (e) Plastic limit (%) (f) Plasticity Index Compaction Characteristic (IS: light compaction) (g) Optimum moisture content (%) (h) Maximum dry density (KN/m3) Soil classification Potential expansiveness Values 2.62 2 5 93 38 20 18 20 17 CL Low
The composite soil was made of Fly ash plus clayey soil without the addition of Tire fibers. Fly ash was usually used as a stabilizing material for clay. 20% of Fly ash was mixed with the clayey soil. The soil was placed in the tank in five layers; each layer of composite soil was compacted by giving 25 blows with a hammer of 2.6 kg mass. The load was applied through a 2 tonne capacity proving ring. The sample was made by mixing fly ash by 20% of weight of soil. The soil specimen stabilized with the fly ash was mixed with the tire fibers in quantity of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% by weight of soil mass. Tire fibers were mixed randomly with the soil mass. The composite soil was placed in the tank in five layers and compacted with a hammer of 2.6 kg. Settlement of soil was calculated for the applied load. The test was conducted with a relative density of 65%. Load Vs settlement graphs were drawn. Plots between load Vs settlement graph are shown in Fig. 12 to 16. The load was applied gradually on the composite soil. Settlements of the soil mass were recorded with the corresponding loading. The load was also applied with an eccentricity of 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 times the size of footing. The Tilt of the Footing was also obtained for the load applied with an eccentricity of 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 times the size of footing. The graph between load Vs settlement was drawn for the different eccentricities of soil mass. Plot between Load Vs Tilt was also drawn for eccentricity of 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 times size of footing. Plots between load Vs settlement graph are shown in Fig. 12 to 16. The bearing capacity graph is shown in Fig. 17. From the Fig 12, it is seen that the bearing capacity of soil increases upto 10% tire content beyond this percentage bearing capacity of black cotton soil decreases for no eccentricity. The bearing capacity of black cotton soil goes on increasing with increase in tire content for eccentricity 0.1 times size of footing. The bearing capacity of soil goes on decreasing with increase in tire content for eccentricity 0.2 times size of footing. The bearing capacity of soil increases upto 5% tire content, beyond this percentage bearing capacity of black cotton soil decreases for eccentricity 0.3 times size of footing. For some studies about determination of engg. properties of soil-tire, mix, the Proctor tests were conducted on composed soil to compute dry density and optimum moisture content. Soil sample of 3 kg was taken then it was mixed with tire fibers of 5%, 10%, 15% & 20% by weight of the soil sample. Water was added to the soil sample and it was placed in the Proctor mould in three layers. Each layer was compacted at the rate of 25 blows per layer with the help of 2.6 kg hammer. Dry density Vs Water content graphs were drawn. The maximum dry density and OMC of soil was determined. Plot between dry density Vs water content is shown in Fig. 13.
Behaviour of Soil-Tire Mixed Composite Soil 505
0.1B
Fig. 1(a): Load Applied at an Eccentricity of 0.0B
Fig. 1(b): Load Applied at an Eccentricity of 0.1B
Fig. 1(c): Load Applied at an Eccentricity of 0.2B

Load (Kpa) 0 0 5 Settlement (mm) 100 200 300
Fig. 1(d): Load Applied at an Eccentricity of 0.3B

Load (Kpa) 0 0 5 Settlement(mm) 100 200 300 400
10 Eccentricity=0.0B 15 20 25 30 35 Eccentricity=0.1B Eccentricity=0.2B Eccentricity=0.3B
10 15 20 25 30
Eccentricity=0.0B Eccentricity=0.1B Eccentricity=0.2B Eccentricity=0.3B
Fig. 2: Load vs. Settlement Curve for 0% Tire Content

Load (Kpa) 0 0 5 Settlem ent (m m )
Settlem ent (m m )

Load (Kpa)
200
400
600
0 5
200
400
600
10 15 20 25 30
10 15 20 25 30 35
Load (Kpa) 0 0 5 Settlement (mm) 10 15 20 25 30 Eccentricity=0.0B Eccentricity=0.1B Eccentricity=0.2B Eccentricity=0.3B

Tilt (Rad)x10 -2
Load (Kpa)
200
400
600
800
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
100
200
300
400
500
Eccentricity=0.1B Eccentricity=0.2B Eccentricity=0.3B

Load (Kpa) 0 0 5 Tilt (Rad)x10 -2 100 200 300 400 500
Fig. 7: Load vs. Tilt Curve for 0 % Tire Content
Load (Kpa) 0 0 5 Tilt (Rad)x10 -2 10 Eccentricity=0.1B 15 20 25 30 Eccentricity=0.2B Eccentricity=0.3B 100 200 300 400
10 15 20 25 30
Fig. 8: Load vs. Tilt Curve for 5% Tire Content

Load (Kpa) 0 0 5 Tilt (Rad)x10 -2 10 15 20 25 30 100 200 300 400 500
Fig. 9: Load vs. Tilt curve for 10% Tire Content

Load (Kpa) 0 0 5 Tilt (Rad)x10 -2 10 15 20 25 30 35 Eccentricity=0.1B Eccentricity=0.2B Eccentricity=0.3B 200 400 600
400 350 Bearing Capacity (Kpa) 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 5 10 15
20
25
Tire Content %
Fig. 12: Bearing Capacity vs. Tire Content
Plate load tests were conducted at OMC determined in the Proctor tests. Soil sample was compacted at a relative density of 75%. The composite soil was compacted at maximum dry density obtained from the Proctor tests. Settlements were obtained for the corresponding applied load. Tilts were also obtained for the corresponding eccentricities of soil mass. Total 20 plate load tests were conducted on composite soil made with the addition tire fibers. Load Vs settlement graphs were drawn. Load vs Tilt graphs were also drawn. The bearing capacity of the soil sample was calculated from the graphs drawn between load Vs settlement. Plot between load Vs settlement graph is shown in Fig. 14 to 18. The plots between loading intensity and tilt are shown in Fig. 19 to 23. The bearing capacity graph is shown in Fig. 24. The test results indicate that the maximum dry density was obtained for 5% tire. As the tire content increases the dry density of composite soil decreases. The maximum dry density obtained was 17.5 KN/m3 for 5% tire content.
18
Load (Kpa) 0 100 200 300 400 500 0

Tire content=5% Tire content=10%
Dry density KN/m
17 16 15 14 13 10 15 20 25 Water content %
5 Settlement (mm) 10 Eccentricity=0.0B 15 20 25 30 35 Eccentricity=0.1B Eccentricity=0.2B Eccentricity=0.3B
Tire content=15% Tire content=20%
Fig. 13: Dry Density vs. Water Content
Fig. 14: Plot between Load vs. Settlement Curve for 0% Tire Content and 20% Water Content
Load (Kpa)
Load (Kpa) 0 0 5 settlement (mm) 10 Eccentricity=0.1B 15 20 25 30 35 Eccentricity=0.2B Eccentricity=0.3B Eccentricity=0.0B

Settlement (mm)
200
400
600
800
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
200
400
600
800
1000
Load (Kpa) 0 0 5 Settlement (mm) 10 Eccentricity=0.0B 15 20 25 30 35 Eccentricity=0.1B Eccentricity=0.2B Eccentricity=0.3B 200 400 600 800 1000
Load (Kpa) 0 0 5 Settlement (mm) 10 Eccentricity=0.0B 15 20 25 30 35 Eccentricity=0.1B Eccentricity=0.2B Eccentricity=0.3B 200 400 600 800 1000
Load (Kpa) 0 0 5 10 Eccentricity=0.1B 15 20 25 30 Eccentricity=0.2B Eccentricity=0.3B Tilt (Rad)x10 -2 Tilt (Rad)x10 -2 100 200 300 400 500 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 200
Load (Kpa) 400 600 800
Fig. 19: Plot between Load vs. Tilt Curve for 0% Tire Content and 20% Water Content
Load (kpa) 0 5 Tilt(Rad)x10 -2 10 15 20 25 30 35 Eccentricity=0.1B Eccentricity=0.2B Eccentricity=0.3B
800 Bearing Capacity (Kpa)
200
400
600
800
1000
700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 Tire content % Eccentricity=0.0B Eccentricity=0.1B Eccentricity=0.2B Eccentricity=0.3B
Fig. 24: Plot between Bearing Capacity vs. Tire Content for 20% Water Content
From the Fig. 24, it is evident that the bearing capacity of soil increases with the increase in tire content upto 15% beyond this percentage the bearing capacity of black cotton soil goes on decreasing for eccentricities 0.0B, 0.1B, 0.2B and 0.3B.
CONCLUSION
1. The study shows that as the percentage of shredded tire increases, the maximum dry density of soil-tire mixture decreases. Where the weight of the fill is a critical factor, soil-tire mixture may be used to produce a light weight, highly porous fill with acceptable strength and deformation characteristics.
2. It is possible to use rubber waste as a fill material in stabilized soil. The waste rubber is inert regarding the stabilizing effect. However, the rubber significantly affects the dry density of the soil as well as the strength and stiffness of the soil. 3. Bearing capacity of the composite soil increases with the increase in tire content up to 10% then the bearing capacity of soil goes on decreasing with increase in tire content for an eccentricity of 0.1B (B= Width of footing). Bearing capacity of the composite soil increases with the increase in tire content eccentricity of 0.0B.Bearing capacity of the composite soil increases with the increase in tire content up to 5% then the bearing capacity of soil goes on decreasing with increase in tire content for an eccentricity of 0.2B and 0.3B. 4. For the composite soil made of soil, tire and Fly ash, the bearing capacity increases with the increase in tire content up to 5% then the bearing capacity of soil goes on decreasing with increase in tire content for an eccentricity of 0.1B. Bearing capacity of the composite soil increases with the increase in tire content up to 5% then the bearing capacity of soil goes on decreasing with increase in tire content for an eccentricity of eccentricity of 0.0B.Bearing capacity of the composite soil increases with the increase in tire content up to 5% then the bearing capacity of soil goes on decreasing with increase in tire content for an eccentricity of 0.2B and bearing capacity of soil goes on decreasing with increase in tire content for an eccentricity of eccentricity of 03B. 5. For the composite soil made of soil-tire compacted at OMC (calculated from Proctor test) bearing capacity increases with the increase in tire content up to 15% then the bearing capacity of soil goes on decreasing with increase in tire content for an eccentricity of 0.1B. Bearing capacity of the composite soil increases with the increase in tire content up to 15% then the bearing capacity of soil goes on decreasing with increase in tire content for an eccentricity of eccentricity of 0.0B.Bearing capacity of the composite soil increases with the increase in tire content up to 15% then the bearing capacity of soil goes on decreasing with increase in tire content for an eccentricity of 0.2B and 03B.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] Akram M, Ahmad M. F. and Kmaruzzaman M (2004), Chemical analysis and shear strength of shredded scrap tire for lightweight embankment fill over soft ground, 5th international Conference on Ground Improvement Techniques, Malaysia, pp 219-228. Per Lindh and Mattsson, Nina (2004). Composite soil made of rubber waste and cement stabilized soil, 5th international Conference on Ground Improvement Techniques, Malaysia, pp 195-202. Saikia.B.D and Borthakur.N (2003), Behaviour of reinforced soil using shredded tire, Geotechnical Engineering for Infrastructural development, 1, pp 393-396.
Effect of Sub-Zero Temperature on Foundation Design

Satyendra Mittal1, B. Ganjoo2 and P. Manrai3
1CED,
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India; satyendramittal@gmail.com 2Former PG Student, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India 3Executive Engineer, Chandigarh Administration, Chandigarh, India
AbstractIn sub-zero temperature condition, the soil gets frozen giving rise to soil-ice matrix with some unfrozen water content. This matrix undergoes change under the application of stress and after deformation a reorientation takes place. Factors like grounds thermal regime, ice composition in frozen soils, load deformation characteristics and creep behavior of frozen soils do not permit to apply conventional methods of design to the shallow foundations on frozen soils. Different analytical works have been done by different research workers to evaluate the ultimate bearing pressure and settlement of foundations on frozen soils. An attempt has been made to conduct creep test in a relatively simple test setup to find the necessary parameters for the design of shallow foundations for sub-zero temperature conditions. Keywords: Sub-zero temperature, bearing capacity, shallow foundation, frozen soil, thawing, creep
INTRODUCTION
The frozen ground engineering has been an emerging subject for last few decades in USA, Canada and Russia while in India almost no research work has been conducted on foundations in cold region though at many places in states of J&K, Himachal Pradesh and Himalayan region the situation of freezing grounds and thawing grounds is confronted. At these places many times foundations fail due to improper approach to the designing of these foundations. Such events necessitate a study to depict the basic fundamentals in the design of shallow foundations in cold regions. In cold regions, the upper soil layer, or active layer, experiences cycles of winter freezing and summer thawing. In this region, the depth of frost and thaw penetration varies widely depending on the air temperature, surface characteristics, soil composition, water content and thermal properties. The cyclic thermal changes cause phenomena such as frost heave, down drag force and thaw settlement, which may cause foundation movement leading to serious damage to the superstructure. Thus in designing of foundations in cold regions, the physical, mechanical and thermal properties of frozen soils need to be considered. In addition, an evaluation of ambient temperatures, soil deformations under freezing and thawing conditions, and long term strength of foundations under different ground temperatures must be considered for the design life of a structure. The design approach to foundation in frozen soils is more complex as compared to the design of foundations in unfrozen soils due to factors like grounds thermal regime, ice composition in frozen soils, load deformation characteristics, creep behavior of frozen soils, construction schedule and environmental constraints. This paper reports about experimental tests carried on remolded frozen c- soil to determine the creep factors of soil given by Vyalov (1959). An attempt has been made to obtain an easy way to determine the ultimate bearing pressure of shallow foundations in frozen soils taking creep into consideration which is the most dominating factor in the design of foundations in frozen soils.
BRIEF REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Vyalov (1966) explained creep in frozen soils and attributed it to: (a) Pressure melting of ice in the soils at points of soil-grain contact, (b) bonds to the soil grain (c) Plastic deformation of pore ice and (d) Readjustment in particle adjustment.
Effect of Sub-Zero Temperature on Foundation Design 511
Ladanyi and Johnston (1974) presented a method for predicting the creep settlement and bearing capacity under deep circular loads. The solution proposed by authors was a mathematical model of an expanding spherical cavity in a nonlinear viscoelastic-plastic medium with time, temperature and normal pressure dependent strength properties. Ladanyi (1972) discussed the basic requirements for the determination of the allowable bearing pressure for frozen soils and developed mathematical model for prediction of creep settlement and failure of a strip footing in frozen soil. McRoberts (1974) formulated a slope deformation model in study of secondary creep by introducing a constitutive relationship. Ladanyi and Benyamina (1995) conducted a series of step-loaded stress relaxation tests carried out with frozen sand under compression conditions. The main purpose of which was to investigate the possibility of using this type of test for determination of certain basic creep parameters of the frozen soil. Frozen sand, which was the material tested in this investigation, was essentially a particulate composite in which solid minerals grains were cemented together by the ice matrix. The sand used in the tests was Ottawa quartz sand with maximum and minimum void ratios as 0.82 and 0.50. Anderson et al. (1995) measured strain rate and temperature in a highpressure low-temperature triaxial compression testing system developed for this purpose for studying the stress-strain behavior of frozen Manchester saturated fine sand for wide ranges in relative density, confining pressure.
FOUNDATION DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Frozen ground is subjected to thawing in summer. Thawing of fine grained soils leads to the build-up of excess pore water pressures in the foundation of a structure which results in settlement of the foundation. Frozen soils exhibit creep behavior even at low stress levels. The ground thermal situation needs to be evaluated once the design criteria and site conditions are known. The rate of settlement of foundation placed on thawing soil depends on the rate of thaw and its relationship to the rate at which consolidation of thawed soil takes place. Changes that occur in the location of permafrost and the ground thermal regime under and around a structure provide basis for bearing capacity and settlement analyses. After the ground thermal situation for the design life of the structure is evaluated, the time and temperature- dependent engineering properties of the soil, such as thaw-consolidation, strength and deformation characteristics in thawed and frozen state and frozen creep behavior must be determined. Analysis of settlement, bearing capacity and stability of the foundation soil can then be carried out.
FOUNDATION DESIGN APPROACH

If the foundation material consists of sound, ice-free rock or dense glacial till, non-frost-susceptible well drained sand or gravel deposits that are stable when thawing or thawed, then conventional methods of foundation design can be adopted. If the materials are unstable during thawing, then two approaches to foundation design in permafrost are usually considered. When the permafrost degradation cannot be prevented then the Active Method is adopted. That is when the foundation can bear a stable stratum or when total or differential settlement of the foundation soils within the thaw zone is estimated not to exceed tolerable limits and the thawing soil is capable to maintain adequate shear strength. This method is also resorted to when it is uneconomical to keep the ground in frozen condition throughout the year. The choice of whether gradual thawing of foundation soils may be allowed while the structure is in operation or whether preliminary thawing is required prior to construction should be based on estimates of probable settlement during and following the thawing of frozen foundation materials. If allowable settlements are exceeded, then preconstruction thawing using steam points, electrical or gas heaters or some other means of applying heat should be carried out. Alternatively the undesirable materials can be replaced by non-frost-susceptible granular material. Adequate drainage must be provided to ensure that water will not enter or be trapped in the backfilled excavation surrounded by frozen ground. When it is convenient to maintain the foundation materials in a frozen state for the entire service of life of the structure, Passive Method is adopted.
The pas ssive method is used when w the fo oundation so oils are hard d frozen an nd contain negligible n unfrozen n water conte ent. In this method m the ground g is kep pt in frozen condition c generally by ve entilation and insu ulation tech hniques. Ven ntilation is accomplished a d either by raising the structure ab bove the ground surface on piles or pos sts or by pla acing ducts in the floor r system or a fill pad under u the structure e. A clear sp pace of at le east 600 mm m should be provided un nder the com mmon struct tures. Air moveme ent by wind or natural convection will occur in n the clear space s under r a structure and the ground surface s will remain r cool during the su ummer due to shade pro ovided by th he structure. Hence H in such a case, c existing g warmest so oil temperatu ure profile can be used fo or design pur rposes. For structures s where the t gap can nnot be pro ovided, a se eries of ope en ended ducts d are pr rovided beneath the foundati ion through which air mo oves by natu ural convectio on or by fans s.
THAW SETTLEM MENT From design d consi ideration po oint of view w, thaw sett tlement of frozen f grou und is an im mportant phenom menon and must m be con nsidered in the t design of o the founda ation of vari ious structur res, such as heate ed structures s, warm oil pipelines, p ro oads, airport ts, water-reta aining struct tures, and cu ut slopes in froze en ground. If during th hawing dra ainage is all lowed, volu ume change es will occu ur which depend upon the degree d of internal consolidation and d structural change c that occurred du uring the previous freezing cycle. c In gen neral, freezin ng occurs su ufficiently sl lowly to per rmit ice seg gregation r closed drainage condi itions. The local l consolidation of th he soil skele eton that locally, even under modates this s segregation n is not a reversible r pr rocess, so that during thaw more water is accomm generate ed that can now be ab bsorbed by the t soil skele eton. This results r in mo ore settleme ent when drainage is permit tted. Hence e the settle ement that occurs due e to thaw depends up pon the tion of ice and a the swel lling charact teristics of th he skeleton of o the thawe ed soil. The amount distribut and dist tribution of ice and stre ess-deformat tion behavio or depend upon u various s factors suc ch as the stress, th hermal and moisture ch hange histori ies of the so oil.
Fig. 1: Th haw Settleme ent Process (A After Tsytovi ich, 1960)
The thaw settlem ment charact teristics are best b determined by tests s in a triaxial l pressure ce ell or in a conventional consoli idation devic ce. Fig. 1 illu ustrates a typical thaw set ttlement test result.
THAW DEPTH DETERMINA D ATION

The basic equation given g by Car rslaw and Jaeger (1947) for finding th he thaw depth is given as s: ) = t1/2 X (t) (1) Whe ere = a constant c dete ermined in the solution n of the hea at conduction n problem, X = the distance e to the thaw plane from the soil surfa ace, t = Tota al length of th hawing seaso on
Effect of Sub-Zero Temperature T on n Foundation De esign 513
As per p modified d Berggren equation, e the e depth to which, w the ice e water inter r phase penetrates is given by y:
7200 K a n I t L X=
1/ 2
(2)
ere X = Tha aw depth, Av verage therm mal conductiv vity of soil, Ka = (Ku + Kf)/2, Ku = Unfrozen U whe thermal conductivity y of soil and Kf = Frozen n thermal con nductivity of soil, n = Co onversion fac ctor from air index x to surface index, i It = Air A thawing in ndex (in 0C) Volu umetric laten nt heat of fusion of soil, L = 344 (d) (w) whe ere w = Mois sture content t and d = Dry density of f the soil sam mple I (t/m ), Thermal ratio, =V0 /Vs al temperatu ure differentia al, V0 = M.A A.T. 0 C Initia whe ere M.A.T = Mean annua al air temper rature, Aver rage tempera ature differen ntial, Vs = n It/t Fusi ion paramete er, = Vs Cav a / L Ave erage volume etric heat cap pacity, Cav = d (0.71 + 3.14 w) (6) (7) (8)
0 3
(3) (4) (5)
Fig. 2: The T Coeffici ient in Modifi ied Breggren n Formula
The value for (a ( coefficient t) is read cor rresponding to t the values s of and (Fig. 2:).
BEARING CAPACITY
The bea aring capacity y in frozen so oils may be determined d by b any of the e following w ways: 1. Be earing capac city theory an nd the formu ula for unfroz zen soils. Tim me-dependent long-term m strength is used in the final f equation. uidelines from various pu ublished mat terials 2. Gu 3. Ca avity expans sion theory The bearing cap pacity of unfr rozen soils may m be determ mined by the e following eq quation:
Qd = CNcc + 0.5BN + Df (Nq 1)
(9)
Where C = cohesion of soil, Nc, N, Nq = bearing capacity factors, c, , q = shape factors, B = width of foundation, = unit weight of foundation soil and Df = depth of foundation. A few published data sources are available for the long-term strength of ice-rich frozen soils. A tentative relationship (Johnston, 1981) is derived from C = 35 + 28T Where, C = cohesion of soil (kPa), T = temperature below freezing (absolute value) in 0C Nq = tan2 (450 + /2) etan Nc = (Nq -1) cot N = 2(Nq + 1) tan (11) (12) (13) (10)
The frictional factors of Eq.3 may be neglected for frozen ice-rich soils and hence the bearing capacity of frozen soil, qdf can be written as: qdf = C Nc c Here Nc = 5.14, c depends on geometry of the foundation Allowable soil pressure in frozen soil qaf = qdf /safety factor (15) Vyalov (1959) suggested that the long-term strength of frozen soils may be taken as the stress corresponding to the onset of tertiary creep and he proposed the following empirical equation for the long-term strength of frozen soils ult =
l n ( t / B)
(14)
(16)
Where and B are parameters depending on soil type, its properties and temperatures and are determined experimentally, t = time to failure (hours), ln = logarithm to the base e, and ult = ultimate stress (p.s.i.) The observed behaviour of frozen soils under footings and anchors shows that bearing capacity theory is difficult to justify. The mode of failure of frozen soil under a punch is different from that of an unfrozen soil. Lateral heaving of the soil surface, usually observed in dense unfrozen soil, is absent in frozen soils both in short term experiments and in long-term experiments, and in a large variety of soil types. The plate tests carried by Vyalov (1959) show the formation of solid cone of dense soil under flat base of the plate during penetration which displaced the frozen soil radially, mainly downward and laterally. The observations in these tests suggest that the formation of Prandtl-type slip surfaces do not take place in frozen soil. Many observations show that under certain condition, which are mainly function of the material properties instead of producing lateral shear failure as assumed by Prandtl, the punch indentation results only in a general elastic-plastic deformation of the indented material. Bishop et al. (1945) concluded that pressure required to produce a deep hole in an elastic-plastic medium is proportional to that necessary to expand a cavity of the same volume and under the same condition. Gibson (1950) proposed that during the penetration of the punch a rigid cone (or wedge) of soil is formed at the base of the punch, the lateral surface of which is acted upon by a uniformly distributed soil pressure whose normal component is equal to the cavity expansion pressure. Ladanyi applied this concept to the calculation of bearing capacity of frozen soil. in his theory, first the stresses and displacement in each separate region around the cavity have been found and then by satisfying the continuity and the boundary conditions, the relationship between cavity expansion pressure in the
cavity and the corresponding radial displacements or displacement rate of the cavity wall has been determined. This theory is considered to be well adapted to the needs of footing design in frozen soils, because it is able to take into account the most important frozen soil characteristics and its nonlinear creep behaviour.
LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS DONE BY AUTHORS AT IIT ROORKEE FOR DETERMINATION OF THAW DEPTH Model Tank
A set-up to simulate the field conditions with regard to frozen soil was fabricated in IIT Roorkee laboratory. A tank of 457 mm (length) x 127 mm (breadth) x 325mm (depth) inner dimensions was made of Perspex sheets of 12mm thickness. The Perspex sheets were fixed with adhesive and aluminum angles of size 25mm x 25mm x 3mm were fixed at the edges. Six nozzles of size 9.5 mm each were placed vertically on breadth side wall placed at 38 mm from centre to centre for measuring the possible pore pressure developed at the time of thawing. The tests were conducted on c- soil which was prepared by mixing 55% clay with 45% sand at water content of 10%. The prepared soil sample was filled into the box in layers of 10 cm each and then compacted to achieve the test density of 16.8 kN/m3. The slope angle of 350 with the horizontal was maintained on one side of the fill with the help of wooden block made exclusively for this purpose (Fig.3). The soil samples from the tank were taken for the determination of soil properties. The following soil properties were determined: L.L. = 21%, P.L. = 15%, d(max) = 16.28 kN/m3, O.M.C. = 12.75%
Fig. 3: Soil Filled Tank with a Wooden Block for Achieving Proper Angle
Load Tests for Determination of B and

To determine the parameters of soil, B and , two tanks filled with remoulded soil compacted to a particular test density of 16.8 kN/m3 forming a slope of 350 with horizontal were placed in deep freezer for 36 hours. The tank was placed in a wooden open box wherein it was surrounded by ice to maintain the temperature of the soil. The temperature (-) 0.50C was maintained throughout the tests. A footing of size 25.4mm 25.4mm was placed at distance of 25.4mm from the slope edge and a load of 95 kg was applied with the help of jack. Two dial gauges were also fixed to note the deformation of the footing. The time in the stop watch was set at zero and at the time of the application of load the stop watch was started. The load was gradually applied and a constant load of 95 kg. (0.932kN) was maintained with the help of jack manually (Fig. 4). The deformation versus time was noted. The load
was applied up to the point when the rate of strain was found to increase steeply. The second test was repeated in the same manner. Only the load applied was changed to 110 kg. (1.079kN) which was maintained with the help of jack. The load was applied until failure.
RESULTS
The time to failure was taken as the time when tertiary creep started (Fig. 5 and 6). The results are given in Table 1.
Table 1: Stress Versus Failure Time
Area of Footing Ultimate load Ultimate stress Time to failure 6.45 mm2 0.932 kN 190 p.s.i. (1444.6 kN/m2) ( 4.083 hours (t1) 6.45 mm2 1.079 kN 220 p.s.i.(1672.6 kN/m2) ( 1.167 hours (t2)
1)
2 )
The values given in Table 1 are substituted in the Eq. (16) which gives the values of the soil parameters, B and as below
B=e
2ln ( t2 ) 1ln ( t1 ) 2 1
B = 4.191 10-4 and = 1745
Fig. 4: Load Test
Fig. 5: Time Versus Deformation for 95 kg Load
Fig. 6: Time Versus Deformation for 110 kg Load
Design Problem
Determine safe allowable bearing pressure on a foundation placed on a slope of 350 with horizontal on frozen ground. Consider the soil as c - soil containing 55% clay and 45% fine sand. The monthly maximum and minimum temperatures are given in Table 2. The moisture content of the soil is 10%. Consider the age of structure as 30 years. The density of the soil and other parameters of unfrozen soil have been adopted suitably. The study area is somewhere in J&K state of India.
Table 2: Monthly Temperature Report
Month Mean Max. Temp ( 0C) Mean Min. Temp. (0C) Jan -7.5 -19.6 Feb -15.1 -7.6 Mar -3.4 -14.6 Apr -0.3 -9.4 May +4.6 -2.0 Jun +9.5 +2.0 Jul +18.0 +5.0 Aug +16.0 +4.8 Sep +3.4 -2.5 Oct +2.5 -7.0 Nov -0.9 -10.0 Dec -6.5 -17.0
Steps of Solution
1. Calculation of thaw depth 2. Calculation of ultimate bearing pressure 3. Calculation of settlement Thaw depth was calculated to find out the thickness of the active layer as per Eq. 2. Annual mean temperature = Avg. temp. for 12 months/12 = -2.340C
Table 3: Calculation of It
Month May June July Aug Sept No. of days D 31 30 31 31 30 Avg. Temp. T +1.30C +4.350C +11.50C +10.40C +0.450C Degree Days 0 D (T 0 C ) 40.3 130.5 356.5 322.4 13.5 Cumulative Degree Days (It) 40.3 170.8 527.3 849.7 863.2
t = D = 153 days It=863.2 Total length of thawing season at study area, t = 153 days. As shown in Table 3, Air thawing index, It = 863.2 degree days (in 0C) Dry density of the soil sample, d = 15.3 kN/m3, Moisture content, w = 10%, Mean annual air temperature (M.A.T.) = -2.34 0C Average volumetric heat capacity, Cav = d (0.71 + 3.14 w) = 15.3/9.91 (0.71 + 3.14 0.10) = 1.59 MJ/ m3.0C Volumetric latent heat of fusion of soil, L = 344 (15.3/9.81) 0.1 (from Eq.3) Conversion factor from air index to surface index, n = 1 Initial temperature differential, V0 =M.A.T. 0 0C = 2.340C (from Eq. 5) Average temperature differential, Vs = 1 863.2 /153 = 5.640C (from Eq. 6) Unfrozen thermal conductivity of soil, Ku = 0.97 W/m0C, Frozen thermal conductivity of soil, Kf = 0.93 W/m0C (For the values of Ku and Kf refer Ganjoo, 2007) Average thermal conductivity of soil, Kavg = (Ku + Kf)/2 = 0.95 W/m0C Thermal ratio, = 2.34/5.64 = 0.41 (from Eq. 4) Fusion parameter, = 5.64 1.59/53.6 = 0.17 (from Eq. 7) For = 0.17 and = 0.41, = 0.887 (refer Fig.6) Thaw depth, X is calculated as per Eq.2. X = 0 . 887 7200 24 0 . 95 863 . 2 = 1.45 m (from Eq. 2) 6
53 . 6 10
Ultimate bearing pressure, = 1745/ ln (262800/4.191 10-4) = 654.3 kN/m2 (from Eq. 16) Allowable bearing pressure = /factor of safety = 654.3/3= 218.1kN/m2 Adopt depth of foundation = 2.5 m (to avoid thaw settlement)
Calculation of Settlement
For the depth of influence zone (twice the breadth of foundation), the settlement is calculated as given in Table 4. Taking breadth =1m, = 0.50C, = 0.18, w = 270, k = 1, m =0.4, and t = 262800 hrs. Where = Temperature below freezing temperature, (0C), t = time elapsed after application of load, (hr.), = applied constant stress and w, , m and k = constants that are characteristics of the soil.
Table 4: Calculation of Settlement
Layer No. Layer Thickness h (m) Vertical Stress (kN/m2) Strain, = 1 2 3 4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 139.6 71.22 43.08 28.44
1
t k w ( + 1 )
0.12 .02 .006 .002
Deformation (mm)
Total h =75.5 mm (Say 75 mm)
60.0 10.0 3.0 2.5
This value of deformation is permitted as per IS: 1904-1986. Hence the safe load that the foundation can take = 218 kN/m2.
CONCLUSION
The problem of uneven settlement and failures due to thawing of foundations in cold regions can be avoided if the thaw depth is calculated on the basis of properly recorded temperatures at site for about 30 years. In absence of temperature record data, the actual thaw depth can be found by probing at site. By conducting the laboratory tests it was found that the creep parameters of soil as needed in the equation given by Vyalov (1959) can be determined approximately and if the same experiment is done in a properly controlled temperature and undisturbed soil sample from the field, the results will be better.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] Anderson, G.R., Swan, C.W., Ladd, C.C. and Germaine, J.T. (1995). Stress-strain behavior of frozen sand in triaxial compression, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 32, 428-451. Bishop, R.F., Hill, R. and Mott, N.F. (1945). The theory of indentation and hardness tests, Proc. Phy. Soc., London, 57(3), 147-159. Carslaw, H. S. and Jaeger, J. C. (1947). Conduction of heat in solids, Clarendon Press, Oxford. Ganjoo, B. (2007). Study of design of shallow foundations for sub-zero temperature conditions. Project report, IIT Roorkee. Gibson, R. E. (1950). Discussions. J. Inst. Civ. Eng. 34, 382. Johnston, G. H. (1981). Permafrost: engineering design and construction, Wiley, New York, 540. Ladanyi, B. and Jonston, G. H. (1974). Field tests of deep power-installed screw anchors in permafrost, Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 11(3), 348-358. Ladanyi, B. (1972). An engineering theory of frozen soils, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 9, 63-79. Ladanyi, B. and Benyamina, M.B. (1995). Triaxial relaxation testing of frozen sand. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 32, 496-511. McRoberts, E. C. (1974). Some aspects of a simple secondary creep model for deformations in permafrost slopes, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 12, 98-105. Tsytovich, N. A. (1960). Bases and foundations on frozen soil. U. S. Highway Research Board, Report 58, 1-93. Vyalov, S.S. (1959). Rheological properties and bearing capacities of soils. U.S. Army, CRREL, Translation 76, 237. Vyalov, S. S. (1966). Methods of determining creep, long-term strength and compressibility characteristics of frozen soils, Canada National Research Council, Technical Translation tt-1364, 109.
Section H Transport Infrastructure System
GPR Data Preprocessing Requirements and Techniques

S.S. Jain1, D.C. Bala2 and R.D. Garg3
1Professor,
CED, and Associated faculty, CTRANS, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India; profssjain@gmail.com Scholar, CTRANS, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India; dineshcbala@gmail.com 3Assistant Professor, CED, and Associated faculty, CTRANS, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee; rdgarg@gmail.com
2Research
AbstractGround Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a nondestructive and high resolution subsurface investigation tool which plays a vital role in infrastructure investigation for safety and long term sustainability while optimizing associated economic demand. It is widely applied to various fields including Archeological Surveys, Geological Surveys, and Mine detection in general and Civil Engineering Surveys in particular. It has become a prudent cost effective & optimized choice for pavement managers because it provides continuous ground profile, identifies defective spots & reduces the ambiguity about hidden subsurface structural threats. It uses electromagnetic (EM) waves to detect the subsurface features/anomalies. The EM wave is generated by GPR and transmitted into the ground which is then scattered back by different interfaces/ feature with substantial electrical (dielectric) contrast. These back scattered waves are collected by the GPR receiving antenna, stored in the form of images and is used for further analysis. For the reliable and accurate interpretation of subsurface features the quality of the image should be good. Inherently the image contains various types of noises, features with poor intensity and contrast. Additionally, the ground (reference line) is also not properly positioned in the image demanding for the calibration of the depth scale. Noise along with the signal attenuation and dispersion result into the above mentioned image deformations. These can result into wrong estimation of various layer thicknesses, depth of targets and correct dimensions of features. Therefore, before using the raw image, appropriate signal processing is desirable. Various signal processing techniques and dedicated GPR software (EKKO_VIEW, EKKO_Mapper and EKKO_VIEW DELUXE) have been discussed to enhance the quality of image. Keywords: GPR, Signal processing of GPR data, GPR data processing tools & techniques.
INTRODUCTION
RADAR, an acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging is a device invented during the first decades of 20th century remotely detects and range objects using Electromagnetic (EM) waves. There are mainly two basic types of Radars (a) Continuous Wave (CW) radar and (b) Impulse radar. These two types of radars are differentiated on the basis of how the data is acquired i.e. data collection in frequency domain (CW) radar, and data collection in time domain (impulse) radar. Radar has undergone huge improvement & development both in hardware and, in software, after the computers were introduced as tools for radar data analysis and interpretation. Previous summaries on subsurface radar techniques can be found in (Daniels et al., 1988; Daniels, 1996). Recent progress in various subsurface topics can be found in (Noon and Narayanan, 2002), International GPR Conference Proceedings (Koppenjan and Lee, 2002; Slob and Yarovoy, 2004). Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a special kind of radar designed to look into the ground by penetrating the surface. It is currently used in many areas as nondestructive investigation tool as used in Geophysics to estimate the surface of the earth sediments and to find the depth of bedrock, water tables, froze-unfrozen interfaces, etc. in archeology to locate buried archeological structures before digging to prevent their accidental damage and also it is used as a safety tool to locate landmines and as an investigation tool for law enforcement to locate buried bodies. Finally, GPR is used in civil structures, such as buildings, bridges, pavements, tunnels, and also locates buried pipes, cables etc (Jol and Smith, 1991; Hogan, 1988). In spite of the development of GPR technology, however, its use for evaluating pavements and buildings remains minimal. The limited use of GPR is mainly due to the lack of reliable
automated procedures for GPR data analysis and the difficulty of manually interpreting the large amount of data. The first step towards the data analysis is the proper conditioning or preprocessing of the acquired data. All GPR raw data are contaminated with noise and clutter, therefore, preprocessing of the raw data becomes vital in order to enhance its quality by removing noise and clutters. It is essential for all GPR data. But sometimes the reflection data is potentially distorted due to over processing. Care must be taken before applying processing steps. It is always better to understand the problems associated with the reflection data and the processing techniques. There are some techniques useful for the off line processing and the conditioning of digitized data to compensate for system, operator and environmental effects. These include inconsistent collection speed, in appropriate gain settings, signal clipping, instrument drift and antenna separation. These things are taken into consideration to remove unwanted issues and corrected before utilizing the GPR data to accurately locate, characterize and map the relevant subsurface features. Following is the understanding of the issues associated with the raw GPR data and their types. The processes to be applied before analyzing the GPR data: 1. Distance normalization (Rubber sheeting/Rubber Banding) 2. Drift removal (Dewowing) 3. Background clutter (Ringing/ banding) removal 4. Removal of multiple reflections 5. Gain amendment (Adjustment of time gain) 6. Antenna offset compensation 7. Removal of high frequency noise (Snow) 8. Remove & compress point source hyperbolas
GPR FUNDAMENTALS
GPR is a high resolution subsurface investigation tool based on the propagation of the EM wave through the ground. The EM wave propagates through various ground interfaces and partially reflected and scattered back from the interfaces between the layers of sufficient contrast of dielectric constant. The reflected energy is collected by the GPR receiver and is stored for further processing and display. A detail description of GPR techniques and its applications is available in (Daniels 1996) and a short description of GPR fundamentals can be found in (Bala, D.C. et al., 2012) Based on the antenna used the GPR can be classified into two parts (a) air coupled antenna (usually horn antenna) based GPR, and (b) ground coupled antenna based GPR. In air coupled GPRs the antenna is set 15 cm to 50 cm above the ground and this system is generally tied to the vehicle to collect data at fast speed 50 km/hr top 100 km/hr and thus suitable for the network level pavement evaluation (Loizos and Plati, 2007). Whereas the antenna of the ground coupled antenna based GPR system is in full contact with the ground without any air gap between the system and the ground. Generally this system is pushed manually on the study area and thus, suitable for project level pavement evaluation. It gives higher depth of penetration (at the same frequency as used for air coupled systems) but limits the speed of data collection in the survey. Sufficient literature is available on the air coupled antenna based GPR systems and mathematical models are available for its calibration but no such mathematical model is available for the calibration. Calibrating a groundcoupled GPR system is not a trivial task, and no commercial GPR manufacturer currently provides calibration information (Oden at el., 2008). So, use of ground-coupled GPR is challenging. Here, ground-coupled GPR system based data with central frequency 250 MHz and 1000 MHz have been used to discuss the processing issues.
GPR Data Preprocessing Requirements and Techniques 523
METHODOLOGY
The collected data is subjected to quality improvement by eliminating noise & clutter which may express themselves in various forms of distortion can be seen in GPR reflection profile (B-Scan, an image format having depth versus horizontal distance scan). There have been many developments in the field of data preprocessing and dedicated softwares are also given by the instrument suppliers and personal processing programs are also tried by many. Here, Sensors& Softwares GPR systems (Noggin Plus) have been used which presents data in .DT1 format. It is very important information to apply any software process on the data as this data cannot be handled by computers directly. It is required to be converted in various other formats to be able to be handled by computers, like csv (comma separated values) format can be used by simple computers. Otherwise, dedicated softwares are available with the GPR instrument which can directly operate on this data format. Here, EKKO_VIEW, EKKO_Mapper and EKKO_VIEW DELUXE software packages (available with Noggin Plus GPR) have been used to present GPR data collected here in Roorkee. There are many problems which have been addressed but only few have been presented. Dewowing and background removal have been tried with the EKKO_VIEW DELULE software and the data have been presented.
RAW GPR DATA, ITS ISSUES AND THEIR REMOVAL Distance Normalization (Rubber Sheeting/ Rubber Banding)
In order for the acquired data to be of any practical use, there must exist enough spatial poisoning information in the data to correlate any detected features with these surface coordinates. If the reflection data are collected in continuous mode, there will always be an unequal number of reflection traces because of the variations in the speed of data collection between the fiducially markers. To remove the distortion created by the variation of speed, a process of distance normalization is developed to locally compress or stretch the image segments such that there is an equal spacing of traces between the markers i.e. resulting in a linear array of markers corresponding to true survey coordinated. This normalization is often referred to as rubber sheeting or rubber band processing. When the data are collected in steps or with a survey wheel, the placement of reflection traces in distance along the ground is already normalized, but a horizontal and vertical scale must still be inserted to create the final view.
Drift removal (Dewowing)

Depending upon the proximity of receiver and transmitter as well as electrical properties of ground, the transmitted signal may induce a slowly decaying low frequency noise wow on the trace which is superimposed over high frequency reflections. The process of removal of unwanted low frequency signal while preserving high frequency signal is known as dewowing. The wow is removed from the data by applying a running average filter on each trace. The window with a width the same as that of one pulse width at the nominal frequency is set on the trace. The average value of all the points in this window is calculated and subtracted from the central point. The window is then moved along the trace by one point and the process is repeated. In figure 1a raw GPR profile having low frequency noise is shown and due to this low frequency noise, the DC level of the A-Scan (time series data) is shifted to negative side (figure 1b) to due low frequency noise in the image. This GPR profile is processed and the low frequency components have been removed by applying running average filter (dewowing option in the software EKKO_View Deluxe of Sensors & Software) and the result is shown in terms of result as a whole on the image (B-Scan, figure 1c) and on a single time series (A-Scan in figure 1d). The DC level can be seen to shift at zero level after noise removal.
Fig. 1(a): Raw GPR data Before Dewowing
Fig. 1(b): A-Scan with Negative DC Due to Wow
Fig. 1(c): GPR Data after dewowing Processing
Fig. 1(d): A-Scan after Noise Removal (Dewowing)
Background Clutter (Ringing/ Horizontal Banding) Removal

Due to antenna ringing (Leckebuch, 2003; Shih and Doolittle, 1984) (when the characteristic impedance of the transmitting antenna is not matched to that of the medium, some of the energy is stored in standing waves within the antenna elements, and radiated over an extended period of time), breakthrough between the transmitting and receiving antennae, poor coupling between antenna and ground, layered geology, system noise, nearby radio interference, cell phone, other electromagnetic interference, and also reflections from ground objects (like trees, buildings and man operating the GPR) can generate high intensity horizontal bands mostly at the top of the image which obscure the less intense subsurface reflections. It is possible to remove this background horizontal band or clutter by using simple average subtraction operation in various ways. Most algorithms first take the sum of all the amplitudes that are recorded at the same time in the B-Scan reflection profile (select complete row) and this sum is divided by total number of traces taken to get the average amplitude value (along a horizontal line) which is actually the average of all the background noise (which produces the horizontal banding). This average (background noise) is then subtracted from the data set. Some do not take all the traces of the B-Scan reflection profile and take the average over a limited number of traces (it is always better to take all the traces into account for better removal of noise). Whereas some processing programs uses running average background subtraction approach. In this approach a window of traces of finite length (range is from few traces to all traces), corresponding to the desired time of interest, is taken and the traces are averaged and then the resultant average is subtracted from the trace in the centre of window (Leckebusch, 2003). This window is shifted along one trace and the process is repeated. It is to be noted that, the more the traces are in the background
subtraction window, the more the horizontal features remain in the data (after removing horizontal background). The user should take all the traces in to the window. Great care must be taken when applying a background removing filter in areas where subsurface features of interest are horizontal like in case of detection of pavement layer interfaces, horizontal subsurface stratigraphy etc. this is because the background removal filters tend to remove all the waves, depending upon the size of window, that occur at the same time whether, noise or desired signal. Due to background subtraction most of these important horizontal feature reflections may be subtracted. Therefore, background subtraction/ removal should only be applied on a data with sufficient (large) number of reflection traces. Horizontal banding noise can also be removed with frequency filters, both high pass and low pass. It is because of the fact that horizontal banding noise can also be produced by low frequency interference that produces long wavelength variations in the reflection traces. It can be removed during data collection by applying the correct high pass filters (Malagodi et al, 1996). The band removal has been tried in two different ways i.e. gain adjustment and background subtraction methods. Gain adjustment approach, a new approach has been applied to remove the horizontal banding. SEC (Spreading Exponential Compensation) gain option of EKKO_VIEW DELUXE has been applied. The image (figure 2a) with horizontal banding can be seen to have starting gain of 1.38, attenuation of 13.0 and the maximum gain of 100.In the processing the starting gain of the amplitudes has been reduced at the point of time (2 ns to 4ns) where the banding occurred. This was not simple; a lot of gain values have been tried to suit the image. And finally, the SEC gain function with starting gain of 0.30, attenuation of 2.00 and the final maximum gain of 5 could remove the banding and the result can be seen in figure 2b. Again, the same band removal has also been tried using background subtracting technique as can be seen in figure 2c. Both have good effects.
Removal of Multiple Reflections (Deconvolution)

Multiple reflections are caused when radar energy reflects back and forth between a highly reflecting buried object and ground surface, or sometimes energy is trapped between sub-layers which oscillate back and forth to give rise to the phenomenon known as multiples i.e. they are seen as repetitive horizontal reflections as they are stacked vertically on top of each other, all of which are spaced at equal interval in time. The above phenomenon is due to the electromagnetic energy trapped in the subsurface, but sometimes the multiples are also created by ringing antennas that are located in the close proximity of each other (i.e. in the near field of each others). This ringing phenomenon is generated above the ground due to antenna coupling which creates the same vertically stacked multiple reflections effect in the image. These unwanted multiple reflections often obscure important reflections that might have been recorded at the same time in the reflection traces, and if so, they must be removed. To remove these effect a process known as deconvolution or more precisely predictive deconvolution. Deconvolution is used because some portion of the electromagnetic wave changes form (convolve) when transmitted into the ground. The purpose of this (deconvolution) filter is to remove the portion of recorded/ received waves that have convolved or changed during transmission in the ground. Technically, the deconvolution process attempts to predict the shape of the radar pulse transmitted from the antenna and also try to predict the changes in this pulse shape as it moves in the ground (predictive deconvolution). This means the deconvolution processing restores the reflected waves to their original pattern/ shape. It is a complicated task because it is usually difficult to determine how the original transmitted waves were shaped or what the actual shape was. In the absence of the knowledge the shape of the original signal, deconvolution process can change the shape in very unreal way. This technique is also taken from the seismic data processing techniques (Fisher et al., 1994; Maijala, 1992; Malagodi et al., 1996; Rees and Glover, 1992; Todoeschuck et al., 1992). As the actual shape of the transmitted signal is not known and also how it changes during its transmission in the heterogeneous ground, therefore, the deconvolution can always give unwanted results instead of removing the multiples. This unwanted distortion has been focused to show that care must be taken in what to chose and how many times one can repeat the
process to get the correct result. Figure 3a shows the image having multiple reflections and the figure 3b shows the result when single time deconvolution has been applied. It shows it partially removes the multiples while maintaining the originality of the image up to maximum extent. Further, deconvolution has been applied on the figure 3b (i.e. on the output of the original image) and the result is shown in figure 3c which shows the multiples are reduced to a very good extent but at the same time it distorts the image in a bigger way by introducing some new thin horizontal lines in the image, thus, image loses its originality (quality has been degraded). Again the figure 3d also shows what happens when this output is applied deconvolution once again. The multiples are not seen but image loses its quality in a huge way.
Horizontal band
Fig. 2(a): Horizontal Band is Seen at the top (2 ns to 4ns) of the Image as a Black Thick Line
Banding removed
Fig. 2(b): Horizontal Banding is Removed by Adjusting Gain
Fig. 2(c): Horizontal Band Removal Using Background Subtraction Method
The same background band has been attempted using the background subtraction method but using average of three traces taken together, which gives poor result as the distortion of the image information can be seen in fig. 2d.
Image distortion
Fig. 2(d): Horizontal Band Removal with Poor Averaging (3 Traces Taken at a Time)
Multiple reflections
Reduced multiples
Fig. 3(a): Before Multiple Removals
Fig. 3(b): After Single Time Deconvolution
Small multiples but greater unwanted
No Multiples but even Greater Unwanted Distortions
Fig. 3(c): Two Times Deconvolution (More Distortion)
Fig. 3(d): Three Times Deconvolution (Greater Distortion)
Gain Amendment (Adjustment of Time Gain)

During data acquisition, the signal amplitude data is multiplied by the range gain function before sampling and digitization and this function is stored in the file header. During the post processing this header information about range gain can be modified as per requirement. The gain can either be taken (non linear) to enhance the visibility of the data for onsite interpretation, or can be taken as constant value to preserve the information content of the signal (useful for post acquisition data
processing). Depending on the number of bits used to store the data (8 bit/ 16 bit), the range gain settings (non linear and high value) and the signal dynamic amplitude range (fix for system), the receiver might be forced to clip those portions of the signal that exceed this range (top and bottom of the signal is cut) i.e. if the range-gains are set to such values that cause the resulting signal to exceed the dynamic range of the system, the top of the signals are cut or the shape is distorted and data is lost. This phenomenon is known as clipping or saturation. It enhances the contrast to detect the weak signal and improves appearance by highlighting the edges of anomalies/ features. Although, this clipping does not adversely affect the appearance of the image, it severely distorts the time series signal and introduces spurious high frequency components in the spectrum, thus undermining the effectiveness of frequency-domain processing techniques such as spectral pattern recognition. To overcome this problem it has been recommended (Nguyen et al, 1997) that during data acquisition, the operator should use 16-bit data storage and set the range gains so that the coupling pulse and any strong reflections be approximately within 75% of the maximum range of the receiver.
Antenna Offset Compensation (NMO Correction)

When the transmitter and receiver are inside a common box (shielded antenna), the data is said to be acquired in commonoffset mode. The finite separation between receiver & transmitter is not taken into account, rather both are assumed to exist at the centre of the box. Because of this, the GPR profile does not show the actual depth of target and the correct velocity of the electromagnetic wave in the medium. The actual depth of the target is little lesser than that of one shown/ or observed in the GPR reflection profile i.e. instead of the target being detected at a depth d0, the finite separation leads to detection at an apparently greater depth of (d1+d2). This phenomenon is referred to in seismic literature as normal moveout (NMO). This is particularly significant when investigation of shallow targets is considered whose depth is within the depth range value equal to the antenna separation (distance between the transmitter & receiver). The error distance (difference between actual depth d0 and observed depth) increases dramatically with the decrease of target depth. Although accurate rectification of this problem is impossible, plane-wave incidence is assumed the arrival-times may be corrected by applying a non-linear transformation similar to seismic normal moveout correction (CMP) as follows: each sample recorded at time tr is translated to an earlier corrected time tc, where tc and are related as,
t0 = t 2 r
2x vs
Where, x is antenna separation.
Removal of High Frequency Noise (Snow)

If there is a great deal of high frequency interference from cell phones, pagers, radio transmitters, or other devices nearby, reflection profiles may contain so much snow and banding as to be uninterpretable. Simple background removal operation can be applied to remove this noise which may not completely improve the profile. Then a number of programs can do this job by using the FIR (Finite Impulse Response) or IIR (Infinite Impulse Response) filtering algorithms. Both filtering processes remove certain frequencies by choosing different number of reflection traces used in averaging and type of averaging and interpolation algorithms in filtering process. In all cases, a sophisticated method is applied to remove specific high and sometimes low frequencies (noise). IIR filters are more efficient than FIR filters as IIR filters use lesser number of orders to achieve similar goal (narrow transition bandwidth, lesser computational complexity and other filter specifications). There are many experimental filtering techniques of this sort, originally developed for seismic data processing by petroleum exploration industries that have been applied to GPR reflection data (Maijala, 1992; Milligan and Atkin, 1993).
Remove & Compress Point Source Hyperbolas (Migration)

Sometimes because of the high beam angle of propagating electromagnetic waves producing multiple ray paths as well as changes in the velocity giving rise to diffraction of the transmitted beam with the depth, distorts the image of subsurface stratigraphy and features in the ground. The reflection profile is distorted due to the wide angle reflections from point sources (due to high angle beam creating multiple paths) making it appear like hyperbolas which can obscure horizontal features like pavement layer interfaces. The image is also distorted because of diffraction of electromagnetic waves at steeply dipping surfaces during its transmission into the ground having reflecting surfaces which produces longer travel times and thus places the reflections at incorrect depths or locations in the subsurface leading to the distortion of the size and geometry of the subsurface features (Jol & Bristow, 2003). To remove these distortions filtering techniques are one choice of processing techniques applied such as F-k filtering where the reflections recorded in time are transformed into frequency data using statistical transform programs (Maijala, 1992). The second processing technique is Migration. Distortions that can be readily corrected by Migration are the same as above i.e. caused by the wide angle transmission beam of radar antennas that generates reflections from point sources (Conyers et al., 2002). Migration is a 2D imaging process that has been used with success to eliminate the mentioned distortions (Fisher et al., 1992; Fisher et al., 1994; Grasmueck, 1994; Malagodi et al., 1996; Milligan and Atkin, 1993). Migration process can be used to adjust the spatially misplaced stratigraphic layers & associated distortions of change of size and shape. The easiest migration method for hyperbola removal is achieved by summing all the reflections along a hyperbolas arm and placing the resultant average at its apex. It is a tedious job because it is done manually. Hyperbola can also be removed by Kirchoff method. It is a more sophisticated process that calculates the angle of incidence and the distance of the reflecting features below the surface. It then uses the different velocity profiles to the data to correct the placement of reflections and also to collapse effectively all hyperbola arms back to their apexes. The same processing can be used for steeply dipping beds, where the same type of geometric corrections can be made. Besides Kirchoff, there are three other migration algorithms used for migration called Stolt, Phase-Shift, and Finitedifference. According to (Leckebusch, 2003) they all show almost same performances. Although, migration is a standard technique in GPR processing, but it can be time consuming and also potentially distort many reflections incorrectly. It should therefore be employed for a very special kind of data anylysis, only after one is very sure about the origin of the distorted reflections, the ground material and the geometry of the feature.
CONCLUSION
Before doing any data processing on the GPR data, the GPR data should be converted into a suitable format which the normal computer can accept (CSV data format is a good format which can be handled by all computers), otherwise the dedicated softwares should be used to process the raw data. Most of the preprocessing algorithms are the modified form of programs originally used for Seismic data processing. The preprocessing what normally should be done on any GPR profile are distance normalization both horizontally and vertically, the background removal to improve the visibility of important subsurface reflections, and dewowing of the image. Remaining all other processing can be applied based on the specific requirement. But caution must be taken while processing GPR data that these processes, many a times can potentially distort the reflection profile of GPR because of over processing. Due to over processing the frequency contents of the profile can be severely modified putting an obstacle in the frequency domain processings. The over processings can also distort the visibility and identity of the original image. It is suggested that one should never attempt to use processing programs off the shelf without understanding the implications of each data manipulation techniques.
REFERENCES
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A Methodology for Dynamic Characterisation of Mixed Traffic on Arterial Roads in India

D.H. Vagadia1 and G.J. Joshi2
1Lecturer, 2Associate
Government Polytechnic, Rajkot, India; dineshvagadia@gmail.com Professor, SVNIT, Surat, India; gj@ced.svnit.ac.in
AbstractThe information on traffic volume is an important input for transportation planners. The road traffic in India is highly heterogeneous, comprising vehicles of wide ranging physical and operational characteristics. The problem of measuring volume of such heterogeneous traffic has been addressed by converting the different types of vehicles into equivalent passenger cars and expressing the volume in terms of passenger car unit (PCU) per hour. The PCUs of various vehicles mainly depend on traffic composition, traffic volume and road geometry beside their size and speed characteristics. IRC: 106-1990 recommends PCU values based on 5% and 10% and more composition of vehicle type in total traffic volume. In the present study, Dynamic Car Unit (DCU) and Dynamic Two-wheeler Unit (DTU) are calculated using modified homogenization coefficient approach from empirical data collected from various metropolitan cities of India. Range and variation in DCU/DTU values are estimated for each traffic composition based subgroup of all cities as well as for whole data. DCU/DTU values obtained are matching with the expected variation pattern. A methodology is developed to estimate DCU/DTU values for different traffic composition and traffic volume on divided arterial road condition. Results are significantly different from the IRC recommended values, but are validated using observed traffic data of some Indian cities. Also introduction of DTU may be very useful for analyzing and planning capacity for two-wheeler dominated Indian urban traffic. Keywords: PCU, Mix Traffic, DCU, DTU
INTRODUCTION
Traffic volume is an important input required for planning, analysis, design, and operation of road systems. Higher rate of urbanization in India has resulted in mobility requirement in terms of efficient movement of vehicular traffic on the urban roads particularly on arterial roads in metropolitan cities. Scientific approach of planning & design of road system based on realistic traffic characterization of heterogeneous traffic condition prevailing on urban roads in India is the need of the hour as existing codal practice of traffic analysis is more than two decades old. It is known that the road traffic in developing countries such as India is highly heterogeneous, comprising vehicles of wide ranging physical and operational characteristics occupying any convenient lateral position on the road based on space availability. It is universal convention to represent the traffic in terms of passenger car unit (PCU) for traffic analysis and facility design by applying conversion factors. IRC: 106-1990 ;Guidelines for Capacity of Urban Roads in Plain Area, recommends two sets of PCU values based on 5% and 10% and more composition of various vehicle types in total traffic volume. In many field observations, use of IRC recommended PCU values are found to provide unrealistic traffic volume in PCU/hr; even more than that of the prescribed capacity. Research efforts in last decade have shown that the PCUs of various vehicle types, besides their size and speed characteristics, depend on traffic composition and traffic volume for the prevailing road geometry and hence are dynamic in nature. It is also established that the vehicle type with major proportion in the traffic stream dominates behaviour of other vehicles and therefore conversion of mixed traffic with predominance of two wheelers in to passenger cars is also questionable in Indian context. In view of this, detailed probing into the issue of traffic
characterisation; particularly for multilane metropolitan arterials; for different road geometry, volume and composition on dynamic scale considering two wheeler and car as reference vehicle is found necessary. In the present study, Dynamic Vehicle Equivalent Factors (DVEF) named as Dynamic Car Unit (DCU) and Dynamic Two-wheeler Unit (DTU) are derived using modified homogenization coefficient approach based on empirical data collected by vidiographic technique from multilane arterial midblock road sections in seven metropolitan cities. Selected cities of Lucknow, Kanpur, Jaipur, Patna, Surat, Pune and Thiruvananthapuram cities significant difference in the socio-economic characteristics, city size and structure, vehicle types, predominant transportation modes, traffic volumes, traffic control conditions and road widths. Effect of carriage way width and side friction is adjusted by modifying the observed flow rate to equivalent flow rate for standard three lane one way road width of 10.5 m. Effect of traffic volume and composition on DCU and DTU values are captured by partitioning traffic data into sub-groups based on proportion of 2W and slow moving non-motorised vehicles like bicycle and pedal rickshaw. Scatter plots are used to study DCU/DTU variations with flow rate and composition. Grouping approach with flow groups of 250 veh/hr class interval and composition group of 5% class interval based on 1-minute traffic data is used to draw scatter plots. DCU/DTU values are estimated for each traffic composition based subgroup of all cities as well as for whole data with the help of computer program prepared in Scilab. DCU and DTU values are suggested for various levels of traffic volume. A simple methodology to estimate DCU/DTU values for different traffic composition and traffic volume for a standard 10.5 m wide three lane arterial road is proposed in the present study.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Earlier studies regarding Passenger Car Unit (PCU) or Passenger Car Equivalent (PCE) carried out in developed countries are mainly in context of homogeneous traffic condition which is entirely different from Indian mix traffic condition. In India, Justo and Tuladhar (1984) developed mathematical models to derive PCU values for vehicles on urban roads based on empirical data under mixed traffic flow. Ramanayya (1988) estimated the PCU factors for different vehicle types at different levels of services taking the Western car as the Design Vehicle Unit DVU. Indian Road Congress has provided constant PCU values for different vehicle categories based on field observed data for urban area (IRC: 106-1990) and rural areas (IRC: 64-1990). However for urban area (IRC: 106), PCU value for each vehicle category is differentiated based on percentage composition of vehicle category without any regard to flow level and road geometry. Chandra and Sikdar (2000), through an empirical study, inferred that for a given road width, an increase in volume level of mixed traffic causes more density on the road resulting in reduced uniform speed of vehicles. The lower speed difference between cars and subject vehicles is reported to yield smaller PCU value for the vehicle type in the study. Chandra and Kumar (2003) observed that the PCU for a vehicle type increases linearly with the width of carriageway which is due to the greater freedom of movement on wider roads and therefore a greater speed differential between a car and a vehicle type. Dey and Chandra et. al. (2007) found that for traffic on two-lane road, PCU for a vehicle decreases with increase in V/C ratio because speed differentials decrease as traffic volume increases. They observed that the speed of car is not affected much by the mix of traffic stream at low volume level but reduces considerably at high volume level and with rise in proportion of second category vehicle. Arasan and Koshy (2004) through simulation for four-lane divided road found that PCU values decrease with increase in their percentage composition in the traffic stream. Arasan and Krishnamurthy (2008) found that the PCU value of a vehicle significantly changes with change in traffic volume. At low volume levels, the PCU value of vehicles increases with increase in traffic volume, whereas under higher volume conditions the PCU values decrease with increase in traffic volume. They also found that for any vehicle type in heterogeneous traffic, the PCU value increases with increase in the width of road space. Arasan and Arkatkar (2010) studied vehicular interaction through simulated traffic on four-lane as well as six-lane
A Methodology for Dynamic Characterisation of Mixed Traffic on Arterial Roads in India 533
divided roads. The study shows that, in case of vehicles that are larger than passenger cars, at low volume levels, the PCU value decreases with increase in traffic volume whereas at high traffic volume levels, the PCU value increases with increase in traffic volume. Further, for vehicles that are smaller than passenger cars; at low volume levels; the PCU value increases with increase in traffic volume and at high volume levels, the PCU value decreases with increase in traffic volume. Nguyen and Sano et. al. (2010) estimated Motor Cycle Unit (MCU) for mixed traffic in Vietnam. Joshi and Patel et. al. (2011) have developed speed-flow and density relationship between speed density, densityflow and flow-speed in terms of vehicles, static passenger car units (SPCU), dynamic two wheeler units (DTU) and dynamic car units (DCU) for free flow regime for a mid block section of six lane divided road having service lanes also. They have introduced Dynamic Vehicle Equivalent Factors (DVEF) on premise that the equivalent factors vary dynamically as the speed of reference vehicle in the mixed flow changes. Their study infers that the speed and maneuverability of the vehicles in the stream is generally governed by the vehicle which has high proportion in the stream. Review of literature on the subject matter reveals that passenger car unit is not static and hence the present values of PCE suggested by IRC needs to accommodate effect of dynamic quantities of flow rate and speed.
DYNAMIC VEHICLE EQUIVALENT FACTOR (DVEF)

Passenger car equivalent is estimated by comparing the influence of a vehicle entering into a stream of homogenous traffic on the speed of the standard or reference vehicle. It is evident that the effect of interference from other vehicles to the movements of the reference vehicle is significantly affected by the flow rate which in turn affects the speed of the vehicles. Therefore, for the given composition and roadway conditions, the vehicle equivalent factor is expected to vary as the flow rate and speed of the stream that also change from time to time. This is more relevant in urban areas where hourly variations of flow rate are quite significant. Under such circumstances, it is desirable to derive the vehicle equivalent factors which take care of the fluctuations in stream speed and also the speed of the individual vehicles on the urban roadway. Such vehicle equivalent factors vary dynamically as the speed of the reference vehicle in the mixed flow changes and hence are called Dynamic Vehicle Equivalent Factors (DVEF). DVEF includes time dependant effect of vehicular speed on the traffic interaction and interference. The speed and maneuverability of the vehicles in stream is generally governed by the vehicles which has high proportion in the stream. In the present study, dynamic vehicle equivalent factors are estimated considering two-wheeler as well as car as the reference vehicle. The terrain of the selected roads is flat and road stretches are straight and free from effect of intersections, hence vehicles in the trap length are assumed to have constant speed. Satish Chandras (2000) modified homogenization co-efficient approach is used in which effect of static characteristics is incorporated by comparing projected area of reference vehicle and the other vehicle in terms of area ratio (). Speed ratio described as ratio of speed of reference vehicle to the other vehicle is adopted to include effect of speed differential as dynamic characteristics. Mathematically, DVEFX = (/) Where, DVEFX = Dynamic Vehicle Equivalent Factor considering x reference vehicle x-y = Speed Ratio = Vx/Vy, x-y = Area Ratio = Ax/Ay, Vx = Spot speed of x reference vehicle, Vy = Spot speed of y reference vehicle, Ax = Projected area of x reference vehicle Ay= Projected area of y reference vehicle
DATA COLLECTION
Traffic survey data of seven selected cities Lucknow, Kanpur, Jaipur, Patna, Surat, Pune and Thiruananthapuram is used for this study. Video recording with high resolution camera was carried
out for different traffic condition on a normal working day. Recorded videos are played on computer screen, and classified traffic volume is counted manually for 1 minute time interval. Stop watch as well as subtitle time display in video are used to achieve practically possible accuracy in observation time interval. Vehicles are classified in nine categories of Two-wheeler (2W), Three-wheeler (3W), car (4W), Mini Bus (MB), Standard Bus (SB), Light Commercial Vehicle (LCV), Truck, Bicycle and Pedal Rickshaw (PEDRXW). Spot speed of each vehicle category is determined by measuring time required by the vehicle to traverse a defined trap length marked on carriageway with white paints before video recording. All road sections selected are six lane divided but are varying in width and have different level of side friction. Surat and Jaipur road sections are 10.5 m wide with separate service lane and hence road side friction is absent. Flow rate on road sections of other cities is modified for standard road width of 10.5 m considering linear variation of flow rate with road width. The traffic data analysis on the selected study stretches has shown predominance of two wheelers with nearly 50% to 65% share followed by 20% to 30% cars and 10% to 20% three-wheelers. In north Indian cities, bicycle and pedal rickshaws have significant share in total traffic to the tune of 20%. To arrive at a reasonably accurate and representative vehicle dimensions for each vehicle category, effort is made to derive it from domestic sales figures in last five years (2006-2011). From the database published by SIAM, figures of domestic car sale figures in each segment i.e. mini, compact, mid size, executive and premium are considered. Due to unavailability of reference data and as other vehicle categories have little share in urban traffic, their representative dimensions are directly taken from Satish Chandras study (2004). Extracted data from recorded videos is entered in Excel sheets and DVEF are estimated using car and two-wheeler as reference vehicle for each 1-minute observation interval for all the selected cities. Term Dynamic Car Unit (DCU) is used for car as reference vehicle and Dynamic Two-wheeler Unit (DTU) is used for two-wheeler as reference vehicle. Scattered plots of DCU (/DTU) v/s Flow Rate are drawn to know the trend and range of DCU/DTU values for each category of vehicles.
GROUPING APPROACH
To have conclusive relationship, observed flow rates and the respective DCU (/DTU) values are grouped with 250 veh/hr class interval. For each group, minimum, maximum, mean value and standard deviation in DCU (/DTU) values are calculated. Likely variation in DCU (/DTU) values at 5% significance level is also calculated for all the vehicle types. As large amount of data is used for the analysis, normal distribution is expected; hence mean of each flow group is considered representing the behaviour of corresponding traffic parameters. Upper and lower limit can be defined for each flow group to filter outlier data points. 5% significance level is used to filter the data for removal of outliers.
TRAFFIC COMPOSITION EFFECT

Traffic composition variation effect on DCU and DTU values are captured by partitioning traffic data into sub-groups based on proportion of 2W (predominant mode) and slow moving non-motorised vehicles (major influencing modes) of bicycle and pedal rickshaw. Initially groups are made based on proportion of 2W in traffic. Three groups are formed as (a) 2W proportion less than 40% of total traffic volume (a2w4), (b) 2W proportion in between 40% to 60 % of traffic volume (a2w46) and (c) 2W proportion more than 60% of traffic volume (a2W6). Each group is subdivided in 4 subgroups based on slow moving vehicles i.e. bicycle, pedal rickshaw (predominant in some north Indian Cities) and other non motorized vehicles if any. These subgroups are as (a) Proportion of slow moving vehicles less than 5% of total traffic volume (s5), (b) Proportion of slow moving vehicles between 5% and 15% of traffic volume (s515), (c) Proportion of slow moving vehicles between 15 % and 25% of traffic (s1525) and (d) Proportion of slow moving vehicles more than 25% of traffic volume (s25).
Thus, code a2w46s25 means subgroup having two-wheeler share in the range of 40% to 60% and slow moving vehicle share more than 25%. For all selected seven cities, DCU and DTU values are estimated and plotted on graphs with respect to flow rate. Graphs are also prepared for all flow group DCU/DTU values (ungrouped data) v/s flow rate and DCU/DTU values v/s composition of corresponding vehicle category. For example, scatter plots for some selected vehicle categories for subgroup Trvm46s5 (Thiruvananthapuram traffic having 2W proportion between 40% to 60% and slow moving vehicles less than 5% of total traffic) are shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. DCU/DTU variation trends are as expected. In Fig. 1 (a), it is observed that DCU value for 2W ranges from 0.25 to 0.30. In Fig. 1 (b), DTU value for Car ranges from 3.4 to 3.8. DCU for 2W decreases while DTU for Car increases with increase in flow rate.
2W DCU 0.35 0.30 DCU DTU 0.25 0.20 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 4.0 3.8 3.6 3.4 3.2 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 CAR DTU
Flow Rate (veh/hr) (a)
Flow Rate (veh/hr) (b)
Fig. 1: DCU for 2W & DTU for Car vs. Flow Rate (Trvm46s5)
In Fig. 2: it is observed that for 3W, DCU value ranges from 0.6 to 0.8 and DTU value ranges from 2.3 to 2.7. Both DCU & DTU value decreases with increase in flow rate.
3W DCU 0.80 DCU 0.75 0.65 0.60 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 DTU 0.70 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 3W DTU
Flow Rate (veh/hr)
Flow Rate (veh/hr)
Fig. 2: DCU & DTU for 3W vs. Flow Rate (Trvm46s5)
DVEF: DERIVATION METHODOLOGY

Variation is found in standard deviation of DCU (/DTU) values for each vehicle category. Standard deviation of DCU/DTU values indicates driver behaviour influence. Also traffic may not be uniform throughout the observation interval of 1 minute. It is possible that interaction may not be same throughout the observation interval as well as in all lanes. Outer lane is generally influenced by slow moving vehicles and pedestrians. These factors get reflected in the standard deviation. To consider this unavoidable deviation in DCU and DTU values, instead of considering relationship between flow rate and DCU/DTU value, it is desirable to consider range of DCU/DTU values corresponding to certain range of flow rate. Range of DCU and DTU values for various traffic composition groups for
each vehicle category for all selected cities are found and tables are prepared. These tables are informative but at application level, it is difficult to implement because it does not consider both influencing parameters i.e. traffic volume (flow rate) and traffic composition simultaneously. Therefore, it is found desirable to prepare tables for each traffic composition subgroup in which DCU and DTU values are available for different flow rate ranges. This is also cumbersome at application level. Therefore a new approach is proposed in which first traffic volume (flow rate) in veh/hr may be converted in either DCU/hr or DTU/hr by predefined reference DCU/DTU values based on composition. This converted equivalent traffic volume can be used to derivation of refined DCU/DTU values from tables based on traffic volume in DCU or DTU for various range. In the proposed approach, DCU and DTU values for various level of composition of major vehicle categories i.e. 2W, 3W, Car, Bicycle and Pedal Rickshaw are estimated using grouping approach with composition groups of 5% class interval (0 to 5%, 5 to 10 % etc.). Modal share of other vehicle categories like Mini Bus, Std. Bus and LCV is very less; hence accuracy of their DCU/DTU values for conversion purpose is insignificant. Therefore reference values for these categories are taken as average value obtained for the whole data. Table 1 shows reference DCU and DTU values to convert given traffic volume in veh/hr to DCU/hr and DTU/hr.
Table 1: Reference DCU/DTU Values for Traffic Volume Conversion
To convert in DCU DTU 2W 0.3 3W 0.8 2.6 Car 3.5 MB 3.5 12.5 SB 5.4 20.0 TRK 4.3 15.0 LCV 1.7 6.0 CYCL 0.3 1.3 PEDRXW 1.1 4.5
From Table 1, after having traffic volume either in DCU/hr or DTU/hr, refined DCU and DTU values can be obtained from Chart/Table having relationship between traffic volume in DCU/DTU and DCU/DTU values for each vehicle category. To prepare such chart, the traffic volume (flow rate) for each data point for each city is converted in DCU/hr and DTU/hr by using corresponding DCU and DTU values in each cities and scatter plots are drawn using flow grouping approach. Fig. 3 (a) shows linear trend of reduction in DCU values for 2W with increase in flow rate in DCU/hr. It is observed that the DCU value for 2W ranges from 0.22 to 0.32. Variation in DCU values of 3W with flow rate in DCU/hr is shown in fig. 3 (b). DCU for 3W decreases from 0.85 to 0.50 with increase in flow rate.
2W DCU 0.35 DCU 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0 2000 4000 (a) 6000 8000 y = -0.00001x + 0.32 R = 0.73 DCU 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0 2000 4000 (b) Fig. 3: DCU for 2W&3W vs. Flow Rate in DCU/hr 6000 8000 Flow Rate (DCU/hr) Flow Rate (DCU/hr) 3W DCU y = -0.00005x + 0.86 R = 0.86
Fig. 4 to 9 shows variation in DCU and DTU values for various vehicle types with flow rate. All the variations are linear except DCU for pedal rickshaws. DCU value for PEDRXW decreases up to flow rate of 2000 DTU/hr and then it fluctuates in the range of 1.0 to 1.5. DTU value ranges from 1.0 to 2.0.
CYCL DCU 0.50 DCU 0.40 0.30 0.20 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 Flow Rate (DCU/hr) y = -0.00004x + 0.49 R = 0.86 DCU 2.00 1.80 1.60 1.40 1.20 1.00 0
LCV DCU y = -0.00012x + 2.02 R = 0.72
2000
4000
6000
8000
Flow Rate (DCU/hr)
Fig. 4: DCU for Bicycle & LCV vs. Flow Rate in DCU/hr MB DCU 5.00 4.00 DCU 3.00 2.00 1.00 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 DCU y = -0.00026x + 4.26 R = 0.68 6.50 6.00 5.50 5.00 4.50 4.00 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 SB DCU y = -0.00025x + 6.07 R = 0.68
Flow Rate (DCU/hr)
Flow Rate (DCU/hr)
Fig. 5: DCU for Mini Bus & Std. Bus vs. Flow Rate in DCU/hr CAR DTU 4.50 2.90 DTU 2.70 2.50 2.30 0 5000 10000 15000 0 5000 10000 15000 y = 0.00003x + 2.44 R = 0.64 4.00 3.50 3.00 2.50 Flow Rate (DTU/hr) y = 0.00014x + 2.66 R = 0.79 3W DTU
DTU
Flow Rate (DTU/hr)
Fig. 6: DTU for Car & 3W vs. Flow Rate in DTU/hr 1.70 1.60 DTU 1.50 1.40 1.30 0 5000 10000 15000 CYCL DTU y = -0.00002x + 1.6 R = 0.64 DTU 7.00 6.50 6.00 5.50 5.00 0 5000 10000 15000 y = 0.00012x + 5.10 R = 0.73
LCV DTU
Flow Rate (DTU/hr)
Flow Rate (DTU/hr)
Fig. 7: DTU for Bicycle & LCV vs. Flow Rate in DTU/hr
15.00 14.00 13.00 12.00 11.00 10.00 0
MB DTU 23.00 21.00 DTU 19.00 17.00 15.00 0 y = 0.00035x + 9.74 R = 0.72 5000 10000 Flow Rate (DTU/hr) 15000
SB DTU
DTU
y = 0.00056x + 14.73 R = 0.75 5000 10000 15000
Flow Rate (DTU/hr)
Fig. 8: DTU for Mini Bus & Std. Bus vs. Flow Rate in DTU/hr PEDRXW DCU 3.00 2.50 DCU 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0 2000 4000 6000 DTU y = 0.00000x2 - 0.00087x + 2.64 R = 0.73 9.00 8.00 7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 0 5000 10000 15000 Flow Rate (DCU/hr) y = -0.00029x + 7.93 R = 0.71 PEDRXW DTU
Flow Rate (DTU/hr)
Fig. 9: DCU/DTU for Pedal Rickshaw vs. Flow Rate in (DCU/DTU)/hr
Based on charts in Figs. 1 to 9; DCU/DTU values are suggested for various traffic volume level as shown in Table 2. Three values are given for low, moderate and near capacity traffic volume. For intermediate values of traffic volume, DCU/DTU can be calculated by linear interpolation. Flow rate in DCU/hr or DTU/hr is to be used for calculating refined DCU and DTU values from Table 2.
Table 2: Suggested DCU/ DTU Values for Different Traffic Volumes
Vehicle Category Two wheeler Three wheeler Car Mini Bus Standard Bus Truck LCV Bicycle Pedal Rickshaw DCU Value Flow Rate in DCU/hr 1000 and Less 3500 6000 0.31 0.28 0.8 0.7 1.0 1.0 4.0 3.4 5.8 5.2 4.0 4.5 2.0 1.6 0.45 0.35 2.0 1.2 DTU Value Flow Rate in DTU/hr 1000 and Less 5000 12000 and More 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.5 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.0 4.0 10.0 11.5 14.0 15.0 17.5 21.5 13.0 14.0 16.0 5.0 5.7 6.5 1.6 1.5 1.3 7.6 6.5 4.4
and More 0.26 0.6 1.0 2.7 4.6 4.0 1.3 0.25 1.3
COMPARISON OF DVEF VALUES WITH EXISTING GUIDELINES

Table 3 shows comparison of estimated DCU values in the study and PCU values recommended by IRC: 106-1990: Guidelines for Capacity of Urban Roads in Plain Areas. PCU values for 2W and 3W are more than the suggested values of DCU in the present study. As 2W is dominating in Indian urban traffic, PCU value of 0.75 leads to unrealistic traffic volume in PCU/hr; at times more than the prescribed capacity for roads with high traffic volume in peak hours. DCU values are found decreasing with increase in composition for most of the vehicle categories.
VALIDATION OF SUGGESTED VEHICLE EQUIVALENT FACTORS

To verify the significance of suggested vehicle equivalent factors, traffic volume data of some cities from the study is used. Peak hour traffic volume which is generally of prime importance in urban areas is converted from veh/hr to DCU/hr as shown in Table 4. Traffic volume is also converted in PCU/hr as per IRC guidelines for urban areas. Here it is observed that by using suggested dynamic vehicle equivalent factors, observed traffic volume which is very high (particularly in case of Pune) than the capacity as per IRC guidelines, reduces drastically near to capacity guidelines. Thus suggested DCU values seem to be more realistic.
Table 3: Comparison of DCU/DTU Values with IRC Guidelines
Sr. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Vehicle Type Two wheelers Car Auto-rickshaw LCV Truck or Bus Cycle Cycle Rickshaw Equivalent PCU Factors % Composition 10% and 5% Above 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.0 1.2 2.0 1.4 2.0 2.2 0.4 1.5 3.7 0.5 2.0 Suggested DCU Values Flow Rate in DCU/hr 1000 and Less 0.31 1.0 0.8 2.0 MB 4.0 SB 5.8 TRK 4.0 0.45 2.0 3500 0.28 1.0 0.7 1.6 3.4 5.2 4.5 0.35 1.2 6000 and More 0.26 1.0 0.6 1.3 2.7 4.6 4.0 0.25 1.3
Table 4: Validation of Suggested DCU Values

City & Road Pune, Karve Road Jaipur, JL Nehru Road Lucknow, Vidhansabha Road Surat, Gaurav Path 2W 3W 4W Mini Bus 94 22 14 8 Std. Bus 146 0 58 17 LCV Truck Bicycle 121 42 88 38 4 4 5 7 67 177 641 84 Pedal Rxw 0 12 239 0 Total Total Total veh/hr PCU/hr DCU/hr 10355 9113 5506 6487 6361 3591 5581 6188 3201 3855 3366 2210
6949 975 1999 3575 200 2455 3777 845 694
1938 460 1039
CONCLUSION
Comprehensive traffic survey on selected arterials in seven metropolitan cities in India has been carried out to study the traffic composition and flow rate for dynamic characterisation of mix traffic. Each city is found to have one or two dominant typical traffic flow groups based on composition. Variation in dynamic car units (DCU) and dynamic two wheeler units (DTU) for 1 minute time interval is analysed by composition and flow group approach. A methodology for deriving dynamic car units as well as dynamic two wheeler units for seven major vehicle types has been proposed. The values of DCU obtained in the present study are compared with those prescribed by IRC and is found to be significantly different, yet logically acceptable. Methodologies is applied to convert traffic flow rates in selected cities into DCU / hr and are compared with the static value based flow rates obtained from IRC: 106-1990. The DCU based flow rates are found to be quite realistic compared to static PCU based flow rates. Proposed methodology can be applied to derive DCU/DTU values for traffic analysis at mid block sections of divided urban arterials.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] Arasan, V.T. and Arkatkar, S.S. (2010). Microsimulation Study of Effect of Volume and Road Width on PCU of vehicles under Heterogeneous Traffic, Journal of Transportation Engineering, 136(12), 1110-1119. Arasan, V.T. and Koshy R.Z. (2004). Simulation of heterogeneous traffic to derive capacity and service volume Standards for urban roads, Journal of Indian Road Congress, 65-1, 219-242. Arasan, V.T. and Krishnamurthy K. (2008). Effect of Traffic Volume on PCU of Vehicles under Heterogeneous Traffic Conditions, Road & Transport Research, 17-1, 32-48.
540 Twenty-eighth NCCE & National Seminar on Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] Chandra, S. (2004). Capacity Estimation Procedure for Two-Lane Roads under Mixed Traffic Conditions, Journal of Indian Road Congress, 65-1, 139170. Chandra, S. and Kumar, U. (2003). Effect of Lane Width on Capacity under Mixed Traffic Conditions in India, Journal of Transportation Engineering, 129(2), 155-160. Chandra, S. and Sikdar, P.K. (2000). Factors affecting PCU in mixed traffic situations on urban roads, Roads &Transport Research, 9(3), 40-50. Dey P.P., Chandra S. and Gangopadhyay S. (2007). PCU Factors for Two Lane Roads, HRB, Indian Road Congress No. 77, 111119. Indian Roads Congress. (1990). Guidelines for capacity of roads in rural area, IRC code of Practice, IRC: 64-1990, New Delhi, India. Joshi, G., Sinha, V. and Patel, J. (2011). Heterogeneous Traffic Characterisation and Flow Behaviour Modeling for Metropolitan Arterial in India, Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, 9, 1684-1699 Justo, C.E.G. and Tuladhar S.B.S. (1984). Passenger Car Unit Values for Urban Roads, Journal of Indian Roads Congress, 188-238 Nguyen, C.Y., Sano, K., Tu, T.V. and Tan, D.T. (2010). Methodology for Motorcycle Equivalent Unit at Road-Segments in Urban Roads, TRB 2010 Annual Meeting CD-ROM, 89th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, January 1014, Washington D.C. Ramanayya T.V. (1988). Highway capacity under mixed traffic conditions, Traffic Engineering and Control, U.K., 29(5), 284287. Vagadia, D.H. (2012). Development of Dynamic Vehicle Equivalent Factors (DVEF) Under Mix Traffic Condition in Context of Multilane Metropolitan Arterials in India, M.Tech. Thesis, SVNIT, Surat, India.
Role of Bus Rapid Transit System in Promoting Sustainable Transportation

Gautam Raj G.1, Ch. Ravi Sekhar2, S. Velmurgan3 and Purnima Parida4
1PGRPE 2Senior
Student, AcSIR- Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, India; gautam.godavarthi@gmail.com Scientist, CSIR- Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, India; chalumuri.ravisekhar@gmail.com 3Principal Scientist, CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, India; vms_04@yahoo.co.in 4Principal Scientist, CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, India; punam31@gmail.com
AbstractSustainable development is essentially an approach where the long-term environmental and social interests are upheld while pursuing the path of economic development. Many new modes of mass transportation have emerged lately that can carry large number of people and are fuel efficient as well as environment friendly. Bus Rapid Transit system (BRTS) is one such a system and it is defined as Bus-based mass transit system that delivers fast, comfortable, and cost-effective urban mobility. BRT systems around the world are considered as sustainable mode of transport because of numerous benefits it gives to the user and the operating agency. The BRT corridors around the world have shown great solutions to many of the problems faced by the authorities and users regarding the mass transit system... Infrastructure is one of the most important elements in the BRTS. The exclusive running ways, bus stations, exclusive flyovers for buses, tunnels, cycle tracks, footpaths, subways and foot over bridges for pedestrians, etc decide on the various engineering parameters like speed, ridership, travel time and delay in the corridor. It is observed from the literature that infrastructure in the BRT corridor plays a main role in ranking a BRT system with a weight age of 36%. This encouraged the Indian cities also plan and implement different BRT systems In India the first idea of BRTS system was mooted in Delhi and after that it is operational in Ahmedabad. In this study reviewed the sustainability of various BRT corridors around the world and discuss about the role of infrastructure to promote sustainability by comparison of Delhi and Ahmedabad BRT corridor. The observed average speed of Buses on Ahmadabad BRT section varies between 22 to 25 Kmph which is much higher than that of Delhi BRTS 13-15 kmph due to adequate infrastructure facilities. Keywords: Sustainable Transportation, BRTS
INTRODUCTION
Sustainable development is essentially an approach where the long-term environmental and social interests are upheld while pursuing the path of economic development. It is a common knowledge that resources such as fossil fuels are perishable and hence reducing their consumption and shifting to other cleaner sources of energy in a manner that benefits the society and the environment is a necessity. Since the conventional modes of transportation for people in urban areas, especially the private vehicles, have a huge energy demand, extending the concept of sustainability in developing new or restructuring old transportation schemes is the need of the hour. Many new modes of mass transportation have emerged lately that can carry large number of people and are fuel efficient as well as environment friendly. These modes of transport include but are not limited to modes of urban transport like metro, light rail transit, bus rapid transit (BRT), metro buses, ferry and monorails. BRT systems around the world are considered very efficient in terms of cost, engineering and environmental perspective. BRT systems are bringing out more equitable allocation of road space among the road users rather the vehicles on the road. The objectives of this paper is to review the sustainability of various BRT corridors around the world and discuss about the role of infrastructure to promote sustainability by comparison of Delhi and Ahmedabad BRT corridor
BUS RAPID TRANSIT SYSTEM (BRT)

Bus Rapid Transit system (BRTS) is defined as Bus-based mass transit system that delivers fast, comfortable, and cost-effective urban mobility (Wright, 2005). There is, however, an alternative definition as well by Levinson et al.(2003). They define BRTS as a flexible, rubber-tired rapid-transit mode that combines stations, vehicles, services, running ways and Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) elements into an integrated system with a strong positive identity that evokes a unique image. The main components of BRT consists of exclusive running ways, bus stations, vehicles, route structure, fare collection, ITS, integration and institutional set up. There are two types of BRT systems viz. Open BRT systems and Closed BRT systems. Closed systems are those in which the stations are enclosed and there is a special fleet of buses that run only on this corridor. Curitiba, Bogota and Quito BRT systems are examples of closed BRT system. Open BRT systems on the other hand are the ones in which the bus stations are not enclosed and there is no special fleet of buses assigned to the BRT corridor. Any bus intended to go in a particular route where BRT System is operational can go on the dedicated running ways of BRT system. The patronage is generally high in open BRT systems. BRT systems in Kunming, Porto Allegra are the examples of the open BRT systems.
BRT SYSTEMS AND SUSTAINABILITY

BRT systems around the world are considered as sustainable mode of transport because of numerous benefits it gives to the user and the operating agency. Users are benefitted by reduction in travel time, and delays, enhanced frequency giving more reliability to the system, along the corridor etc. Operating agency on the other hand enjoys the benefits of increased ridership, decrease in air pollution due to lesser private vehicles on roads and cleaner fuel use, less initial investment and maintenance costs. The economic and environmental advantages of different BRT corridors around the world are cited below. In USA it has been reported that the percentage increase in speed of bus along the corridor in Cleveland is 34%, and in Eugene it is 30.4%. It was also observed that percentage travel time savings in Cleveland and Eugene BRT corridors is 12 minutes. The increased speed and reduction in travel time and other infrastructural benefits of these corridors has increased the ridership by 60% and 74% in Cleveland and Eugene BRT corridors respectively (Weinstock A. et al.2011). By 2008, in Bogot the travel time savings had improved by 35%, the number of fatal car accidents had reduced by 93% and air pollution had reduced by 40%. Curitiba BRT system carries 2.1 million passengers per day. The BRT systems in this part of the world are very extensive with riderships ranging from 17,000 pphpd (passengers per hour per direction) to 40,000 pphpd and average peak hour speeds ranging from 16 to 25 kmph (Gerhard Menckhoff 2005) Since the initial cost of construction is also low and the magnitude of people the BRT systems carry with reduced air pollution shows the sustainability of BRT corridors in this part of the world. In Europe and Australia it is more frequent to find a high ecological sensitivity on behalf of the governments, this lead to the exploitation of the public transportation and it became a definite tool to minimize the uncontrollable traffic growth in European and Australian cities. These cities are generally not void of the economic resources available to them and hence the main concept of BRT in these regions is to mitigate the air pollution by promoting the use of the buses by the public transport. This is achieved by various BRT systems in Europe which include Dublin BRT, Stockholm BRT system with week day bus riders of 65,000 and 1, 46,000. The time saving due to better speeds in the corridor is also substantial by 33 minutes and 22 minutes in Leeds BRT corridor and Dublin BRT corridor respectively (Cristian Canales et al. 2006). The BRT corridors in Adelaide, Sydney and Brisbane were able to increase the ridership by 24%, 56% of which 47% are new journeys and 56% of which 17% are new journeys respectively (Graham Currie 2006).
Role of Bu us Rapid Transi it System in Pro omoting Sustain nable Transporta ation 543
In most m of the Asian cities s, mobile so ources are most m signific cant source of the air pollution especiall ly for particu ulate matter (PM), carbo on monoxide e (CO) and nitrogen ox xides (NOX), and are expected d to be the main sourc ce of the po ollution in future f if the present tre end of vehic cle usage continue es. It is obser rved from th he literature that t more than 50% of th he total trips s in china an nd 49.3% of total trips in Jak karta, Indon nesia are performed by public trans sport, and b buses carry the vast majority t numbers of y of all motorized trips (Jeff Kenwo orthy et al. 2002). Suc ch significant o public transpor rt trips warra ant an efficien nt sustainabl le mode of tr ransportation n. BRT syste ems in this re egion are providin ng efficient BRT system ms with high h ridership, improved speeds alon ng the corri idor and reductio on in travel ti ime. It is obs served in As sian cities lik ke Taipei in Taiwan T and Jakarta in In ndonesia the rider rship is subs stantial and their comme ercial averag ge speed is in between 15- 25 kmp ph (Dario Hidalgo 2009). Low w emission vehicles v used d particularly y in BRT cor rridors of As sian cities is reducing the air pollution. p The BRT corrido ors around the t world ha ave shown gr reat solution ns to many o of the problem ms faced by the authorities a an nd users rega arding the mass m transit sy ystem. This encouraged the Indian cities c also plan and implemen nt different BRT B systems s. The first idea i of BRT TS system w was mooted in Delhi, capital of o India. This s recommend dation was a part of the report Delh hi on the mo ove submitte ed to the Central Pollution Co ontrol Board d (CPCB). In n 2006 the first BRT was w implemen nted in Pune and in mented in De elhi. Later on n in 2009 th he Ahmedaba ad BRT was s implemente ed which 2008 it was implem became very succes ssful with sub bstantial ride ership of 235 50-2600 pph hpd and ave erage speed of 22-25 kmph (T Tiwari G et al. a 2010). Th he success of f Ahmedaba ad BRT enco ouraged seve en more citie es to plan BRT cor rridors which h are yet to be b implemented.
ROLE OF BRTS INFRASTR RUCTURE ON SUSTA AINABILIT TY

Infrastru ucture is one e of the most t important elements in the BRTS. The T exclusiv ve running ways, w bus stations, , exclusive fly yovers for buses, tunnels, cycle track ks, footpaths s, subways a and foot over bridges for pede estrians, etc decide on the t various engineering e parameters like speed, r ridership, tra avel time and dela ay in the cor rridor. It is observed o from the literat ture that the average sch heduled spee ed of the buses in n the corridor rs is very hig gh as much as a 80 kmph in Adelaide and averagin ng about 60 kmph in Brisbane e and a subs stantial speed d of 35 kmp ph in Sydney y. The main reason for th his high spee ed is due to the pr resence of hi igh infrastruc ctural facilitie es in these BRT corridors s. Adelaide B BRT system consist c of 25 bridg ges, 8 pedest trian overpa asses and 60 m tunnel lik kewise the Brisbane B syste em also con nsists of 8 tunnels of 1.6 km each e and few w bridges an nd viaducts of 1.6 km long. l The pr rovision of adequate a infrastru uctural faciliti ies in the BR RT corridor will w improve the t traffic flow w and speed d in the corrid dor.
Fig. 1: Inf fluence of Ev valuation Par rameters in BRT B Rating
Insti itute of Tran nsport and Development D t Policy (ITD DP) has done e the scoring g of BRT systems by consider ring five mai in categories s. They are service s plann ning, infrastru ucture, statio on design an nd station bus inte erface, qualit ty of service e and passe enger inform mation system ms and integ gration and success. These parameters p a further divided are d into sub parameters with each e of the parameter having h a maximu um score give en (ITDP, 20 012). There are 30 sub parameters p in n all. The ma aximum scor res given to each parameter when w added they t sum up p to 100. The e main five categories c an nd their perce entage in the total l score are gi ive in the Fig g. 1. It is observed that in nfrastructure in the BRT c corridor play ys a main role in sc coring a BRT T system with a weightag ge of 36%. Fig. F 1 shows the weightag ge of each ev valuation paramet ter. The summary of different infrastructur ral facilities that are pr rovided in the Delhi BRT B and Ahmeda abad BRT ar re summarize ed in the Tab ble 1 (Tiwari i,G and Deep pty 2010) . D Delhi BRT is an open BRT wh hile Ahmeda abad BRT is a closed BR RT. There ar re no specia al lanes for n non motorize ed traffic provide in Ahmedab bad while pro ovided in De elhi BRT corr ridor A critic cal evaluation n of the Delh hi BRTS and Ahmedabad BR RTS in term ms of traffic flo ows and speed profile co omparison is cited in next t section.
Table 1: Su ummary of In nfrastructural l Facilities of f Delhi BRTS S and Ahmad dabad BRTS
DELHI I AND AHM MEDABAD D BRTA COMPARI C SON Study Area A

Delhi BR RT corridor is i at present functional fr rom the junc ction of signa al-controlled Mehrauli - Badarpur B Road (n near Ambedk kar Nagar) an nd runs on J. J B. Tito Ma arg in South Delhi and u ultimately ter rminating before Mool M Chand Hospital Int tersection on n the Inner Ring R Road as s shown in F Figure 2. The e corridor infrastru ucture consis sted of single e median la anes for buse es with physical segrega ation integra ated with double platform p bus s stops locate ed close to the intersections. This inc cluded provi ision of two lanes for other motorized traff ffic coupled with w the prov vision of cyc cle tracks and d sidewalks on both dire ections of travel. At A mid block k section, it becomes b two o lanes for motor m vehicle es (MV) and d one lane fo or bus in each dir rection. The total t length of o the corrido or is 5.8 Km and became e operational on April 20 0th 2008.
Role of Bu us Rapid Transi it System in Pro omoting Sustain nable Transporta ation 545
Fig. 2: BRT T corridor in n Delhi City
A pa art of corrido or on the Ah hmadabad BRT B corridor r (called as 120 1 Feet circ cular road from Dani Limda to o Darpan Ci ircle), spanni ing a length of 8.92 km stretch s has been b selected d for comparison with Delhi BR RT. The corr ridor has bee en selected st trategically so s as to inclu ude both BRT T and Non BRT B road sections for compar rison. The section s from Dani Limd da to Nehru Nagar falls s under BRT T section spanning 5.72 Km lo ong and cate ering to two major inters sections nam mely Dani Lim mda and An njali Char Rasta Ju unction. On the other hand, h the no on-BRT section starts fro om Nehru N Nagar and ending e at Darpan circle measu uring about 3.2 km. Thi is section too o consists of f two major intersections s namely Panjarpo ole and Vija ay Char Ra asta. Figure 3 presents the typical BRT and N Non BRT co orridor in Ahmada abad city. Th he width of carriageway of o Mixed Veh hicle (MV) la ane on BRT s section is abo out 10 m whereas s the width of o the BRT section is ap pproximately y 9 m. It ma ay be noted that in Ahm madabad there is no n exclusive lane provided for NMT.
F Fig. 3: Typica al BRT and Non N BRT Cor rridor on Ahm madabad Cit ty
DATA COLLECTION Traffic Volume Data

Classified traffic volume count survey was conducted at all intersection on both the Delhi and Ahmedabad study area and these studies were conducted spanning for 16 hours (starting from 6:00 AM to 10:00 PM) using the standard Proforma. Further, the Passenger Car Unit (PCU) factor applied in this study to estimate vehicular volume in PCU (CRRI Study 2012 and CRRI BRT Study Report 2012).
Speed and Delay Data

Speed and Delay surveys were conducted using Probe Vehicle method by fitting Global Positioning System (GPS) was deployed to conduct this survey during different time periods of the day so as to account for the peak and inter-peak hour traffic separately. This survey was conducted for the measurement of speed and time data logging.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Comparison of Traffic Flow

A summary of the 16 hour traffic flows observed at the three intersections falling on the Ahmedabad study corridor are presented in Table 2. The hourly classified traffic volume data was analyzed and peak hour flows has been estimated both in terms of vehicles/hour and PCUs/hour. The observed peak hour traffic volume at the above four intersections are analyzed and presented in Table 3. Further, the average traffic composition on BRT Corridor and Non BRT corridors are estimated and presented in Figure 4.
Table 2: Total Traffic Volume and Composition at Typical Intersections on BRT and Non BRT Section in Ahmadabad (Ref: CRRI Study 2012)
Table 3: Peak Hour Traffic Volume Characteristics at Intersection on Typical BRT and Non-BRT Roads Sections in Ahmadabad (Ref: CRRI Study, May 2012)
Name of the Intersection Dani Limda-on BRT Section Panjarpole Char Rasta - on Non-BRT Section Vijay Char Rasta - on Non BRT Section Peak Hour Volume in Vehicles 8132 8856 8821 Peak Hour Volume in PCUs 9418 9032 8915
The following inferences have been drawn from the above Tables and Fig. 1. It can be observed that the intersection located on BRT sections caters to around 90,000 PCUs whereas on Non BRT Section the traffic flow is around 1,00,000 PCUs. 2. Peak hour traffic volume is about 9,400 PCUs on BRT section whereas in the case of Non-BRT section it is around 8,850 PCUs on Non BRT sections in Ahmadabad (Refer Table 3). 3. The average compositions of traffic on BRT and Non BRT sections are presented in Figure 4 and the following inferences are arrived:
Role of Bus Rapid Transit System in Promoting Sustainable Transportation 547
4. Car composition is about 10% high on Ahmedabad Non-BRT sections as compared to Ahmedabad BRT section whereas the share of autos is about 6% high on BRT sections than Non-BRT section. This may be due to insufficient feeder system on BRT sections. 5. Average Bus composition on Ahmedabad BRT section is about 3% and whereas Ahmedabad non BRT section the share is about 1.5%. 6. Two wheelers are comparatively high on Ahmedabad Non BRT Sections, by about 10%.
(a) Composition on BRT Section
(b) Composition on Non-BRT Section
Fig. 4: Average Traffic Compositions on Typical BRT and Non-BRT Sections in Ahmadabad (CRRI Study, May 2012)
Thereafter, the observed traffic flows of typical intersections on Delhi BRT section has been compared with typical four arm intersection on Ahmadabad BRT Section (Refer Table 4). Average traffic composition observed on typical Delhi BRT and Ahmadabad BRT sections are compared and presented in Fig. 5 and the following observations are drawn from the above tables:
Table 4: Peak Hour Traffic Volume on BRT Sections in Delhi and Ahmadabad
S. No. A 1 2 3 B 1 Name of the Intersection Total Volume in PCUs Four arm Intersection on Delhi BRT Section Pushpa Bhawan 120719 Chirag Delhi 152358 Siri Fort Junction 79866 Four Arm Intersections on Ahmadabad BRT Section Dani Limda - on BRT Section 90177 Peak Hour Volume in PCUs 9639 12272 7575 9418
Fig. 5: Average Traffic Composition on Delhi BRT and Ahmadabad BRT Sections
1. It is observed that Dani Limda Intersection on BRT section of Ahmadabad handles comparatively less traffic loads than that of Chirag Delhi intersection and Pushpa Bhavan Intersections located on the Delhi BRT section. 2. It was observed that the proportion of car is almost 1.5 times on the MV lane of Delhi BRT. Obviously, this high composition of car traffic on Delhi BRT is contributing to lower journey speeds as the width of the available MV lane is only (78m) on either direction of travel. The above road width is shared by other vehicle types including two wheelers accounting for about 35 % on Delhi BRT. 3. The share of two wheelers is comparable on both the BRT corridors whereas proportion of autos is somewhat higher on Ahmadabad BRT. The argument in terms of auto riders showing reluctance to travel on Delhi BRT corridor observed during the user perception survey. 4. The proportion of Slow Moving Vehicles is significantly higher (7%) on Delhi BRT section as compared to Ahmadabad BRT as the former serves the needs of large strata of Economically Weaker Section / Low Income Group of commuters emerging from Madangir and other adjoining localities. Hence the provision of exclusive NMT on the Delhi BRT is fully justified. 5. Similarly, the share of goods vehicle is substantially high on the Ahmadabad BRT as it caters to some proportion of the goods traffic entering and exiting the city. In the case of Delhi BRT, limited proportion of goods traffic is only witnessed during the night hours and that too when the BRT operations are suspended between 11:00 pm to 05:00 am every day. During the remaining part of the day, the entry of goods traffic is obviously restricted in to the city.
Comparison of Speed and Delay

Speed and delay survey was conducted on the study corridor through Moving Car using V-BOX on normal working days covering morning and evening hours on the Ahmadabad BRT and Non-BRT sections as well. Various runs were carried out during the entire day on the study corridor for examining the speed characteristics on study corridors. Eventually, comparison of the speed and delay data collected for a typical day on BRT and Non-BRT sections were first estimated covering Ahmadabad BRT and Non-BRT sections and presented in Table 5. 1. It was observed that difference in journey speeds on BRT section versus Non-BRT section in Ahmedabad is very insignificant. 2. Also it was observed that there is not much variation in travel time during morning, afternoon and evening hours on BRT sections and average travel time per kilometre on BRT sections is about 2.1 minutes whereas average travel time per kilometre on Non BRT sections varies from 2 minutes to 3.3 minutes. This variation in travel time is mainly due to higher car composition on non BRT corridor,(BRT 18% and Non BRT Sections 28%).
Table 5: Speed and Delay on a Typical Part of the BRT and Non-BRT Corridor in Ahmadabad (Ref: CRRI Study 2012)
Time Period Travel Time Delay (min) (Sec) Test Car BRT Section - 5.72km 12.23 120 Non-BRT Section - 3.2 km 4.94 0 BRT Section-5.72km 11.15 11.2 Non-BRT Section-3.2 km 7.64 101.2 BRT Section-5.72km 11.89 68.6 Non-BRT Section-3.2 km 10.06 232.4 Location Average Running Speed (kmph) 35.6 38.4 33.4 32.0 28.8 30.6 Average Journey Speed (kmph) 33.5 38.4 33.0 25.9 26.0 22.6
8:00 am - 9.00 am 4:00 pm - 5:00 pm 8:00 pm - 9:00 pm
A critical comparison of Speed and Delay characteristics of Delhi BRT versus Ahmadabad BRT is presented across car and bus in Table 6 and 7.
Role of Bus Rapid Transit System in Promoting Sustainable Transportation 549
Table 6: Comparison of Speed and Delay for Test Car on Delhi BRT Versus Ahmedabad BRT During Week Day
Time Period 8:00AM-9.00AM 4:00PM-5:00PM 8:00PM-9:00PM Location Delhi BRT Section: 5.8km Ahmedabad BRT Section: 5.72Km Delhi BRT Section: 5.8km Ahmedabad BRT Section: 5.72Km Delhi BRT Section: 5.8km Ahmedabad BRT Section: 5.72Km Travel Time (min) 13.60 12.23 39.20 11.15 28.67 11.89 Delay (Sec) 131.80 120.00 1361.00 11.20 965.50 68.60 Average Running speed (kmph) 30.0 33.50 20.80 33.36 27.90 30.84 Average Journey Speed ( kmph) 25.20 28.10 8.70 31.99 12.20 28.55
Table 7: Comparison of BRT Bus Speed on Delhi BRT Versus Ahmadabad BRT
Time Location Period Typical Delhi BRT Section: 5.8km Day Ahmedabad BRT Section: 5.72Km *Reference CEPT Ahmedabad Travel Time (min) 31.3 NA Delay (Sec) 746 NA Average Running Speed (kmph) 18.36 NA Average Journey Speed (kmph) 11.0 24.0*
1. It was observed that the length of BRT section in Delhi and Ahmadabad are almost comparable. However, on Delhi BRT, there is huge variation in journey time and the associated reduction in speeds through different time periods of the day. This increased journey time on the Delhi BRT corridor resulting in reduced speeds of buses (despite the provision of exclusive lane in the form of BRT) may be primarily attributed to the traffic congestion at the intersection because of the over saturated status at most of the intersections. 2. The travel time of cars on MV lane on both the BRT corridors is almost the same during morning hours spanning only about 13 minutes whereas the average running speed (30 kmph) and journey speeds (25 and 28 kmph) are also comparable. 3. However, during the evening hours, very high travel time was observed on Delhi BRT corridor extending up to 33.0 mins. This is to a large extent due to the insufficient road width available on MV Lane (7-8 m) as against the 10 m width available for each direction of travel before BRT in April 2008), coupled with operation of the signal under manual mode during the peak hours due to the over saturated status. 4. At the same time, there is insignificant variation in travel time on Ahmedabad BRT corridor during the entire day on the MV lane. From this observed data, it can be inferred that the travel time reliability is more on Ahmadabad BRT than the Delhi BRT section spread over different time periods of the day. 5. Since the Ahmadabad BRTS is a closed system, the commercial travel speeds are much higher. 6. The bus composition on BRT sections is about 3% of total traffic and the observed average speed of Buses on BRT section varies between 22 to 25 Kmph (CEPT Ahmedabad). At the same time, the speed of buses on Ahmadabad BRTS is much higher than that of Delhi BRTS. This clearly highlights the fact that the Ahmadabad BRTS has deserved to get the silver rating in the recent ITDP study (May, 2012).
CONCLUSION
1. The proportion of car is almost 1.5 times on the MV lane of Delhi BRT. This high composition of car traffic on Delhi BRT is contributing to lower journey speeds as the width of the available MV lane is only (78m) on either direction of travel. The above road width is also shared by other vehicle types including two wheelers accounting for about 35 % on Delhi BRT. 2. The proportion of Slow Moving Vehicles is significantly higher (7%) on Delhi BRT section as compared to Ahmadabad BRT as the former serves the needs of large strata of Economically Weaker Section (EWS) / Low Income Group (LIG) of cyclists emerging from Madangir and other adjoining localities. Hence, the provision of exclusive NMT on the Delhi BRT is fully justified.
3. The travel time of cars on MV lane on both the BRT corridors is almost the same during morning hours spanning only about 13 minutes whereas the average running speed (30 kmph) and journey speeds (25 and 28 kmph) are also comparable. However, during the evening hours, very high travel time was observed on Delhi BRT corridor extending up to 33.0 mins. This is to a large extent due to the insufficient road width available on MV Lane (7-8 m) as against the 10 m width available for each direction of travel before BRT in April 2008), coupled with operation of the signal under manual mode during the peak hours due to the over saturated status. 4. Since the Ahmadabad BRTS is a closed system, the commercial travel speeds are much higher. The bus composition is about 3% of total traffic in both the cases, the observed average speed of Buses on Ahmadabad BRT section varies between 22 to 25 Kmph (CEPT Ahmedabad) which is much higher than that of Delhi BRTS (13-15 kmph)
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors acknowledge the Director, S.Gangopadhayay, CSIR-CRRI, New Delhi for his kind permission to publish the paper in the proceedings of Twenty-Eighth national convention of civil engineers and National Seminar on Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development organized by Institute of Engineers on Oct 12th 14th 2012.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] Cristian Canales et al. (2006), Public transport policies in Europe: implementing bus rapid transit systems in major European cities. Association for European Transport. European transport conference. CEPT Report (2006) Detailed Project Report for Ahmedabad Bus Rapid Transit System, AMC, Ahmedabad CSIR-Central Road Research Report (2012) Traffic Studies for Junction Improvement of Major Road Corridors in Ahmedabad CSIR-Central Road Research Report (2012) Evaluating Bus Raid Transit (BRT) Corridor Performance from Ambedekar Nagar to Moolchand, Delhi Dario Hidalgo (2009), Bus Rapid Transit in Asia: from Quantity to Quality, Washington D.C., TRB Annual Meeting. Gerhard Menckhoff (2005) Latin American Experience With Bus Rapid Transit, Urban Transport Consultant, World Bank Annual MeetingInstitute of Transportation Engineers Melbourne, Australia. Graham Currie (2006) Bus Rapid Transit in Australasia: Performance, Lessons Learned and Futures, BRT special edition journal of public transportation. Infrastructure Development Finance Company Limited September (2008). New Initiative- Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS). Policy Group Quarterly.web document downloaded from http://www.idfc.com/pdf/publications/policy_group_quarterly_1.pdf ITDP Report (2012) on The BRT Standard, web document downloaded from http://www.itdp.org/documents/ Jeff Kenworthy et. al. (2002) Transport and Urban Form in Chinese Cities. An International Comparative and Policy Perspective with Implications for Sustainable Urban Transport in China Web document down loaded from Www.Nsl.Ethz.Ch/Index.Php/Content/Download/429/2783/File Levinson Herbert et. al (2003), Bus Rapid Transit, Volume 1: Case Studies in Bus Rapid Transit, TCRP Report 90,Washington, D.C.: Transportation Research Board. Levinson Herbert et. al. (2007), Bus Rapid Transit, Volume 2: Case Studies in Bus Rapid Transit, TCRP Report 90,Washington, D.C.: Transportation Research Board. Levinson Herbert et.al (2007), Bus Rapid Transit Practitioners Guide, TCRP Report 118, Washington D.C.: Transportation Research Board. Tiwari G and Deepty (2010) TRIPP Report on BRT projects in Indian cities, New Delhi, Delhi: Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. Weinstock A et. al.(2011) ITDP Report on Recapturing global leadership in Bus Rapid Transit: A survey of select U.S. cities, web document downloaded from http://www.itdp.org/documents Wright et. al. (2005), Climate Change Mitigation and Transport in Developing Nations. Transport Reviews 25 (6):691-717.
Prioritization of Maintenance and Rehabilitation Strategy for Multilane Highways

Kunal Jain1, S.S. Jain2 and M.P.S. Chauhan3
Scholar, CED, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; erkunaljain@gmail.com CED, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; profssjain@gmail.com 3Associate Professor, CED, G.B. Pant Engineering College, Pauri, India; drmpschauhan@gmail.com
AbstractIncreasing traffic growth and axle loadings lead to road deterioration considerably. Many road agencies realized the benefits of having a decision support system that helps them to find costeffective strategies for maintaining their pavements in good condition. The objective of this study is to present a management strategy involving network of multilane highways towards making logical decisions about allocation of funds and other decisions while considering the roads priority wise. Study involves the establishment of data base management on multilane highways of India. One National Highway (NH24: GhaziabadHapur: 40KM length) was considered for this study. For the present study, only flexible pavements are taken into consideration. It is expected that the information contained in this paper would be useful for developing priority ranking for maintenance management strategies for multilane highways in India. In this paper, the project analysis option of HDM-4 (Highway Development & Management) software tool developed by World Bank is used for arriving at optimum maintenance strategy based on various interventions and prioritizing the maintenance needs for Multilane Highways. Keywords: Prioritization, Maintenance and Rehabilitation Strategy and Multilane Highways
INTRODUCTION
Prioritization of pavement sections for M & R strategy is one of the prime components of PMS, especially in case of budget constraints. Prioritization of maintenance needs can be done by different methods based on economic criteria, composite priority index, Fuzzy-MCDM, neural networks, etc. Fwa, T.F. et al. (1993) analyzed the applications of back-propagation neural networks with three different priority schemes for deciding the priority rating of highway maintenance. Andres et.al. (1994) carried out the network-level prioritization of pavement improvements for small & medium sized communities. It was based on computer-modeled scenarios that employed weighted costeffectiveness a prioritization index. Jain, S.S. et al. (1996) had assessed the priorities for M & R of highway sections based on importance of road, characteristic deflection, road condition and investment needs for M & R. The conventional practice of economic analysis of pavement strategies does not consider the differences in pavement performance levels among the alternatives analyzed (Fwa and Sinha, 1991). Aggarwal, S. et al. (2004) developed PMS for Indian National Highways were the highway sections have been prioritized on the basis of decreasing NPV/cost ratio. Sandra, A.K. et al. (2007), proposed the Fuzzy Multi Criteria Decision Making (FMCDM) to work out the priority index based on the expert opinion survey to quantify the influence of pavement distress extent and severity on the functional condition of the pavement. Jain,K. et al. (2011) suggested decision tree approach to select maintenance treatment. This paper prepares the database required for development of PMS for a road network using HDM-4. The prioritization of various road links has been done based on Net Present Value (NPV), higher the NPV higher the priority (MORT&H 2004). Different maintenance work standards with varying intervention criterias have been adopted for prioritizing the maintenance decisions.
OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The objective of the study is to prioritize the urgency of maintenance needs for the different road sections of the study area. The scope of work comprises the following: Field studies and data collection. Preparing the input files for HDM-4 analysis. To prioritize the maintenance needs based on the Net Present Value (NPV) method used for economic evaluation of each project link/road.
SELECTED STUDY AREA

The study area consists of National Highway (NH 24 GhaziabadHapur). National Highway was divided into 8 sub-sections. The sub-sections so divided are quite homogeneous within themselves as far as climatic and geometric conditions are considered but vary considerably from each other in traffic characteristics and pavement surface conditions. All the selected pavement sections have been assigned unique Section ID and a Section Name for ease in identification and for input to HDM 4, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Selected Pavement Sections
S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Road Section National Highway 24 : Ghaziabad to Hapur (Total Length=40.0 KM) Section ID NH-2401 NH-2402 NH-2403 NH-2404 NH-2405 NH-2406 NH-2407 NH-2408 Section Name Km Stone Delhi 11.0 km to 16.0 km Km Stone Delhi 16.0 km to 21.0 km Km Stone Delhi 21.0 km to 26.0 km Km Stone Delhi 26.0 km to 31.0 km Km Stone Delhi 31.0 km to 36.0 km Km Stone Delhi 36.0 km to 41.0 km Km Stone Delhi 41.0 km to 46.0 km Km Stone Delhi 46.0 km to 51.0 km Length (Km) 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 Width (m) 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0
DEFINING HDM 4 INPUT PARAMETERS

The data collected by conducting different surveys and making various measurements, were processed and made compatible as per input requirements for HDM-4. Various parameters defined in input file are as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Road Network Input Parameters for HDM 4
Road Basic Details Speed Flow Type Traffic Flow Pattern Road Class Climatic Zone Pavement Type MT AADT NMT AADT Road Condition Data Roughness (mm/km) Total Cracking Area Raveling Area (%) Potholes (no./km) Edge Break (sq.m/km) Rut Depth (mm) Drainage Condition Road History Material Type Current Surface Thickness (mm) Base Thickness (mm) Last reconstruction or new construction Year Last Rehabilitation (Overlay) Year Last Resurfacing (Resealing) Year Last Preventative treatment Year Geometric Details Rise + Fall (m/km) No. of Rises & Falls / km Horizontal Curvature (Deg/km) Super elevation % Speed Limit (km/h) Drain Type Road Length (m) & Width (m)
Traffic Volume
The priority for the maintenance of the road will not only depend upon the condition of the road but also on traffic volume and some special factor like category of road, importance of the road etc. The total traffic in terms of AADT, initial composition of various vehicles for the selected pavement sections has been used for the analysis in HDM-4. The annual growth rate of each type of vehicles has been taken from the Road Development Plan: 2021 (MORT&H 2001)
Prioritization of Maintenance and Rehabilitation Strategy for Multilane Highways 553
Functional Evaluation of Pavement

Functional Evaluation is the collection of road data pertinent to surface distress like crack area, pothole area with depth, raveled area, rut depth, surface roughness. The type and extent of distress developed at the surface were observed, based on visual condition survey. It was also measured in quantitative term. The information on the drainage conditions for the existing side drains was also observed. The riding quality of pavement was measured in terms of roughness for all the 8 sections by duly calibrated towed Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator (FWBI) which is a response type Fig. 1: A View of Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator road roughness measurement device. The Measuring Surface Roughness functional evaluation is carried out in such a manner that data will be suitable for analysis of HDM-4 models in the present study. Figure 1 shows the working of Fifth wheel bump integrator on road while collecting the roughness data.
Structural Evaluation by Benkelman Beam Deflection Method

The magnitude of pavement rebound deflection is an indicator of the ability of the pavement to withstand traffic loading. Higher the rebound deflection, poor is the structural capacity and performance. To assess the structural condition of 8 sections selected for detailed investigations, Benkelman Beam rebound deflection method has been used which is a non destructive method. The deflection measurements were taken as per the procedure laid down in IRC: 81(1997).
INTERVENTION CRITERIA FOR MAINTENANCE OF PRIMARY ROADS

The main objective of a pavement maintenance management system is to provide a scientific tool to maintain roads at desired serviceability levels. Since pavements deteriorate with time, it is necessary to maintain/rehabilitate them to provide minimum desired service to its user and save the valuable assets. The Indian guidelines on pavements maintenance (MORT&H 2004) have suggested intervention criteria for primary, secondary and urban roads. Since the selected highway sections belong to primary roads category, the following interventions given in Table 3 are adopted for analysis.
Table 3: Intervention Levels for Primary Roads
S. No. Serviceability Indicator 1 Roughness by B.I (max. permissible) 2 Potholes per km (max. number) 3 Cracking and patching area (max. permissible) 4 Rutting20 mm (maximum permissible) 5 Skid Number (minimum desirable) Source: Mort & H 2004 Level 1 (Good) 2000 mm/km Nil 5 percent 5mm 50 SN Level 2 (Average) 3000 mm/km 23 10 percent 510 mm 40 SN Level 3 (Acceptable) 4000 mm/km 48 1015 percent 1020 mm 35 SN
M & R Alternative Adopted For Analysis

The following five M & R alternatives defined in Table 4 are considered in this study. The first alternative includes the basic routine maintenance for crack, pothole and ravel patching. It is considered as the Base Alternative for the analysis. Other alternatives include resealing with 25 mm SDBC, Overlay of 40 mm BC, Resealing with overlay of 40 mm BC and strengthening with Overlay of BC 40 mm upon DBM 50 mm. The serviceability level considered for this study is Level 1 (Good)
as the selected highways sections belong to highest serviceability level of the pavement groups. The intervention criterias for various alternatives are selected accordingly.
Table 4: Proposed M & R Alternative
S. N. Alternatives 1 Routine Maintenance Work Standard Routine Maintenance Description of Work Crack Repairs Ravel Patching Pothole Patching Shoulder Repair Resealing with 25mm SDBC Overlay of 40mm BC 25mm SDBC Reseal + Overlay of 40mm BC Overlay of 40mm BC + DBM 50 mm Intervention Criteria >5% >10% >=5% Structural Crack>=5% Damage Area >=5% IRI>=2.8 m/km IRI>=2.8m/km IRI>=2.8m/km
2 3 4 5
Alternative 1 Alternative 2 Alternative 3 Alternative 4
Resealing SDBC Thick Overlay Resealing & Overlay Strengthening
ADAPTATION OF HDM-4 MODEL TO INDIAN CONDITION

It is important that prior to using HDM-4, the system should be configured and calibrated for local use. Since HDM-4 has been designed to be used in a wide range of environments, calibration of HDM-4 provides the facility to customize system operation to reflect the norms that are customary in the environment under study.
Table 5: Deterioration Factors for Indian Condition
Model Description Cracking Initiation Model Cracking Progression Model Raveling Initiation Model Raveling Progression Model Pothole Initiation Model Pothole Progression Model Roughness Progression Model Rutting Progression Model Skid Resistance Progression Model Source: Aggarwal, et.al. 2004 HDM Range 020 020 020 020 020 020 020 020 020 HDM Default 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Adopted Calibration Factor Kcia=0.43 Kcpa=1.25 Kvi=0.37 Kvp=0.52 Kpi=0.45 Kpp=0.95 Kgp=0.85 Krst=1.0 Ksfc=1.0
ANALYSIS
The two methods incorporated in HDM-4 for budget optimization provided for road works programming and network strategic analysis are: Total enumeration and Incremental benefit/cost ranking [HDM-4 ManualVolume 2&4]. For prioritization of road sections the incremental NPV/Cost ratio has been employed as the ranking index. This provides an efficient and robust index for prioritization purposes. The incremental NPV/Cost ratio satisfies the objective of maximizing economic benefits for each additional unit of expenditure. The incremental NPV/Cost as modeled in HDM-4 is defined as follows:

(1)
Where, Eij=the incremental NPV/Cost ratio, NPVj=the net present value of the more expensive alternative j, NPVi=the net present value of the cheaper alternative i, costj=the economic cost of the more expensive alternative j, costi=the economic cost of the cheaper alternative i. Project analysis was carried out using HDM-4 software with various maintenance options as shown in Table 4. The optimum maintenance option was identified by considering the criteria of economic indicator, called NPV/ CAP ratio i.e. Net Present Value/ Present value of Agency Capital Costs. CAP is the investment cost for a particular M&R alternative incurred by the agency. A discount rate of 12% is currently adopted in India has been used for NPV calculation for a design life of 10 years. While running the analysis, Alternatives 1 to 3 are compared against the Base Alternative, and the pavement deterioration & M & R works reports are generated. The economic analysis summary
Prioritization of Maintenance and Rehabilitation Strategy for Multilane Highways 555
for NH-24 sections are given in Table 6. On the basis of the economic analysis summary the Alternative 2 has been selected as the optimum M & R strategy, having the maximum NPV/ Cost among other alternatives. For prioritization among number of road sections, the section with the highest NPV/ CAP is selected (MORT&H 2004). In other words higher the NPV/ CAP, higher the priority. The ranking of all 8 sections based on NPV/CAP value for maintenance needs are given in Table 7.
Table 6: Economic Analysis Summary for NH 24 Road Sections
Section ID NH-2401 NH-2402 NH-2403 NH-2404 NH-2405 NH-2406 NH-2407 NH-2408 Base Alternative NPV/CAP 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Alternative 1 NPV/CAP 8.041 11.554 10.353 11.031 7.236 9.822 12.819 6.844 Alternative 2 NPV/CAP 12.233 13.965 15.490 13.331 11.027 14.837 19.035 10.522 Alternative 3 NPV/CAP 11.675 13.250 14.719 12.681 10.595 13.969 17.929 10.125 Alternative 4 NPV/CAP 8.129 9.212 10.23 8.816 7.400 9.654 12.372 7.102
Table 7: Priority Ranking for NH 24 Sections

Section ID NH-2401 NH-2402 NH-2403 NH-2404 NH-2405 NH-2406 NH-2407 NH-2408 Optimum Alternative 2 NPV/ CAP 12.233 13.965 15.490 13.331 11.027 14.837 19.035 10.522 Priority Ranking 6 4 2 5 7 3 1 8
CONCLUSION
1. HDM-4 has emerged as a very powerful tool for developing various aspects of pavement maintenance management system at project level and network level. 2. Intervention levels of roughness for Primary roads as specified in MORT&H 2004 are adopted for analysis. 3. Maintenance treatment with 40 mm BC as an Overlay is found to be optimum for all selected 8 sections of NH-24. 4. All the 8 sections of National Highway (NH-24) network were prioritized based on NPV/ CAP ratio for the maintenance needs as shown in Table 7. In case of scarcity of funds, the criteria for selection of road section for maintenance will be as: higher the NPV/ CAP, higher the priority.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Andres, C.W. and Collura, J. (1994), Network-Level Prioritization of Local Pavement Improvements in Small and MediumSized Communities, Transportation Research Record 1455, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., pp. 13-21. Aggarwal, S., Jain, S.S. and Parida, M. (2004), Development of Pavement Management System for Indian National Highway Network, Journal of Indian Road Congress, Vol.65-2, pp 271-326. Fwa, T. F. and Chan, W. T. (1993), Priority Rating Highway Maintenance needs by Neural Networks , Journal of Transportation Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 119, No. 3, pp. 419-432. Fwa, T.F., and Sinha, K.C. (1991), Impact of Pavement Performance Consideration on Economic Evaluation of Pavement Strategies, Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Issue No. 1305, pp 215-223. Indian Roads Congress (1997), Guidelines for Strengthening of Flexible Road Pavements using Benkelman Beam Deflection Technique, IRC, New Delhi. Jain, S.S., Gupta, A.K., Khanna, S.K. and Dayanand. (1996), Development of Maintenance and Rehabilitation investment strategy for Flexible Pavements, Journal of Indian Roads Congress, Vol. 57-2, pp. 368-418.
556 Twenty-eighth NCCE & National Seminar on Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development [7] Kerali, H.R., McMullen, D., and Odoki, J.B. (2000), HDM-4 Applications Guide, HDM-4 Documentation Series, Volume-2, The World Road Association (PIARC), Paris, France. [8] MORT&H (2001) Road Development Plan Vision: 2021, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, Government of India, New Delhi. [9] MORT&H (2004), Guidelines for Maintenance of Primary, Secondary and Urban Roads, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, Government of India, New Delhi. [10] Naidu, S.S., Nanda, P.K., Pawan Kalla, Kanchan, P.K. and Sitaramanjaneyulu,K. (2005), Pavement Management Study for Urban Roads Using Software HDM-4A Case Study, Journal of Indian Road Congress, Vol.66-3, pp 641-699. [11] Sandra, A. K., Rao, V. R.V., Raju, K. S. and Sarkar, A. K. (2007), Prioritization of Pavement Stretches Using Fuzzy MCDM ApproachA Case Study, Journal of Advances in Soft Computing, Vol. 39, pp 265-278.
Applications of GIS in Enhancing Urban Pavement Maintenance Management System

Yogesh U. Shah1, S.S. Jain2, Devesh Tiwari3 and M.K. Jain4
1Research
Scholar, (CTRANS), Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee; yogeshfrombaroda@yahoo.co.in 2Professor in Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee 3Scientist E-II, Pavement Evaluation Division, CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi 4Asst. Professor in Department of Hydrology, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
AbstractIndia has a second largest road network in the world. Every year a huge amount of funds are allocated for the maintenance, rehabilitation and up gradation of these pavements. The life of an asset can be preserved and prolonged if adequate maintenance measures for pavements are undertaken well in time. In short, it is a way of getting the right money to the right place in the right time. Pavement Maintenance Management System (PMMS) is a set of tools or methods to assist decision makers in finding cost-effective strategies for providing, evaluating and maintaining pavements in serviceable condition. It involves collection of large data related to the existing condition of pavement and forming the database for it. Adding a technological element to (PMMS) can be a vital step in supporting and improving decision-making. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is one such tool for enhancing the use and presentation of the developed PMS for highway management authorities. This paper reviews the role of GIS in pavement management system. A case study of Noida Urban City is presented as an application of GIS for the urban pavement maintenance management system. Keywords: Urban pavement maintenance management system, Geographical information system
INTRODUCTION
A well-designed geographic information system (GIS) provides a platform on which all aspects of the UPMMS process can be built. A variety of spatially integrated data are important to pavement management decision making. GIS technology is shown to be the most logical way of relating these diverse, but relevant, data. The components include data collection, preliminary data analysis and interpretation, system assessment, determination of strategies, project identification and development, and project implementation. Each of these stages in the PMS process is enhanced by GIS technology. Looking at the PMS process in its entirety leads to the enumeration of a set of functions to be embedded in the GIS platform that is required for effective GIS/PMS. These functions include thematic mapping, a flexible data base editor, formula editing, statistics, charting, matrix manipulation, network generation, models and algorithms, and hooks to external procedures.
GIS CAPABILITIES
A GIS can be defined as a system of computer hardware, software, personnel, organizations, and business processes designed to support the capture, management, manipulation, analysis, modeling, and display of spatially referenced data for solving complex planning and management problems.
GIS Structure
A comprehensive GIS includes procedures for conducting the following activities (NCHRP 2004): 1. Data input, either from maps, aerial photographs, satellite images, surveys, or other sources; 2. Data storage, retrieval, and querying; 3. Data transformation, analysis, and modelling, and
4. Output generation, including maps, reports, and plans. A GIS contains two broad classifications of information, geocoded spatial data and attribute data. Geocoded spatial data define objects that have an orientation and relationship in two or threedimensional space. Attributes associated with a street segment might include its width, number of lanes, construction history, and pavement condition and traffic volumes as shown in Fig. 1. This attribute data is associated with a topologic object (point, line or polygon) that has a position somewhere on the surface of the earth. A well-designed GIS permits the integration of these data. The sophisticated database in a GIS has the ability to associate and manipulate diverse sets of spatially referenced data that have been geocoded to a common referencing system. The software can transform state plane coordinates and mile point data to latitude-longitude data and vice versa.
N
B C A
Route : B Section ID : UR 02 Length : 1.2 km LEGEND
Fig. 1: GIS Functional Scheme.
The PMMS database can be updated by integrating the new set of database and existing database by using Linear Referencing and Dynamic Segmentation.
PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM [PMMS]

Pavement Maintenance Management System is a planning tool that collects and monitors information on current pavement conditions, evaluates and prioritizes alternative maintenance, rehabilitation and reconstruction (repair) strategies. When properly implemented, it provides the necessary information for decision-makers to be well informed and to understand the long-term consequences of short-term budgeting decisions.
Working of PMMS
One of the main goals of a PMMS is to select the type of repair that is most cost-effective for the condition of each pavement. The selection is based upon the current condition of the pavement. The rate of pavement deterioration is a function of many factors including pavement type, subgrade soil, traffic, drainage, the environment and quality of construction. Engineering studies have determined that there are repair strategies for the different levels of pavement deterioration as shown in Fig. 2. As a pavement ages and the amount of deterioration increases, the strategy changes. When the pavement is in good condition, relatively inexpensive preventive maintenance treatments are costeffective. When the pavement reaches the end of its design life, expensive reconstruction will be necessary. The five general maintenance/repair strategies that should be considered for road surfaces are (i) Routine Maintenance (ii) Preventive Maintenance (iii) Deferred Maintenance (iv) Rehabilitation (v) Reconstruction.
Applications of GIS in Enhancing Urban Pavement Maintenance Management System 559
Fig. 2: Repair Strategy vs. Pavement Condition
Functions of PMMS
Following are various functions performed by PMMS (MORT&H 2004) (WSDOT 1994): i. Provides comprehensive database related to pavement condition, traffic level, construction, M&R histories, etc on selected road sections.
ii. Shows the current health (or condition) of the pavement network based on systematic and sound engineering procedures for obtaining objective pavement condition information. iii. To predict performance of pavements in future. iv. Define an estimated budget required to bring the total roadway network from its current condition to desired condition levels. v. To identify projects, in need of M&R and to establish priorities. vi. Identification of the type of maintenance and/or rehabilitation required. vii. Requirement of type and timing of future M&R.
viii. To minimise life-cycle costs or maximise benefits.
Components of PMMS Software Database

A road inventory, pavement condition survey and various repair strategies and options are fed into the PMMS Software Database. Fig. 3 shows the various components of PMMS Software. i. Road Inventory: The purpose of the road inventory is to define the physical characteristics for each road. This information is stored in road inventory files in the PMMS database.
ii. Pavement Condition Survey: The purpose of the condition survey is to determine the condition of each road segment based on pavement distresses. The condition survey is a critical part of pavement management, since specific distresses are very much related to certain causes of pavement deterioration. iii. Repair Strategies: Research has shown that when certain maintenance techniques are applied too early or too late, they are not cost-effective. For example, crack-sealing the roads that have extensive structural damage are not cost effective. Therefore, it is imperative that the correct repair alternative be selected for the specific condition of each road segment. This is accomplished using the established repair strategies in the software program.
3 Different Types of Data go into Program 1 ROAD INVENTORY: Segment Identification Width & Length of Section Surface Type Crust thickness Traffic Data Drainage conditions Road Class Geometric details Climatic condition Pavement construction/ rehabilitation history 2 PAVEMENT CONDITION DATA: 1. Functional Condition Roughness Deformation Corrugations Rutting Shoving Depressions Cracking Transverse cracking Longitudinal cracking Crocodile cracking Block cracks Surface Defects Polishing Ravelling Potholes Patching Edge Defects Edge break Edge drop 2. Structural Condition Deflection 3 REPAIR STRATEGIES: 1. Routine Maintenance Crack Seal Pothole Patching Skin Patching 2. Preventive Maintenance Chip Seal (Tar & chip) Micro-Surfacing Thin Overlays Levelling course 3. Defer Maintenance High Severity Pothole Patching 4. Rehabilitation Thick overlays Mill & Overlays Full depth patching 5. Reconstruction Cold in-place recycling Full depth reconstruction Full depth reclamation
3 Basic Components of Software
DATA BASE
DATA ANALYSIS: Identify potential repair alternatives for each segment Calculate the associated estimated repair costs Select the most cost-effective solution for each road segment Prioritize potential projects for budgeting
Fig. 3: Components of PMMS Software
INTEGRATING GIS AND PMMS

The coupling of appropriate geographical information system (GIS) technology with a standalone PMMS can result in an enriched PMMS. PMMS starts with network identification and goes through data collection, data analysis, maintenance priorities, maintenance decisions; and ends with supervision and follow-up. GIS starts with data entry and manipulation, thematic mapping, and ends with tailoring and decision support. GIS acts as the core for the integration process, through managing the different corresponding activities interaction (Abo-Hashema et al., 2006). The integration interface is a transition level that exists to ensure adequate compatibility of integration requirements. Fig. 4 shows the schematic representation of the methodology describing the integration between PMMS and GIS.
STUDIES ON GIS APPLICATIONS TO PMMS Studies Conducted in India

Successful experience of linking PMS and GIS has been reported by various Indian researchers like Yoagentharan et al. (2002) , Jain et al. (2003), Aggarwal (2003), Parida et al. (2005) and Niju (2006). Pratap et al. (2006) demonstrated the development and use of a PMS using a pavement attribute database in a GIS environment (Arc Info) to support the pavement management decision using several applications. The pavement evaluation of sections was done in two ways (i) based on calculation of PSI (ii) based on visual ratings and rut depths. Based on both the ratings the maintenance activities were suggested for the sections. Rao et al. (2006) presented the GIS based Maintenance Management System (GMMS) for major roads of Delhi. The pavement condition data as evaluated were attached to road network map of Delhi, prepared in GIS environment, for identification of reprehensive segments, as it simplifies the procedure for data management with its features for capturing, analyzing and spatial representation. Rao et al. (2007) used the Total Integration approach for development of GIS and GPS based Pavement Management System (PMS). Balkrishnan (2009) reviewed about a Road Information and Maintenance Management System for a part of Ooty region, in Tamil Nadu.
Studies Conducted in Abroad

Abkowitz (1990) addressed various considerations like highway management applications that can benefit from adaptation to GIS; key GIS concepts affecting highway transportation; and issues affecting GIS design and implementation within and between highway agencies. Osman et al. (1994), Lee et al. (1996), Rio et al. (1997), Al-Swailmi and Al-Mulhem (1998), Medina et al. (1999) coupled GIS technology & pavement management to decide better maintenance strategies, set rehabilitation priorities, and make investment decisions. Ferreira (2001) presented SIGPAV a GIS based PMS developed at the University of Coimbra (Portugal). Zhang et al. (2001) used a three-stage implementation concept to enhance the pavement management practice in the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT).Tsai (2004) demonstrated the successful implementation of oracle client/server & GIS based pavement management developed by Georgia Department of Transportation (GDOT) to improve 28,962 km of road network.. Abo-Hashema et al. (2006), ElMowafy et al. (2008), Elhadi, A.H.M. (2009) made an effort to integrate the technological concept of GIS and PMS activities, and made it more interpretable through dynamic colour coding and more sophisticated visualization techniques than the conventional tabular data format. Pantha et al. (2010) developed a Geographic Information Systems (GIS)-based maintenance model considering pavement and roadside slope stability conditions for major link to the capital city of Kathmandu, Nepal. Xie and Li (2010), Xie, F. (2010), Zhou (2010) illustrated the highway management system based on WebGIS.
PMMS PMMS Output Pavement Condition Indices Pavement Deterioration Models Maintenance & Rehabilitation Work Programmes Setting Maintenance Priorities Optimization of Resources Budget Scenarios
PMMS Input Network identification Network inventory Pavement Condition Evaluation Construction & Rehabilitation History Maintenance Activities Traffic & Axle load Data Test Pit Observations Subgrade Soil Properties
- Base Map & Updating using the SoI toposheets - Developed Digital Map of the entire Road Network - Identification of Study Roads
GIS Interface (Arc Map) (Geo-referencing, Digitization, Adding Attributes)
Integrated GPMMS
ANALYSIS MODULE Linear Referencing & Dynamic Segmentation- Spatial Data Model Data Access Tools Attribute Query Tools Spatial Operational Tools
OUTPUT MODULE Analysis Presentation & Reporting (Thematic Maps)
Pavement Distress Map Pavement Performance Evaluation Map Maintenance activities Priority Map
Fig. 4: Methodology for Integrating GIS with PMMS
ENHANCING URBAN PMMS USING GISA CASE STUDY

NOIDA (New Okhla Industrial Development Authority) is considered to be one of the more modern cities of Uttar Pradesh state of India, about 20-kilometre southeast of New Delhi. NOIDA over the past 25 years has emerged as a planned, integrated, modern residential city as well as industrial city that is well connected to Delhi. The study area consists for a major 21 arterial/sub-arterial road sections of Noida having 60km (120 km both sides) of total road length with four & six lanes divided carriageway. The details of the 21 road sections are given in Table 1. In order to develop the UPMMS for Noida, various field data viz. inventory studies, pavement functional and structural evaluation, traffic volume count, pavement history, pavement structure, subgrade soil properties, drainage conditions, geometric details, etc. were conducted. Functional distresses like cracking, rutting, potholes and raveling were measured on all sections. The riding quality was measured using fifth wheel bump integrator and converted to IRI (m/km). Deflection measurements were made on all the 21 urban sections and overlay design was done for the period of 10 years for all the sections as per IRC 81(2001). The integration of the developed UPMMS was done with GIS using ArcMap. The roadmap of Noida was scanned and geo-referenced in ERDAS. The road network was divided in three urban categories viz. arterial, sub-arterial, and collector for digitization and the selected 21 sections were marked as shown in Fig. 5. The data collected was attached as an attribute data to the selected sections. The thematic maps showing the roughness value, deflection and traffic volume were prepared as shown in Fig. 6, 7 and 8 respectively. The M&R alternatives provided for the 21 sections for 10 years design period are shown in Fig. 9.
Table 1: Details of Urban Road Sections Selected for Study Area
S. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Name of Road Express Highway Form Sector 14a To Mp-3 Road Mp Road No 1 (From Dnd To T. Pint Sector -12, 22 & 56) Mp Road No 2 (From Sector 16a To Sector 60) Mp Road No 3. (From Shahdra Drain To Sector 60) Udhyog Marg (Sector 14a T. Point To Jhundhupura) Raghunath Pur Agahpur Road (Mp-1 To Mp-3 Road) Nithari Road (Mp-2 To Dsc Road) Gihore Road (Khora Vill To Mp-3) Sector 62 Road Along Khoda Village Sector 62 Road Along NH-24 Sector 62 Rajat Vihar To Mamura Singh 60m Kakral Road Ph.- Ii 60m Road From Mahamaya Fly Over To Sector 97, 98 45m Road Wide Road From 93 A Fly Over To Punchsheel Inter College Sector91 45m Peripheral Road In Sector - 88 24m Wide Road In Sector 88 Road Bet Sector - 125-126 Road Bet Sector 126 127 45m Road Along Express Way To Sector 126, 127 Z.R. No 8 (From Jhundhupura To Mp-3) Z.R. Bet Sector 7 & 8 Section Code UR 01 UR 02 UR 03 UR 04 UR 05 UR 06 UR 07 UR 08 UR 09 UR 10 UR 11 UR 12 UR 13 UR 14 UR 15 UR 16 UR 17 UR 18 UR 19 UR 20 UR 21 Total No. of Lanes 6 6 6 6 4 4 6 6 4 4 4 6 6 6 4 4 4 4 6 4 4 Length in Meter 3800 3500 6000 7500 3200 2200 2400 3000 2200 2000 3300 1800 4000 2300 2500 3000 700 700 2000 3200 700
CONCLUSION
The concept of PMMS and features of GIS are briefly explained. The integration of PMMS with GIS can enrich the use of PMS and the methodology for integration is presented. The integration of PMMS with GIS helps in simplifying the whole procedure to understand and implement more effectively. It provides greater accessibility to the database, which can be shared by various planning and maintenance authorities. It gives a clear graphical display of results as well as coordination
between related activities. The developed database can be further supplemented with new information as and when it is available. So, the database keeps on updating, which is not possible to compile in one go. This paper also discusses various applications of GIS for improving the Pavement Management System and to make better decisions, adopted in India and Abroad.
Fig. 5: Study Area Showing Urban Road Network
Fig. 6: Section-Wise Variation of Roughness
A case study has been presented for the Noida urban city, where the pavement management system developed for urban roads have been integrated with GIS and presented in a graphical format through GIS applications. A spatial map of the Noida urban city (study area) has been created, which is comprised of various GIS themes, such as arterial roads, sub-arterial roads, collector roads, sectors, metro-line and selected study road sections. The field data collected is added as an attributes to the selected urban sections and can be retrieved, just by clicking on the desired urban section on the spatial map. The thematic maps for roughness, deflection and traffic volume on the selected sections is presented. Also the maintenance plan for 10 years has been displayed graphically using GIS. The graphical presentation of results may prove to be very useful in presenting the case to the decisionmakers for fund allocations for maintenance management of the highway network.
Fig. 7: Section-Wise Variation of Deflection
Fig. 8: Section-Wise Variation of Traffic
Fig. 9: Section-Wise Maintenance Alternatives
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Applications of GIS in Enhancing Urban Pavement Maintenance Management System 567 [19] Xie, F. (2010). Design and Implementation of Highway Management System Based WebGIS, Journal of Network, Finland, 5 (12), 1389-1392. [20] Yoagentharan, S. and Jayakumar, M.R. (2002). GIS database for Chennai City Roads and Strategies for Improvement, Proceedings of Conference of Map India, GIS Development, 13-18. [21] Zhang, Z., Smith, S.G. and Hudson, W.R. (2001). Geographic Information System Implementation Plan for Pavement Management Information System Texas Department of Transportation, Transportation Research Record, 1769, Transportation Research Board, 46-50. [22] Zhou, G., Wang, L. Wang, D. and Reichle, S. (2010). Integration of GIS and Data Mining Technology to Enhance the Pavement Management Decision Making, Journal of Transportation Engineering, ASCE, 136 (4), 332-341. [23] NCHRP (2004). Pavement Management Applications Using Geographic Information Systems, Report No.335, National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Transportation Research Board, Washington D.C. [24] MORT&H (2004). Guidelines for Maintenance of Primary, Secondary and Urban Roads, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, Government of India, New Delhi. [25] WSDOT (1994). A Guide for Local Agency Pavement Managers, Washington Department of Transportation, Olympia, USA.
Bayesian Methodology in Highway Crash Analysis

C. Naveen Kumar1, M. Parida2 and S.S. Jain3
Scholar, Department of Civil Engg., Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee; cnaveenkh@gmail.com of Civil Engineering & Head CTRANS, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee; mparida@gmail.com 3Professor of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee; profssjain@gmail.com
AbstractEngineers and researchers in the Transportation Discipline have tried to build safe roads abiding Design standards, but traffic accidents are unavoidable. Patterns involved in dangerous crashes could be detected if we develop accurate prediction models capable of accurate prediction of various traffic accidents. These accident patterns can be useful to develop traffic safety control policies. We believe that to obtain the greatest possible accident reduction effects with limited budgetary resources, it is important that measures be based on scientific and objective surveys of the causes of accidents and severity of injuries. Bayesian Inference methods have various advantages over conventional frequentist methods. It has the capacity to capture unobserved affecting variables on the system. Hence we emphasize here the application of this holistic method to the present more critical issue, road traffic crashes in Transportation systems.
INTRODUCTION
In statistics, there are two main views about how one should learn about the parameter values in a stochastic system: classical (also called conventional or frequentist) and Bayesian statistics. Bayesian statistics is, in fact, very old and was the dominating school of statistics for a long time. Indeed, the foundations of Bayesian statistics, the use of conditional probability for inference embodied in Bayes rule, were laid as early as 1763 by Thomas Bayes, an English minister and mathematician. In contrast, the foundations of classical statistics were not really laid until the first half of the twentieth century. Both classical and Bayesian statistics view data as the observed realizations of stochastic systems that contain one or several random processes. However, in classical statistics, the quantities used to describe these random processes (parameters) are fixed and unknown constants, whereas in Bayesian statistics, parameters are themselves viewed as unobserved realizations of random processes. In classical statistics, uncertainty is evaluated and described in terms of the frequency of hypothetical replicates, although these inferences are typically only described from knowledge of a single data set. Therefore, classical statistics is also called frequentist statistics. In Bayesian statistics, uncertainty is evaluated using the posterior distribution of a parameter, which is the conditional probability distribution of all unknown quantities (e.g., the parameters), given the data, the model, and what we knew about these quantities before conducting the analysis. In other words, classical and Bayesian statistics differ in their definition of probability. In classical statistics, probability is the relative frequency of a feature of observed data. In contrast, in Bayesian statistics, probability is used to express ones uncertainty about the likely magnitude of a parameter; no hypothetical replication of the data set is required. Under Bayesian inference, we fundamentally distinguish observable quantities x from unobservable quantities . Observables x are the data, whereas un-observables can be statistical parameters, missing data, miss-measured data, or future outcomes of the modeled system (predictions); they are all treated as random variables, i.e., quantities that can only be determined probabilistically. Because parameters are random variables under the Bayesian paradigm, we can make probabilistic statements about them, e.g., say things like the probability that this population is in decline is 24%. In contrast, under the classical view of statistics, such statements are impossible in principle because parameters are fixed and only the data are random.
Bayesian Methodology in Highway Crash Analysis 569
| of the data x as a function Central to both modes of inference is the sampling distribution of a model with its parameters . For instance, the sampling distribution for the total number of heads among 10 flips of a fair coin is the Binomial distribution with p= 0.5 and trial size N= 10. This is the distribution used to describe the effects of chance on the outcome of the random variable (here, sum | is used as a basis for inference. of heads). In much of classical statistics, the likelihood function The likelihood function is the same as the sampling distribution of the observed data x, but read in the opposite direction: That value , which yields the maximum of the likelihood function for the observed data x is taken as the best estimate for and is called the maximum likelihood estimate (MLE) of the parameter . That is, much of classical inference is based on the estimation of a single point that corresponds to the maximum of a function. Note that can be a scalar or a vector. The basis for Bayesian inference is Bayes rule, also called Bayes theorem, which is a simple result of conditional probability. Bayes rule describes the relationship between the two conditional | and | , where j is read as given: probabilities | | This equation is an undisputed fact and can be proven from simple axioms of probability. Bayes used it to derive the probability of the parameters , given the data x, that is, the posterior | : distribution | | | is proportional to the product of the likelihood We see that the posterior distribution | and the prior distribution of the parameter p (). To make this product a genuine function probability distribution function, with an integral equal to 1, a normalizing constant p(x) is needed as a denominator; this is the probability of observing ones particular data set x. Ignoring the denominator (which is just a constant and does not involve the unknowns ), Bayes, rule as applied in Bayesian statistics can be paraphrased as Posterior distribution Likelihood Prior distribution, where reads as is proportional to.Thus, Bayesian inference works by using the laws of probability to combine the information about parameter contained in the observed data x, as | , with what is known or assumed about the parameter quantified in the likelihood function before the data are collected or analyzed, i.e., the prior distribution p(). This results in a rigorous mathematical statement about the probability of parameter , given the data, the posterior | . distribution Hence, while classical statistics works by estimating a single point for a parameter (which is an unknown constant), Bayesian statistics makes inference about an entire distribution instead, because parameters are random variables described by a statistical distribution. A prior distribution does not necessarily imply a temporal priority; instead, it simply represents a specific assumption about a model parameter. Bayes rule tells us how to combine such an assumption about a parameter with our current observations into a logical, quantitative conclusion. The latter is represented by the posterior distribution of the parameter. The important point to remember with Bayesian probability is that when new data or facts become available, a revised posterior probability may be constructed. It is not fixed, and is accepted or rejected with a degree of belief. A second foremost criterion of the frequentist position relates to how probability is defined. In clear contrast to the method outlined above that is used to determine the posterior probability of a parameter, the frequentist defines probability in terms of the long-run expected frequency of events.
Typically the view is expressed as a ratio, i.e. the number of times event A occurs in N trials or opportunities. To the Bayesian, probability is a measure of the plausibility, or credibility, of an event occurring, given our incomplete knowledge of the data. Bayesian modeling methods are based on the notion that unknown parameters (e.g. means) have probability distributions. The distribution for a population mean is based on our prior belief about a mean prior to the subsequent information we gain from a given data situation. A Bayesian, therefore, interprets probabilities as the degree of belief we have in a given hypothesis or posterior quantity of interest. To the frequentist, the mean of a large population has a true value, but, based on a sample of the data, its value can only be estimated together with a certain confidence interval. The aim is to arrive at an unbiased estimate of the mean, which is generally understood as having a certain degree of probability. The Bayesians, on the other hand, argue that the mean is a random parameter having a certain distribution, e.g. Gaussian or normal. A credible interval is believed to surround the sample mean, but it is adjusted based on the particular data on hand, and as new information becomes available. The Bayesian can then assert that there is a 95% probability that the confidence interval contains the true mean. Technically, the frequentist cannot make such a statement. Frequentists must conclude that, given a very large number of samples from the data, each with a calculated confidence interval, 95% of them contain the true or population mean. Admittedly this is a rather convoluted way of expressing a confidence interval, and in reality most frequentists tend to use the Bayesian meaning of confidence interval when reporting results. Transferring the interpretation of a Bayesian credible interval to that of a frequentist confidence interval may appear to make more sense, but it is mistaken. The logic of Bayesian model estimation process, as outlined above, will be given in more detail in the next section. The key to differentiating Bayesian models from frequentist-based models is in how parameters are regarded. In frequentist methodology, an aim is to estimate the coefficients or parameter estimates of the predictors using IRLS, maximum likelihood, quadrature, or some similar method. In Bayesian methodology, parameters are considered to have a particular distribution, which is estimated based on our prior beliefs about it, as well as the predictor data. The mean or mode of the resultant posterior distribution of a parameter is referred to as the parameter of interest. When dealing with complex and multidimensional data, it is difficult to determine the mean or other parameter of interest of the posterior distribution. A Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) simulation method has been developed to have the software continually sample from the posterior until the posterior quantity of interest is available, with an acceptable degree of precision. A Markov chain, named after Russian mathematician Andrey Markov (18561922), steps through a series of random variables in which a given value is determined on the basis of the value of the previous element in the chain. A homogeneous chain is employed for the Bayesian modeling of members of the family of generalized linear models. The most basic type of homogeneous Markov chain has a state-space of [0, 1], and is regulated by a transition matrix which ideally runs until it reaches its limiting distribution. A state-space is merely a term that identifies the range of possible parameter () values, whether discrete or continuous. We shall discuss the transition matrix in more detail later in this Chapter. In any case, MCMC diagnostics are provided by standard Bayesian software advising users if convergence is achieved. The details are beyond the scope of this discussion, but can be found in most of the standard texts on the subject.
Table 1: Differences in Bayesian vs. Frequentist Approaches to Modeling Joseph M. Hilbe. (2011)
Item Starting Point Fixed Quantity Parameter Inference Parameter Estimate Fit Test Bayesian Prior Distribution Data Randomly Distributed Posterior Distribution Mean (or other) of Posterior DIC, HPD intervals, etc. Frequentist Presumed Ignorance Unknown Parameters Fixed Constant (log)likelihood; setting in advance ML estimate AIC, BIC, LR, etc.
MODELING METHODOLOGY Poisson-Gamma Model

The Poisson-Gamma model has the following model structure (Lord. D., 2006): the number of crashes Yit for a particular ith site and time period t when conditional on its mean distributed and independent over all sites and time periods.
it
is Poisson
Yit | it ~ Po(it ) i = 1,2,.....,I and t = 1,2,.....,T

The mean of the Poisson is structured as:
(1)
it = f ( X ; ) exp(eit )
where,
f (.) is a function of the covariates (X);
is a vector of unknown coefficients; and,
eit is the model error independent of all the covariates.

With this characteristic, it can be shown that
Yit , conditional on it and , is distributed as a
2 it , respectively. Poisson-Gamma random variable with a mean it and a variance it +
The probability density function (PDF) of the Poisson-Gamma structure described above is given by the following equation:
y y it + 1 it it f ( y it ; , it ) = 1 it + it +
where,
(2)
yit = response variable for observation i and time period t;
it = mean response for observation i and time period t; and,

= inverse dispersion parameter of the Poisson-Gamma distribution.
Note that if , the crash variance equals the crash mean and this model reverts back to the standard Poisson regression model. The term is usually defined as the "inverse dispersion parameter" of the Poisson-Gamma distribution. (Note: in the statistical and econometric literature, =1 / is usually defined as the dispersion parameter; in some published documents, the variable has also been defined as the over-dispersion parameter.). This term has traditionally been assumed to be fixed and a unique value applied to the entire dataset in the study. As discussed above, recent research in highway safety has shown that the dispersion parameter can potentially be dependent upon the covariates of the model and could vary from one observation to another (Lord, D. 2005 and Hauer, E. 1997). We have used the following Generalized Linear model functional form in both Frequentist and Hierarchical Bayesian analyses:
i i = exp (b0 + b1*Speedi + b2*(ADTi/10000) + b4*MedOpni + b5*SegTypi)*i i =
(3)
Goodness of Fit Statistics Likelihood Statistics

There are many measures that can be used for estimating how well the model fits the data. There are statistics for indicating the likelihood level of a model, that is, how well the model maximizes the likelihood function. Among these statistics are:
Akaike Information Criterion (AIC)

The AIC is another measure of fit that can be used to assess models. This measure also uses the loglikelihood, but add a penalizing term associated with the number of variables. It is well known that by adding variables, one can improve the fit of models. Thus, the AIC tries to balance the goodness-of-fit versus the inclusion of variables in the model. The AIC is computed as: AIC = -2ln (L) + 2 p (4) where p is the number of unknown parameters included in the model (this also includes the inverse dispersion parameter and random spatial effect fi ) and ln (L) is the log-likelihood. Smaller values are better.
Bayes Information Criterion (BIC)

Similar to the AIC, the BIC also employs a penalty term associated with the number of parameters (p) and the sample size (n). This measure is also known as the Schwarz Information Criterion. It is computed the following way: AIC = - 2ln L + p ln (n) Again, smaller values are better. (5)
Pearson Chi-Square
Another useful likelihood statistic is the Pearson Chi-square and is defined as (6)
Bayesian Model Selection-Deviance Information Criterion (DIC)

The DIC (Congdon, P. 2006 and Speigelhalter, D. 2003) set in WinBUGS was used as the criterion for comparing the different Bayesian hierarchical models, since the DIC includes a penalty for the complexity of the model. The DIC for the jth model is given by: 2 (7) = the deviance D of the parameters for model j, where at the posterior mean | , , given by the mean of the called Dhat in WinBUGS, = the expected devaiance sampled deviances D(t) from Markov Chain Monte Carlo simulations, also called Dbar in WinBUGS, and pDj = the effective number of parameters of the model, computed as the difference between and , namely, pDj = . In comparing two models, a difference of more than 10 in the value of the DIC might rule out the model with the higher DIC (Speigelhalter, D. 2003). Where the difference is less than 10, the models are competitive.
Model Error Estimates

There are statistics for estimating how well the model fit the data and the converse, how much error was in the model. Two error statistics are particularly useful.
Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD)

This criterion has been proposed by Oh et al. (Oh, J. 2003) to evaluate the fit of models. The Mean
Absolute Deviance (MAD) calculates the absolute difference between the estimated and observed values. | | (8) The model closer to zero value is considered to be best among all the available models.
Mean Squared Prediction Error (MSPE)

The Mean Squared Prediction Error (MSPE) is a traditional indicator of error and calculates the difference between the estimated and observed values squared. A value closer to 1 means the model fits the data better. (9)
DATA DESCRIPTION
The Highway traverses mainly through a plain terrain of mostly agricultural and Industrial areas. Most of the Highway study segment falls in rural areas (approximately 85%). The major urban areas falling in the selected study stretch are Meerut, Khatauli and Muzaffarnagar. The study has been done for newly constructed 4-Lane road between Km.75.00 to Km.130.00 to identify all safety deficiencies responsible for road accidents. The traffic data was collected from NHAI. The AADT for 2008 was 17810 and AADT for year 2011 is 27618 in PCU. Project details were also obtained from the highway agency. The National Highway-58 originates from national capital New Delhi and goes up to Mana, near China boarder in Uttrakhand state. It serves as a life line to the hilly part of the state. The road is strategically important as being the shortest route from Delhi to international China boarder. The highway has length of 536 Km of which 230 Km length in plain and rest in the hilly terrain. The highway connects important religious destinations which attracting tourist from all over the country and world throughout the year. The highway has two-lane and four-lane stretches. Traffics on the highway are mixed in nature and comprises of heavy and light vehicles. The study road section is newly upgraded four-lane divided National Highway and opened for traffic. This road stretch is the best suited to conduct post opening road safety study for divided four-lane National Highway. The main settlements along the NH are Siwaya, Daurala, Sakauti, Jarouda, Khatauli, Bhainsi, Mansurpur, Bengrajpur, Janshath Bypass, Bhopa, and Sisauna. Earlier the road was passed through three major cities Meerut, Khatauli and Muzaffarnagar but these settlements are now bypassed during reconstruction. The road level has been raised with respect to nearby area. Maximum access roads have level difference.
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS Data Description

With consideration given to variables applied in past models and data availability, data were obtained for estimating the crash prediction models. Accident records for one year from 2010 to 2011 were collected. Crash count (CC) per kilometre per year was taken as dependent variable in the prediction models. The safety parameters included for safety study were Geometric Characteristics like Median Type (MedTyp), Median Opening (MedOpn), Segment Type (SegTyp), Road Markings (RdMrkgs) and Traffic Characteristics like Average Daily Traffic (ADT) and Spot Speed (Speed).
Analysis of Results
Parameters like Median Type (MedTyp) and Road Markings (RdMrkgs) showed less correlation to independent variable Crash count (CC) and were more inter correlated, leading to the omission of these insignificant variables in the modeling. The parameter estimation and inference can be obtained by using Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) and software such as WinBUGS. Since the Bayesian formulation requires priors for all unknown parameters, non-informative normal priors for s and gamma priors for error terms. A total of two Markov chains were used in the coefficient estimation process. The G-R convergence statistic is generally used to verify that the simulation runs converged properly. For model comparison, it was suggested that convergence was achieved when the G-R statistic was less than 1.2 (Mitra, S. 2007). The first half of iterations (100,000) was used as burn-in samples and was discarded. Thus, the remaining half of the iterations was used for estimating the coefficients.
Table 2: Statistical Summary of the Crash Data for NH 58
N(Sample Size) Mean Variance Standard Deviation Minimum Maximum ADTby10K 56 2.3015 0.099 0.31498 1.84 2.77 Speed 56 60.15 17.089 4.134 52 65 SegTyp 56 1.98 1.000 1.000 1 3 MedOpn 56 0.59 0.428 0.654 0 2 CrashCount 56 2.5357 5.162 2.27208 0.00 8.00
Table 3: Parameter Estimates of Frequentist Poisson-Gamma Model

Parameter (Intercept) Speed ADTby10K MedOpn SegTyp B 1.917 0.010 -0.625 0.363 -0.236 Std. Error 3.1923 0.0379 0.5040 0.1734 0.1217 t-statistics 0.600507 0.263852 -1.24008 2.093426 -1.93919 Wald Chi-Square 0.360 0.076 1.539 4.394 3.772 Hypothesis Test df 1 1 1 1 1 Significance 0.548 0.783 0.215 0.036 0.052
The regression based test for over dispersion can determine the appropriateness of negative binomial regression models over Poisson regression models. As the nature of the data collected was over dispersed, a Poisson-Gamma probability model with log density function was an appropriate statistical count model fit to the data using SPSS software and the model outputs are shown in Tables 2 to 4. Table 2 gives the statistical summary of the variables selected to build the final models. The results in Table 2 revealed that for any subset of the independent variables, the crash count (CC) exhibits over dispersion as the variance is greater than mean. The Poisson-Gamma model parameter estimates are as given in Table 3. Major variable median openings (0.363, t-stat = 2.04) enhanced the probability of crash occurrence by effecting the through traffic movement. Model justifies that as speed increases probability of occurrence of crash increases. Land use has inverse effect on crash occurrence as agricultural land was dominant with clear views. Impact of segment type was negative as straight tangent sections were more and supported the actual site condition. Table 4 shows the goodness of fit for model with four covariates and a slope intercept term. Chisquare value of the model is lesser than the Critical chi-square value (26.315<67.505, Degree of Freedom (df) = 51). The log likelihood ratio test (lnL = -114.878) indicates the model is acceptable. Information Criterion tests (AIC=239.757, BIC=249.883) are also having smaller values, supporting the acceptance criterion of the model.
Table 4: Goodness of Fit for Frequentist PoissonGamma Model

Description Deviance Scaled Deviance Pearson Chi-Square Scaled Pearson Chi-Square Log Likelihooda,b Adjusted Log Likelihoodc Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC) Finite Sample Corrected AIC (AICC) Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) Consistent AIC (CAIC) Value 35.541 68.880 26.315 51.000 -114.878 -222.641 239.757 240.957 249.883 254.883 df 51 51 51 51 Value/df 0.697 0.516
Dependent Variable: Crash Count Model (Intercept), ADTby10K, Speed, SegTyp, MedOpn a. The full log likelihood function is displayed and used in computing information criteria. b. The log likelihood is based on a scale parameter fixed at 1. c. The adjusted log likelihood is based on an estimated scale parameter and is used in the model fitting omnibus test.
Table 5: Bayesian Estimate for PoissonGamma Hierarchical Model
Node Intercept (B0) Speed (B1) ADT (B2) MedOpn (B4) SegTyp (B5) Pearson Chi Square MAD MSPE DIC Mean 0.3649 0.02066 -0.457 0.3645 -0.2245 13.25 0.78 1.23 217.00 SD 3.217 0.03943 0.5464 0.2076 0.1342
d. Information criteria are in small-is-better form.
Poisson-Gamma hierarchical (PGH) model outputs are summarized in Table 5. PGH model gave nearly same parameter estimates for ADT, Median openings and Segment type as PG Frequentist model showing consistency of the models. From goodness of fit measures Pearson chi-square (PGH = 11.25) and MSPE (PGH = 1.04) values suggested the superiority of model fit by hierarchical Poisson-Gamma model on Frequentist technique.
CONCLUSION
This paper presents two approaches to analyze road traffic crashes on National Highways in India. As the obtained data was over dispersed, Poisson-Gamma by frequentist and Bayesian modeling techniques were efficiently used for the analysis of the data. After careful application and assessment of statistical model, accompanied by detailed examination of the road crash model, the following general conclusions are drawn. 1. Median opening has nearly same parameter estimates in both frequentist and Bayes PoissonGamma model. 2. The traffic flow is between level of service B and C, which might be giving negative impact on occurrence of crashes. 3. From the analysis, it has been observed that as speed increases the chances of crashes on highways will be more which is as per realistic experience.
The results of this study lead to support the superior data fit by Poisson-Gamma hierarchical Bayes model. There are scarce safety studies adopting this technique for crash analysis on Indian Highways. Examination of the modeling results suggests that explanatory variables like median openings and speed led to the occurrence of crash. Other variables like traffic volume, segment type and presence of agricultural land use reduces the possibility of crashes.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] Bolstad, W. M. Introduction to Bayesian Statistics., (2007). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Cheng, L., Geedipally, S, R., Lord, D. (2012). Examining the Poisson-Weibull Generalized Linear Model for Analyzing Crash Data. Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting 2012, Paper No. 12-2793. Congdon, P. Bayesian., (2006). Statistical Modeling, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Hauer, E. Observational., (1997). Before-After Studies in Road Safety: Estimating the Effect of Highway and Traffic Engineering Measures on Road Safety. Elsevier Science Ltd, Oxford. Jain, S.S. and Parida, M., (2001). Final Report on Development of a Scientific Approach to Road Safety for Indian Environment. Submitted to AICTE, New Delhi. Joseph M. Hilbe, (2011). Negative Binomial Regression, Second Edition, Cambridge University Press. Lord, D., (2006). Modeling Motor Vehicle Crashes Using Poisson-Gamma Models: Examining the Effects of Low Sample Mean Values and Small Sample Size on the Estimation of the Fixed Dispersion Parameter. Accident Analysis & Prevention, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp. 751-766. Lord, D., S.P. Washington, and J.N. Ivan., (2005). Poisson, Poisson-Gamma and Zero Inflated Regression Models of Motor Vehicle Crashes: Balancing Statistical Fit and Theory. Accident Analysis & Prevention, Vol. 37, No. 1, pp. 35-46. Lord, D., S.P. Washington and J.N Ivan., (2005). Poisson, Poisson-Gamma and Zero-inflated Regression Models of Motor Vehicle Crashes: Balancing Statistical Fit and Theory, Accident Analysis & Prevention Vol.37, No.1, pp.35-46. Lord, D. and Park, B. J., (2010). Appendix D-Negative Binomial Regression Models and Estimation Methods. In Crime Stat Version 3.3 Update Notes: Part 2: Regression Modeling, The National Institute of Justice, Washington, D.C. Maher, M and L. Mountain. The Sensitivity of Estimates of Regression to the Mean. Accident Analysis & Prevention, Vol. 41, No.4, 2009, pp.861-868. Miaou, S. P., and Lord, D. Modeling Traffic-Flow Relationships at Signalized Intersection: Dispersion Parameter, Functional Form, and Bayes versus Empirical Bayes. Transportation Research Record, No.1840, 2003, pp. 31-40. Mitra, S. and Washington, S. On The Nature of Over-Dispersion in Motor Vehicle Crash Prediction Models. Accident Analysis and Prevention 39(3), 2007, pp.459-468. Oh, J., C. Lyon, S. Washington, B. Persaud and J. Bared. Validation of FHWA Crash Models for Rural Intersections: Lessons Learned. Transportation Research Record: 1840, 2003, pp. 41-49. Parida, M., Jain, S.S., and Naveen Kumar, C., 2012. Road Traffic Crash Prediction on National Highways. Indian Highways Journal, Indian Road Congress, Vol. 40 (6), pp. 93-103. Raghavachari, M., A. Srinivasan and P. Sullo. Poisson Mixture Yield Models for Integrated Circuits: A Critical Review. Microelectronics Reliability, Vol.37, No.4, 1997, pp.565-580. Spiegelhalter, D., Thomas, A., Best, N., Lunn, D. WinBUGS Version 1.4 User Manual. MRC Biostatistics Unit, Cambridge, http://www.mrc-cam.ac.uk/bugs. 2003.
Genetic Algorithm for Transit Route Network Design

Amita Johar1, S.S. Jain2 and P.K. Garg3
1Research
Scholar, CTRANS, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; avamitamita@gmail.com CED, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; profssjain@gmail.com 3Professor, CED, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; india,pkgiitr@gmail.com
2Professor,
AbstractThe sustainable transportation system in our country needs a more efficient public transportation system. Many studies have been carried out to solve transit network design problems into routing and scheduling. Some of the studies made an attempt to solve network design problems using non-traditional optimization techniques but they were unable to develop an optimal transit route with minimum number of transfer. Therefore a most efficient optimization technique, Genetic Algorithm has been proposed to develop transit route network. Genetic Algorithms are evolutionary techniques that use crossover and mutation operators to solve optimization problems using a survival of the fittest idea. These algorithms have been successfully used in a variety of different applications, such as traveling salesman problem; transit routing, transit routing and scheduling problem, resource allocation, aircraft design and filter design. This paper systematically presents the work done by various authors on transit routing and scheduling problem using Genetic Algorithm. An iterative approach in the form of flowchart that uses Genetic Algorithm to develop a transit route network has been proposed. Keywords: Optimization, Genetic Algorithm, Transit Routing.
INTRODUCTION
In the recent years, it has been observed that the developing countries, like India, are facing problems due to inefficient coordination among public transport system. Therefore, it is important that public transport system should be efficient and designed to provide comfort to passengers. Among various modes of public transport, bus transit continues to take major part of public transport system owing to its flexibility and low cost of operation, especially in cities of developing countries. Therefore, effective design of transit routes and service frequencies can decrease the overall cost of providing transit service, which is generally comprised of user costs and operator costs. An efficient coordination of public transport system minimizes the waiting time as well transfer time of the passenger from one route to another. Various attempts have been made in the past to solve network design problems using non-traditional optimization techniques but these could not get success to develop an optimal transit route with minimum transfer. Therefore, most efficient optimization techniques Genetic Algorithm has been proposed to develop transit route network. In this paper an attempt is made to discuss the detail description of Genetic Algorithm. This paper also reviews the past work done by other in the area of transit route network design using Genetic Algorithm. Finally the paper discusses the tentative methodology which could be used to evolve optimal or near-optimal route sets from some starting route sets using the principles of Genetic Algorithms.
OVERVIEW OF GENETIC ALGORITHM

Genetic Algorithms, such as search optimization techniques are based on the mechanics of natural selection. In the real world, an organisms characteristics are encoded in its DNA. Genetic Algorithms store the characteristics of artificial organisms in a gene and its value is called allelic value, which mimics the DNA of natural life. The gene is nothing but a long string of bits. A bit is the smallest piece
of data that a computer can process. It can store only values, 0 or 1. A value of 1 means on and value of 0 means off. The basic mechanics of Genetic Algorithm are simple involving copying strings and swapping partial strings. The working principle of GAs is illustrated in the form of pseudo code in Fig 1.
Begin Initialize population of strings; Compute fitness of population; Repeat Reproduction; Crossover; Mutation; Compute fitness of population; Until (termination criteria); End.
Fig. 1: Simple GA Pseudo Code
The major steps involve in the GA implementation algorithm are generation of population, finding the objective function and fitness function, and application of genetic operator and evaluation of population. GA starts with population of randomly created string structure representing the decision variable. The size of the population depends upon the string length and problem being optimized. These strings are called chromosome in biological system. The strings are then evaluated. The evaluation procedure first requires decoding of decision variable from the string and then using the decoded values to calculate the objective function value, which is used as a measure of the "goodness" of the string. In GA terminology, the objective function value of a string is known as the "fitness" of the string. Once all strings are evaluated, three main genetic operators- reproduction, crossover, and mutation are used to create a new population. The steps describing the genetic operator are given below in brief.
Reproduction/ Selection
(Goldberg 1989, Michalewicz 1992) is a process in which individual is copied considering their fitness function values to make more copies of better string in a population. This represents a measure of the utility or goodness related to what we want to maximize. Copying strings according to their fitness function values means that string with a high value have higher probability of contribution to one or more off-spring in the next generation. In all selection schemes the essential idea is to pick strings with more than average fitness value from current population and their multiple copies are inserted in the mating pool in a probabilistic manner. The most commonly selection operator are uniform random selection, roulette selection and tournament selection. The former selects member of pool at random, ignoring fitness or other factors. Thus the chromosome is likely to be selected. The simplest way to implement the reproduction operator is to create a biased roulette wheel where each string in the current population has a slot sized proportionally to its fitness function value. Reproduction probability =
(1)
Where, n = Population size, Fi = fitness value of i string.
Genetic Algorithm for Transit Route Network Design 579
Crossover
(Goldberg 1989) after reproduction, crossover is applied to the string of mating pool. A crossover is used to combine two strings with the hope of creating better string. It can performed with the probability (Pc ) to restrict some of the good string found previously. Two strings are chosen at random for crossover. The most commonly used crossover operators are single point crossover, double point crossover. A crossing site (represented by vertical line) is chosen at random. The contents in the right side of the crossing side are swapped between the strings. The essential idea of crossover is to exchange bits between two good strings to obtain a string that is generally better than the parent. For example, a single point crossover on five bit string is shown in Fig 2.
Selected Strings Single Point Crossover New Strings
1 0 0 10
10010
10001
11001
11001
11010
Fig. 2: Crossover Operator
Mutation
(Goldberg 1989, Michalewicz 1992) adds new information in a random way to genetic search process and prevent an irrecoverable loss of potentially useful information which reproduction and crossover can cause. It operates at bit level, when bits are copied from current string to new string. Mutation operates with a very small mutation probability (pm). It introduces the diversity in the population whenever the population trends to become homogeneous due to iterative use of reproduction and crossover. A coin toss mechanism is used; if a random number between 0 and 1 is less than the mutation probability, then bit is inverted 0 become 1 and 1 become 0. There are different type of mutation operator flip-bit, boundary and non-uniform. flip-bit operator is used for binary gene; boundary and non uniform operator is used for integer and float gene. The newly created strings are evaluated by decoding and calculating their objective function values (fitness). This whole process completes one cycle of GA, normally called as generation. Such iterative process is continued until the termination criterion is satisfied.
Termination Criteria
The population is said to be converged, when the average fitness of all the string in a population is equal to best fitness. When the population is converged, the GA is terminated.
Benefits of GA Optimization Techniques

The differences between GA and other conventional optimization techniques are given below (Shrivastava and Dhingra 2002) GAs work with a coding of variables instead of the variables which are not possible in conventional optimization Techniques. The advantage of working with a coding of variables is that coding descretizes the search spaces, no matter the function may be continuous. On the other hand,
since GAs require only function values at various discrete points, a discrete or discontinuous function can be handled with no extra burden. Since no gradient information is needed in GAs, they can also be applied to non- differentiable functions. This makes GAs robust in the sense that they can be applied to a wide variety of problems. Moreover, GAs exploits coding similarities to make a faster and parallel search. The greatest advantage of GAs over many traditional optimization methods is that GAs work with a population of points instead of a single point. Because more than one string are being processed simultaneously, it increases the possibility of obtaining global optimum solution even in ill-behaved functions (Goldberg, 1989). Even though some traditional algorithms are population based, like Boxs evolutionary optimization and complex search methods, those methods do not use previously obtained information efficiently as GAs do. GAs use probabilistic transition rules instead of fixed rules. In early GA iterations, this randomness in GA operators makes the search unbiased towards any particular region in the search space. As a result of not making a hasty wrong decision, it also affects a directed search later in the optimization process. Uses of stochastic transition rules also increase the chances of recovering from a mistake. GAs directly carries out the search on a population and objective function, and not on their derivates. Thus there is no need to formulate a system of equations that represent relationship between parameters. Also not necessary that objective function or constraint should be continuous or differentiable.
Issues for GA Practitioners

Choosing basic implementation issues: Representation. Population size, mutation rate. Selection, deletion policies.km Crossover, mutation operators. Termination criteria. Performance, Scalability. Solution is only as good as the evaluation function (often hardest part).
LITERATURE REVIEW
In most of the approaches, development of route and schedule are done independently to avoid complication and computational burden. Lampkin and saalmans (1967) developed routes from a given skeleton using heuristic approach. Shrivastava Prabhat and Dhingra S. L (2001) used heuristic algorithm for development of feeder routes for public buses to suburban railway stations.Ngamchai Somnuk et al (2003 ) developed the model for design the bus route in three phases. First, the route generation algorithm constructs an initial set of route. Second, the route evaluation algorithm designs the service frequency on each route and applies headway coordination techniques at transfer point to improve efficiency of network. Lastly, the route improvement algorithm modifies the existing route configuration. Many approaches related to scheduling of public transport modes are available. Shrivastava Prabhat and Dhingra S. L (2002) coordinated schedules of BEST buses have been determined on already developed feeder routes for Andheri and Vileparle stations using the schedule optimization model (SOM). The objective function of the SOM is the minimization of transfer time between two services and vehicle operating costs of BEST buses. The objective function and constraints make the
problem nonlinear and no convex with a large number of variables, making it difficult to solve by classical approaches. Therefore, the genetic algorithm, a robust optimization technique is used for integration of public transport modes. Chakroborty Partha et al (1995) G As an optimization method was used to solve scheduling of urban transit network problem . The scheduling of urban transit network problem can be formulated as minimizing of overall transfer time (TT) of passenger and initial waiting time (IWT) of the passenger waiting to board a bus\train at their point of origin. Chakroborty Partha et al (2001) proposed a Genetic Algorithm based approach for optimization problem of allocating the fleet size and developing a schedule with transfer consideration for transit system so as to minimize the waiting time of the passengers. Deb Kalyanmoy and Chakroborty Partha (1998) Genetic algorithm based approach is chosen to solve transit scheduling problem. The paper also shows the efficiency of GA procedure with minimal modification can handle a number different transit scheduling problem s such as limited versus unlimited bus capacity, deterministic versus stochastic arrival time, and single versus multiple transfer stations. Kidwai Farhan Ahmad et al (2005) proposed that genetic algorithm is a computational tool to handle large and complex problem. However, the optimal allocation of busses in this study is done in two steps. In the first step the allocations of buses on individual routes with maximum link flow as the criteria. In the second step the genetic algorithm an optimization tool is used for the reduction of buses on network. Agrawal jitendra et al (2004) proposed a two parallel genetic algorithm model. The first is global parallel virtual machine (PVM) parallel GA model which computes the expensive fitness function concurrently. The second is a global message passing interface (MPI) parallel GA model which substitutes MPI environment. The above two models are tested using simultaneous route frequency coded (SRFC), an existing GA model for Transit Route Network Design (TRND) for a large urban transit network. Pattnaik S. B et al (1998) solve the route network design using Genetic Algorithm. Design of the route is done in two phase, first a candidate route set is generated and then optimum route set is selected using genetic algorithm. The Genetic Algorithm is solved using fixed length coding scheme along with a new variable length coding scheme. And the combination of both this coding scheme is need to be analyzed for its suitability to derive optimal solution in a route network design problem In most research simultaneous routing and scheduling was attempted by Gundaliya P. J et al (2000) . Tom V.M and Mohan S (2003) attempted transit route network using frequency coded GA for an urban bus system.Shrivastava Prabhat and OMahony Margaret (2006) feeder routes and frequencies of coordinating buses leading to coordinated schedules with main transit are developed simultaneously using genetic algorithms. Shrivastava Prabhat and OMahony Margaret (2009) developed a model for operational integration of suburban trains and public buses. The model has two sub models: a Routing Sub Model and Scheduling Sub Model. In the Routing Sub Model, feeder routes are generated for public buses which originate from a railway station. A Heuristic Feeder Route Generation Algorithm is developed for generation of feeder routes. In the Scheduling Sub Model, optimal coordinated schedules for feeder buses are developed for the given schedules of suburban trains. Thus, from the literature review reveals that limited studies are available for operational integration of public private transport modes.
METHODOLOGY FOR OPERATIONAL INTEGRATION OF PRIVATE PUBLIC MODE

In this paper a tentative methodology is given which could be effectively used for coordinated schedule of private public transport modes as shown in the Fig. 3.
Identification of Problem in Existing Transport System DATA COLLECTION Identification of Data Requirement
Detail of Existing Public Transport System (Road + Rail)
Traffic surveys Primary Data Household Field surveys Traffic Volume Count Secondary Data Population &Demographic Data Existing Road Network & Rail based System Road Map, Top sheet
Potential O-D Matrix
Existing Road Network Other Associated Feature
DATA PREPARATION IN GIS
Feeder Bus Route Network Design using Parameter Related to Route length and Route Spacing
ROUTING SUB MODEL
Schedule Optimization Model Minimization of distance travelled (operator cost) and Transfer time and coordinating feeder public buses (user cost) with constraints related to load factor, transfer time, unsatisfied demand, fleet size and policy headway.
DEVELOPMENT OF GA FOR SCHEDULING SUB MODEL
Optimal Feeder Route Configuration and frequency Allocated to Each Route
Public Private Transit Coordinated Schedule
Existing Timing of METRO
Fig. 3: Proposed Methodology for Coordinated Schedule of Private Public Mode
CONCLUSION
In this paper, the application of GA Algorithm model has been proposed for private public transit coordinated schedule. This type of coordinated system will allow both the modes to complement each other instead of competing. Thus instead of decomposing the problem in two stages of development of feeder routes and coordinated schedules the two are optimized together, and are complementary to each other. Decomposition of the problem in two stages had been the common practice for many network design problems in past. The model develops the real life transit network design and real life objective for both user and operator cost. The model takes into account the constraint, like load factor, transfer time, unsatisfied demand, feet size and policy headway. GAs is particularly chosen to solve transit route network design problem because the classical optimization techniques had difficulties in solving the problem. Difficulties arise because of discrete and complex search space having nonlinear constraints, and a large number of integer and real decision variable. Most of the difficulties can be avoided by using simple procedure based declarations. GAs provides the framework in which such procedure based declaration can be easily handled. Further, the binary strings coding mechanisms allowed in GAs eliminate a number of constraints and provide a natural way to handle binary decision variable.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The support received in terms of IITR MHRD Fellowship to Ms Amita Johar, Ph.D Scholar CTRANS please thankfully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] Lampkin, W. and Saalmans, P.D. (1967). The design of routes, service frequencies and schedules for a municipal bus undertaking: a case study, Operation Research Quarterly, 18 (4), 375397. Ngamchai, S. and Lovell, D. J.(2003). Optimal Time Transfer in Bus Transit Route Network Design Using a Genetic Algorithm, Journal of Transportation Engineering , 129( 5), 510-521. Shrivastava, P. and Dhingra S. L.(2002). Development of Coordinated Schedules Using Genetic Algorithm, Journal of Transportation Engineering, 128(1), 89-96. Chakroborty, P., Deb, K and Subrahmanyam, P. S.(1995). Optimal Scheduling of Urban Transit Systems Using Genetic Algorithms, Journal of Transportation Engineering, 121( 6), 544-553. Shrivastava, P. and Dhingra, S.L. (2001). Development of feeder routes for suburban railway stations using heuristic approach, ASCE Journal of Transportation Engineering, USA 127 (4), 334341. Chakroborty, P., Deb, K. and Sharma R.k.(2001). Optimal Fleet Size Distribution and Scheduling of Transit Systems Using Genetic Alogrithms, Transportation planning and Technology, 24(3), 209-225. Kidwai, F. A., Marwah, B. R., Deb, K. and Karim M. R.,(2005). A Genetic Algorithm Based Bus Scheduling Model for Transit Network, Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, 5, 477 - 489. Agrawal, j., Mathew T. V and ASCE, A.M.(2004). Transit Route Network Design Using Parallel Genetic Algorithm, Journal of Transportation Engineering, 18(3), 248-256. Tom, V.M. and Mohan, S.(2003).Transit Route Network Design Using Frequency Coded Genetic Algorithm, Journal of Transportation Engineering, 129( 2), 186-195. Shrivastava, P. and OMahony, M.(2006). A Model for Development of Optimized Feeder Routes and Coordinated SchedulesA Genetic Algorithm Approach, Transport Policy, 13, 413-425. Pattanaik, S.B., Mohan, S. and Tom, V.M.(1998).Urban Bus Transit Route Network Design Using Genetic Algorithm, Journal of Transportation Engineering, 124(4), 368-375. Gundaliya, P. J., Shrivastava P. and Dhingra P.L.(2000).Model for Simultaneous Routing and Scheduling Using Genetic Algorithm, Transpoti Europei,Quaterly Jouranl of Transport law, Economics and Engineering,16,10-19. Shrivastava, P. , O'Mahony M.(2009).Modelling an Integrated Public Transportation System - a case study in Dublin, Ireland, European Transport \ Trasporti Europein, 41, 1-19. Goldberg, E. D., (1989). Genetic Algorithm in Search Optimization and Machine Learning, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. Michalewicz, Z., (1992). Genetic Algorithm + Data structure = Evolution program. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg.
Sensor Based Vehicle Collision Avoidance Techniques using Geospatial Data

Vivek Singhal1 and S.S. Jain2
1Research 2Associated
Scholar, CTRANS Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; viveksinghal82@gmail.com Faculty, CTRANS and Professor, CED, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; profssjain@gmail.com
AbstractThe current scenario leverages the increased rate of accidents on roads. The collision may be caused by the vehicles brake failure, over speeding of vehicles, driver inactiveness, aggressive driving, signal viewing failure, disregarding of traffic rules etc. The increased accident rate has led to the increase of need for collision avoidance measures and techniques. The collision avoidance is quantified to increase the safety of the people using the different collision avoidance techniques available. The collision avoidance measures focuses on the reduction of the collisions and fatalities of pedestrians and vehicle drivers. The objective of this paper is about the describing the present scenario sensor based techniques of collision avoidance using geospatial data with their case studies on these different techniques. Another objective of this paper is to identify the most appropriate techniques for collision avoidance and also visualize these techniques applicable in our Indian roads conditions. Keywords: Collision Avoidance, Global Positioning System, Geographical Information System, Sensors.
INTRODUCTION
The accidents on roads are a major problem emerging in the current scenario of increased traffic. The road accidents cause fatalities to people and their families. The collisions caused at intersections, highways, roads etc., are due to vehicle internal problems topography of area, speed of vehicle, narrow width of road or drivers rough driving. According to Accidental Deaths and Suicides Report India 2009 (NCRB) a total of 6, 47,904 cases of Un-Natural Accidents caused 3,34,766 deaths and 4,96,190 people injured. According to Commission of the European Communities Brussels (2006), almost one-third cause of total accidents are caused by human error. The traffic authorities are concerned with the growth of accidents rates. Therefore the collision warning avoidance systems can assist drivers in avoiding different types of collisions, like intersection collision avoidance, front and rear collision avoidance etc. Thus collision avoidance systems help to save the lives of pedestrians, vehicles and their drivers. The paper describes the sensor based collision avoidance techniques using geospatial data. Related case studies of these collision avoidance techniques are also presented. At the end these techniques are concluded and visualized for applicability in Indian roads conditions.
COLLISION AVOIDANCE TECHNIQUES

Accidents avoidance system for a host vehicle includes the use of a Global Positioning System (GPS) mounted on host vehicle for determining its location, database having digital maps corresponding to area (including the location of the host vehicle as determined by the GPS), a vehicle-to-vehicle communication system, a geographical information system (GIS) including a display residing for displaying images and digital maps to locate the host vehicle and the other vehicles. On-board equipment with sensors gives the live updates of the traffic condition ahead of the vehicle, afterwards signals are interpreted. The information is displayed on in-vehicle GPS display showing where traffic is slow. The system uses the sensors that send and receive signals from other cars; obstacles in the road, traffic lights, and even a central database are placed within vehicle. The sensor based collision avoidance techniques using geospatial data can be grouped in different categories as briefed below.
Sensor Based Vehicle Collision Avoidance Techniques using Geospatial Data 585
Sensor Based Intersection Collision Avoidance Techniques using Geospatial Data

Accidents at intersections are becoming a major problem now-a-days. Accidents may involve vehicles coming from opposite lane of traffic to turn at an intersection, or rear collision when vehicles are in the same direction to the intersection and can be avoided by sensor based techniques using geospatial data. Fig. 1 shows that intersection accident scenario is about 21% of total accident scenario.
Fig. 1: Intersections Statistics [4]
Fig. 2: Intersection Collision Scenario
Intersection collision avoidance helps the vehicle drivers in avoiding collisions at intersections. The GPS provides the location of the vehicles approaching the intersection, while GIS provides the vehicles routing and navigation to intersections. An information database is also maintained for specific route locations database and different sensors like radars, microwaves, loop detectors, infrared sensors etc. This collision avoidance provides the collision warnings of the traffic coming at intersections by notifying system for vehicle driver of the potential for threat of collision. Different automatic collision control systems are also implemented for intersection collision avoidance mechanism, like Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC), steering control etc. The intersection warnings system may also be audio, video, hap tic etc. Fig. 2 shows intersection collision scenario which shows head on collisions, forward collision, rear collision heading towards intersections, turning left/right towards or away from intersections.
Sensor Based Single and Head-on Collision Avoidance Techniques using Geospatial Data
A single accident is when a single road vehicle has an accident without involving any other vehicle. They usually have similar root causes as head-on collisions, but no other vehicle happened to be in the path of vehicle leaving its lane. Head on collisions are the ones in which vehicles directly collide head to head. Severe accidents of this type can happen on motorways, since speeds are extra high. Therefore, increasing severity can be avoided by different sensor based techniques using geospatial data. Head on collision avoidance systems consist of sensors that are placed in cars which keep track of other vehicles surrounding the vehicle and also track of roads ahead. The corrective measure are taken on sensing of danger ahead like speed reduction, giving direction to vehicle going off the road. This system uses GPS for location identification and GIS, like ArcGIS, QGIS etc., for direction navigation management preventing driver from potentially getting into a serious accident.
CASE STUDIES Sensor Based Intersection Collision Avoidance Techniques using Geospatial Data
Barrientos et al. (2005) developed a system for intersection collision avoidance and warning system (CAWAS) for road traffic automotives based on GNSS (GPS/Galileo) signals information. The CAWAS system in the vehicle does the collision assessment with other vehicles. The functional architecture is shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3: CAWAS Functional Architecture [3]
The inputs consist of (i) GNSS algorithm which did the GNSS signal reception and collection of information about the position and velocity of object vehicle, and (ii) the proximity sensors which collected the information from the IMU, radar, ultrasounds, cameras etc. about the presence of fixed or mobile obstacle near the vehicle. All the measurements from the GNSS algorithms, proximity sensors and GIS database (i.e. information about the roads) are integrated into sensorial fusion unit. The information about the roads and intersections from GIS database and Inter Vehicle Link (IVL) measurements are integrated into vehicles and road data pre-processing unit .The information in GIS database are computed through the use of the GIS management algorithms i.e. GIS database processing unit. Next step is about intelligence computation where position, velocity and road location of objective vehicle from the sensorial fusion unit are sent to the output IVL where objective vehicle information is broadcasted to other vehicles. The information from sensorial unit i.e. velocity, position, distance to obstacles, road location etc., of the objective vehicle are sent to the collision risk assessment algorithms where collision detection and decision making algorithms are implemented to do speedy selection of vehicles with real collision risk. Afterwards this information is shown to the driver by collision warning system i.e Human Machine Interface (HMI) in order to show the messages to the driver. This system improves the efficiency over other accident avoidance systems in terms of range, scope, reliability and position and velocity. Results from collision risk assessment algorithm were shown. The GIS management tests, collision risk assessment algorithms tests and imminent collision tests were performed and following results were obtained and best result was 17m in the case of road intersections. Kwon et al. (2006) proposed the use of GPS and sensor network deployment and their scenario to predict collisions between vehicles at intersection at least two seconds before the vehicle enters the intersection, while previous prediction algorithms report just before entering intersection. The sensors were uniformly installed on roads which detect and communicate status information i.e. location and speed to base station located at center of intersection. The base station collects the status information of vehicles approaching to the intersection and spread it other vehicles within its local broadcasting area. Each vehicle is equipped with a GPS and an onboard system where position and speed data of vehicle are acquired from GPS and are sent to sensors on roads which can compute the possibility of collision with the data from the base station.
The study describes the collision prediction at intersection, access road on highway. Accuracy of collision prediction was determined by the collision prediction ratio (hT) and false warning ratio (hF) where threshold is defined as hT =1 from five seconds before vehicle enters the intersection. The four algorithms were defined for prediction of collision at intersection. The first algorithm was based on overlapping ratio between collision time intervals of two vehicles. If the ratio exceeds a given threshold, they are supposed to collide at the collision position. The second one computes the difference between the two collision intervals of both vehicles. If the difference between the arrival times of two vehicles in the current speed is less than a given threshold, then collision may take place. The third algorithm computed the difference between minimum collision intervals and also difference between maximum collision intervals. If any of the difference is less than the given threshold, the collision will happen and lastly the algorithm was a hybrid of algorithm 2 and algorithm 3. Results indicated the average and maximum number of false warnings using algorithm 1 were less than the other algorithms. Algorithm 2 was worse than the other algorithms. The advantage of paper is the method that these methods are developed for the case sensor network and wireless communication devices which are installed on roads and intersection. Stone et. al. (2008) was a project report on cooperative intersection collision avoidance system for violations (CICAS-V) which proposed to develop and field-test a comprehensive system to reduce the number of crashes at intersections due to violations of traffic control devices (TCDs; i.e., traffic lights and stop signs). The CICAS-V comprised of on-board equipment (OBE) and roadside equipment (RSE). There were two data acquisition system (DAS) propped in this study i.e. vehicle DAS and infrastructure DAS. In Fig. 4 the vehicle DAS hardware consists of four video camera images which are fed directly into a hardware MPEG 4 compression board. The four images combined 720 X 480 pixel video data, front and rear radar data, low cost GPS data, are routed to the DAS. The GPS is primarily used to set the system time and track the vehicle. The GPS can also be used as a backup speed sensor in cases. Afterwards data is stored on a removable hard drive within the main unit. An alternate method to access the data is to use an Ethernet crossover cable and a laptop computer. The DAS is connected to collision warning system, like visual display warning and DVI audio amplifier warning.
Fig. 4: Vehicle DAS System [1]
Another DAS i.e, infrastructure DAS collects data from roadside sensors and the RSE communications interface. The infrastructure DAS records all sensors at a 10 Hz rate. The infrastructure DAS is used to log vehicle data for all approaches to the signalized intersection. These data were supplied by four radar units mounted on the intersection mast-arms. The radar units supply the range, speed, and acceleration of approaching vehicles in XY coordinates. The infrastructure data acquisition system (DAS) is shown in Figure 5 where infrastructure DAS is integrated with the road side equipment (RSE). The infrastructure data acquisition system (DAS) receives data from the RSE on a dedicated CAN port. The RSE updates the infrastructure DAS whenever a dedicated short range communication (DSRC) wireless message is sent out. The messages included on the link are the geographical ID (GID), time and message counter information.
Fig. 5: Infrastructure DAS Systematic Schematic [1]
The main unit of the vehicle DAS and the main unit of the infrastructure DAS contains an EPIC single-board computer, hard drive cradle, CAN communication, battery backup system, and several VTTI-developed sensor modules. The unit was placed inside the intersection cabinet or an auxiliary cabinet located within communication range of the controller cabinet. This system helped to reduce traffic accidents of tourists and enable drivers to predict possible accidents as well as to prepare for them. A large limitation was the large time taken for communication between AIS, GPS and vehicles.
Sensor Based Single and Head-on Collision Avoidance Techniques using Geospatial data
Nieto et. al. (2001) proposed a proximity warningcollision avoidance system involved the use of three different state-of-the-art technologies; the GPS, the wireless network system, and a 3D graphical engine interface. All these technologies were combined in a real-time system named Virtual Mine.
Fig. 6: Network Architecture for Proximity WarningCollision Avoidance System [10]
The architecture for proximity warningcollision avoidance system is shown in above Fig. 6. A PC-computer and display system was used as an onboard computer and graphics display unit. The 3D contour mapping was done on demand, and vehicles position was thereafter monitored with respect to the mines geometry through GPS. The vehicles positions were shared among all the operating vehicles using a wireless-radio network and to a control base. Virtual Mine software was carried out by VRML and VB languages. After two an a half years of research, software development, and laboratory testing, field tests were carried out at operating limestone quarries and open pit mining operations to evaluate GPS accuracy and overall system effectiveness under rugged operating conditions. This article described the progress made on the funded project and discussed the GPS accuracy tests and overall system tests that were carried out during the year 2001 at the Colorado School of Mines survey field and at the Morenci open pit copper mine in Arizona. Lemelson et al. (2002) proposed GPS, multi sensor based vehicle collision avoidance, warning, control system and method which used GPS satellite receiver and transceiver for receiving the signals on first port. The second port at one of vehicles received the differential geographical positioning system (DGPS) auxillary range correction signals for correcting the propogation delay errors in GPS ranging signals and pseudolight carrier phase ambiguity resolution signals for improving accuracy of the GPS ranging signals. The GPS, DGPS and pseudo light signals helped in tracking vehicle position with centimetre accuracy. Communication of the location information was done to one of the vehicles or other vehicles or to the control centre. This was done by communicating using a speech synthesizer computer i.e which recognized the voice of other vehicles operator. Each vehicle had an video camera with image processing hardware (computer) with parallel computer neural network system architectures. The inputs, like video camera image data, GPS coordinating and tracking data, motion data from motion sensors, transmitter data, vehicle/altitude data from radar/lidar systems and environmental data are processed for any collision situation. After a collision was detected, a warning signal was generated and fuzzy logic takes over control of the vehicle and auto steering and auto speed control of the vehicle takes place. The information of hazard may be intimated to the other drivers by the exterior warning lights and sound audible alarms including horns i.e., auto pilot mode. Craine (2004) developed the congestion avoidance system through the use of GPS and videos sensor based navigational systems. The system is shown below in Fig. 7
Fig. 7: Congestion Avoidance using GPS and Video Sensor [5]
This system includes a GPS receiver connected to visual display, a map database and wireless communication device for communicating with a remote computer over a wireless communication network. The GPS-based navigation system determines the exact location of vehicle that is sent continuously to remote computer via wireless communication network. The remote computer was connected to traffic monitoring database or service that provides current traffic affecting events in the region. When a traffic affecting event was located in the designated vicinity of current location of vehicle on current roadway used by the vehicle an alert was generated and delivered to the GPSbased and displayed on visual display and hence congestion avoided. Misener et al. (2005) carried out a Cooperative Collision Warning (CCW) project which provided three assistances (1) Forward collision warning assistant (2) Intersection assistant (3) Blind-spot and lane change situational awareness assistant. This CCW consisted of a wireless communication vehicle to vehicle Communication (V2V) system for collision warning. This V2V continuously monitored the motion of vehicle by a vehicle map and also communicated the various warnings and advisories (e.g., situational awareness) to vehicles driver by two displays. An onboard vehicle hardware and software was used where software could easily facilitate new algorithms or sensors. The vehicles position, speed and direction were estimated using GPS coordinates but in absence of GPS, combined onboard sensors were used for calculating accurate speed and yaw rate, heading and location. The performance of the system was demonstrated at two sites; the PATH Richmond Field Station (RFS) facility and Crows Landing, approximately 90 miles from the RFS. Advantages include firstly, the vehicle position data was continuously updated in absence of GPS by fusing it with sensors. Secondly, the vehicles could be tracked from any direction and up to a distance of 1 mile. Major limitations involved that firstly this system V2V operates at high power. Secondly, reliability for number of vehicles communication system was limited. Thirdly, this system does not used digital maps. Ashtankar et al. (2009) presented the use of GPS and sensors i.e, usage of Intelligent Transport System (ITS) for collision detection by determining the collision course between different vehicles in motion. These studies also identified inter vehicle communication (IVC) for updation of every vehicle with each other vehicles location information by exchanging information between them. This location information was acquired through GPS Pathfinder Pro XRS receiver. Thereafter, the location correction was done by dead reckoning sensor to obtain accurate vehicle coordinates in real-time.
IVC enabled periodic location information exchange through on onboard sensors having wireless transmitter/receiver. The receiver was tuned for reception of data on certain information frequency. The simulation was performed for 300 seconds and ITS presented excellent collision avoidance with low value of collision probability, which is the ratio of number of vehicular collisions, happened to the number of collisions detected. Therefore, this method detected a large number of collisions using these ITS measures. The collision was verified through extensive simulation. Wimmershoff et al.(2009) proposed a new communication, GPS and environmental sensor based method for art and future accident preventing systems (APS) data acquisition system that delivered input data for the development of collision warning (CW) and collision mitigation (CM) systems. These collision warning systems monitored specific traffic conditions. This method used a GPS which rapidly gave vehicle position as GK coordinates i.e Kalman-Filter based GPS-tracking. The vehicle related driving dynamics data and GK coordinates were transferred by a wireless car-tocar-communication (C2C). The car to car communication (C2C) with on-board environmental sensor data (camera and lidar sensors) produced a Kalman-Filter based on 3rd order lane for determining the appropriate car. The system was tested within driving experiments and subsequent simulations with the measured data. The first advantage was that feasibility of collision mitigation systems and detection and identification of stationary vehicles was improved. Another advantage was the high reliability of relevant target determination for APS. Limitations of the study involved about system performance which was dependent on the equipment rate.
CONCLUSION
Fatal accidents associated with vehicle collisions occur at different intersections and roads. The techniques and their case studies discussed in this paper, if implemented, can help to reduce significantly the number of accidents. As the usage of the other techniques are also prominent but sensor based collision avoidance techniques using geospatial data are becoming very popular now a-days. Further research may focus on developing more reliable systems of integrated sensor based techniques using geospatial data with inter vehicular communication and vehicle to road infrastructure communication systems. In Indian road conditions scenario, the collisions are very prominent at intersections and collision avoidance measures, like GPS location tracking, sensors usage like vision sensors, radars for vehicles tracking, inter vehicular communication technologies may be employed.
REFERENCES
Ashtankar, P.P.,Sanjay S.D., Chakole M.B., Keskar G.A. (2009). Approach to Avoid Collision between Two Vehicles, Intelligent Transportation System, Second IEEE International Conference on Emerging Trends in Engineering and Technology, ICETET-09, 598603. [2] Accidental deaths and suicides in India (2009). New Delhi, National Crime Records Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs, 1-283. [3] Barrientos A., Mora A., Lafoz I., Martn R.S. and Muoz P. (2005).CAWAS: Collision Avoidance and Warning system for Automotives based on Satellite. Proc. of the 8th International IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems Vienna, Austria.656-661. [4] Commission of the European Communities Brussels (2006). [5] Craine D.A. (2004).Personal Traffic congestion avoidance system.US Patent Application Number US/2004/0073356, 1-5. [6] Online. URL:http://driversed.com/teen-drivers-education/Collision-Avoidance.aspx. [7] Kwon O., Lee S.H., Kim J.S., Kim M.S., and Li K.J. (2006).Collision Prediction at Intersections in Sensor Network Environment, IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Conference, ITSC '06. IEEE, 982 987. [8] Lemelson H.J., Pederson D.R. (2002).GPS Vehicle Collision Avoidance Warning and Control System and Method, US Patent No. 6,487,500 B 2, 1-45. [9] Misener A.J., Sengupta R. (2005).Cooperative Collision Warning: Enabling Crash Avoidance with Wireless Technology, 12th World Congress on ITS, San Francisco, pp.1-11. [10] Nieto A. and Dagdelen K. (2001).Development and Testing of a Vehicle Collision Avoidance System Based on GPS and Wireless Networks for Open-Pit Mines, pp.1-13. [11] Stone S., Neale L.V., Wiegand K., Doerzaph Z. and Mile A.M. (2008). Cooperative Intersection Collision Avoidance System Limited to Stop and sign and Traffic Signal Violations (CICAS-V). pp.1-25. [12] Wimmershoff M. D.and Deutschle S.D. (2009).GPS, Communication and Environmental Sensor based Collision Mitigation System for Trucks, Proceedings of the 21st (Esv) International Technical Conference On the Enhanced Safety Of Vehicles, Held June 2009, Stuttgart, Germany, 1-14. [1]
Twenty-e eighth NCCE & National Semin nar on Role of In nfrastructure for r Sustainable De evelopment titution of Engineers (India), Ro oorkee Local Ce entre, IIT Roorke ee Campus The Inst
Road d Safet ty Aud dit and d Audit t Review of Natio onal Highwa H ay Cor rridors s in Gu ujarat
Mansha Swami1, Sunny S Deo ol G.2, Rak kesh K. Sin ngh3 and M M. Parida4
1Research
Sc cholar, CED, In ndian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India; ; manshaswami i@yahoo.co.in Scholar, Civ vil Engineering g Department, SVNIT-Surat; S g gsunnydeol@gm mail.com 3Associate Professor, Ci ivil Engineering g Department, SVNIT-Surat; krakesh@ced.svnit.ac.in 4Prof fessor, CED, Indian Institute of o Technology, Roorkee, R India; mparida@gma ail.com
2Resear rch
AbstractRoad Safety Audit and Audit Rev view have bee en implement ted during and d after constru uction in al lmost all the countries c wor rldwide. Road d accident and d fatality in In ndia is of great concern. In n this pape er, road safety y audit of two o national hig ghways NH-6 & NH-8 in vicinity v of Sur rat city in Gu ujarat, India a has been carried out. It was w observed that t proper road safety mea asures have no ot been taken n. The road d safety measu ures are an im mperative requ uirement of na ational highwa ays and these consideration ns are requ uired to be kep pt in mind at the t design stag ge itself. This concept is slowly coming to o the front sce ene of India an Highway sc cenario and promises p a goo od picture for highways ahe ead in future. Keyw words: Road Safety Audit, , Road Safety Audit Review w
INTRO ODUCTION N
Road Sa afety Audit and a Audit Re eview have for a long ti ime being in ncorporated a as a desired d exercise during and a after construction in n almost all the countrie es. However r, for a coun ntry like India where Road ac ccident fatalit ty numbers and number r of persons injured amo ount to a ma assive numbe er it is an issue of grave conce ern. During 2010 2 alone around a 4, 99 9,628 accide ents were rep ported from all states and uni ion territories. Out of th hese 23.9% i.e., 119,558 8 were fatal l accidents. T The severity y of road accident ts, measured d in terms of persons killed per 100 0 accidents, has also inc creased from m 19.9 in 2001 to 26.9 in 201 10. The India an roads exh hibit a hetero ogeneous for rm of traffic w which is all the t more vulnerab ble to the occ currence of accidents a due e to its comp plex dynamic c characterist tics. The percentage wise contribution of various element ts in road acc cidents is giv ven in Fig. 1, below.
Road d user
65%
Road d & Surroundi ing vehic cle
24% % 2% 5% 2 2% 2% 2
road user, road & surroundings road user & vehicl le road user, road & surroundings and vehicle v
Fig. 1: Percentage-W Wise Distribu ution of Various Elements in Road Ac ccidents
Roa ad safety aud dit is a metho odology that t ensures tha at various sa afety deficien ncies and designs are reviewed d at appropr riate stage in a cost effect tive way an n objective approach a to t the assessme ent of the potentia al of an accid dent. Road safety s audit has been a useful tool to t assess the e potential da angerous area and d to eliminat te safety prob blems (Bulpit1998; Alfon nso 2001).
Road Safety Audit and Audit Review of National Highway Corridors in Gujarat 593
The idea of conducting RSA was conceived in U.K. in 1989. The RSA can be applied to all kinds of road projectsnew road construction as well as rehabilitation of existing roads. In the UK, the Lothian Regional Council has estimated the benefit-cost ratio of the RSA as being 15:1, while TRANSIT New Zealand has estimated the benefit-cost ratio as 20:1. In developing countries like India the B/C may be high. In India the first RSA guidelines were produced in 2003 by (CRRI) under (MOSRTH) sponsored research study, revised by CRRI in 2009. Indian Roads Congress (IRC) in 2010, published the Manual for Road Safety Audit IRC-SP-88, 2010. Any road transport project has a few requirements that render it a satisfactory performance. A road transport project should be safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical and environmentally compatible. The aspects of road safety audits include the institutional framework for RSA, the arrangements for undertaking the audit, the audit stages and the audit process. In the current study we have taken two types of corridors for our study, one is in the operational stage and the other is in the construction stage. The stages of audit are the Planning Phase. Preliminary design Phase. Detailed design Phase, Construction Phase and the Monitoring existing roads. The aims of RSA are: 1. To minimize the risk and severity of the accidents 2. To recognize the importance of safety in highway design to meet the needs and perceptions of all types of road users, and to achieve a balance between needs where they may be in conflict. 3. To reduce the long costs of a scheme, bearing in mind that unsafe designs may be expensive or even impossible to correct at a later stage 4. To improve the awareness of safe design practices by all involved in the planning, design, construction and maintenance of roads.
STUDYSTRETCH PROFILE
The current study was conducted on the two national highways in vicinity of Surat city in Gujarat, India. The city and its surrounds are known for their industrial and production capable. The first corridor is from Hazira to Palsana, NH-6 with a length of 28.8 Km. (During Construction Phase).The second corridor is from Palsana to Kim, NH-8 with a length of 35 Km. (Operational Phase). Fig. 2 shows the study stretch profile.
Fig. 2: The Study Stretch Profile
METHODOLOGY
Safety audit is a formal process that requires following a step by step procedure (Borough.1991; Nilsson, 1993; Owers, 2001). But different object of safety audit means different procedures to follow (Lipsinki, 2003; Piples, 1999).The analysis of road safety audit is carried out based on the aspects of highway geometrics, Intersection, Medians and Miscellaneous other safety requirements which play a vital element in the safe commute on the Indian Highways. The two stretches of highway were categorized further on their present condition i.e. NH-6 was considered for Road Safety Audit as this phase was undergoing construction at various patches. NH-8 was considered for Road Safety Audit Review as this was an existing highway which had no further patch undergoing construction. The RSA Review team proceeded with the site visit of NH-8 and collected photographs which were similarly analyzed as per IRC specifications. The audit analysis teams studied the IRC specifications on various aspects to come up with the recommendations based on their observations at the site and in the photographs In the Highway geometrics study was done to observe the correct/incorrect installation and construction/design of elements such as width of pavement or carriageway, traffic separators or medians, kerbs, road margins, shoulders, guardrails and check barriers, embankment slopes etc. . Elements such as sight distances, camber, pavement surface characteristics could not be studied due to unavailability of related equipment. At the intersections, the study has been carried out to evaluate facilities related to the channelizing, traffic islands, lighting arrangements, directional or informatory signage, road markings related to turns, delineators etc. The study for medians and miscellaneous included the checking of proper width of medians, proper height of medians, installation of semi barriers on medians to ensure safety for transverse direction in the case of vehicle run off, installation of adequately heighted arboriculture in the median at straight highway stretches to ensure that the glare of light coming from the opposite stream of vehicles is not influencing the vehicles from the other direction, lighting arrangements, installation of signboards on medians, median kerbs properly marked or not etc.
ANALYSIS & RESULTS

The analysis was carried out with the help of field collected data and then it was segregated into three parts viz, highway geometrics, intersections and medians and miscellaneous. Fig. 3-6 show the highway geometrics related safety issues, figure 7-10 show the intersection related analysis and the figure 11-13 show the medians and miscellaneous. The sample figures are discussed in the paper however, 217 such photographs of critical locations on the corridors were taken and analyzed.
Fig. 3: Highway Geometrics Related Safety Issues
Fig. 7: Analysis of Highways Intersection
Fig. 10: Analysis of highways intersection
Fig. 11: Analysis of Medians and Miscellaneous
CONCLUSION
The RSA and RSA review results had interesting results, conclusions summarized below: 1. At NH-6 since the highway is going through construction phase and is not exhibiting sufficient safety measures. So it would be advisable to incorporate the recommendations as per various codal provisions. The RSA conducted on NH-6 revealed at insufficient safety scenario. 2. At NH-8 there is better safety conditions prevailing but still rectifications and maintenance may be incorporated as per the recommendations stated in the analysis. The RSA conducted on NH-8 revealed at intermediate safety scenario. 3. On majority of roads basic requirements like road marking, lighting etc. were not provided. There were lesser provisions of barrier protection and edge marking at many sections. Road arboriculture was in a sorry state of maintenance except for few places. Medians/ traffic separators/ Channelizing islands were lacking in proper maintenance and adequate dimensions 4. Both roads revealed some common strength in terms of a good riding surface and divided carriageway at majority places barring a few exceptional stretches. 5. Both roads again were facing some common shortcomings as on majority of roads basic requirements like road marking, lighting etc. were not provided. 6. The Audit analysis was an eye opener to many good as well as mal practices existing during construction of Indian highways and also for existing corridors which were built very recently. The road safety measures are an imperative requirement of national highways and these considerations are required to be kept in mind at the design stage itself is a concept which is slowly coming to the front scene of Indian Highway scenario and promises a good picture for highways ahead. 7. At both the corridors the requirement for proper road markings and lighting arrangements at appropriate locations is to be done. On the NH, sections passing through he settlement area are to be provided with sufficient and efficient lighting arrangements.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] Alfonso, M (2001). Development of a potential safety improvement index austroads. Road Safety Audit 2nd edition. Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Bulpit M. (1998). Safety auditAn overview. Austroads International Road Safety Audit Forum, Melbourne, Australia, PP11-12. Burrough, P. (1991). Procedure for the road safety audit of trunk road schemes Department of transport, London.
Road Safety Audit and Audit Review of National Highway Corridors in Gujarat 599 [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] Lipsinki, M.E. amd Wilson E.M.(2003). Road safety audits and road safety audit reviews. FHWA National Highway Institute (NHI), Publication Number FHWA-NHI-003-024. Nilson. G. (1993). Spped research and current issues in Sweden. the speed reviews: Speed workshop papers, federal office of road safety, Department of Transportation and communications, Canberra, Australia. Owers, R.S., and Wilson, E.M. (2001). Safety analysis without the legal paralysis. The road safet audit programme, University of Wyoming, Laramie. Pieples, T.r. (1990). Penn DOTs road test of the road safety audit process. ITE Journal, pp20-24. ADB operational toolkit on Road Safety Audit for Road Projects (2003), Published by Asian Development Bank. IIT Delhi, Safety Manual, submitted to National Highway Authority of India (NHAI), (2010). IRC: SP: 44-1996, Highway Safety code, published by Indian Road Congress (IRC), (1996). IRC SP 21-1979, Landscaping of roads, published by Indian Road Congress (IRC), (1979). IRC: SP: 55-2001, Guidelines for Safety in Construction Zones, published by Indian Road Congress (IRC), (2001). IRC: SP: 88-2010, Road Safety Audit Manual published by Indian Road Congress (IRC), (2010). IRC 35-1997, Code of practice for road markings, published by Indian Road Congress (IRC), (1997). IRC 67-2001, Code of Practice for road signs, published by Indian Road Congress (IRC), (2001). IRC: 65-1976, Recommended practice for traffic rotaries, published by Indian Road Congress (IRC), (1976). IRC: 103-1988, Guidelines for Pedestrian Facility, published by Indian Road Congress (IRC), (1988). IRC: 41-1997, Guidelines for type designs for check barriers, published by Indian Road Congress (IRC), (1997). IRC: 73-1980, Geometric design standards for rural highways, published by Indian Road Congress (IRC), (1980). IRF (INDIA) & ARRB certification Course for Road Safety Auditors checklist, (2010). IS: 2149-1970, Road lighting, published by Bureau of Indian standards (BIS), (1970). MORTH, Road accidents in India 2010 published by Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, (2011). NRA, Road Safety Audit Guidelines, published by National Road authority Dublin, (2004).
Effect of Binder and Aggregate on Optimum Binder Content of Bituminous Mixes

Praveen Kumar1 and Maninder Singh2
CED, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India; pkaerfce@iitr.ernet.in Scholar, CED, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India; maniravi79@gmail.com
AbstractAsphalt-aggregate interactions are important in the adhesion of asphalt cement to aggregate because the asphalt must adhere to the aggregate for the adhesive binding action of asphalt to occur. In a road pavement, aggregate composes 94 to 95% by weight of the mix while asphalt makes up the other 5 to 6%. The surfaces of the aggregates vary considerably in their chemistry. In the present study mixes have been prepared by using three types of aggregates via: Granite, Quartzite and Marble with VG 30 grade bitumen modified with various percentages of SBS modifier. Choice of aggregates has been made such that they cover the entire range of aggregates with one having the maximum acidic character and another with maximum basic character. Optimum binder content (OBC) was determined corresponding to 4% air voids and checking other parameters of Marshall Stability, VMA, VFB and flow value for all mixes and results of mixes with modified bitumen were compared with mixes prepared with neat bitumen. Keywords: OBC, Marshall Stability, Modified Bitumen, aggregate bitumen interaction
INTRODUCTION
Asphalt concrete consists of two major components, namely aggregate and asphalt. Whereas aggregate constitutes 94 to 95% by weight of mix, the other 5 to 6% consists of asphalt. To cater the needs of present traffic intensity and heavy axle loads, either modification of binder or wise selection of aggregates is required. The asphalt binder binds the smaller and larger aggregate particles together and enhances the stability of the asphalt concrete (AC) mixture that provides resistance to deformation under all kind of distresses. The performance of AC mix is a function of asphalt binder, aggregate types, its volumetric properties etc. The asphalt binder is the main element that controls the viscoelastic properties during production in the plant and service on field or road. Polymer is a common type of materials that are used to modify asphalt for better performances. The addition of polymers has gained popularity in recent years through all over the world. Study done by Isacsson and Lu (1995) showed that polymer modified asphalt achieve better asphalt pavement performance for the long service life. The history of using asphalt in constructing pavement field started from the beginning of this century. Asphalt binder is originally a thermoplastic liquid at low service temperature. It is elastic solid in nature and behaves like a viscous liquid at high temperature. This requires the improvement to perform asphalt binder to minimize the stress cracking that occurs at low temperature and the plastic deformation occurs at high temperature. The changes in temperatures, traffic loadings, available moisture during the life of a pavement makes the design and the selection of materials to resist these stresses extremely difficult, as well as impractical. Many types of polymers are available to change asphalt binders to achieve a wider performance range for asphalt bound pavement materials in the practical field. There has been a proliferation of many types of polymers in the last 10 years for use in asphalt binder modification (Wardlaw and Shuler 1992). Aggregates constitute the biggest part of the mixture (over 94% by weight) and provide a surface onto which the bitumen/mastic adheres. Aggregate composition probably influences resistance to moisture damage. The sticking of bitumen onto an aggregate and its replacement by moisture depends partly on interaction of the polar groups at the interface and interfacial Van der Waals
Effect of Binder and Aggregate on Optimum Binder Content of Bituminous Mixes 601
forces, e.g. Keesom orientation forces, Debye induction forces and London dispersion forces (Curtis et al. 1993). The common minerals in aggregates include silica, feldspars, carbonates and clays (Roberts et al. 1991). Silica mineral Silica mineral (SiO2) abundant in quartz constitute the bulk of quartzite and granite. During quarrying, unsatisfied charges form by breaking the siliconoxygen bonds. Hydration occurs when water vapour releases OH- and H+ ions to the unsatisfied charges on silicon and oxygen, respectively. This results in a hydroxylated surface with surface silanol groups. Equilibrium is established between these silanols and water depending on the pH of the contact water (Scott 1978). Water with a high pH (OH- ions) stimulates the dissociation of H+ ions from silanol groups causing the surface to become more negatively charged. At low water pH, silica surfaces become positively charged. Water molecules can form strong hydrogen bonds with siliceous surface silanols which may cause replacement of the bitumen polar parts. Limestone, mainly comprised of calcium carbonate (the mineral calcite, CaCO3), is known to have electropositive surface characteristics. When the aggregate is fractured, electrostatic bonds are broken and unsatisfied charges of calcium and carbonate ions occur on the newly formed surfaces. This is because its interior bonds are broken leaving calcium and carbonate ions on the newly formed surfaces. Hydration of these ions by water vapor, results in a characteristic electropositive surface. These surface species are available for competition between water and bitumen polar functionalities. Clay minerals acquire charges from structural imperfections due to ionic isomorphous substitution. Depending on the valences of the substituting and substituted captions, a net negative or positive charge may result on the clay (Gast 1977). Hydroxyl groups present on the edges of clay structures may lead to a pH dependent charge in the presence of water. Micas like biotite [K (Mg, Fe+2)3 (Al, Fe+3)Si3O10(OH)2] may be poor adherents (Stuart 1990). Micas are also friable and this might lead to premature damage in presence of water. When moisture enters the interface, its molecules being more polar, can often be more strongly adsorbed on the aggregate surface than the bitumen component, thus displacing it. There can be cases where ionic bonds between bituminous carboxylic acids and metallic ions like calcium in the mineral surface (e.g. limestone) may not be affected by water. Plancher et al. (1977) found out that carboxylic acids in the bitumen were strongly adsorbed on siliceous aggregates, but were present in very small amounts. At the same time, carboxylic acids tend to be displaced first from the aggregate in presence of moisture (Petersen et al. 1982). Petri and Peltonen (1992) concluded that silicates enriched in their silica dioxide have lower adhesion. When the siliceous dioxide amount of the silicate surface is increased, the polarity of the surface is increased. Water more actively adheres to the silicate surfaces whose siliceous oxide contents are higher, and the tendency of adhesion of these surfaces can be decreasing. When the aluminum, sodium, and potassium content of the silicates (compare feldspars) are increased, the polarity of these silicates is increased to some extent, too. However, the typical cleavage lanes of these silicates can also weaken their adhesion. On the other hand with the silicates that had a higher magnesium, calcium or iron content, the polarities of the silicates were decreased to some extent. This effect evidently also explains the better adhesion obtained with these silicates to the nonpolar bitumen. The best bonds were obtained by the "black" mineral silicates containing plenty of magnesium, calcium, and iron. Best of all were the adhesion of those silicates enriched in magnesium minerals. Results with Mg silicates were quite obvious and the correlation factor was also significant. The increasing amounts of the elements of Si, Al, Na, and K were shown to weaken to some extent the adhesion between polar silicates and nonpolar bitumen in water. The increasing amounts of the elements of Mg, Ca, and Fe were shown to improve adhesion. The best silicate types in the adhesion study were: olivineserpentinite, peridotite, gabbro, and vulcanite. The feldspar silicates (Si, Al, Na, and K) were weaker in their adhesion. The purpose of the work reported in this paper was to examine how chemical and mineralogical composition of aggregates relates to optimum binder content.
MATERIALS Base Bitumen

VG 30 paving grade bitumen obtained from Mathura refinery was used in the study for preparing various mixtures. The physical properties of VG 30 are listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Properties of Base Bitumen
Properties Penetration(0.1mm,100g,5s,25oC) Softening Point(oC) Penetration Index(PI) Specific gravity Ductility (mm), 25oC Standard ASTM D5 ASTM D36 ASTM D70 ASTM D113 Results 67 49 -0.698 1.01 Full Scale
Modifier SBS Preparation and Properties

Styrene butadiene styrene (SBS) an elastomer was used to develop modified bitumen. VG 30 was used as base bitumen and three levels of SBS were used namely 3%(3S), 5% (5S) and 7%(7S) by weight of bitumen. The polymer used was in the form of pellets. The properties of SBS Kraton D 1101 are given in Table 2. Mixing was performed in the laboratory using high shear mixer capable of maintaining temperature and regulating stirring speed. The asphalt binder was heated to 150oC for 1hr with mixer speed maintained at 200 rpm. After the mixing temperature of 180oC was reached, the modifier was added slowly in the required amount to avoid agglomeration of polymer and the mixing was continued for next 1.5 hr at 500 rpm. After the blend was prepared the uniformity of the mix was determined by passing it through ASTM 100# sieve and on confirmation of uniformity it was stored in aluminum containers. It was found that the asphalt binder thus prepared can be stored for future use. Tests for penetration, softening point, specific gravity were conducted on the modified binders before and after short term ageing by TFOT and the results are given in the Table 3.
Table 2: Properties of SBS Kraton D-1101
Composition Molecular structure Styrene/rubber ratio Specific Gravity Physical form Shore hardness(A) Melt index Elongation at break (%) Tensile strength at break (MPa) Specifications ASTM D792 ASTM D2240 ASTM D1238 ASTM D412 ASTM D412 Kraton D 1101 Linear 31/69 0.94 Pellet. Powder 71 <1 875 31.8
Table 3: Physical Properties of SBS Modified Asphalt

Property Penetration(0.1mm) Softening Point(oC) Penetration Index(PI) Specific Gravity Standard ASTM D5 ASTM D36 ASTM D70 VG 30 +3%SBS 52 57 0.51 1.00 Binder Type VG 30 +5%SBS 47 70 2.67 0.99 VG 30 +7%SBS 45 73 3.03 0.98
Aggregates
Three types of aggregates via: marble, quartzite and granite have been used in this study to prepare the mixes. The criterion for selection of these three aggregates is their acidic and basic character based on the amount of SiO2 and CaCO3 content present in them. Those aggregates that are primarily made up of silicon dioxide are typically acidic, and those that are primarily calcium carbonate are typically basic. Marble (M) has been procured from Rajasthan, Quartzite (Q) from Delhi and Granite (G) from Banda (UP). The properties of aggregates used in this study are reported in Table 4.
Table 4: Physical Properties of Aggregates

Test Specific Gravity(CA) Specific Gravity(FA) Specific Gravity(Filler) Water Absorption Los Angles Abrasion Aggregate Impact Aggregate Crushing Flakiness and Elongation Index Marble 2.675 2.706 3.117 0.37 29 18.31 23.83 17 Granite 2.640 2.649 3.116 0.35 23.28 18.69 17.99 26 Quartzite 2.744 2.762 3.207 0.34 27.04 13.31 15.19 21 Standard ASTM C127 ASTM C128 ASTM D854 ASTM C127 ASTM DC131 IS:2386 Part 4 IS :2386 Part 1 Specification Limit Max 2% Max 30% Max 24% Max 30%
Aggregate Grading
Grading of aggregates was chosen in conformity with the grading 2 of bituminous concrete mix as per MoRTH specifications in India. Gradation requirements and adopted gradation for the mix have been represented in Table 5. For better comparison between mixes comprising of various aggregates, same gradation have been adopted for all the three aggregates as represented graphically in fig. 1.
Table 5: Gradation of Aggregates
Sieve Size, mm Specification Limits Gradation adopted 100 90 80 Percentage passing 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0.01 0.1 1 Sieve Size,mm 10 Lower Limit Upper Limit Adopted Grdation 19 100 100 13.2 79-100 89.5 9.5 70-88 79 4.75 53-71 62 2.36 42-58 50 1.18 34-48 41 0.600 26-38 32 0.300 18-28 23 0.150 12-20 16 0.075 4-10 7.0
Fig. 1: Reconstituted Size Distribution Used
Viscosity Test
The viscosities of VG 30 and of modified bitumen prepared with different percentages of SBS were determined using Brookfield Viscometer at a temperature of 135oC and the results are shown in table 6.
Table 6: Viscosities of Neat and Modified Binders
Binder Viscosity (Pa.s) 60/70 0.5 3S 1.7 5S 3.2 7S 6.4
EXPERIMENTAL WORK Mix Design

An Asphalt Institute Marshall Method of Mix Design has been adopted for the preparation of mixes (Asphalt Institute, 2003). The Marshall method as presented here is applicable only to hot-mix asphalt
cements and containing aggregates with maximum size of 19mm or less. The method is intended for laboratory design of asphalt hot-mix paving. The Marshall method uses standard cylindrical test specimens of 63.5 mm height x 101 mm diameter. These were prepared using a specified procedure for heating, mixing, and compacting the asphalt aggregate mixtures. The two principal features of the Marshall method of mix design are stability-flow test and density-voids analysis of the compacted test specimens. Following criteria was adopted for the design of mixes (MoRTH Specification, 2001); Bitumen content % by mass of total mix Compaction level (number of blows) Stability at 60C (minimum) Flow, 0.25mm (minimum) Flow, 0.25mm (minimum) Percent air voids in mix (Va) Percent voids in mineral aggregates (VMA) Percent voids filled with bitumen (VFB) Loss of stability on immersion in water 5.0-7.0 % 75 blows on each of the two faces 900 kg 2 4 3-6 14 (minimum) 65-75 75 % retained strength (minimum) at 60C (ASTM D1075) The Marshall Stability and flow test provides the performance prediction measure for the Marshall mix design method. The stability portion of the test gives the measures of the maximum load resistance in Newtons that the standard test specimen will develop at 60C with a loading rate of 50.8 mm/minute. Load is applied to the specimen till failure, and the maximum load is designated as stability. During the loading, an attached dial gauge measures the specimen's plastic flow (deformation) due to the loading. The flow value is the total movement or strain, in units of 0.25millimeter (1/100 in.) occurring in, the specimen between no load and maximum load during the stability test (Asphalt Institute, 2003). In all 12 types of mixes comprising of three types of aggregates viz: granite, quartzite and marble were prepared with neat VG 30 and 3%, 5% and 7% SBS modified binders.
Optimum Bitumen Content

The OBC was determined for the mix design by taking average value of the following three bitumen contents found: 1. Binder content corresponding to maximum stability 2. Binder content corresponding to maximum bulk specific gravity (Gm) 3. Binder content corresponding to the median of designed limits of percent air voids (Vv) in the total mix (i.e. 4%)
RESULTS
A total of 315 Marshall Specimens were prepared to determine the optimum binder content comprising of various combinations of aggregates and binders.
Table 7: Optimum Binder Content for Neat and SBS Modified Bitumen
Aggregate Marble Granite Quartzite VG 30 5.2 5.5 5.6 VG 30 + 3S 5.35 5.68 5.80 Binder VG 30 + 5S 5.40 5.72 5.86 VG 30 + 7S 5.43 5.75 5.90
EFFECT OF AGGREGATE
The values in the Table 7 indicate that for same gradation the optimum binder content (OBC) for mixes prepared with marble have the lowest OBC of 5.2 followed by granite and quartzite. This may be due to the presence of high amount of Ca in marble. As the Ca content reduces in granite and quartzite the OBC increases. Granite and Quartzite require 6% to 8% more bitumen compared to marble. Kumar and Anand (2012) also concluded similar results based on their experimentation. Chemical evaluation studies on bitumen functional groups stated that calcareous fillers cause both catalysts in bitumen favoring oxidation and polar molecules to be captured. These molecules if free would interact with products resulting from oxidation, thus giving rise to the appearance of ketones, anhydrids, etc. As a result viscosity would increase, and reduction in viscosity leads to a lower OBC value.
Effect of Modifier
As indicated in table 7 the values of OBC for bitumen modified with SBS (Mollahosseini et al.,2008) are comparatively more compared to unmodified bitumen (Cagri and Burak, 2009) and this OBC further increase with increase in percentage of modifier in bitumen. This may be due to higher viscosity of SBS modified bitumen compared to unmodified binder. As the viscosity of the binder increases, more of its quantity is required in coating the same aggregates. Therefore as the modifier content increases from 0 to 7%, the OBC increases.
CONCLUSION
On the basis of the results from this study, the following conclusions can be drawn: 1. OBC values are more in case of modified bitumen compared to unmodified bitumen. 2. As the polymer content increases the OBC value increases due to increase in viscosity. 3. For mixes prepared with calcareous aggregates, the OBC is less compared to mixes prepared with siliceous aggregates.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] Asphalt Institute, (2003). Superpave Mix Design. Superpave Series SP-2, Third Edition, 2001.Printing. Revised 2003, Lexington, Kentucky, USA. Kumar. P and Anand. P., (2012). Laboratory Study on Moisture Susceptibility of Dense Graded Mixes, Journal of Transportation Engineering, 138, NO. 1,105-113. Mollahosseini. H.S., Yadollahi. G. and Amoosoltani E. (2008). Testing and appraisal of Lucobit polymer effect as an additive on asphalt mixture performance, Ist International Bitumen Conference, Iran Gorkem.C. and Sengoz.B.(2009) Predicting stripping and moisture induced damage of asphalt concrete prepared with polymer modified bitumen and hydrated lime. Construction and Building Materials 23.2227-2236. Isacsson., U., and Lu, X. (1995). Testing and appraisal of polymer modified road bitumen. Material structure, 28, pp. 139159. Wardlaw K.R, Shuler S. (1992). Polymer Modified Asphalt Binders. American Society for Testing Materials, ASTM STP 1108, Philadelphia, PA Curtis, C.W., Ensley, K. and Epps, J., (1993) Fundamental properties of bitumenaggregate interactions including adhesion and absorption, SHRP 341, NRC: Washington, DC. Gast, R., (1977).Surface and colloid chemistry. In Minerals in Soils Environments, edited by J.B. Dixon and S.B. Weed, pp. 2773, Soil science society of America: Madison, Wisconsin. Roberts, F.L., Kandhal, P.S. and Brown, E.R., (1991). Hot mix asphalt materials, mixture design, and construction, Library of Congress.NAPA publication: Lanham. Scott, J.A.N., (1978). Adhesion and disbonding mechanisms of asphalt used in highway construction and maintenance. J. Assoc. Asphalt Paving Tech., 47, 1943. Petersen, J.C., Plancher, H., Ensley, E.K., Venable, R.L. and Miyake, G., (1982).Chemistry of asphaltaggregate interaction: relationship with pavement moisture-damage prediction test. Transport Research Record No. 843, pp. 95104, NRC: Washington, D.C. Plancher, H., Dorrence, S.M. and Petersen, J.C., (1977).Identification of chemical types in asphalts strongly adsorbed at the asphalt aggregate interface and their relative displacement by water. J. Assoc. Asphalt Paving Technol., 46, 151175. Stuart, K.D., (1990).Moisture damage in asphalt mixturesstate-of-the-art. Report No.FHWA-RD-90-019, FHWA, 6300, VA221012296. Petri V. Peltonen (1992).Road Aggregate Choice Based on Silicate Quality and Bitumen Adhesion. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 118, No. 1, pp 50-61.
Influence of Crushing Size of the Aggregates on Bituminous Mix and its Mechanical Properties
Archana N. Shagoti1 and K.M. Mallesh2
1P.G. 2Associate
Student, Siddaganga Institute of Technology, India; archanashagoti.002@gmail.com Professor, Siddaganga Institute of Technology, India; malleshkm@rediffmail.com
AbstractThe aggregate source, physical properties and the production technology by crushers has great influence on performance of the bituminous mixes. Aggregates are produced from crushers who may be at single stage jaw crusher alone and may be associated with secondary stage cone crushers. This crushing pattern has very much influence on the shape indices of aggregates, which is one of the vital properties. Shape indices largely depend on the feeder size of the aggregate boulders which is varied from 350mm to 600mm. Firstly fed into the Primary stage jaw crushers. Further they get reduced to the half of the size in some make or to one third size in another type of the crushers before they are fed into secondary cone crushers. This has been observed practically by selecting METSO. The shape indices (Combined Flakiness and Elongation index)as per the specification by MORT&H is to be less than 30 % for all mix designs which is difficult to achieve even with advanced crushers like METSO. This is due to uncontrolled feeder size of boulders into primary jaw crushers. Aggregates from METSO crusher have been selected and used for design of Dense graded bituminous macadam (DBM) to understand the importance of the feeder size and its influence on the Mechanical properties of Bituminous mixes. Aggregates are separated into different shapes such as flaky, elongated and angular using conventional thickness and elongation gauge and are grouped into three type on the basis of Shape indices value such as < 30 %, > 30 % and Normal (as obtained from crusher). Marshall Method of Asphalt mix Design as per the procedure MS-II is being carried out. Keywords: Crusher, shape indices
INTRODUCTION
Road is one of land transportation infrastructure is very important in supporting the economic for both regional development. The quality of material for road construction will also influence the road performance. The aggregate constitute major component of Flexible pavement layers. As such the resulting properties of the pavement layers largely depends upon the properties of its constituent aggregates which in turn depends on its composition, size, source etc. the variety of aggregates widely exhibit the variable results when tested for compliance with respect to the specifications laid down by agencies such as the MoRT&H. Besides all these the aggregates shape also plays a significant role. The aggregate shape, apart from rounded, angular is also expressed in terms of its shape factors such as flakiness and elongation. The sum of flakiness and elongation indices of an aggregate mix is termed as its combined index. The longevity, structural stability and the orientation of the aggregates under the wheel loads are very much dependent upon the Particle shape of the aggregates. It affects the gradation requirement, mix design properties both of unbound and bituminous courses of the flexible pavement. This one particular property of the aggregates has influence on the overall performance of the pavement. The MoRT&H has specified an upper limit of combined index as 30% for all types of bituminous mixes. The process of obtaining the aggregates with desired shape and combined index has become a very tedious task to achieve in the field. If one goes strictly by the MoRT&H specifications, the aggregates with combined index higher than 30% have to be discarded which is very difficult as the aggregate resources are briskly exhausting. It is necessary to find means of using even the marginal aggregates.
Influence of Crushing Size of the Aggregates on Bituminous Mix and its Mechanical Properties 607
The most commonly used crushers in India are Jaw crushers which are single stage crushers. It is difficult to control flakiness of aggregates within specified limits using these crushers alone. Some of the case studies in NHDP (National Highway Development Programme) have proved that with use of Cone crushers as primary crushers and Vertical Shaft Impact (VSI) as secondary crushers, the combined index can be controlled to even less than 25%. The cost of VSI crusher is 3 to 4 times higher than Jaw crushers. But the problem is schedule of rates where there is no additional cost specified for aggregates supplied from VSI crushers1.
SHAPE FACTOR OF AGGREGATES

The particle shape of aggregate is determined by the percentages of flaky and elongated particles contained in it. For bituminous macadam type, the presence of flaky and elongated particles is considered undesirable as they may cause inherent weakness with possibilities of braking down under heavy loads. In general, it is also found that, in Jaw crushers flakiness index increases with decrease in size of aggregate produced1 (maximum between 12.5 to 6.3 mm sieve size). Sridhar Raju et al., (2006) from their studies on aggregate shape concluded that with increase in combined flakiness and elongation indices there is reduction in bitumen content and improvement in mix properties. They also stated that based on laboratory studies it can be concluded that the mixes with combined flakiness and elongation indices of 35 percent can be adopted foe design of mixes without compromise in performance. D. Sakthibalan(2009) studied on influence of aggregate flakiness on dense bituminous macadam and semi dense bituminous concrete mixes and concluded that flakiness index up to 32 percent for DBM and 33 percent for SDBC can be permitted without compromising specification requirements. Meor Othman Hamzah et al., (2010) studied on effects of asphalt mixtures incorporating geometrically cubical aggregate to optimize the design of HMA mix. The partial substitution of normal aggregate in hot mix asphalt with geometrically cubical aggregate was investigated. They concluded that the asphalt content for all geometrically cubical aggregate percentage is found to have lower B.C than the normal aggregate mixture. This is due to the fact that more asphalt binder is required to coat the flat, elongated aggregate in the mixture. Ganapati Naidu and S. Adiseshu studied on Influence of coarse aggregate shape factors on bituminous mixtures and concluded that the mixes prepared by replacing 20 percent aggregates shown higher stability values. Cubical particles exhibit interlock and internal friction, and hence results in greater mechanical stability than the blade, rod, and disk shape aggregates. Particle shape parameter values obtained were higher for cubical shape aggregates and lower for blade shape aggregates. Paul K. Oduroh et al., (2000) studied on flat and elongated aggregates in superpave regime and concluded that there is no detrimental effect in mixes containing up to 40% of 3:1 Flaky and Elongated aggregates.
OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF STUDY 1. To study the effect of flaky and elongation indices on volumetric properties of DBM mixes. 2. To study the effect of flaky and elongation indices on laboratory performance of DBM mixes. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES Aggregates
For the Laboratory study, the aggregate of sizes 40mm, 20mm, 12.5mm and stone dust were obtained from Maidala near Tumkur District. The Physical properties of aggregates are given in Table 1.
Ta able 1: Physical Propertie es if Aggregat tes

Test Impact (% %) Crushing (%) Specific Gravity G Water Ab bsorption (%) Abrasion (%) Method IS:2 2386 Part IV -19 963 IS:2 2386 Part IV -19 963 IS:2 2386 Part IV -19 963 IS:2 2386 Part IV -19 963 IS:2 2386 Part IV -19 963 Results 26% 20.3 2.67 0.4 33% Requiremen nts Max 27% Max 2% Max 35%
Bitume en
80/100 penetration grade bitum men obtained from Man ngalore refin nery was use ed in the stu udy. The physical l properties of o the bitume en are given in Table 2.
Tab ble 2: Propert ties of 80/100 0 Grade Bitu umen
Test Description Penetratio on (mm) at 250C (IS: 1203-1925 5) Ductility (cm) ( at 250C (IS: 1208-1978) Softening g Point (0C) (IS: 1203-1978) 1 Specific Gravity G Flash Poin nt(0C) (IS: 1203-1978) Limits Min Min Min Min Require ements 80-1 100 75 5 40 0 0.97-1.02 22 20 Result ts 85 >75 47 0.99 256
Aggreg gate Gradat tion

The gra adation obta ained using 40mm 4 , 20m mm, 10mm, stone dust t along with h MoRT&H specified gradatio on are shown n in Fig. 1.
F Fig. 1: Grada ation Curve fo or Aggregate es
Marsha all Mix Des sign

The Mar rshall test method was used u to select the optimu um binder co ontent (OBC C). Dense Bit tuminous Macadam Mix samp ples were pre epared using g 75 blows of o Marshall Hammer on n each face at a binder percenta ages increasi ing in 0.5 pe ercent increm ments, with three t replicat tes at each b binder contents. Bulk density, stability, flow w, air voids, VFB & VMA A were calcu ulated for ea ach specimen n and averag ge for the replicate es at the sam me binder con ntent were al lso calculated d as given in n Table 3. Marshall Samp ples were prepared d at OBC an nd tested for bulk density y, stability, flo ow, air voids s, VFB & VM MA. The valu ues along with Mo oRT&H Spec cification for verification are a given in Table T 4.
Influence of Crushing Size of the Aggregates on Bituminous Mix and its Mechanical Properties 609
Table 3: Physical Property of DBM Mixes using Various Binders

Properties Bulk Density (gm/cc) Stability (kg)929 Flow(mm) 3.1 Air Voids 6.5 (%) VMA (%) 14.8 VFB (%) 55 3.5 2.331 CI>30% 4.0 4.5 5.0 2.340 2.348 2.355 Normal 5.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 2.365 2.33 2.34 2.352 2.36 2.37 3.5 2.33 CI<30% 4.0 4.5 2.345 2.354 5.0 5.5 2.357 2.367
1007 4.3 5.4 14.9 63
1094 5.4 4.4 15 71
1113 6.8 3.3 15.2 78
1052 7.5 2.2 15.3 85
1036 1220 1539 1626 1578 1115 1179 2.8 3.5 4.7 5.6 6.4 2.8 3.9 6.5 5.4 4.2 3.1 2.0 6.4 5.2 14.7 56 14.9 14.9 63 71 15.0 79 15.1 87 14.6 56 14.7 64
1362 4.6 4.1 14.8 72
1412 5.1 3.2 15.1 78
1385 6 2.1 15.2 86
Table 4: Mix Properties for Varying Combined Flakiness and Elongation Indices
Property OBC % (by weight of agg) Bulk density (g/cc) Stability (kN) Flow Value mm Air Voids (%) VFB (%) VMA (%) CI<30% 4.35 2.34 1600 3.1 5 70.6 16.96 Normal 4.5 2.3 1535 3.4 4.2 72.9 15.45 CI>30% 4.7 2.22 1428 4.6 3.5 76 14.75 MoRT&H Specifications Min 4.5 Min 900 2-4 3-6 65 to 75 Min 11
From Table 4: it can be observed that the binder content increased by 0.2 percent for CI>30%, and also there was reduction in density, stability and air voids. It was also observed that the decrease in CI resulted in increased density, stability and sufficient air voids. There is no much difference in the VMA to accommodate sufficient bitumen for durability of the mix.
Moisture Sensitivity Characteristics

To find the moisture sensitivity of mixes with varying combined indices, indirect tensile strength (ITS) tests were conducted on dry and wet samples as per AASHTO-T-283. The indirect tensile strength ratio values are given in Table 5.
Table 5: ITS Ratio for Varying FI and EI
CI CI>30% Normal CI<30% ITS (kg/cm2) 7.28 8.24 8.45 Retained ITS (kg/cm2) 6.16 6.84 7.32 ITS Ratio 84.61 83.00 86.62
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS Stability and Flow

From Marshall Mix design, specimens were prepared at optimum binder content of 4.7%, 4.5% and 4.35% for CI>30%, Normal (unasserted), CI<30% respectively. Then the specimens were tested for Marshall Stability and flow value. The results are shown in Table 6.
Table 6: Stability and Flow Values for Mixes
Case CI<30% Normal (Unsorted) CI>30% Stability (kg) 1600 1535 1428 Flow (mm) 4.6 3.4 3.1
The results show that the mixes with CI<30% have relatively higher stability. These mixes had 5 percent higher stability compared to Normal (unsorted). But mixes prepared with CI>30% resulted in 7 percent in stability when compared to mixes with Normal (unsorted). The results showed that the
stability is not much affected for mixes with CI>30% when compared to MoRT&H specification of CI of 30 percent fulfilling the criteria of minimum 900kg stability.
Moisture Sensitivity
The moisture sensitivity tests were conducted on DBM mixes with combined flakiness and elongation indices of CI>30%, Normal (unsorted Aggregates) and CI<30% as per AASHTO-T-283 at air voids of approximately 6 percent. The average indirect tensile strength ratio were 84.61, 83.00 and 86.62 percent respectively, fulfilling the minimum criteria of 80% (ASTM standards). The results showed that the even the mixes prepared with combined flakiness and elongation indices of 35 percent satisfied the MORT&H Specification.
Density and Voids Ratio Relationship

The density values at OBC are 2.34,2.3and 2.22 gm/cc for combined indices greater than 30 percent, for normal (unsorted aggregates)and combined indices less than 30%. Density from these results decreases from 1.709 and 3.478 percent. Air voids obtained from mix changes decrease from combined indices less than 30 percent to combined indices greater than 30 percent.
VMA and VFB Relationship

At optimum binder content (OBC) VMA values are 16.96, 15.75 and 14.45 percent for combined indices greater than 30 percent, for normal (unsorted aggregates) and combined indices less than 30 percent. VMA values increases by 7.13 and 8.25 percent if CI increased from less than 30 percent to greater than 30 percent.
CONCLUSION
1. From studies it can be concluded that increase in binder content from 4.35, 4.5 and 4.7 for combined indices of greater than 30 percent, for normal (unsorted aggregates) and for combined indices less than 30 percent respectively for DBM mixes. 2. Air voids increased with increase in combined indices in the mix, from which it can be inferred that both flaky and elongated aggregates gives rise to more voids during reorientation of aggregates as proved by researchers earlier. 3. From laboratory study it can be concluded that the stability decreases with increase in combined indices. The values of stability satisfy the minimum value of 900 kg as specified in MoRT&H. 4. It has been found very difficult to obtain aggregates with combined flakiness and elongation indices less than 30 percent which ie specified in MoRT&H, this work has given way for utilizing aggregates of up to 50% combined indices for state highway projects and other small projects.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Oduroh PK, Mahboub KC and Anderson RM, Flat and elongated aggregates in super pave regime. J Mater Civil Eng 2000:12(2):124-30. Chen J, Chang MK, Lin KY, Influence of coarse aggregate shape on the strength of asphalt concrete mixtures, J Eastern Asia Society of Transportation Studies 2005:6:1062-75. Sridhar Raju, Sunil Bose, B.M. Sharma and K. Venkat Narayan. Fatigue and permanent defrormation characteristics on flakiness and elongation Indices of dense mixes. Ganpathi Naidu. P and S. Adiseshu, Inflence of coarse aggregate shape factors on bituminous mixtures, International Journal of engineering Research and Applications. Meor Othman Hamazah, Mailiana Azura Ahmad Puzi and Khairun Azizi Mohd. (2010), Properties of geometrically cubical aggregates and its mixture design. D. Shaktibalan. Influence of Aggregate Flakiness on Dense Bituminous Macadam & Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete Mixes Indian Geotechnical Society Chennai chapter.
Port and Road Developments-Roast & Boost for Privatization

R. Ramakrishnan
Chief Engineer, JNPT (Retd.), Visiting Professor NICMAR, Navi Mumbai; ramakrishnan_1940@rediifmail.com
AbstractTransportation through water mode is cheapest. Hence, International Trade Moves Through Ports. Port Development is a complex project. Unless there is assured traffic & adequate road/ rail linkages it cannot function. Major ports are under the control of central govt. & minor ports are under state govt. due to resource crunch & the needed development. For faster handling the improvements in major ports are being done under privatization concept with revenue sharing. Minor ports have been developed fast since past decade, more in Gujarat & in other states. Maritime agenda project a traffic of 2500 mn Ton for 2020. Hence, coming decade should show remarkable improvement in port development & handling. Railway transportation which is cheaper than the road has not significantly improved, hence, The need for road development road lengths have improved from 4 lakh Km in 1950 to 47 lakh Km now. Though there are lots of deficiencies. Due to resource crunch the national and state highways are being developed under PPT/BOT concept also, where the entrepreneur recouped cost and profit from tolls. Hence, all out efforts to cause enthusiasm to entrepreneur should be made for success in privatisation scheme.
PORT DEVELOPMENT
Transportation through water is the cheapest mode, however it is time consuming. Major international trade which is about 95% of import/ export (77% in value) take place through ports. India has about 7500 km of coastal line and about 170 ports. Major ports are under the control of central govt. & minor ports are under control of state govt.
Major Ports
Chennai, Kolkata, Mumbai, Mormugao are the Oldest ports. The metro cities have grown because of the port trade. The port at Vishakapatnam and Cochin has come up in 1933 and 1936 after the partition of India, in lieu of Karachi. Kandla Port has been newly commissioned in 1959. Mormugao Port from Portuguese has declared in 1963 and Paradip Port in Orissa is operational since 1966. New Mangalore and Tuticorin Port are operational since 1975. Haldia Port as satellite to Kolkotta has come up in 1977. High tech port at Nhava (JN Port) has come up in 1989, & Ennore Port is operational since 2001. Andaman Port has been commissioned in 2011. Thus there are 13 Major Ports under the control of Central Government.
Minor Ports
There are about 150 minor ports under the control of state government. Port development is a cost intensive project. Unless interlinked infrastructure of road, railways including assured traffic and waterway exists, port may not be viable. That is the reason many minor ports are non functional. Since past decade private ports in Gujarat at Mundra, Dahej, Jamnagar, Pipav, Vadinar, Rewas etc have come up due to the state proactive encouragement. Other maritime states are also striving to develop minor ports. Following minor ports are operational in other States. Andra Pradesh-Machlipatnam, Krishna Patnam, Gangavaram, Kakinada Tamil Nadu-Cuddalore, Karaikkal
Orissa-Gopalpur, Damra Maharashtra-Jaigad, Dighi Some more are under planning / consideration.
Port Handling Major Ports

Traffic through the port is driven by socioeconomical conditions / political policies perused by government. & the industrial development. Port cannot be functional itself but require the other linkages of transport such as road & rail for movement of traffic and trade. In 1950 the major ports handled hardly 20 MT. This has crossed in 50 years to 271 MT in 2000, about 14 times and by 2011 in a decade further, doubled to 560 MT as given in Table 1. The past decade has showed sharp increase in goods handling due to economic reforms and faster growth.
Table 1: Growth of Major Port Traffic
Year 1950 1990 2000 2011 No. of Ports 3 11 11 13 Traffic, MT 20 154 271 560
The composition of traffic has also of varying nature as given in Table 2. In 1950, the POL traffic has hardly 8% which has become about 32% in 2010. The next item is coal, 13% for power generation from 3%. Iron ore has become 11% for export. Other types of cargo, which has used 75% in 1950 has dwindled to 18%. Many cargos are being containerized for easy and safe handling with no pilferage. The containers have come in 1974 to Cohin & Mumbai & from then on it is increasing day by day and has been used 18% for cargo handling 2010.
Table 2: Composition of Port Traffic (MT)
Category POL Coal Iron ore Fertilizers Containers Other cargo Total 1950 1.5 3.0 0.4 14.3 19.2 % 8 15 2 75 100 2010 % 32 13 11 2 18 18 100
Minor Ports
Though there are about 150 minor ports in various states, the traffic handled per year till 1989 is in single digit. Drastic improvements in construction of new ports by private players in Gujarat & other States has given a good fillip and the development / traffic handling has improved as given in Table 3. In 2011, Minor Ports handled 370 MT of which 70% are from Gujarat Ports. the share of minor port handling in the past 40 years have increased from 10% to 40%, giving its prominence in handling, and overtake Major Ports in this decade.
Table 3: Major/ Minor Port Handling of Traffic-in Mn Ton
Year 1990 2000 2011 Major Ports 148 271 560 Minor Ports 10 63 370 Total 158 334 930 Major Port % 94 82 62 Minor Port % 6 18 38
Port Visions
Predicting or projecting the traffic for future, for the ports, are riddled with many imponderable, since the same is dependent on so many factors, not in the control of trade or ports, as given below:-
Port and Road Developments-Roast & Boost for Privatization 613
Economic Development Technological & Sociological Changes Governmental Policies on Import / Export Industrial Development Drought or good rains Lack of infrastructure facilities such as draft / road / rail.
Due to poor infrastructure facilities in Indian ports, major containerized cargo are transhipped at Colombo, Singapore or Dubai and hence predominantly fed by feeder vessels. JNPT is being planned for 20 years. The delay in modernisation/ construction of JN Port is a gain to Colombo Port. Due to financial constraints JN Port is constructed with international funding from World Bank , Dutch, Saudi etc after a gap of 25 years. The successful compliance and completion enabled ADB to fund schemes in Cochin Port etc so also for highway developments. Creating Port facilities ahead of traffic demand would invite more traffic. The countrys Maritime Improvement Programme gave an impetus for faster Port Development; the policy is being perused by UPA Govt. also.
Vagaries of Forecast
Various factors cause confusion in forecasting the traffic for port resulting in huge variations. Certain attempts have been made in the past to study periodically and forecast for future traffic as given in Table 5. 9th Plan forecast for 2002 as 424 MT has been overestimated by more than 30%. International & national economic slowdowns were causes of not achieving the targets.
Table 4: Various Forecast of Port Traffic (MT)
Study 9th Pan Port Vision Year 1997 2000 Year (Forecast) 2002 2006 2020 2011 2017 2020 Traffic Projection 424 450 610 ( Major ) 690 ( Minor ) 788 ( Major ) 402 ( Minor ) 943 ( Major ) 815 ( Minor ) 1215 (major) 1280(minor) Actual 301 423
11th Plan 12th Plan Maritime Agenda
2006 2011 2011
560 370
The Government has constituted a committee in 2000 to draw up a perspective plan for Port Development & Management for 2020. They have projected the traffic as 1300 MT giving almost equal share for Major & Minor Ports. 11th plan Projection of Traffic by 2011 has been 1032 MT short by 100 MT, as the traffic in major ports are 560 MT and 370 MT for minor ports. The traffic in 2011-12 falls below earlier year, due to economic slowdown. In respect of major ports, development works proposed in 11th Plan has not materialized. As against target of 70 PPP Projects, only 27 could be awarded and hence the capacity addition does not materialize. 12th Plan projection of traffic by 2017 as 943 MT for Major Ports and 815 MT for Minor Ports, Total 1758 MT, whether would be achieved is to be seen. Unless the economic slowdown and rainy conditions improve, which has gone down from 9% to 6%, it may not be achieved.
Maritime Agenda for 2020

Port vision study of 2000 has indicated total traffic for 2020 as 1300 MT whereas ministrys Maritime Agenda in 2011 for 2020 of traffic & capacity, 2500 MT which is nearly double the projection given in Port vision study.
The scheme endorses that developments / handling in minor ports would overtake that of major ports, Time only will say whether it is going to happen. In Gujarat 12 and equal number in other Maritime States are in the state of planning / awarding of the works. Thus unless there is a strong thrust and mission for development, the traffic / capacity may not materialize.
HURDLES IN PORT HANDLING/ DEVELOPMENT

The reasons for low productivity in Indian Ports are: Ships have to wait for long in the channel for berthing. Internationally the berth occupancy should be 50% wheras in India; it is 95-100%. The productivity of unloading / loading are so low that ships waiting increases considerably. Internationally container ships are unloaded in 1 day wheras in India; it takes 24 days. Port Handling is labour intensive in India. Lack of mechanized handling for bulk cargo. Desire to change the outmoded system is lacking. Available equipments are outdated and hence have low efficiency. Inadequate and inept maintenance of equipments. Draft restrictions in the navigation channel / berth does not allow bigger vessels to be brought. Indian Ports have draft of 7-17 meters, while international ports have draft of 12-23 meters. Berthing of ship navigation wait for high tides & day light. Adequate and high tech cranes are not available for handling containers. Insufficient yard for stacking / handling containers, ICD facilities. Cranes operators lacks experience, poor maintenance. Computerization in handling & administration processes is lacking. Warehousing facilities are insufficient. Good road / rail links for transportation are insufficient. The railways do not provide adequate rakes for easy movement of cargo / containers. Priority for container trains does not exist; hence time taken to reach this destination is more. Inapt coordination and restrictions from the customs / security authorities for quicker handling. Ports do not work on commercial lines, customer oriented or in a flexible manner. Due to resource crunch the developments needed are lacking. Road/ railway links lack Environmental & other clearances for developments take a long time.
IMPROVEMENT STRATERGIES
Ministry of shipping and ports have taken drastic measures for ensuring the appropriate improvements with vision, mission and thrust, in the form of businessprocessre-engineering concept with major focus on the aspects of Port Developments in a phased manner in all fronts Faster handling Maintenance improvement
Port Tariff through separate authority Development of Port Linkages. Automation Empowerment Coordination Corporatisation Privatisation
The measures has already implemented/ to be implemented are a continual process and no complacency should set in. Port has to function with customer orientation. Financial powers of ports for sanction are considerably increased. Corporatisation and privatization is also adopted. New Ennore port is already corporatized. Corporatisation of JNPT and Haldia is on anvil since decade. Other ports are to follow in phases, .but cooperation from labour union is lacking. Resource crunch had caused to explore privatization concept and are successful. Revision of Port tariff is stream lined by creating a separate authority. Automation in port administration management and operations have improved. Thus there is a fresh air and thrust for causing developments.
Transport Links
Unless Road/ Railway links are provide to the port, they cannot function. National Highway links to major ports are provided by NHAI under SPV with ports & State cooperation. Private Ports such as Adani, Pipav have provided at their own cost. In view of heavy container traffic etc, Govt. has conceived dedicated freight corridor (DFC) connecting MumbaiDelhi for 1840 kms and DelhiHowrah for 1540 kms at a cost of Rs, 50,000 Crores with loan assistance from World Bank / Japan etc. The work is of high importance, but the progress is slow and the cost hence already got doubled. This needs to be given high priority for completion 5.4 The financial need for capacity development of ports is of the order of Rs.1.7 Lakhs Cr of which 40% is for major ports and 60% is for minor ports. Nearly 85% has to be on privatisation which is of quite high order, in view of very uncertainties.
Privatisation
The resource crunches for port development have caused the ports to go in for privatization. Privatization gives the following, advantages, hence gaining momentum: Port Development Increased Productivity Better Management Flexibility in operation Use of latest equipments Revenue generation
Ports are able to get additional capacity & traffic and 30-40 % revenue thereof, with hardly any expenditure. Privatization concept was initially successful at the high tech new portJNPT. A new container terminal with a quay length of 600 metres, yards, equipments etc was done at a cost of Rs. 700 Crores through P & O Australia who were pioneers in operation of containers terminal. The success caused fillip to other ports also such as Chennai, Tutu Corin, Cochin, Vishakhapatnam etc also to go in for privatization. About 21 projects costing Rs. 180 Bn are under implementation in PPP Concept
to create 170 Mn Ton capacities in another 2 years in major ports. Similarly minor ports at a cost of Rs. 470 Bn are under process/ implementation in various states.
Risks for Entrepreneurs

We could see the vast variations in the traffic forecast, which is considered to be not abnormal, for various reasons brought out . This makes all the more difficult for the Entrepreneur, to forecast for the revenue, to invest in the port development projects. Again the various Governmental clearances such as Coastal, environmental, forest defence /security, local fisherman etc. causes delay in the construction of the project itself. Delay in construction causes additional cost. Again the transportation linkages such as road and rail, whether they already exist, or the concerned department will provide or need to be developed by the Entrepreneur, is a question, as they all involve additional cost. . Unless these linkages are established, the port cannot function. No wonder the financing institutions would critically evaluate the viability of the project, for their funding. But, unless risk is taken for all these uncertainties, pragmatically, with strategy, no Entrepreneur can flourish.
TARIFF IN MAJOR/ MINOR PORTS

The tariff for the major ports is fixed by the port tariff authority. The rates for the minor ports under administration with the State govt. are fixed by the relevant ports. Hence they are more flexible based on market demand. This is causing concern for Major ports, if minor ports are nearer and with competitive rates. This is a commercial complex & Central-State Govt. problem. Central Govt. is considering hence restricting the construction of minor ports nearer than 100 km to Major ports, which is not agreeable to the State Govt. This problem has to be addressed carefully, & amicably sorted out. Coming decade should show remarkable improvements, if the problems are adequately addressed.
ROAD DEVELOPMENT Road V/S Railway Development

1. Transportation cost per Km is cheaper in Railway compared to Roads. The development of Railways, after Independence has not been encouraging to the needs. Many proposals of railway dev. are in paper delayed for decades also. Sustained vision & mission in achieving the same are lacking. Hence the share of traffic from Railways had gone to Roads for both people and cargo. (Table 1)
Table 5: Comparison of Passenger & Cargo in Rail V/s Road
Year 1951 1991 2010 2011 2021 (proj*) %Road 22 53 65 80 87 Passenger % Rly 78 47 35 20 13 %Road 38 80 86 90 95 Freight % Rly 62 20 14 10 5
This necessitated the development of roads and highways. 1. The prime advantage of road dev. Are a. penetration to interiors b. cheaper gradient & curves c. lesser cost per km of construction d. accumulation of smaller traffic e. purchase of vehicles/ trucks by private parties
These are despite of the steep increases in the cost of fuel, as the traffic has to move for trade & people for economic dev. 1. At Independence India had, about 4 Lacs Kms of roads and 3 Lacs vehicles. By 2000, the road length became about 47 Lacs Kms, vehicles about 800 Lacs, of which 70% are two-wheelers.
Table 6: Length of Roads (March 2011) (Lakhs km)
National Highways State Highways Urban Roads PWD roads Project Roads Rural Roads Total 0.71 1.65 4.15 10.10 2.85 27.54 47.oo
1. The qualities of roads, in terms of width and pavement condition are quite poor needing largescale development for energy-efficient and faster transportation. A Truck travels about 300 Kms per-day in India while internationally it travels about 600 Kms per-day. Nearly 90000 people die and 4 Lacs injured on 4.5 Lacs road accidents, yearly which shows the dismal road safety, but is not keenly felt. Hence the dire need for substantial development. 2. The NH carries about 40% of traffic in 2% length; both NH/SH carry about 70% of traffic with hardly 5% length. Even today about 25% of NH are single lane/ intermediate lane, 50% are of 2lanes. Major portion of SH are of Single Lane. This would indicate the need for better development of NH/SH and other roads, so also for Access-controlled Expressways. The funds available are hardly sufficient for the needs. Even the tax collected on road vehicles are not spent on road improvements. Hence the need for going in for other resources as under: Financing from World Bank, ADB and other financial institutions, after the success of similar funding for JNPT and other port projects. Cess on diesel and petrol and use such revenue for road/highway development Levy toll on vehicles using developed roads/highways and under EPC Private financing (Partly/Fully): The entrepreneur is allowed to levy toll on vehicles for some period, such that project/maintenance cost, financing and profit are recouped by the entrepreneur.
CONCEPT OF PRIVATISATION
The entrepreneur plans, design, construct and maintain the stretch with his own financing, including loans from banks/institutions. The expenditure incurred for construction & maintenance and the profit desired is earned by levying the toll on the vehicles using the roads for a certain period called operation period. Construction plus operation period is called Concession Period. For this to materialise, the essentials are: The project completed smoothly in least time and economical cost. The physical structure and specifications should match the concession period and thereafter. Employer/Consultant/ Local officials all should be cooperative Financing should be available with least interest and hassle-free The revenue earned from the toll of vehicles should make the project commercially viable. In case the project lingers for longer time, the cost increases. In case the vehicles do not pay the toll/revision of toll, or use other alternative un-tolled roads, the viability is affected. For these contingencies, there should be positive mind set to resolve amicably, so that the success of the scheme and the enthusiasm of entrepreneur are undeterred
There are quite successful/problematic schemes under this concept; hence the need for proactive measures to remove the hurdles. It has to be clearly understood that district/ village roads where the traffic is quite less cannot be done under privatization concept as, the cost v/s revenue on tolls maybe quite less, while many may not afford to pay the toll. Those roads have to be dev. under govt. funding only.
METHODS OF PRIVATISATION
There are different types of schemes of funding in privatisation, based on the complexities of cost and traffic revenue as under:
EPC and Tolling

The employer engages an EPC contractor for construction as per the design and specifications of the employer. Construction cost and maintenance cost is met by the employer. The road is tolled and the revenue earned by the employer through other agencies. The maintenance, periodical maintenance, tolling is also being done under privatisation concept.
DBFOT (DESIGN, BUILD, FINANCE, OPERATE AND TRANSFER)

The entrepreneur has to investigate, design with specifications conforming to the requirements desired by the employer. The employer may permit higher design/specification than that specified. This concept encourages innovation and cost-economic-durable designs by the entrepreneur. To accept such innovations there has to be flexible and professional mindset for the employer. The entrepreneur has to construct & maintain with his own funding & recoup the cost & profit through tolls on vehicles moving on the road. Needless to say, that in case the revenue earned from tolls do not match the overall cost, for a stated period, the scheme would fail and there might not be any takers For E.g. the Mumbai-Pune Express way was originally floated under PPP model, fell through, because the entrepreneur proposed to offset the shortfall by creating real-estates along the highway. This was not envisaged by the employer. They had to get the work done as EPC contract, and then Tolled, but with terrible losses due to mismatch of expenditure versus revenue, as the vehicles were using the old/existing NH without toll. Will to pay the toll on the new Highway was lacking.
Concession Period or Upfront Payment

In commercially viable project, concession period maybe asked to be quoted; one with the Least Concession Period is the lowest tender and accepted. In some heavy dense traffic stretches, in a given concession period, if the revenue earned is more than the overall cost, the entrepreneur then pays a Premium/Upfront Payment. It could be on the Day-1 of the project being awarded, or at a later date when the construction is completed. This is also called Negative-Grant. Entrepreneur who offer higher premium is awarded the project. There are quite some schemes under this concept in NH.
Viability Gap Funding. (VGF)

Where the revenue from toll doesnt match the project cost, maintenance, the profit desired, they are called Commercially Un-Viable Projects. For such projects, no entrepreneur would venture. To make it viable, GRANT is provided without interest, which is called Viability Gap Funding (VGF). Thus, employer need not invest the full cost of development and maintenance. The entrepreneur who seeks lesser grant is awarded the project. For the NH projects the grant is limited to 40 %. In respect of certain State roads in MP, the grant had crossed 60% also. If the grant is limited, the employer can enhance the concession period, provided the project becomes viable then. Normally the maximum concession period provided is 30 years. Critical exercise should be conducted by the employer/ their consultants, but many times they invite tenders knowing fully well that the project is not viable.
Annuity Concept
Where the traffic is less, even with grants there are no takers, the project may not be viable. In such cases, the privatisation could be done with Annual Payment to the entrepreneur in the operation period. The payment could be for every 6 months or annual. This could also be with tolling or without tolling. In this system, with limited funds available, one can develop more projects than in EPC system. The Annuity concept commits the employer of expenditure for future years. Hence, hardly any State has gone with this concept
Swiss Challenge Method

Entrepreneur knowing the needs and demands of traffic and public can initiate a scheme and forward to the employer of his detailed proposal, cost, concession period toll etc. It is the prerogative of the employer to examine the scheme, for its importance and soundness. He may not accept the offer given, but go in for a tender. When the offers are received, if L-1 is higher than the entrepreneurs offer, it will be offered to the entrepreneur. If L-1 is lower than that proposed by the entrepreneur, he may be given an opportunity of first refusal. In case he matches, the L-1, he will be awarded; the L-1 tenderer offered some compensation for quoting. In case he does not match L-1, tender would be awarded to L-1 and the entrepreneur compensated for the initiatives taken for the scheme. This is called Swiss Challenge Method and is accepted by the Supreme Court as legal. The Taj Expressway of 165 km costing Rs.30, 000 Cr was awarded in 2003 by UP Govt to JayPee Infratech Ltd in this model. This project included facilities such as fuel pumps, shopping, motels and real-estate also. Though the project had problems, when another party formed the Govt later, it was a success story. The Ganga Expressway project, linking Noida to Ballia, of 1047 Kms, costing Rs 400 Bn was awarded to M/S JayPee Infratech Ltd, under the same concept. This had lot of hurdles as the people living on the enroute raised many objections. Finally due to court intervention the project fell through.
THORNS IN PRIVATIZATION PROJECTS

As the entrepreneur has to take keen interest, invest and develop, for a Project to be successful in PPP concept, employer should be very cooperative. The project should be attractive, create eagerness from the following aspects: Pre-Project transactions should be fast, smooth and transparent. Project documentation provided should elucidate all critical facts of positive and negative aspects in clear terms, done through consultants The requirements of the employer should be clear and not vague. Pre-Approvals and clearances required from many agencies such as Environment, Forest, TreeCutting, Security (Defence), Land Acquisition, Shifting of utilities, GAD and design approvals for rail under/over bridges etc for progressing the project should have been obtained or available without causing retardation in progress. Many times, this is, left to the responsibility of the Entrepreneur, to pursue with relevant depts. causing loss of time and cost of work. Reasonable compensation for delays caused should be available. Local Govt officials, where the stretch passes through should be enthusiastic and cooperative in the progress of the work. Local Population should be co-operative; on the other hand many times they obstruct and Politics is involved. There should be proper propaganda on the benefits of the project for them to realise and co-operate.
The traffic should use the developed project; the future projection has to be reasonably pragmatic taking into consideration future regional development which would enhance the traffic, and the improvements of other roads which would divert the traffic. Any loss or gain could be suitably shared between employer and entrepreneur. The users should pay the toll and the periodical increases, over the years. Many times, Politics play mess in this, affecting the revenue. It is hence sensible to provide a toll-schedule for full concession period, say taking into consideration 5% increase per year so that users also know, and one risk would be eliminated for the entrepreneur. This is done in Maharashtra PPP projects. The risks involved during construction or during operation, should be shared such that the completion and viability is not affected but suitably compensated. Concept of PARTNERSHIP should be realised than MASTER-SERVANT attitude of DICTATORSHIP, by the employer. The mindset of employers, the consultants who prepared the DPR and PMC who oversee the project, entrepreneur, Local Govt, should all be of co-operative and coordinative nature, in dealing with the problems faced by the Entrepreneur with empathy.
PPP has been going on for more than a decade. Many times these hurdles are not removed, dampening the enthusiasm of entrepreneurs. Hence there is creed need for change in mindset for smoother performance.
Status of Privatization Projects

India stands high in the concept of PPP roads internationally. The status as in Mar-2011 by the Govt of India (Table-3) reveals the reasonable success:
Table 7: Status of PPP Projects
Projects Completed In Progress Proposed Total Central Sector (NH) Nos Cost Rs. Crs 55 20139 127 103455 60 52573 242 176167 State Sector Nos Cost Rs. Crs 141 11438 91 28901 234 132668 466 173007 Nos 196 218 294 708 Total Cost Rs. Crs 31577 132356 185241 349174
Note: The Ministry has in the 12th Plan (2012-17) has plans to develop National Highways at a cost if Rs1.67 lacs Crores, which would indicate the heavy potential in the PPP Concept. Thus, if about 200 projects costing Rs.32000 crores are already completed, 218 Projects costing 1.32 Lacs Crores are under construction, and 300 Projects costing Rs. 1.85 Lacs Crores, we can say the concept is becoming successful. . With enthusiastic facilitative measures, taking clues from the difficulties faced both by employer and the entrepreneur the whole scheme could come out successfully.
SPECIAL FOCUS POINTS Prequalification

The prequalification criteria should be reasonable, so that the marginal entrepreneurs can take keen interest & improve their performance. 3 years before planning commission doubled the financial PQ criteria & limiting to top 6-7 entrepreneur/ JV only. This had unenabled the normal performers to quote for the work. Thus, for many works there were no or single tender. With no competition the tenders had to be reinvited with no result but in increasing the cost. This was later corrected by PM after constituting a committee under cabinet secretary.
Dispute Resolution
There is a total failure on dispute resolutions across the country in Central and States. Nearly Rs.10k Crs are held up in NH contracts of disputes affecting cash flow, even leading to termination of contracts. These are more in EPC contracts than in PPP contracts. The employers representatives are afraid of taking fair decisions due to fear of finance, audit, vigilance or giving room for similar claims in other contracts. The safe course taken hence is to reject and challenge the decisions/award even if the dispute board members are of reputed nature. The arbitration process is also taking hell of a time like a court case and cost. In arbitration, if the arbitrator holds the decision of the dispute board, it is challenged in the court, repeatedly till Supreme Court, even if there is no substance/justification. Once a matter goes to court, it takes nearly a decade for decision. In the mean time the progress gets affected due to cash flow problems. Foreign entrepreneurs hesitate to take works because of this unfairness and delay. Many State Govt/ Undertakings do not have Dispute Resolution Boards or Arbitration clause, the decision is one-sided, needing to go to the court. Thus, the Dispute Resolution is delayed considerably affecting the cash flow & progress of work. The exemplary example of quick payment, quick decision, honouring realistically the dispute resolution, negotiation measures for settlement practiced by Delhi Metro Authorities should be emulated. Serious change in mindset, on dealing with disputes to settle quickly, fairly in an amicable manner with Give And Take concept is desirable.
Various Clearances
Environmental/ postal/ security/ defence clearances, forest clearances, tree cutting clearances, land acquisition, encroachment removal, rehabilitation measures, utility removal, railway under/over bridge approvals should all be processed earlier by the employer, by the time the work is to be started by the entrepreneur at site to avoid delays on execution & causing increase in cost .This is easily said than hardly accomplished.
Financing Problems
The finance for the project has to be met with equity from/among the JV partner(s) and the debt raised from the financing institutions such as banks etc. They do not rely completely on the Total cost of the project and the traffic revenue assessed by the entrepreneur. They engage their own consultants & critically review the whole exercise of cost of the project, traffic projections and revenue generation. Unless they are fully satisfied, they hesitate to finance the project. When they finance projects for different entrepreneurs they have some comparative inputs of two parties of cost versus revenue, thus viability of the project. If there are vast variations, they suspect the credibility of the scheme/entrepreneur and raise more queries to get reliable facts before financing. Because these long hard exercises, some entrepreneurs could not get financial close of the project, within the development period stipulated, and had to pay penalty too. The financing should be available from LIC/PROFIDENT FUNDS, banks etc at reduced interest, cross subsidised by Govt. But it is not happening.
CONCLUSION
Port development is an essential need for import/ export trade. Swift port dev. under NDA rule with SAGAR MALA concept gave a boost for dev. of Major Ports, & under privatisation. Some of the costal ports, especially Gujarat had taken major lead in Minor Port dev. under privatisation concept. Still Major Port dev. had not matched to the vision. Minor Ports are dev. faster than Major Ports. The road & railway linkages should be concurrently improved to cause the port to function. Perhaps the coming decade should show more results, in view of the heavy potential involved.
The highway & the road developments, needed because of improvements in railways which is cost effective per Km were very much lacking. Population increase & movement of traffic for business needed road dev. which is cost effective in construction. Resource crunch had to be met with by cess on fuel as well as the dev. through Public-Private- Participation concept. This has shown results, but facilitative, measures for the entrepreneur to progress still lack causing delays. It is hoped that in the coming decade more needed schemes under PPP concept would be executed smoothly for success with active pre- action by the employers.
Use of Expanded Poly-Styrene Geofoam for Construction of Road Embankment

Vivek U. Pathade1 and Sumedh Mhaske2
1M.Tech 2Associate
Student, CEED, V.J.T.I. Matunga (East) Mumbai, India; vivekpathade@ymail.com Professor, CEED, V.J.T.I. Matunga (East) Mumbai, India; symhaske@vjti.org.in
AbstractConstruction of roadway embankments on soft foundation soils found very costly and time consuming because of main approach i.e. to improve the engineering properties such as shear strength and compressibility of the foundation soils or reduce the weight of the embankment. The current day demand of construction industry requires speedy and cost economical construction, the use of lightweight fill become essential. The properties and geometry of man-made lightweight fills such as geofoam is well defined which provides more confidence and less uncertainty in its use than foundation improvement techniques. In this paper an attempt has been made to compare both the construction techniques for construction of road way embankment such as, traditional earthwork embankment and alternative earth fill material Geofoam. This study comprises a case study of construction of roadway embankment at Nasik, Maharashtra which has been constructed by using traditional earthwork. The cost of construction per unit of volume of earthwork has been ascertained. And it is compared with per unit volume rate of construction with Geofoam. The various aspects such as cost, duration for completion of roadway embankment and ease of construction are studied. It is found that the use of Geofoam is economical and find suitable alternative for earthwork embankment. Keywords: EPS Geofoam; GeoGripper Plate; Roadway Embankment; Cost Estimation.
INTRODUCTION
The use of nontraditional materials and products derived from them in engineered construction has proliferated in recent years. This includes both new materials as well as new uses of existing materials. A material in the latter category is expanded poly-styrene (EPS) Geofoam. The recent significant growth in the use of (EPS) Geofoam in geotechnical engineering construction as compressible inclusion has gained widespread popularity. [Ozgur and Aurelian, 2011] It is often more cost effective to use geofoam instead of traditional material, and it also helps to reduce the forces acting on a structure. It was used initially to provide thermal insulation, first above ground in 1950 and then below in 1960. [Horvath, 1999]. In Geotechnical construction of soft soil traditionally, the load is applied to the problematic foundation soils becomes problematic because, strengthening of the foundation can be difficult to control and the soil strata may not be known accurately. This problem has overcome by U.S.A and many of the West European countries with the use of Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) Geofoam material in replacement of foundation soil for number of civil engineering application [Stark et.al, 2004].
EPS GEOFOAM
Geofoam, a term referring to expanded polystyrene (EPS) blocks when used in embankment construction, is a super lightweight soil substitute material [Stark et.al, 2004]. Geofoam is any material or product that has a closed-cell structure that was created either in a fixed plant or in situ by an expansion process. Geofoam is now recognized as a type or category of geosynthetic in the same way as geogrids, geomembranes and geotextiles. Block-molded expanded polystyrene (EPS) is the geofoam material of choice in lightweight fill applications. EPS-block geofoam is unique as a lightweight fill material, with a density that is only about 1 percent of the density of traditional earth fill materials yet sufficiently strong to support motor vehicles, trains, airplanes, lightly loaded buildings,
and the abutments of small bridges. The extraordinarily low density of EPS-block geofoam results in significantly reduced gravity stresses on underlying soil foundations as well as reduced inertial forces during seismic shaking. In addition, geofoam is extremely easy and quick to place in all types of weather. Benefits of utilizing an EPS-block geofoam embankment include: (1) Ease and speed of construction, (2) Placement in adverse weather conditions, (3) Possible elimination of the need for preloading, surcharging, and staged construction, (4) Decreased maintenance costs as a result of less settlement from the low density of EPS-block geofoam, (5) Alleviation of the need to acquire additional right-of-way to construct flatter slopes because of the low density of EPS-block and/or the use of a vertical embankment because of the block shape of EPS, (6) Reduction of lateral stress on bridge approach abutments, (7) Use over existing utilities which reduces or eliminates utility relocation, and (8) Excellent durability. In a soil removal and replacement situation without the use of surcharging, the use of EPS-block geofoam may result in cost savings compared to other types of lightweight fill materials and conventional fill materials because the density of geofoam is 1/10th to 1/30th of the density of foamed concrete, 1/55th to 1/145th of the in-place density of boiler slag, and 1/100th of the density of conventional granular fill material. Thus, the lower density of EPS-block geofoam may alleviate the costs of soft soil removal (which include the attendant disposal problems and costs) and the possible need for an excavation support system, excavation widening, and temporary dewatering. [Stark, et.al, 2004]
SIZE AND SHAPE OF EPS GEOFOAM

Foam-Control (EPS) Geofoam is produced in block form and is easily positioned at the work site. Standards sizes: 1. 4 (1.2 m) widths 2. 8 (2.4 m) up to 16 (4.8 m) lengths 3. 1 (25 mm) to 36 (914 mm) thickness Other sizes and fabrication can be provided by the manufacturer. [Stark et.al, 2004]
GEOGRIPPER PLATE
The Foam-Control GeoGripper Plate is a galvanized steel multi-barbed connector. It is used to restrain Foam-Control (EPS) Geofoam from moving laterally in multi-layer applications. Its single piece two-sided design allows for excellent connection between layers in a one-step application. 1. Single Piece, Double Barbed Design 2. Galvanized Steel for Durability 3. Easy Fast Installation at Site 4. Strong Lateral Hold 5. Cost Effective The sharp barbs pierce quickly and firmly into rigid foams. The unique barb pattern locks the plate into place. The succeeding (EPS) Geofoam material seats firmly over the gripper plate. The (EPS) Geofoam is held against horizontal movement and work activities can proceed over top of the in-place layers. [EPS Geofoam Accessory, 2011] The plate is made up of galvanized or stainless steel with two-sided multi-barbed design capable of piercing geofoam. Each plate is capable of a lateral holding strength of 60 lbs. Two plates for each 4 x 8 section of EPS block is a minimum recommendation to minimize block to block movement during installation. [EPS Geofoam Accessory, 2011].
Use of Expanded Poly-Styrene Geofoam for Construction of Road Embankment 625
Fig. 1: Geo Gripper Plate [EPS Geofoam Accessory, 2011]
RATE ANALYSIS FOR ROADWAY EMBANKMENT Cost Estimation for Roadway Embankment by Traditional Method 32.5 m
2:1 Ground Level
10 m
2:1
20 m
20 m
Fig. 2: Cross Section Area of Roadway Embankment at NH-3 Nasik
Calculation for volume of Embankment: 1. By Mid-Section Method [Dutta, 2010] 2. Total Area of Mid-Section = 212.5 m2 3. Now Length of Embankment = 150 m 4. Volume of Embankment = Area of Mid-Section x Length of Embankment = 31, 875 m3.
Table 1: Construction of Embankment with Earthwork Method with Approved Material Rates for 100 m3 [Standard Data Book for Analysis of Rates, 2005]
Taking output = 100 m3 a) Labor Helper Masson b) Machinery Hydraulic Excavator1 cum bucket capacity @ 60 m3 per hour Tipper 10 tone capacity Add 10 per cent of cost of carriage to cover cost of loading and unloading Dozer 80 HP for spreading @ 200 m3 per hour Motor grader for grading @ 100 m3 per hour Water tanker6 KL capacity Vibratory roller 8 -10 tones @ 100 m3 per hour Unit Day Day Hour Per Tone Quantity 0.04 1 1.67 160 Rate 250 180 1600 850 Amount(Rs) 10 180 2672 4195.2 4419.52 425 900 2400 900 Table 1 (Contd.)
Hour Hour Hour Hour
0.5 1 4 1
850 900 600 900
626 Twenty-eighth NCCE & National Seminar on Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development Table 1 (Contd.) c) Material Cost of water Compensation for earth taken from private land d)Overhead charges @ 5 % on (a+b+c) e)Contractor's profit @ 10 % on (a+b+c+d) Cost for 100 m3 = a+b+c+d+e Rate per m3 = (a+b+c+d+e/100)
Per Ltr Per m3
24 100
50 300
6579.24
1200 30,000.00 15665.09 32896.68 657923.62 6579 (Approx.)
Therefore, cost of construction per Cum. of volume by earthwork method=Rs. 6579 Hence, Total cost of Construction of roadway embankment by earthwork method=31,875 x 6579 = Rs. 20, 97, 05, 625
Cost Estimation for Construction of Roadway Embankment with Use of Geofoam

Cost of Geofoam = 38 to 98 dollar per m3. This cost includes Material Cost + Cost of Transportation + Profit of Contractor. [Stark et.al, July 2004] With the current days currency conversion factor cost of Geofoam in Indian Rupees = 1976 to 5096 Rs. per m3. Range of cost varies with respect to the Density of Geofoam. Taking into consideration the highest density of (EPS) Geofoam for construction of Roadway Embankment, then the cost for per m3 of Geofoam = Rs. 5096
Cost Calculation of GeoGripper Plate

Minimum recommendation is at least 2 (two) plates are required for each section of 4 4 (1.219 m 1.219 m) [EPS Geofoam Accessory, 2011] Mid-sectional area of Roadway Embankment =212.5 m2, following the recommendations, unit number of GeoGripper plates requires = 212.5 x 2 / 1.486 = 286 in Number. As the total length of Roadway Embankment = 150 m, therefore total number of GeoGripper plate requires = 286 x 150 = 42, 900 in Number. As per Indian market research maximum cost of one GeoGripper plate = Rs. 400
Table 2: Construction of Embankment by Use of EPS Geofoam with Approved Material Shown below in Tabular Form
a) EPS Geofoam b) GeoGripper Plate Total Cost of Construction = a + b Unit Per m3 Per Piece Quantity 31, 875 42, 900 Rate 5096 400 Amount (Rs) 16, 24,35,000 1,71,60,000 17, 95, 95, 000
Hence, total cost of Construction of roadway embankment with use of EPS Geofoam = Rs. 17, 95, 95, 000
CONCLUSION
In this study a comparison were done for roadway embankment with earthwork and by using Geofoam. Placement rates of Geofoam are important because they can be compared with soil fill placement rates and found decrease in construction cost. With the use of geofoam, the above construction of Roadway Embankment can saves Rs 3, 01, 10, 625. The completion of roadway embankment with geofoam may be faster than earthwork
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] Dutta B.N., (2010) Estimation and Costing UBSPD Publication, New Delhi. Ertugrul Ozgur L.; Trandafir Aurelian C.,(2011), Reduction of Lateral Earth Forces Acting on Rigid Nonyielding Retaining Walls by EPS Geofoam Inclusions, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering ASCE, Vol. 23, No. 12, page 1711-1718 GeoGripper Plate, EPS Geofoam Accessory, (2011), AFM Corporation. GeoGripper, Foam-Control, and Control, Not Compromise are trademarks of AFM Corporation, Lakeville, MN. GF02-01/11
Use of Expanded Poly-Styrene Geofoam for Construction of Road Embankment 627 [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] Lin Lee-Kuo; Chen Li-Hsien; Chen Roger H. L., (2010), Evaluation of Geofoam as a Geotechnical Construction Material, Journal Of Materials In Civil Engineering ASCE, Vol. 22, No. 2, page 160-170. Mandal J., (1995), Geofoam in Civil Engineering, The Indian Textile Journal, November Issue, Bombay, India, pp. 76-77. Standard data book for analysis of rates, (2005), published by Indian Road Congress on behalf of the Government of India Ministry of Shipping Road Transport & Highways, New Delhi-110011, chapter no.3 Stark Timothy D., Arellano David, Horvath John S., Leshchinsky Dov, (2004), Geofoam Applications in the Design and Construction of Highway Embankments NCHRP Web Document 65 (Project 24-11), American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). Stark Timothy D., Arellano David, Horvath John S., Leshchinsky Dov, (2004), Guideline and Recommended Standard for Geofoam Applications in Highway Embankments, National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Report 529, Transportation Research Board Washington D.C.
Excavation Techniques for Development of Road Infrastructures in Hilly Terrain

H.K. Verma, A. Thapliyal, D. Singh, A. Verma, R.K. Goel and V.V.R. Prasad
CSIR-Central Institute of Mining & Fuel Research Regional Centre, CBRI Campus, Roorkee, India; drharsh77@gmail.com
AbstractBlasting is a process of breaking the rock mass to excavate the ore and materials. Many open blasting operations are faced with the apparently conflicting requirements of providing large quantities of fragmented rock and of minimizing the amount of damage inflicted upon the surrounding slopes. A slope in strong hard rock is not necessarily stable, nor is a slope in weathered weak rock necessarily unstable. In some cases the reverse is true, depending on the geometry of joints and weak planes. Many slope failures in hard rock occur with no or very little warning. Detection and monitoring may not be feasible, or require sophisticated instruments and procedures that are not practical at some locations. An important element in avoiding catastrophes is to study the site geology for dangerous conditions, implement the types of blasting procedures that minimize failures, and evaluate the potential use of reinforcement or other mechanical stabilizing procedures. Apart from undesired profile of excavation, the conventional blasting damages the surrounding rock mass and structures like buildings, etc. These damages can be minimized by use of controlled blasting technique. The controlled blasting technique (CBT) is used to produce the desired stability of pit walls / slope. The CBT used for slopes is specifically termed as wall controlled blasting technique (WCBT). WCBT includes buffer blasting, trim blasting, line blasting and pre-splitting. Among these, the presplitting is the most commonly used technique. This technique has several advantages such as minimum damage from back-break, enhanced carrying capacity, higher structural stability and stable final pit walls or slope at the designed angle thus improving overall safety of wall / slope. Keywords: Wall control blasting technique, Rock mass damage, Construction blasting vibration, Presplitting
INTRODUCTION
Blasting is a process of breaking the rock mass to excavate the ore and materials. Many open blasting operations are faced with the apparently conflicting requirements of providing large quantities of fragmented rock and of minimizing the amount of damage inflicted upon the surrounding slopes. Conventional blasting cause cracks and fractures in the rock which has been fragmented and also in the remaining rock, whereas the rocks mass itself is very often part of structures which must have certain strength. Lack of attention to blasting adjacent to final wall slope can lead to slopes that are psychologically uncomfortable and even dangerous to work beneath. There are evidences to suggest that a substantial number of slope failures have been aggravated or even precipitated by poor blasting practice. Damages to the final wall slopes can be minimized by use of controlled blasting technique. All the controlled blasting techniques (CBT) are based on common objective of uniform distribution of explosive energy along the hole column so as to reduce the crushing, fracturing and over break of the remaining rock and least disturbance to the strength of the intact rock mass (Devine, 1966). The CBT used for slopes is specifically termed as wall controlled blasting technique (WCBT). The goal of WCBT is to make the transition from a well fragmented rock mass to an undamaged slope in shortest possible distance. These techniques are used to obtain a pit wall, free of back break and loose rock that will stand safely at the required wall angle for extended periods of time. Usually the method is employed for preparing the final pit wall and slope construction work for producing a high quality wall at the cut limit.
Excavation Techniques for Development of Road Infrastructures in Hilly Terrain 629
WCBT includes buffer blasting, line drilling, trim blasting and pre-splitting. Among these, the presplitting is the most commonly used technique. This technique has several advantages such as minimum damage from back break, enhanced carrying capacity, higher structural stability and stable final pit walls or slope at the designed angle thus improving overall safety of wall/slope Several blast design factors influence the stability of the wall such as horizontal relief away from the wall, energy concentration adjacent to the wall, blast size and duration of the blast (Bhandari, 1997). The horizontal relief available away from the face is important as it provides excess explosive energy to be utilized in throwing the fragmented rock mass which would have otherwise caused back breakage. Another important factor influencing the controlled blast design is energy concentration in the penultimate and last row of the blast. It is advisable to work out the energy concentration by undertaking trial blast in the less sensitive area. Controlled blast consisting of more than two rows prohibits horizontal relief to the broken rock. Therefore, the blast size and duration of the blast rounds will also affect directly the performance of the controlled blasting techniques. The last major factor that controls wall stability is the field implementation of the excavation plan. Even well conceived damage control programs will not perform properly if there is no commitment to quality. Quality, in this case, refers to proper face clean-up, accurate drilling and precise charging of the blast holes. Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research (Erstwhile, CMRI), Regional Centre, Roorkee has carried out controlled blasting for the development of benches and monitoring of the blast induced vibration at Kol Dam Hydroelectric Power Project, Himachal Pradesh. Pre-split blasting technique is adopted for developing benches in the desired profile in this project site. Experience in designing and implementation of pre-split control blasting techniques in the Kol dam project site is discussed in this paper.
WALL CONTROL BLAST TECHNIQUES
Fig. 1: Three Key Parameters for Optimum Blast Performance (After Blair, 1987)
There are three key parameters for achieving efficient wall control blast performance. In sensitive zones, each of these key parameters must be in balance with the others to efficiently protect the wall. These three key parameters are illustrated in Figure 1.
The distribution of the explosive energy will be based on the charge diameter and blasthole pattern used. Excessive charge diameters can increase slope damage due to uneven energy
distribution. In many cases, it is necessary to air-deck such holes to improve the distribution of energy and reduce damages. In wall control blasting the degree of confinement of the explosive energy adjacent to the slope will play a major role in the amount of damage produced. The blast designer should always provide the explosive energy with a path of least resistance away from the wall. The goal of wall control blasting is to make the transition from a well fragmented rock mass to an undamaged slope in shortest possible distance (Holmberg, et al., 1987). In such situations, blast designer try to limit the blast damage by reducing the explosive energy. This in turn can adversely affect productivity of excavator. In reality, the designer should develop blast design that direct the explosive energy away from the wall while providing satisfactory fragmentation. Following are four techniques used for wall control blasting 1. Buffer blasting 2. Trim blasting 3. Line drilling 4. Pre-splitting
Buffer Blasting
Buffer blasting is most successful when the rock is quite competent or on slopes designed with a higher factor of safety. However, the buffer row, which involves modifying the loading and pattern for the last row of the final production blast, is essential to good pre-split blast results. The primary disadvantage of buffer blasting that the wall is not protected from crack dilation, gas penetration and block heaving. In buffer blasting, the energy level is decreased adjacent to the wall to reduce over break. This is often achieved by simply reducing the charge weight (30 to 60%) in the row nearest. However, most rock types require additional design modifications to minimize damage. These modifications can include air decking, reducing the burden and spacing dimensions (by 25%), minimizing sub drill and increasing the delay interval between the last two rows of blast holes. These potential design changes are shown below in Figure 2. One of the key elements in the success of buffer blasting is standoff of the last row of holes. The blast hole standoff is the distance from the last row of holes to the final slope. This offset controls both the wall stability and ease of excavation of the toe. The optimum standoff distance will depend on the strength and structure of the rock mass and should be determined by carefully analyzing blast performance (John 1998). Following are the guidelines for designing buffer blast: 1. Locate the modified production row 1 m out from toe of the slope 2. Reduce production charge weight by 50% in the last row 3. Use air decks and minimize the stemming length in the last row 4. Minimize sub-drill when drilling adjacent to the next catch bench 5. Reduce the burden and spacing of the last row by 25% 6. Increase the delay timing between the last two rows of holes
Reduced charges and sub-drill
Fig. 2: Buffer Blasting in Competent Rock
Trim Blasting
The second method for wall control is trim blasting. Trim blasts are generally used for rock mass that are too sensitive for modified production blasting. Three types of blast holes are used; trim, buffer and modified production holes. For better performance of trim blasting, a free face must be established to fragment and displace the rock horizontally away from the wall. If the free face does not exist the explosive energy path of least resistance will be uncontrolled and wall damage can be excessive. A typical trim blast for favorable conditions is shown below in Fig. 3.
Trim row
Inner buffer row
Outer buffer row
Modified Production row
Reduce charges in the trim row
Face angle 70 deg
Typical production burden
Fig. 3: Trim Blast Design for Favorable Conditions
It is advisable to use air decking in at least in the trim row to improve energy distribution and reduce back break. Air-decks may also be required in the other rows to compensate for the reduced burden and spacing dimensions. Figure 4 illustrates trim blasts in unfavorable geological conditions. The critical design elements for trim blasting are: 1. Standoff of trim row from toe of slope (determined by rock strength) 2. Catch bench width (for buffer row locations) 3. Sub-drill depth (particularly important adjacent to the bench crest) 4. Trim row spacing is typically less than the burden dimension
5. Face burden (horizontal relief) 6. Bench width to height ratio (should be less than 2) 7. Timing configuration 8. Overall energy level (depends on rock strength) 9. Energy distribution (trim row may require air-deck)
Trimrow Inner Buffer Row Outer Buffer Row
Stemming Plug Air-deck
Reduced charges d b d Reduced ill charge
Fig. 4: Trim Blast Design for Unfavorable Conditions
Line Drilling
Line drilling involves the use of closely spaced, small diameter drill holes along the perimeter of final excavation. Line drilling is really not a blasting technique as these holes are left open and not loaded with explosives but provide a defined line along which the final blast can break. The line drilled holes provides a plane of weakness to which final row of blast holes can break. The stress waves of the blast create a plane of breakage between the holes. The hole diameter for line drilling is usually 50-70 mm. Holes are spaced two to four times the holes diameter. The maximum practical hole depth for effective line drilling depends upon how accurately the holes can be aligned at depth. Depth of drill holes is seldom more than 10m. As additional preventive measures, the last row of production holes adjacent to line drilling are drilled closely and charged lightly using air decking and detonating cord down the line. Line drilling is limited to areas where even a light load of explosives in the perimeter holes would cause unacceptable damages. Typically, line drilling is used in very soft material. In hard rock, the hole spacing required is so close that pre-splitting becomes more cost efficient. Line drilling can be used in conjunction with modified production or trim blast designs. The line drilled row is normally placed between 50 and 100% of the normal production burden from the trim or production row. Line drilling is not often used in mines because the cost is too high. For those construction jobs where back break may be very costly, this procedure can be used. It is sometimes used in mines for critical situations such as preparing a wall for a crusher installation, in this case half-depth holes may be drilled between the normal pre-split holes to insure that the wall breaks cleanly at the crest. Figure 5 illustrates the line drilling technique of wall controlled blasting.
Excavation lines Unloaded holes 0.75s s
50% load of Normal loaded
Free Face
Fig. 5: Line Drilling Along the Final Excavation
Pre-split Blasting Technique

Pre-splitting blasting consists of a row of lightly charged, closely spaced holes adjacent to the final slope that is fired prior to the detonation of the other holes. This creates a breakage plane to vent explosive gases and reduce crack propagation. A pre-split blasting is best carried out when the burden is composed of homogeneous consolidated rock. In a badly fractured rock unloaded guide holes may be drilled between the loaded holes. The light explosives charges can be obtained using specially designed pipe cartridges, part or whole cartridge taped to detonating cord down line. A typical pre-split blast for favorable rock condition is shown in Figure 6.
Angled drilled pre-split
Inner buffer row
Outer buffer
Modified Production Row
15 -30 deg
Standoff distance
No sub-drill on bench unless rock is very hard

Fig. 6: Typical Pre-Split Design
70 deg face angle
In pre-split technique holes spacing and charge concentration is an extremely important factor. In most rock types the pre-split blast hole should be angled to achieve a more stable wall. The angle selected should be based on the slope design, rock structure, drill type and charging requirements of the blast holes. The key factors that control the success of pre-splitting are drill accuracy, geological structure, hardness, pre-split spacing, pre-split charging, standoff distance of inner buffer row, face
burden (horizontal relief), bench width to height ratio (should be less than 2), timing configuration, overall energy level (Lyall, 1993). As conditions become more challenging the pre-split design will have to be modified to produce satisfactory results. In hard rock masses a short "stab" hole is often required between the inner buffer and the pre-split to achieve adequate fragmentation as shown in Figure 7. Sub-drilling may be required to establish the proper bench grade when the rock is hard. If the rock mass is highly structured and relatively weak, air decks may need to be used in the buffer rows. The following illustration outlines some of the modifications required for pre-split blast design in unfavorable conditions.
Stab holes
Inner Buffer row
Outer Buffer
Modified production row
15 - 30 deg
Standoff distance
No sub-drill on bench unless rock is very hard

Fig. 7: Pre-split Design in Unfavorable Conditions
70 deg face angle
One of the key elements of pre-split blast design is the charging of the pre-split row. Normally the charge is decoupled to reduce the borehole pressure to well below the compressive strength of the rock. This can be achieved by air-decking or using a charge diameter that is smaller than the blast hole diameter. Air decking is the least expensive method and is appropriate when the rock mass is relatively massive. It typically consists of placing a small bulk charge in the bottom of the hole and leaving the remaining hole open to achieve decoupling. As the rock becomes more structured better explosive energy distribution is required. To improve the energy distribution multiple small explosive decks, continuous small diameter packaged explosive, or in some cases detonating cord can be used. While continuous explosive is the most expensive option for pre-splitting, it also provides the best performance in unfavorable conditions. Unless air blast is a concern, the pre-split holes should be left open to reduce borehole pressures and protect the crest region of the hole. Different charging methods using air-deck is illustrated in Fig. 8. Pre-splitting can be the most expensive and labor intensive of the wall control methods. However, the long-term benefits can outweigh the costs if a maximum slope angle is required. If the wall is so weak that even well designed pre-split techniques cause damage the next wall control consideration should be line drilling.
Air-deck
Air-deck
Charge Charge Air-deck Charge
Charge Single bulk deck
Charge Multiple deck Continuous low Continuous decoupled
Fig. 8: Pre-Split Loading Options
CASE STUDY: PRE-SPLITTING IN KOL DAM HYDROELECTRIC POWER PROJECT

Blasting in Kol dam hydroelectric power project was carried out under supervision of Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research (Erstwhile CMRI), Regional Centre, Roorkee since Nov., 2005. CIMFR optimized the blast design for construction package under M/s Italian Thai Development Public Co. Ltd. (ITD-PCL). The blast was optimized for productivity as well as safety point of view. Comprehensive vibration monitoring and analysis was also carried out to conduct blast in a safe manner by limiting the blast induced vibration as well as air overpressure to safe limit. The excavation in the project consisted of preparation of seven benches having slope of 1:4 starting from EL 715.0 m to 618.0 m. The approx. 100 m of depth was divided in seven benches each of having height approx 15.0 m and berm width of 5.0 m. Pink limestone and yellowish dolomite are the two dominant rock types found in the approach channel area. Limestone is thinly bedded and dolomite is massive in nature. The contact of these two rocks is visible in this area. There are three sets of joints present in limestone, one parallel to the bedding and two oblique to the bedding. The parallel joint is more common than the oblique joint. Spacing of the parallel joints ranges from 0.30 m to 2.0m. The spacing of the joint increase towards the middle (i.e. in between 0 RD to contact) and the spacing decreases as we go away from the centre. The oblique joint is present at interval of 5m. The joint orientation was favorable for slope excavation. The rock is intensely folded in some part and shear zones are also present in this area. All the above features are found to be absent in dolomite but irregular fractures are present. The joint set in limestone and dolomite made whole rock formation in a block size ranging from as small as 0.5 m2 to as large as 5.0 m2. The block formation was prone to overbreak leading to unstable slope. Apart from the geological challenges, presences of the domestic structures close to excavation area were also susceptible to damage due to possible high level of blast induced ground vibration.
Table 1: Blast Design Parameters for Pre-splitting in Kol Dam Hydroelectric Power Project
Explosive Cartridge Details 25 mm x 200 mm x 0.125 kg, Emulsion Explosive, PG-801 of M/s Orica Make Bench slope 1:4 (Horizontal: Vertical) Bench Height (m) 15.0 Sub grade (m) 1.0 Hole Depth (m) 16.0 Hole Dia (mm) 64 No. of Holes 80 Spacing (m) 0.60 Length of 48 Pre-split line (m) Charge/hole (kg) 2.50 MCD (kg) 50.0 Total charge (kg) 200 Specific Charge (kg/m2) 0.26 Cartridge Spacing(m) 0.80 Stemming (m) 1.6 Pre-splitting area (m2) 768 Initiation System Electric delay detonator (Millisecond Delay)
Fig. 9: Benches Formed by Pre-Split Blasting at Kol Dam Project
In all such situations, pre-splitting was carried out in a controlled manner with two basic objectives. First one, to control the overbreak to achieve stable slope and secondly to control vibration for preventing structural damages to the domestic houses. It was found by regression analysis and fast fourier transform (FFT) of the recorded vibration that maximum safe charge allowable for the nearby structures was 62.0 kg, therefore all the blast were curtailed to maximum charge per delay (MCD) of 50.0 kg to control vibration to less that 10mm/s the safe level of vibration for domestic structures as suggested by DGMS, Dhanbad. It required all blast to be carried out in various parts. Each blast consisted of approx. 80 holes each of 16.0 m depth. The total length of the pre-split line was reduced to approx. 50.0m for a single blast round. Emulsion explosive Power gel 801, manufactured by M/s Orica was used in all the pre-split blasts. The explosive size was 25mm X 200 mm x 0.125 kg. Each hole was charged with 2.50 kg of explosives by providing air decks between successive cartridges. Specific charge was approx. 0.26 kg. The design worked excellently with minimum overbreak and vibration less than 10mm/s. This provided the stable slope in the benches as per the required profile and also prevented damages to the domestic structures. The parameters of pre-split blasting are given in Table 1.
CONCLUSION
In India, drilling and blasting is the predominant method of excavation. However, in most of the cases, blasting is resorted in unscientific manner. Conventional blasting cause cracks and fractures in the rock. There are evidences to suggest that a substantial number of slope failures have been aggravated or even precipitated by poor blasting practice. Damages to the final pit wall and slopes can be minimized by the use of wall controlled blasting technique. The goal of WCBT is to make the transition from a well fragmented rock mass to an undamaged slope in shortest possible distance. This technique helps in reducing the crushing, fracturing and overbreak of the remaining rock and least disturbance to the strength of the intact rock mass. Pre-split blasting technique has been adopted in Kol dam hydroelectric power project successfully. It has helped in containing blast vibrations within safe limit of 10mm/s by using MCD of 50.0 kg. The excavation of seven benches in 1:4 slopes has been completed in scheduled time. The success of the work suggest that excavation of such huge quantity and sensitive nature shall be carried out in scientific manner under supervision of an expert agency to avoid the slope failure which may lead to cost and time overrun.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are thankful to the officials of the NTPC for their support in carrying the study at the Kol dam hydroelectric power project. They also express gratitude to the engineers of ITD-PCL for co-operation during course of the field investigations.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Bhandari, S. (1997). Engineering rock blasting operations, A. A. Balkema, Netherlands. Blair, D.P. (1987). The measurement, modeling and control of ground vibrations due to blasting, Proc., of the Second International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Keystone, CO, pp 88 -101. Devine, J.F.(1966). Effect of charge weight on vibration levels from quarry blasting", U.S.B.M., RI. 6774. Holmberg, R. and Persson, P. (1979). Design of tunnel perimeter blast hole patterns to prevent rock damage, Proceedings, Tunneling '79, London, March 12-16, Ed., Jones, M. J., Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London, UK. John, L. F. (1998). The development and implementation of efficient wall control blast designs, Proc. Intl. Conf of explosive & blasting techniques, Florida, USA, pp 88 - 92. Lyall, J. (1993). Considerations in pre-split blasting for mines and quarries workman, blasting consultant, Proc. Intl. Conf of explosive & blasting techniques, Florida, USA, pp 357-375.
Studies on Use of Modifiers in Bituminous MixesA Review

Praveen Kumar1, G.D. Ransinchung R.N.2 and Sharad Kumar3
CED, Indian Institute of Technology-Roorkee, India; pkaerfce@iitr.ernet.in Professor, CED, Indian Institute of Technology-Roorkee, India; gdranfce@iitr.ernet.in 3M.Tech Student, CED, Indian Institute of Technology-Roorkee, India; saradpce@iitr.ernet.in
2Asstt. 1Professor,
AbstractThe present review paper aimed to gather and discuss the information related to strength and deformation characteristics of various bituminous mixes for different modifiers. Influence of various modifiers like Styrene Butadient Styrene (SBS), Crumb Rubber (CR) and Waste plastic on bituminous mix performances have been analyzed and compared. It has also been reported that use of SBS modifier improves the strength parameters like tensile strength and Marshall Stability values considerably. The fatigue life of SBS modified mix showed 2.1 to 2.4 percent higher than the conventional mix. Comparative study of SBS, EVA and LDPE and reported that addition of 2, 5 and 10% SBS increased the fatigue life by 9, 18, 15 times respectively and addition of 2% PE increased fatigue life by 10 times whereas addition of 10% PE reduced fatigue life by 1/5 times. Keywords: SBS, CR, EVA, Indirect tensile strength
INTRODUCTION
India has about 4.2 million km road length which being the second largest road network in the world next to US comprising of 65569 Km of NHs and 2000 Km of expressway. This may comprise only 2% of total road network but carries 40% of total traffic. Road transport is the dominant mode of transport in India carrying 85% passenger traffic and 65% freight traffic. The huge road network, which includes both paved and unpaved roads, is categorized as National Highways, State Highways, Major District Roads, and Rural Roads. The whole road network is seriously capacity constrained and deficient, which has adversely affected the traffic movement. The position has further worsened due to phenomenal vehicle population growth from 0.3 million in 1951 to about 1.10 billion in 2009 and number of vehicles has been growing at an average pace of 10.16% per annum over the last five years. It means there is substantial increase in the axle loads also. Flexible pavements with bituminous surfacing are widely used in India (98%). The high traffic intensity in terms of commercial vehicles, overloading of trucks and variations in daily and seasonal temperature of the pavement have been responsible for the early development of distresses like raveling, undulations, rutting, cracking, bleeding and shoving of bituminous surfacing. A factor which causes concern in India is very high and low pavement temperature in some parts of the country. The climatic condition of India, especially north, is extreme; the temperature ranges from 00C to 500C. Under these conditions, flexible pavements tend to become soft in summer and brittle in winter [IRC: SP: 53-1999].
CHARACTERISTICS OF BITUMINOUS MIXES Strength and Deformation Characteristics Stability

The term stability is closely related to strength and refers to the ability of paving mix to resist deformation upon application of load. To achieve maximum stability, the aggregate should have an angular particle shape, rough texture, the gradation should be dense and just enough bitumen should be added to coat the aggregate.
Studies on Use of Modifiers in Bituminous MixesA Review 639
Flow Value
Flow value is an indicator of the plasticity of the mix and its tendency to deform under traffic load.
Performance Characteristics Rutting

Rutting (or permanent deformation) results from the accumulation of small amounts of unrecoverable strain as a result of repeated loads applied to the pavement. Rutting can occur as a result of problems with sub grade, unbound base course, or bituminous mix.
Fatigue Cracking
Fatigue cracking is often called alligator cracking because its closely spaced crack pattern is similar to the alligators back. Fatigue cracking is often associated with loads which are too heavy for the pavement structure or more repetitions of a given load than provided for in design.
Low Temperature Cracking

Low temperature cracking of bituminous pavement is attributed to tensile strain induced in bituminous mixes as the temperature drops to some critically low level. Thermal cracking is characterized by intermittent transverse cracks (i.e. perpendicular to the direction of traffic) that may occur at a surprisingly consistent spacing.
Moisture Susceptibility
Environmental factors such as temperature and moisture can have a profound effect on the durability of bituminous pavement. When critical environmental conditions are coupled with poor materials and traffic, premature failure may result as a result of stripping of the bitumen from the aggregate particles. Stripping lead to loss in quality of mixture and ultimately leads to failure of the pavement as a result of raveling, rutting or cracking.
TYPES OF BITUMINOUS MIXES Bituminous Macadam (BM)

Bituminous Macadam (BM) or Bituminous Bound Macadam is a premixed construction method consisting of one or more course of compacted crushed aggregate premixed with bituminous binder, laid immediately after mixing. The BM is laid in compacted thickness of 75 mm or 50 mm and three different gradations of aggregate have been suggested for each thickness. The BM is essentially a base course or binder course and hence should be covered by a suitable surfacing course before exposed to traffic.
Bituminous Concrete (BC)

Bituminous Concrete (BC) or Asphalt Concrete (AC) is dense graded premixed bituminous mix which is well compacted to form a high quality pavement surface course. The AC consists of a carefully proportioned mixture of course aggregate, fine aggregate, mineral filler and bitumen and the mix is designed by an appropriate method such as Marshall method to fulfill the requirement of stability, density, flexibility and voids. The thickness of Bituminous Concrete surface course layer usually ranges from 40 to 75 mm.
Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC)

Semi dense bituminous concrete is generally used in wearing/ binder and profile corrective courses. This work shall consist of construction in a single or multiple layers of semi dense bituminous concrete on previously prepared bituminous bound surface. A single layer shall be of 25 to 100mm in thickness.
Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM)

Dense graded bituminous macadam, used mainly, but not exclusively, in base/ binder and profile corrective courses. Dense graded bituminous macadam is also intended to use as road base material. This work shall consist of construction in a single or multiple layers of dense graded bituminous macadam on previously prepared base or sub-base. A single layer shall be of 50 to 100mm in thickness.
Mastic Asphalt
Mastic asphalt is a mix of relatively hard bitumen, mineral filler and fine aggregates. Mastic asphalt is laid on pavements for city streets which carry extremely heavy traffic, on critical locations such as roundabouts, intersections, bus stops, bridge decks etc which is recognized for excellent service for many years.
Bituminous Premixed Carpet

Premixed Carpet (PC) consists of course aggregate of 12.5 and 10.0 mm sizes, premixed with bitumen or tar binder are compacted to a thickness of 20 mm to serve as a surface course of the pavement. Being an open graded construction, the PC is to be invariably covered by a suitable seal coat such as premixed sand-bitumen seal coat before opening to traffic.
DESIGN OF BITUMINOUS MIXES

The mix design basically determines the optimum bitumen content. There are many methods available for mix design which varies in the size of the test specimen, compaction, and other test specifications in those Marshall Method of mix design is the most popular one which is widely described in ASTM D 1559. Approximately 1200 gm of bituminous mix is required for preparing one Marshall specimen of 101.6 mm diameter and 63.5 mm height by using standard compaction hammer and a cylindrical mould. 75 blows are applied on each face of specimen. The compacted specimen were cured at room temperature for 24 hours and then kept immersed in thermostatically controlled water bath at 60C for 30-45 minutes. After taking out the specimens from water bath, these are placed in the Marshall head and load is applied at constant load rate of 50 mm/min. Vary the bitumen content in the next trial by +0.5% and repeat the above procedure. Numbers of trial are predetermined. The prepared mould is loaded in the Marshall test setup as shown in the Fig. 1.
Fig. 1: Marshall Test Setup
Table 1: Requirements Specified for Various Bituminous Mixes

Parameters Marshall stability (kN) Marshall flow (mm) Percentage air voids Percentage voids in mineral aggregate Voids filled with bitumen (VFB) (%) Bitumen content %, by mass of total mix SBDC >=8.2 2-4 3-5 14 65-78 Min. 4.5 DBM >=9 2-4 3-6 14 75-82 5.0-7.0 BC >=9 2-4 3-6 12 65-75 Min. 4.5
Determine the optimum binder content for the mix design by taking average value of the following three bitumen contents found form the graphs obtained. 1. Binder content corresponding to maximum stability. 2. Binder content corresponding to maximum bulk specific gravity (Gm). 3. Binder content corresponding to the median of designed limits of percent air voids (Vv) in the total mix. The stability value, flow value, and VFB are checked with Marshall mix design specifications. Mixes with very high stability value and low flow value are not desirable as the pavements constructed with such mixes are likely to develop cracks due to heavy moving loads.
EVALUATION OF BITUMINOUS MIXES Indirect Tensile Strength Test

An indirect tensile strength test was performed according to ASTM D 6931-07, using a universal static machine. This test analyzes the impact of saturation and immersion of the mix in water on the resistance to indirect tensile strength in Marshall-type specimens (height 63.5 mm and diameter 101.6 mm). In ITS testing, a cylindrical sample is subjected to compressive loads between two loading strips, which create tensile stress along the vertical diametric plane causing a splitting failure. The tensile strength of specimen is calculated according to Equation given below ST = 2P/dt Where ST= indirect tensile strength, kPa P= peak load, N d= diameter of the specimen, mm t= thickness of the specimen, mm
Moisture Susceptibility Test

It is well known that presence of moisture is a critical factor, which leads to premature failure of the flexible pavements. The loss of adhesion of the aggregates with bitumen can be studied by different tests, out of which two are discussed to examine the effect on various factors on resistance to moisture damage. 1. Retained stability test 2. Indirect tensile ratio test
Retained Stability Test

This test measures the stripping resistance of a bituminous mixture. The test is specified in MoRT&H 2001 and is conducted as per Standard Test Procedures Manual (STP 204-22). Two sets of standard Marshall specimen of 100 mm diameter and 63.5 mm height are prepared and the test procedure involves following steps:
1. Six specimens are prepared for each type of mix, and compacted as per Marshall Method (ASTM D 1559). 2. One set (group 1) of three specimens are immersed in water bath at 60C for 35-40 minutes and tested to determine the stability value. 3. The other set (group 2) of three specimens are immersed in water bath at 60C for 24 hours and tested to determine the stability value. 4. The retained stability of the mix is calculated as follows: 100
Tensile Strength Ratio

AASHTO T 283 is a test method that can be used to determine if the materials may be subject to stripping and also to measure the effectiveness of additives. The test is performed by compacting specimens to an air void level of six to eight percent. Three specimens are selected as a control and tested without moisture conditioning, and three more specimens are selected to be conditioned by saturating with water undergoing a freeze cycle, and subsequently having a warm-water soaking cycle. From the stability of the indirect tensile strength test, the resistance to traction of the specimens kept dry (ITSD) and wet (ITSW) was calculated. The Indirect Tensile Strength Ratio (ITSR) is calculated according to following equation Tensile strength ratio (TSR) = ITSW/ ITSD Where, ITSR is the Indirect Tensile Strength Ratio. ITSW is Indirect Tensile Strength of the group of wet specimens (kPa). ITSD is the Indirect Tensile Strength of the group of dry specimens (kPa).
STUDIES CONDUCTED BY THE RESEARCHERS

Investigation of moisture damage related behavior of bituminous materials has been done by Bagampadde, (2005). Based on the results obtained, it was concluded that high contents of quartz and alkali feldspar were found in aggregates that were sensitive to moisture damage when mixed with the high dose bitumen, even though one aggregate with nearly 100% quartz showed low sensitivity. Sakthibalan (2009) studied the influence of aggregate flakiness on Dense Bituminous Macadam & Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete Mixes. The parameters such as stability, flow, voids filled with bitumen and tensile strength ratio decreases with increase in proportion of flaky aggregates for both DBM and SDBC mixes. The parameters such as air voids and voids in mineral aggregate increases with increase in proportion of flaky aggregates for both DBM and SDBC mixes. The properties of the crumb-rubber-modified bitumen and bituminous mixtures were compared to different contents of styrene butadiene styrene (SBS) modified-bitumen and asphalt mixtures. This has been done by Kok and Colak (2011). The experimental results of this study show the effect of the use of crumb rubber for the modification of bitumen and hot mix asphalt mixtures. The tests showed that to achieve the same performance, as with SBS-modification, the CR-content must be used at much higher than SBS. 8%-CR modification was determined as the most suitable content according to both binder and mixture tests. According to conventional bitumen tests, it was determined that both SBS and CR modified bitumen exhibited reduced temperature susceptibility with increasing additive contents. However, this trend was more pronounced for the SBS modified bitumen.
Yildirim, (2005) investigated the use of natural rubber, SBR and SBS in modifying bituminous mixes. He concluded that the addition of SBR to asphalt improves low-temperature
ductility, increases viscosity, improves elastic recovery and improves the adhesive and cohesive properties of the pavement. SBS has been replacing SBR due to the formers wider compatibility and greater tensile strength under strain. SBS is now the polymer most used to modify asphalt.
Chen, (2002) conducted study on Evaluation and Optimization of the Engineering Properties of Polymer-Modified Asphalt. In this study, SBS was shown to improve the rheological properties of the asphalt binder due to the formation of a polymer network in the binder.
Bouldin et al. (1992) studied effect of SBS and permanent deformations characteristics of various polymers evaluated using wheel tracking equipment and found that SBS modified mixes were better than EVA modified mixes. Shuler et al. (1987) studied effect of SBS and indirect tensile strength tests were performed on AC 5 with 6% SBS modifier and concluded that the tensile strength of modified binder increased significantly as compared to conventional mix at -21, 25 and 410C. Srivastava et al. (1994) studied SBS and reported that the application of Sealoflex (SBS) as modifier in the mix for overlay was technically justifiable for strengthening and to prevent reflection cracking. Yandell, (1987) studied the Plastic Behaviour of Asphalt Mixtures Influences Pavement Life and reported it is possible to increase life before fatigue cracking occurs by ensuring that the asphaltic concrete acts more plastically than the base and sub grade. Cracking life can vary by a factor up to 1000 when the relative plastic behaviour ratio varies from 0.33 to 3.0. Isacsson et. al. (1999) studied SBS and Concluded that compatibility and storage stability of polymer modified bitumen (PMB) were largely dependent upon polymer content and were influenced by the characteristics of base bitumen and polymers themselves. Little et. al. (1986) studied Polyethylene and reported bituminous concrete using polyethylene modified binders were more resistant to permanent deformation at elevated temperature. King et al. (1986) studied SBS and concluded Mixes containing SBS shown improved stiffness modulus, rutting resistance, fatigue life, adhesion and stripping resistance.
Jain et al. (1992) studied SBS, EVA, and LDPE and reported addition of polymer increased the cohesion, tensile strength, Marshall stability and stiffness values of mix. The addition of 2, 5 and 10% SBS increased the fatigue life by 9, 18, 15 times respectively and addition of 2% PE increased fatigue life by 10 times whereas addition of 10% PE reduced fatigue life by 1/5 times. Kumar et. al, (2007) studied strength characteristics of polymer modified mixes and study indicated that the performance of asphalt mix can be improved by polymer addition. There was a substantial improvement in the resistance to permanent deformation and fatigue life of the modified mixes as compared to that of the unmodified mix. The fatigue life and the resistance to rutting of the SBS modified mix are better than the LLDPE modified mix. But it is recommended that the trial sections in the field be laid with both the modifiers to compare their performance and with conventional asphalt mix. Panda et al. (1997) studied the effect of Reclaimed polythene and observed that the penetration value, ductility and the specific gravity of the modified binder decreased while softening point and viscosity increased. The temperature susceptibility of the modified binder was improved. The indirect tensile strength of the mixes containing the modified binder was more than that having bitumen only. Hinislioglu et al. (2004) studied waste plastics and concluded waste plastics HDPE at 4%, having mixing temp. 1650C and 30 min. of mixing time were optimum condition for Marshall Stability, flow and MQ.
Punith et al. (2003) studied Waste plastic bags and concluded the use of modified bitumen with the addition of processed plastics, about 8% by weight of bitumen, helps in substantially improving the stability, fatigue life and other desirable properties of BC mix, even under water logging conditions. Panda et al. (2002) studied the effect of Waste plastic carry bags. Reclaimed polyethylene (LDPE) at different percentages of 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10% were used as modifier and reported resistance to moisture susceptibility was improved by the modification as observed by boiling and retained stability tests. Pundhir et al. (2005) studied the use of copper slag (CS) as construction material in bituminous pavements. This study aims to explore the potential use of copper slag (CS) as fine aggregate (up to 30%) in the design of bituminous mixes like BM, DBM, BC and SDBC, which enhance the property of the bituminous mixes. Addition of CS as fine aggregate in various bituminous mixes provides good interlocking and eventually improves volumetric and mechanical properties of bituminous mixes. Gupta & Veeraragavan, (2009) compared the fatigue Behavior of Polymer Modified Bituminous Concrete Mixtures with the conventional Bituminous Concrete Mixtures. Retained Marshall Stability and indirect tensile strength ratio tests were conducted. The improvement in fatigue life of polymermodified mixes over the conventional mixes is reported and the strength parameters like tensile strength and Marshall Stability values of the SBS modified mixes are higher by 21 percent and 25 percent than conventional mixes. The fatigue life of SBS Modified mix was 2.1 to 2.4 percent higher than the conventional mix. Nanda & Bose, (2005) have done laboratory evaluation of integrabase modifier for Use in Bituminous Binder Course. The Integrabase modifier is a viscous material (liquid) and black in color. It is a multi-metallic catalyst (MMC) in asphalt soluble form. In comparison with untreated sections, Integrabase modified binder courses provided an increase in stiffness of over 55% at 20C. Integrabase had also shown ability to improve the strength and temperature susceptibility of asphalt binder courses. In moderate (23C) and high temperatures (40C, 60C), Integra base exhibited a lower susceptibility to temperatures. The research in Optimization of asphalt mixture design to ensure favorable behavior at low and high air temperatures is done by European Commission DG Research, (2006) which aimed to find a practical model for the optimization of asphalt mixture composition which will be related to the target functional properties of asphalt pavement relevant for various climate and traffic conditions in the field. Results showed that asphalt mixtures with modified binders PMB 50/90 has lower resistance to permanent deformation at 300C than at higher temperature (400C, 500C) due to elastic deformation of SBS-polymer in comparison to the asphalt mixture with conventional bitumen B 50/70. Conclusion was that the test temperature of 300C is not convenient for PMB and recommendation would be at least 500C. Further research is needed to highlight this observation. Airey et. al. (2007) has given a study on The influence of aggregate, filler and bitumen on asphalt mixture moisture damage. It describes a new combined ageing/moisture damage laboratory test known as the Saturation Ageing Tensile Stiffness (SATS) test that has been successfully used to quantify the moisture damage of a range of UK asphalt mixtures. The results show that the SATS test is able to discriminate between different asphalt mixture combinations in terms of their moisture damage resistance. Compared to AASHTO T283, the SATS test was found to be a more aggressive conditioning protocol, although both tests ranked mixtures in a similar order with respect to moisture damage. Pell et. al. (1961) studied Fatigue of bitumen and bituminous mixes. This gives details of an investigation into the fundamental fatigue properties of bitumen and bituminous mixes. Fatigue tests carried out under constant bending stress, at varying temperature between -13.50C and +250C, show that the material exhibit fatigue properties over wide ranges of stress. It has been found that when the logarithm of the strain is plotted against the logarithm of no. of cycle to failure all
experimental results at different speeds and temperature for one mix lie with a certain amount of scatter about a straight line. Careful examination of the fatigue cracks and failure surfaces shows that in nearly all cases failure originates on the principal tensile plane. Investigation on the properties of carbon fiber modified asphalt mixtures has been done by Cleven, (2000). Because of their inherent compatibility with asphalt cement and excellent mechanical properties, carbon fibers might offer an excellent potential for asphalt modification. Fiber modification of asphalt mixtures has shown mixed results. Mixtures containing fibers showed less decrease in void content and increased resistance to permanent deformation. The tensile strength and related properties of mixtures containing fibers was found to improve in some cases and not in others. A study on Compatibility of hot bituminous mixtures made with crumb rubber-modified binders done by Celik and Atis (2007). This evaluates the compatibility of hot asphalt mixtures (HAM) made with crumb rubber modified bitumen, which was manufactured by incorporating the waste tire rubber particles in base bitumen in different sizes and concentration. Type of binder and binder viscosity during compaction has a great effect on the compatibility of HAM. Compaction Coefficient (CC), which is variation in porosity line throughout compaction, could be related with the energy needed to compact the mixture. Less energy is needed for the mixture having low CC. The CC values of the mixtures made with rubberized bitumen having high rubber content were found lower than the mixture made without rubber especially made with low binder content. It could be due to the rebound of the mixtures after compaction. Evaluation of Split Mastic Asphalt Mixture Using Materials from Borneo done by Ludfi Djakfar et. al, (2011). He concluded that Borneo local materials of Banjar, Kutai dan and Bulungan meet the requirements for use as aggregate in asphalt mixtures. Out of the three, Banjar material has better performance. From the Marshall characteristics, only mixtures prepared from Banjar material meet the requirements. Compared to other local materials, Borneo materials have lower performance. Borneo materials may still be used in asphalt mixtures provided to be used in local roads where heavy vehicles do not dominate. Borneo materials may not be suitable for use in stone mastic asphalt since it requires high performance materials to sustain heavy loads. Evaluation of compactability and mechanical properties of bituminous mixes with warm additives done by Alonso et. al., (2011) and conclusion made in this study, the behaviour of bituminous mixtures with additives has been compared to mixtures without them, at different compacting temperatures. The addition of additives improved the compaction ability of mixtures, enabling the reduction of manufacturing and compacting temperatures and saving energy. Improvement of bitumen and bituminous mixtures performances by tri ethylene glycol based synthetic polyboron by Arslan et. al, (2011) and concluded that viscosity of the bitumen was increased by TEGPB modification. Thus, TEGPB was found to be useful in hot climate regions by means of increasing the viscosity of modified bitumen at environmental temperatures. Marshall Stability was improved by TEGPB modification which would be worthwhile for the bituminous mixtures to resist permanent deformations such as rutting, undulation and collapse. TEGPB was found to be insignificant in stripping resistance of the bituminous mixtures representing that adhesion force between bitumen and aggregate was not affected by this modification. Park et al. (1997) studied the effect of pyralyzed carbon black (CBp) from scrap tyres and concluded that CBp and CB increase the tensile strength of the mixture at low temperature, indicating reduced cracking potential of pavements at low temperatures. The inclusion of CBp and CB had beneficial effects on the performance of the bituminous mixtures. The use of CBp may be an effective method to reutilize scrap tyres, given its reasonable cost and engineering properties. Nagendra et al. (1999) studied CR and EVA Marshall stability increased significantly. Mixes with modified blends have very low water susceptibility in comparison to conventional bituminous mixes. Fatigue strength of mixes with CR modified blends and CR along with EVA blends was much higher than that of unmodified bitumen. The effect of EVA on fatigue strength was not significant.
Gupta et al. (1997) investigated the effect of rubber and evaluated that the modified bitumen was less susceptible to wide temperature rang as compared to conventional bitumen and rubberized bituminous mixes has also improved resistance to thermal cracking, fatigue cracking, rutting, moisture damage and age hardening. By using rubber from discarded tyres the problem of disposal of used automobile tyres can be alleviated. Thirunavukkarasu et al. (1992) studied the effect of crumb rubber and concluded that the penetration value decreased, the softening point increased. The ductility value drastically reduced. The blends of bitumen/ rubber powder, exhibits good resistance to stripping. The rubber powder of particle size less than .2 mm can be used for road works without mixing problem. Palit et al. (2004) studied crumb rubber and the concentration of CR was varied 5, 10, and 15% by weight of bitumen and concluded that 10% is the optimum quantity of the modifier. Sibel et. al. (1998) studied crumb rubber and observed that fatigue life of the bituminous pavement increased substantially. It also had sufficiently high dynamic modulus, can withstand load due to heavy traffic.
CONCLUSION
1. The following conclusions have drawn from the above review papers: 2. It has been reported that the presence of high contents of quartz and alkali feldspar in aggregates is sensitive to moisture damage when mixed with the high acid bitumen, even though one aggregate with nearly 100% quartz showed low sensitivity. 3. To achieve the same performance, as with SBS-modification, the CR-content must be used at much higher than SBS. About 8% CR modification is determined as the most suitable content according to both binder and mixture tests. 4. Fatigue strength of mixes with CR modified blends and CR along with EVA blends was much higher than that of unmodified bitumen. The effect of EVA on fatigue strength was not significant. 5. The addition of SBR to asphalt improves low-temperature ductility, increases viscosity, and improves elastic recovery of the pavement. SBS has been replacing SBR due to the formers wider compatibility and greater tensile strength under strain. 6. Permanent deformations characteristics of various polymers evaluated using wheel tracking equipment and concluded that SBS modified mixes were better than EVA modified mixes. 7. Comparative study of SBS, EVA and LDPE and reported that addition of 2, 5 and 10% SBS increased the fatigue life by 9, 18, 15 times respectively and addition of 2% PE increased fatigue life by 10 times whereas addition of 10% PE reduced fatigue life by 1/5 times. 8. The use of modified bitumen with the addition of waste plastics, about 8% by weight of bitumen, helps in substantially improving the stability, fatigue life and other desirable properties of BC mix, even under adverse water logging conditions. 9. The strength parameters like tensile strength and Marshall stability values of the SBS modified mixes produces 21 percent and 25 percent respectively higher than that of conventional mixes. The fatigue life of SBS modified mix was 2.1 to 2.4 percent higher than the conventional mix.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] AASHTO T 283, Resistance of Compacted Asphalt Mixtures to Moisture-Induced Damage. Airey, G.D., Collop, A.C., Zoorob, S.E., and Elliott, R.C., (2007), The Influence of Aggregate, Filler and Bitumen on Asphalt Mixture Moisture Damage. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 22, pp. 20152024. ASTM D 1559, Standard Test Method for Resistance to Plastic Flow of Bituminous Mixtures Using Marshall Apparatus. ASTM D 6931-07, Standard Test Method for Indirect. Tensile (IDT) Strength of Bituminous Mixtures. Alonso, E., Zamanillo, A., Fresno, D., and Prat, D., (2011), Evaluation of Compactability and Mechanical Properties of Bituminous Mixes with Warm Additives, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 25, pp. 23042311.

[6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] Arslan, D., Guru, M., Cubuk, M., and Cubuk, M., (2011), Improvement of Bitumen and Bituminous Mixtures Performances by Triethylene Glycol based Synthetic Polyboron, Construction and Building Materials Vol. 25, pp. 38633868. Bagampadde, U., Isacsson, U. and Kiggundu, B.M., (2005), Impact of Bitumen and Aggregate Composition on Moisture Damage in Bituminous Mixtures", Materials and Structures, pp. 4085. Bouldin, M.G., and Collins, J.H., (1992), Influence of Binder Rheology on Rut Resistance of Polymer Modified and Unmodified Hot Mix Asphalt, Polymer Modified Asphalt Binder, ASTM STP 1108, American Society of Testing and Materials, Philadelphia. Celik, O.N., Atis, C.D., (2007), Compatibility of Hot Bituminous Mixtures made with Crumb Rubber Modified Binders, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 22, pp. 11431147. Chen, J.S., Liao, M.C., and Tsai, H.H., Evaluation and Optimization of Engineering Properties of Polymer-Modified Asphalt, ASM International, Vol. 3, pp. 7583. Cleven, A., (2000), Investigation of the Properties of Carbon Fiber Modified Asphalt Mixtures, M.E. Thesis, Michigan Technological University. Djakfar, L., Zaika, Y., Lake, A., (2011) Evaluation of Split Mastic Asphalt Mixture Using Materials from Borneo, Journal of Basic and Applied Scientific Research, Vol. 1, No. 7, pp. 594599. Gupta, A.K., (1997), Rubberized Roads- A CRRI Experience, Indian Highways, Vol. 20, No. 4, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi, pp. 5358. Gupta, S., and Veeraragavan, A., (2009), Fatigue Behavior of Polymer Modified Bituminous Concrete Mixtures. Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, pp. 55-64. Hinislioglu, S., and Agar, E., (2004), Use of waste high density polyethylene as bitumen modifier in asphalt concrete mix, Materials Letters, Vol. 58, pp. 267271. IRC: SP 531999 Guidelines for Use of Rubber and Polymer Modified Bitumen. Isacsson, U., and Lu, X., (1999), Laboratory investigation of polymer modified bitumen, Proc. Assoc. Asphalt Paving Technology, Vol. 68, pp. 3563. Jain, P.K., Sangita, S.B., and Arya, I.R., (1992), Characterization of Polymer Modified Asphalt Binders for Roads and Airfields, Polymer Modified Asphalt Binder, ASTM STP 1108, American Society of Testing and Materials, Philadelphia. King, G.N., Muncy, H.W. and Prudhome, J.B., Polymer Modification: Binders Effect on Mix Properties, Proc. Assoc. Asphalt Paving Technology, Vol. 55, pp. 519540. Kok, B.V., and Colak, H., (2011), Laboratory Comparison of Crumb-Rubber and SBS Modified Bitumen and Hot Mix Asphalt, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 25, pp. 32043212. Kumar, P., Chandra, S., and Bose, S., (2006), Strength Characteristics of Polymer Modified Mixes, International Journal of Pavement Engineering, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 6371. Kumar N., (1999), A Study on Modified Binders for Road Construction, M.E. Thesis, University of Roorkee, Roorkee. Little, D.N., (1992), Analysis of the Influence of Low Density Polyethylene Modification (Novophalt) of Asphalt Concrete on Mixture Shear Strength and Creep Deformation Potential, Polymer Modified Asphalt Binder, ASTM STP 1108, American Society of Testing and Materials, Philadelphia. Lu, X., and Isacsson, U., (1997), Compatibility and Storage Ability of SBS Copolymer Modified Bitumen, Materials and Structures, Vol. 30, pp. 618626. Nanda, P.K., and Bose, S., (2005), Laboratory Evaluation of Integrabase Modifier for Use in Bituminous Binder Course, Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, pp. 5076. Palit, S.K., Reddy, M.A., Reddy, K.S. and Pandey, B.B., Performance Evaluation of Crumb Rubber Modified Bituminous Mixes, Proceedings of National Seminar on Road Transportation in India: Emerging Trends and Techniques, 2002 September 1213 (IIT Kharagpur: India). Panda, M. and Mazumdar, M., Utilization of Reclaimed Polyethylene in Bituminous Paving Mixes, Journal of Material in Civil Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 14, pp. 527530. Panda, M., and Mazumdar, M. (1997) Development and Evaluation of a Bituminous Paving Binder Containing Reclaimed Polyethylene, Indian Highways, Vol. 5, No. 25, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi, pp. 1120. Park, T., Coree, B.J. and Lovell, C.W. (1997), Use of Pyrolized Carbon Black Additive in Hot Mix Asphalt, Jr. of Transportation Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 123, No. 6, Washington D.C., pp.4350. Pell, P.S., McCarthy, P.F., and Gardner, R. R., (1961), Fatigue of Bitumen and Bituminous Mixes, Int. J. Mech. Sci. Pergamon Press Ltd., Vol. 3, pp.247267. Pundhir, N.K.S., Kamaraj, C., and Nanda, P.K., (2005), Use of Copper Slag as Construction Material in Bituminous Pavements, Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, Vol. 64, December 2005, pp. 9971002. Sakthibalan, D. (2009), Influence of Aggregate Flakiness on Dense Bituminous Macadam and Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete Mixes, Indian Geotechnical Society, Chennai, pp. 15 Shuler, T.S., Collins, J.H. and Kirkpatrick, J.P., Polymer Modified Asphalt Properties Related to Asphalt Concrete Performance in Asphalt Rheology Relationship to Mixture, ASTM, STP 941, edited by O.E. Briscoe, 1987 (ASTM: Philadelphia). Sibal, A., Das, A. and Pandey, B.B., (2000) Flexural Fatigue Characteristics of Asphalt Concrete with Crumb Rubber, Int. J. Pavement Eng., Vol. 1, pp. 119132. Srivastava A., Piet, H. C., and Molenaar, A. A. A., (1992), SBS Polymer Modified Asphalt Binder and its Implications on Overlay Design, Polymer Modified Asphalt Binder, ASTM STP 1108, ASTM, Philadelphia. Tatic, U., Ipavec, A., Kalman, B., Palkovic, B., Strineka, A., Marukic, I., Schlosser F., Nemec, B., Sramek, J., and Mirski, K., (2006), Optimization of Asphalt Mixture Design to Ensure Favorable Behavior at Low and High Air Temperatures, European Commission DG Research, pp. 3549. Thirunavukkarasu, D. and Nagrajan, K., (1992), Study on the Improvement of Bitumen and Bituminous Mixes by the Addition of Rubber Powder Derived from Old Tyres, Indian Highways, Vol. 20, No. 7, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi, pp 714. Yandell, W.O., (1987), "How the Plastic Behaviour of Asphalt Mixtures Influences Pavement Life", Asphalt Rheology Relationship to Mixture, ASTM STP 941, O.E. Briscoe, Ed., American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelpliia, pp. 7698. Yildirim, Y., (2007), Polymer Modified Asphalt Binders, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 21, pp. 6672.
Section I Water Resources & Management
Coefficient of Discharge for Side Orifices in Open Channel Flow

A. Hussain1, Z. Ahmad2 and C.S.P. Ojha3
1Research 2Associate
Scholar, CED, Indian Institue of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India; ajmalamin.iitr@gmail.com Professor, CED, Indian Institue of Technology Roorkee,Roorkee, India; zulfifce@googlemail.com 3Professor, CED, Indian Institue of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India; cspojhafce@gmail.com
AbstractSide orifices in open channel flow are widely used in irrigation and environmental engineering works for diverting flow from main channel to secondary channel. The experiment has been carried out for different sizes and shapes of side orifices and also for different flow condition in the main channel. The collected data are analysed with reference to identification of parameters affecting the coefficient of discharge of side orifice. Different sizes of orifices and inflow conditions were applied in the experiments to investigate the variation of the coefficient of discharge. It is found that Froude number, the ratio of sill height of orifice to the width of the orifice, the ratio of flow depth in the main channel to the width of the orifice and width of the channel to the width of the orifice have significant affect on the coefficient of discharge. The Coefficient of discharge decreases with the Froude number and the ratio of sill height of orifice to the width of the orifice while increases with the ratio of flow depth in the main channel to the width of the orifice and width of the channel to the width of the orifice. Keywords: Coefficient of discharge, Circular orifice, Square orifice, Diverted discharge, Froude number.
INTRODUCTION
A side orifice, commonly used in irrigation engineering, is a flow diversion structure provided in the side of a channel to spill water from the main channel. It is also used in water and wastewater treatment plants to distribute the incoming flow to parallel process units such as flocculation basins, sedimentation tanks, and aeration basins (Ramamurthy et al. 1986). In treatment plants, lateral orifices are extensively used for the distribution of water and waste water uniformly across the width of a basin. Side orifices have been studied by Gill (1987), Ramamurthy et al. (1986), Ojha and Subbaiah (1997), and Hussain et al. (2010, 2011). Besides the side orifice, the sluice gate and side weir are other structures used for diverting the flow from the main channel. A detailed review of the various devices to distribute flow in open channels through outlets such as lateral weirs and submerged orifices is provided by Benefield (1984). A review of literature related to flow through sharp-crested side weir indicates that the coefficient of discharge is mainly dependent on the approach flow Froude number, ratio of the depth of flow in the main channel and sill height of weir, and ratio of the length of weir and width of channel (Ramamurthy et al., 1986, 1987). Considering the flow in the main channel provided with a side orifice as spatially varied flow, Ojha and Subbaiah (1997) proposed a discharge equation using an elementary coefficient of discharge which is mainly dependent on the orifice geometry and sill height. This study therefore investigated several factors that may affect the value of the coefficient of discharge. A physical model was built and various combination of flow through side orifice is constructed.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS FOR CIRCULAR AND SQUARE ORIFICE

Side sluice gate and side weir in open channel are special cases of side orifice. For zero sill height, the rectangular orifice behaves like sluice gate and once the upper edge of the rectangular orifice is above the free surface, it corresponds to a side weir. Therefore, it is likely that variables affecting the coefficient of discharge of side sluice gate and side weir would also affect the coefficient of discharge of a side circular orifice. Thus, from the review of literature, it is found that probable variables affecting the coefficient of discharge Cd for circular side orifice are D, B, W, V, Ym, mass density , viscosity , and g. The functional relationship for Cd may, thus, be written as
Cd = f1 ( D, B,W,V , Ym , , , g )
(1)
Taking , V and D as the repeating variables, the functional relationship for Cd in terms of nondimensional parameters may, thus be written as B W Y VD V , Cd = f2 , , m , (2) D D D gD
This equation can, alternatively, be written as
B W Y VD V , Cd = f 2 , , m , D D D gYm
So that
(3)
Fr = V
gYm represents the approach flow Froude number, Fr. Influence of the
Reynolds number, Re = VD is relatively insignificant in open channel flows and, hence, may be dropped from. The final functional relationship for Cd may, therefore, be expressed as
B W Y Cd = f2 , , m ,Fr D D D
(4)
An experimental study needs to be carried out to investigate the effect of the identified nondimensional parameters on the Cd. This was carried out during the present investigation.
Similarly the probable variables affecting the coefficient of discharge Cd for rectangular side orifice are L, B, W, V, Ym, , , and g. The functional relationship for Cd may thus be written as
Cd = f1(L, B,W,V,Ym, , g)
The final functional relationship for Cd may, therefore, be expressed as
(5)
B W Y Cd = f 2 , , m , Fr L L L
(6)
An experimental study needs to be carried out to investigate the effect of the identified nondimensional parameters on the Cd. This was carried out during the present investigation.
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
The plan and L-section views of the experimental set-up are shown in Fig. 1. The set-up consisted of a main channel of 9.15 m length, 0.50 m width and 0.60 m depth. A sluice gate was provided at the end of the main channel to regulate the depth of the flow in the main channel. A circular/square orifice was provided in the left wall of the main channel at a distance of 5.18 m from the upstream end of the channel. Water was supplied to the main channel from two 0.20 m diameter supply pipes.
Coefficient of f Discharge for Side S Orifices in Open Channel Flow 653
Discharg ge through the t orifice was w passed in nto a diversi ion channel of 3.80 m length, 0.26 m width and 0.41 1 m depth an nd, then, to a return chan nnel.
Fi ig. 1: Layout of the Exper rimental Set-up
A re ectangular sh harp- crested d weir-A was provided at the end of diversion d cha annel to mea asure the discharg ge flowing through the or rifice. The di ischarges fro om the main and the dive ersion chann nels were passed into i a return channel of 15.0 1 m lengt th, 0.65 m width w and 0.4 45 m depth a and, then, to o a sump. A rectan ngular sharp p-crested weir-B was pro ovided at th he end of th his channel t to measure the total discharg ge. Splitter plates p and flo ow suppress sors were pr rovided at th he upstream m of each ch hannel to break large size eddi ies and to dis ssipate the su urface distur rbances, resp pectively.
F Fig. 2: Circular and Recta angular Orific ce
In th he present study s two sh hapes of orif fices were us sed, one circular and ot ther square. Circular orifices were w of the diameter 5 cm, 10 cm and 15 cm. The dimens sions of the square orifi ices were kept suc ch that their areas are eq qual to the area a of the circular c orific ce. According gly size of th he square orifice were w 4.4 cm, 8.3 cm and 13.3 cm. Fig g. 2 shows photograph p o the circula of ar and square e orifices. Point ga auges of accu uracy 0.1m mm used to measure m wat ter surface and bed level ls. Velocity at a a point
was measured using Pitot-tube or Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter. The range of data collected in the present study is given in Table 1.
Table 1: Range of Data Collected in the Present Study
Dimensionless Parameter Fr Ym/D ; Ym/L B/D ; B/L W/D ; W/L Circular 0.036 1.14 3.33 0.33 Min. Square 0.05 1.16 3.75 0.37 Circular 0.52 11.87 10.00 5.00 Max. Square 0.48 13.41 11.36 4.54
OBSERVATIONS DURING EXPERIMENTATION FOR CIRCULAR ORIFICE
Fig. 3: Jet Coming Out of the Circular Orifice
Fig. 4: Vortex Formation in the Main Channel
Fig. 3 shows water jet coming out from the orifice. Vortex (Fig. 4) was noticed in the main channel in the vicinity of the orifice during the experimentations when the head of water above the orifice was relatively less or velocity in the vicinity was less. However, no run for discharge through the orifice was taken under these conditions because the vortex formation leads to the mixing of air to the outgoing jet.
Effect of Various Parameters on Coefficient of Discharge (Cd) Effect of Froude Number on Cd

Fig. 5 shows the variation of the experimental coefficient of discharge Cd with the Froude number Fr. It shows that Cd values of the orifice decreases with increase of the Froude number Fr when other parameters such as head of water above the centreline of the orifice , size of the orifice, sill height etc. are constant. It is clear that with the increase of the geometric parameter B/D the value of the coefficient of discharge increases.
Effect of Ym/D on Cd
Fig. 6 shows the effect of dimensionless upstream depth of flow in the main channel on the coefficient of discharge. This graph shows an increasing trend of coefficient of discharge with Ym/D when all other parameters are kept constant. This variation was observed for each size of orifice and its sill height. As we close the tail gate, the head over the orifice increases and velocity exiting the orifice decreases. As head increases, flow streamlines approach the orifice at increasingly lower velocities. This leads to an increase in the area of the jet at the vena contracta and an increase in the contraction coefficient, Cc. Since the coefficient of discharge is influenced by the contraction coefficient, any increase in Cc will increase Cd. In addition, for a given orifice size, the coefficient of discharge reaches a constant value at high head values.
Coefficient of f Discharge for Side S Orifices in Open Channel Flow 655
Fig. 5: Variation n of Cd with Froude F Numb ber for Diffe erent Values of B/D
Fig. 6: Variation V of Cd with Ym/D
Effect of o B/D on Cd
Greater orifice diam meter (i.e., B/ /D relatively smaller) pro ovide a long ger distance for the flow to make turn, yie elding more flow. More curvature c me eans that flo ow streamline es will be ex xiting the orifice from more ob blique angle es in relation nship to the orifice. The ese angles will w introduce e increasingl ly higher transverse velocity components, c which will increase i the contraction and thereby y decrease Cd. Fig. 7 shows the t coefficient of discha arge value increases with w the incr rease in B/D D value whe en other paramet ters such as Froude num mber, sill he eight and he ead above the t centrelin ne of orifice are kept (almost) constant. In n other word ds with the in ncrease of orifice size coe efficient of di ischarge decr reases as in the present study y B is kept co onstant. The e effect of di iameters, D is shown by y the Fig. 7, when all arameters are e kept almos st constant. other pa
Effect of o Ym/D on Cd Consid dering W/D D as Third Parameter P

The influ uence of the orifice heigh ht above the e floor on the e coefficient of o discharge is shown in Fig. 8. It shows th he test result ts for a give en orifice size e and having same main n discharge. The data sh how that location effects are prominent and a cant be e neglected. The figure also a shows th hat the coef fficient of discharg ge decreases with the inc crease in the height of the e orifice from m the floor. T This is becau use of the fact that t an orifice may m experience suppression of the jet j contractio on as it appr roaches a bo oundary. The bou undary may y force the flow f streaml lines to ente er the orifice e at increasi ingly norma al angles, resulting g in less contr raction of the jet and as a result the value v of Cd increases.
OBSER RVATIONS S DURING G EXPERIM MENTATION FOR SQ QUARE OR RIFICE

Almost all a the phen nomena obse erved with the t circular orifice o were observed w with square orifice. o In case of circular c orific ce, the jet co oming out of f the orifice has h an ellips soid shape. H However, in the case of squar re orifice it has a differen nt shape. Vor rtex was noti iced in the main m channel l in the vicinity of the orifice during d the ex xperimentations when th he head of water w above the orifice w was relativel ly less or velocity of the main channel was s low. Howev ver, no run was w taken un nder this con ndition.
Fig. 7: Vari iation of Cd with w B/D
Fig. 8: Variation n of Cd with Ym/D consider ring W/D a Third Param as meter
Effect of o Various Parameter rs on Coef fficient of Discharge D (Cd) Effect of o Froude Number N on n Cd
Fig. 9 sh hows the var riation of the e observed co oefficient of discharge Cd with the Fr roude numbe er Fr. It is to be noted that Cd decreases with increas se of the Fr roude numb ber Fr for co onstant Qm, B/L and W/L ratio.
Effect of o Ym/L on Cd
Fig. 10 shows s effect t of dimensio onless depth in the main channel on the coefficie ent of discha arge. The noticeab ble character ristic of this plot is that t for a given orifice siz ze the Cd in ncreases as the t Ym/L increase es for consta ant Qm, B/L and W/L. For F constant discharge, increase in Ym is associa ated with decrease e in velocity resulting in low l Froude number n and increase in Cd.
Fig. 9: Variation of Cd with Fr roude Numbe er
Fig. 10: Variation of Cd with Ym/L L
Effect of o B/L on Cd
As in cir rcular orifice e, Cd of squa are orifice in ncreases with h the increa ase of the B/ /L ratio. Sinc ce in the present study B is kept k constant t, one can sa ay coefficien nt of discharg ge decreases s with the inc crease of size of orifice. o Fig. 11 clearly sh how this tre end when all l other para ameters are k kept almost constant (Qm=0.1 108 m3/s, W= =10 cm and d Ym=35 cm m). Low value e of Cd for small B/L ratio, is due to effect of right wa all of the chan nnel.
Coefficient of Discharge for Side Orifices in Open Channel Flow 657
Fig. 11: Variation of Cd with B/L
CONCLUSION
Following conclusions were drawn from the present study: 1. Surface vortices were noticed in the main channel in the vicinity of the orifice during the experimentations for low head of water above the orifice and low velocity in the main channel. 2. Dimensional analysis indicates that the probable dimensionless parameters which could affect the coefficient of discharge of side circular orifices are Fr, B/D, W/D, Ym/D. 3. For circular orifice experimental results indicates that coefficient of discharges is inversely proportion to the Froude number, W/D and directly proportion to the Ym/D, B/D. 4. For square side orifice experimental results indicate that coefficient of discharges is inversely proportion to the Froude number and directly proportion to the Ym/D, B/D.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] Benefield, L. D., 1984 Treatment Plant Hydraulics for Environmental Engineers, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Gill MA. (1987). Flow through side slots. ASCE Journal of Environmental Engineering; 135 (21874): 1047-57. Hussain, A., Ahmad, Z., Asawa, G. L. (2010). Discharge characteristics of sharp-crested circular side orifices in open channels. Journal of Agricultural Water Management. Elsevier 98(10), 1536-1544. Hussain, A., Ahmad, Z., Asawa, G. L. (2011). Flow through sharp-crested square side orifices under free flow in open channels. Journal of Flow Measurement and Instrumentation. Elsevier 21(3), 418-24. Ojha CSP and Subbaiah D. (1997). Analysis of flow through lateral slot. ASCE Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering; 123(5): 402-5. Ramamurthy AS, Udoyara ST and Serraf S. (1986). Rectangular lateral orifices in open channel. ASCE Journal of Environmental Engineering; 135(5): 292-98. Ramamurthy AS, Udoyara ST and Serraf S. (1987). Weir orifice unit in open channel. ASCE Journal of Environmental Engineering; 135(5): 292-98.
Two-Tier Walls for Forebay of Maneri Bhali Hydropower Project Stage-II

Rajendra Chalisgaonkar1, Mukesh Mohan2 and Sanjay Singh3
1GM, 2DGM,
Uttarakhand Project Development and Construction Corporation Ltd., Dehradun; chalisgaonkar@yahoo.com Uttarakhand Project Development and Construction Corporation Ltd., Dehradun; mukeshmohan3@gmail.com 3Executive Engineer, Irrigation Department, Dehradun, India; sanjaysingh1812@gmail.com
AbstractThe paper describes the methodology adopted for 25.5m high two-tier walls constructed at Maneri Bhali Hydropower Project Stage-II, commissioned in 2008 in Uttarakhand State.
INTRODUCTION
Various types of retaining walls are extensively used in Civil engineering construction to stabilize any material where conditions are such that the mass can not be allowed to form a natural slope. Commonly retaining walls are used to hold the earth slope. Commonly retaining walls are used to hold earth slopes to a vertical or near vertical face, but they are also used to contain ore, grain, earth, coal or even water etc. The type and profile of wall is decided on the basis of prevailing site conditions, but usually the retaining walls are of following types: 1. Solid Gravity wall 2. Semi-Gravity wall 3. Cantilever or T-Shape wall 4. Counter fort wall A large number of multi-purpose river valley projects are coming up in the country and which invariably involve the provision of retaining walls and sometimes the walls provided are very high. The conventional type of retaining walls are not found economical incase of high walls. The paper describes the design of high walls with special reference to Maneri Bhali Hydropower Project Stage-II.
MANERI BHALI HYDROPOWER PROJECT STAGE-II

Maneri Bhali Hydropower Project Stage-II is a run-of-river scheme on river Bhagirathi commissioned in 2008 in Uttarkashi district, about 160 km upstream of Rishikesh. It utilises 142 cumec water with a head of 285 m to generate 304MW of hydropower. The reservoir has a water depth of 15 m above the crest of spillway. The minimum and maximum pond levels in the reservoir are 1103.00 m and 1108.00 m respectively. The diversion works consist of a Barrage along with Intake, Desilting Tank, Forebay and Sediment Flushing System. The water conductor system consist of about 50m long cut and cover section near forebay followed by a 16 km long Head Race Tunnel of horse shoe shape of 6000 mm equivalent diametre leading to surface power house at Dharasu to generate 304MW of hydropower. The General Arrangement and aerial view of Diversion Works of Maneri Hydropower Project Stage-II are shown in Fig. 1 and 2.
TWO-TIER TRAINING WALLS IN FOREBAY

The forebay channel of Maneri Bhali Hydropower Project Stage-II is flanked on either side by very high training walls, the maximum being 25.5 m(Fig. 3). In order to achieve an optimum and economic design, a gravity-gravity type two-tier wall with 10.0 m as lower tier and remaining 15.5 m height of the section as upper tier were designed. The forces considered for the design of wall include
Two-Tier Walls for Forebay of Maneri Bhali Hydropower Project Stage-II 659
Fig. 1: General Arrangement of Diversion Works of MBS-II Project
Fig. 2: View of Diversion Arrangement from Google Earth
1. Self weight of wall 2. Horizontal and Vertical Pressure due to backfill 3. Surcharge 4. Water Pressure 5. Uplift Pressure 6. Soil reactions at foundation 7. Frictional force on foundation against sliding
The following assumptions were made to compute various forces: 1. The angle of internal friction for the pervious river bed material used as backfill was taken as 300 and active earth pressures were worked out by coulombs theory. 2. Saturated and submerged unit weight of backfill was assumed as 22 kN/m3 respectively. 3. Submergence was considered upto EL 1108.00 m. 4. Angle of wall friction for saturated and submerged backfill was assumed as 200 and 100 respectively. 5. The co-efficient of friction between concrete and rock was assumed as 0.70. 6. Full uplift pressure was considered at the base. 7. No earth pressures were considered in the lower tier of wall abutted to the rock. 8. The allowable bearing pressure at foundation level was assumed as 700 kN/m2. Based on the above assumptions, the Structural Stability of wall and Foundation Stability was carried out to check the adequacy of provided section.
Fig. 3: View of Desilting Tank and Forebay during Construction
DESIGN OF TWO-TIER WALL

The foundation of wing walls in the fore bay area, exposes limestone, slates and quartzitic slates. The deepest foundation level of 1085.0 m in the right wing wall in overlain by sound limestone in a height of about 12 m, followed river-borne material and debris in the remaining height. It was therefore; decided to take advantage of the sound rock conditions available in the lower 10.0 m portion and abut it to the sound rock. Subsequently the wall was designed as Two Tier Wall with lower 10 m portion as Lower Tier and the remaining 15.5 m height of the section as Upper Tier.
Two-Tier Walls for Forebay of Maneri Bhali Hydropower Project Stage-II 661
Upper Tier Wall

For the upper 15.50m height, gravity wall section with top width 2.0m, as shown in Fig. 4, was adopted and the structural stability and foundation stability was carried out for the forces enumerated above to check the adequacy of the section. The section was found safe against overturning and the base pressures within the safe allowable bearing capacity of the foundation rock and no tension at heel. The co-efficient of friction between concrete to rock was taken as 0.7 and the sliding resistance mobilized at the smooth finished joint surface of the two tiers has been neglected. The safety against sliding was achieved by providing a 2.0 m deep shear key at the heel.
Lower Tier Wall

The lower tier of the wall section has been abutted to the rock making it an integral part of the rock by suitably anchoring it to the rock keeping in view the orientation of discontinuities in the rock. The basic philosophy involved in the design of lower tier lies in the fact that the rock is competent enough for anchoring and shall remain stable at the stripped slopes, which in this case has been taken as 0.5(H):l(V). As such the rock shall not exert any lateral pressure on the lower-tier wall and will be subjected to uplift, water pressure besides its self weight and the vertical reactions transferred from the upper tier. The section of the lower tier tested for the above load combination was found safe against overturning and sliding. However 36 mm diameter TOR steel bar anchors @ 1500 mm c/c grouted 5500 mm deep inside the rock were provided in both directions to secure the section with rockmass.
Joints between Upper and Lower Tier Walls

The horizontal joint surface between the two tiers was given a smooth finish by providing thermocoal between the two tiers to ensure that no horizontal forces from the upper tier are transferred to the lower tier. The waterproofing of the joint was done by providing a combination of Copper and PVC seals at 450 mm and 750 mm away from the water face respectively.
Fig. 4: Section of Two-Tier Training Wall
The comparison of two-tier training walls with conventional type gravity wall has been depicted in Fig.5. The figure clearly indicates the substantial saving in respect of excavation and concreting achieved by constructing a two-tier wall in place of conventional type of gravity wall.
Fig. 5: Comparison of Two-Tier Wall with Conventional Wall
CONCLUSION
A large number of run-of-river hydropower projects have been constructed and are being planned and constructed in India and provision of retaining walls in various hydropower development schemes involve substantial cost. The design of high retaining walls needs to be given careful attention in order to obtain an economical and structurally safe section. The methodology adopted for design of two-tier retaining walls at Maneri Bhali Hydropower Project Stage-II reveals that the high walls, if designed on the above principles will be more economical in comparison to the conventional type of walls when the sound rock is available.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Chalisgaonkar R., Mukesh Mohan and Singh Sanjay(2011) Typical Constructions at Maneri Bhali Hydroelectric Project Stage-II, Seminar on Geotechnical Investigations in Water Resources Projects, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, New Delhi, Dehradun. Gupta S. C. and Chalisgaonkar R.(1989) Anchoring Water Resource Structures in Rocks - Safety & Economy, National Symposium on Application of Rock Mechanics in River Valley Projects, Irrigation Design & Research Organization, Roorkee. Gupta S. C., Gupta V. P. and Chalisgaonkar R.(1988) Anchoring Hydraulic Structures in Limestone and Slate Rocks, 54th Research and Development Session of Central Board of Irrigation and Power (CBIP), Ranchi (Bihar). Huntigton, W.C. (1957) Earth Pressure and Retaining Walls, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, USA. IS: 456-1978, Indian Standard Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards New Delhi.
Application of Information Technology in Hydrological Data Analysis

A.K. Lohani and Manoj Goel
National Institue of Hydrology Roorkee, India; lohani@nih.ernet.in, manojg@nih.ernet.in
AbstractWater is one of the basic needs of various sectors. Rapid increase in the population has resulted increase in water demand in different sectors, such as agriculture, energy, industry, domestic etc. For effective and efficient water resource assessment and management for development and management of water resources projects, and for proper river basin planning and development of flood forecasting system, a reliable, accurate, processed and easily approachable data base containing all the data of hydrologic variables recorded, is very much needed for proper planning and management of water resources. Moreover several types of statistical information is required for the analysis of hydrological systems i.e. flood frequency estimation, design flood estimation, reservoir capacity estimation and its operation, low flow analysis and for various other purposes. In our country various organizations are involved in collection of hydrologic and other related data. Data collected on hydrologic process are generally raw data and cannot be used directly in most hydrologic analysis work. Therefore, processing of such data is essential to make them usable for various studies. Advances in hydrology are dependent on good, reliable and continuous measurements of the hydrological variables. State and central agencies have maintained observational networks for many years and voluminous records are held. But most of the records are on manuscript or chart records, which are not readily accessible for use and are of variable quality. Therefore, the urgent need was felt to develop a hydrological information system (HIS). In this paper hydrological information system and various aspects of processing and analysis of hydrologic data are discussed in detail. The paper also discusses the importance of hydrological data storage and dissemination software. Finally the conclusions bring out the importance of data processing and usefulness of automated data processing in present context. It has also been concluded from the study that the automated data processing and persons trained in this field are required to maintain the pace with the developments in water resources data analysis and modeling.
INTRODUCTION
Water has to cater needs of various sectors. To meet these varying types of uses, which are even on the increase with the development of irrigation, industries, hydropower, navigation etc., it is necessary to measure rainfall, runoff and other hydrological and related meteorological data in each major and medium river catchment. Further more the data thus collected have to be organized and analyzed to determine water availability at various times of the year. In fact, in planning and designing water resources projects (e.g. irrigation, hydropower, flood control etc.), the peak and magnitude of flood are of great importance to an engineer. In practice it is rare an engineer may find all the necessary records (e.g. stream flow) at the proper site in question. It is generally necessary either to use the records obtained at a more or less distant point or to extend the records to cover a long period, needing thereby the long-term data and a study between the complicated relationships of hydrological components through the hydrologic cycle. Therefore, adequate hydrologic data are essential for planning engineering projects. In our country various organizations are involved in collection of hydrologic and other related data. Data collected on hydrologic process are generally raw data and can not be used directly in most hydrologic analysis work. The first important task in the whole gambit of hydrologic information system (HIS) is the collection of true, accurate and regular data. This needs a thorough understanding of methods of measurement, on the part of the people responsible to collect such data. The conventional and
modern methods need to be imbibed into, not only observers, technicians but also in water resources engineer & managers. The second concern is the processing of such raw data. Data processing classified as preliminary and secondary data processing is essential before putting the data for further use in analysis. Processing of hydrological data has two major objectives: one to evaluate the data for its accuracy and the other to prepare the data in a form valuable to the users. The measurements of hydrological data are recorded and processed by a wide range of methods, from the manual writing down and processing to the invisible marking and processing of electronic impulses on a magnetic tape. The rapid advance in information technology, in speed of operation and data storage capacity as well as the capability of hydrological software has greatly simplified the management of large quantities of hydrological data and has rendered obsolete those time-consuming manual methods which were formerly the norm. It is in this context the information technology has immense potential in automated data processing using high-speed computers and in handling large volume of hydrologic data in a quick and economic way. The third and final step of any HIS is the dissemination of the processed data to end-users. In this paper application of information technology in hydrological data processing covering various aspects of processing and analysis of hydrologic data and usefulness of automated data processing are dealt in detail. Further, the efforts made in our country in this regard are also discussed.
HYDROLOGICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (HIS) What is HIS?

The three important words which are included in the title HIS are defined as: 1. Hydrology is the science that encompasses the occurrence, distribution, movement and properties of the waters of the earth and their relationship with the environment within each phase of the hydrologic cycle. 2. Hydrology is the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability. (Wikipedia)
Hydrological
Hydrology is the science of water in the hydrological or water cycle and is concerned with its states, storages and fluxes in location, time and phase. Hydrometry is the sister science of hydrology which is concerned with the measurement of these states, storages and fluxes in the water cycle. Hydrometry is also considered as a part of it. Further, hydrology is a science because it is concerned with the scientific principles of repeatability and that measurements may be checked and validated.
Information
Information is data which is manipulated and processed to give them meaning and purpose. By definition, information serves a function and is created not simply because it is there to be measured or because of our curiosity alone. Unlike the mountaineer, we are not climbing Everest simply because it is there to be climbed-but because there is someone on the top who needs help. Function is important, not only in establishing the contents and structure of the information but also as a motivation for all involved in the development and maintenance of the HIS. Three key features of information are: reliability, availability and presentation. Information is a collection of related data or knowledge about a topic.
Application of Information Technology in Hydrological Data Analysis 665
System
The HIS is not simply a data collection or archive although it incorporates an archive. It is a logical and structured system to collect data which are subsequently entered into the computer, checked and stored and where also data may be compared, associated, related and combined to provide information in a form suitable to users. A system may also be seen as the integration of the user and the machine.
Why HIS?
If a Hydrological Information System is understood as providing information for specific and definable uses, then users must have a central role in the content of the system. The current major data users are also the major data providers and have tailored the content and structure of existing systems to meet their own needs. However, current practice does not generally even meet current needs. Other users may find that data, if available, are in the wrong form, of varying reliability and may take a long time to obtain. A number of agencies currently do not maintain their own networks and depend on others to supply information with acceptable reliability and timeliness. In an efficient and effective system, there must be a strong linkage between data/information producers and users, both those within the same department and legitimate external users from other departments and agencies, consultants, universities for research, etc. The primary role of the HIS (see Fig. 1) is to provide reliable data sets for long-term planning, design and management of water resource and water use systems and for research activities in the related aspects. The requirement of HIS can also be justified as:
Information Need
The planning, design and management of water resources projects for domestic, industrial, agricultural and power uses and management of floods and droughts, requires information on storages and fluxes in water for safe and economic design and operation. The need for hydrological information is growing with a growing population.
Hydrological Variability
The occurrence of water shows great variability in space and time and requires that adequate measurement networks are established to define spatial variability and that they are maintained over a sufficient period of time to define temporal variability of a water variable.
Inadequacy in Hydrological Networks

Systems currently exist but do not meet current needs in terms of reliability, availability and presentation, even where the networks themselves are of adequate density. Current systems in India are operated by a number of Central and State, surface water and groundwater agencies and are not standardized either in operational practice or in methods of processing and management. They may provide information of varying reliability, they may duplicate information and activities and there are often long delays between observation and dissemination of information.
Fig. 1: Hydrological Information System
DATA PROCESSING
The term "data processing" is of relatively recent origin, the activity itself is not new. On the contrary, there is evidence that the need to process data originate as back as the beginning of recorded history, when peoples activity first exceeded their ability to remember the details of their actions. The purpose of data processing is to collect and record facts and figures relating to events and present them as meaningful information in a concise form. The term data processing refers to the recording and handling of data that are necessary to convert it into more refined or useful form of information. The volume of data has grown to such proportions that data processing has become a major activity attracting a great deal of interest. The data processed should not be taken as an end in itself. It is rather the beginning step of achieving objectives, which can vary as the nature of data. The objectives of data processing now extend for beyond the routine handling of transaction documents and records of other types, providing timely information to facilitate greater control and improved decisions.
DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

The data processing activities which come in cyclic way is called data processing cycle. In the data processing cycle we first gather information for our data processing work. This is known as origination and collection. The collected data is made as input for the processing. It is stored for further processing and retrieval. The result and information obtained as the product of data processing is subject for feed back which can be either negative or positive. Depending upon the type of feed back, corrections or modification are incorporated to get the new system. The obtained new system may be run for the subsequent operations.
TOOL FOR SURFACE WATER DATA PROCESSING

Advancement in computer technology has opened a new path for speedy and more accurate data processing. The manual data processing which requires lot of labour and time is now slowly becoming obsolete. Most of the developed countries are using high-speed computers for such works. The bulk of the hydrological and meteorological data is generally observed manually from a variety of instruments. Some of the data is also observed and stored automatically on magnetic media using electronic data loggers. Data entry is the first task before the processing of data on computer. To facilitate the task of data entry into the computer surface water data entry software (SWDES)
developed under Hydrology Project Phase II. SWDES is a specialist data entry software based on Microsoft Access to customize data entry for the individual needs of states and agencies, mimicking the forms and data sheets that are used by agencies for particular variables. Primary module of the dedicated hydrological data processing software (SWDES) is available for all types of surface water data entry. This front-end module is specifically customized to suit the layout of data entry forms used by the field observers for recording the data and to carry out graphical and tabular data validation. It is primarily designed for the entry of time series data but it also incorporates space-oriented data sufficient to locate and catalogue the stations under the control of a particular state or agency. Stations and series can then be accessed from typical Windows Menus and Toolbars by clicking on appropriate buttons. This feature, of course, is common to all variables. For all equidistant and cyclic time series data, the software provides entry screens automatically with date and time labels against which the variable values are entered. This simplifies data entry and avoids the potential errors of date/time entry. It also provides data entry checking capability, rejecting clearly spurious values and flagging suspect ones for inspection. For example it will reject entry of an alpha character in a numeric field or duplicate decimal point and will highlight for inspection values above a pre-set limit. In addition options for plotting time series graphs, at time of entry are available in most cases. A typical window of SWDES software is shown in fig. 2.
Fig. 2: Entry Screen format for entering Daily Rainfall Data
The data entered through SWDES is exported to HYMOS software. HYMOS is software which is used for storage, processing and retrieval of hydro-meteorological data. It combines an efficient database structure with powerful tools for data entry, validation, completion, analysis, retrieval and presentation. The graphical and map-based user interface in the software offers a pleasant and efficient working environment. The HYMOS database is time series oriented with common facilities for spatial analysis. In combination with a GIS for comprehensive geographical data analysis, it covers all data storage and processing requirements for planning, design and operation of water management system. Exchange of data between HYMOS and most common graphical information systems (GIS) is easy and user friendly. Data processing function on HYMOS is activated only when a GIS background map and/or network is loaded on the active window. Fig. 3 shows a typical window of HYMOS data processing software.
Fig. 3: A Typical Window of HYMOS data Processing Software
DATA PROCESSING USING HYMOS

Computer-based surface water data processing systems offer the following advantages: 1. Permit and promote the standardisation of data processing, validation and reporting procedures 2. Can easily handle a very large amount of data. 3. Can greatly speed up the progress from data collection to completion and storage 4. Users can be provided with data in the required tabular or graphical format 5. HYMOS software offers the above said advantages and can be used storage and processing of basic surface water data. A number of methods are available for surface water data processing and analysis in HYMOS a few of them are described below:
Preliminary Processing and Scrutiny

Preliminary processing and scrutiny of the data are essential before the observed data is stored on computer. The preliminary processing includes: verification, valid status, reasonable report, and quality of data, filling up of short data gaps, consistency of data, quality control procedures, and adjustment of records.
Secondary Data Processing

Specific tasks in secondary data processing include: calculation of the averages, preparation of regular time series and miscellaneous graphs showing variations with time and preparation of chronological tables with elementary statistical parameters.
Homogeneity Tests
Before subjecting hydrological data to rigorous analysis, they should be checked for temporal and spatial homogeneity, Traditional subjective methods can be used for this as well as objective methods based on statistical techniques.
The best known technique for testing homogeneity in time series is the double mass curve analysis. The spatial homogeneity analysis is very simple but it needs sound practical experience to apply correctly.
Double Mass Analysis

The technique of double mass analysis is well known briefly it involves plotting the accumulating total of one time series variable against that of another. One of the series is assumed homogeneous; if the plot is an acceptably straight line, the other series is assumed homogeneous too. Fig. 4 shows a typical example of double mass analysis through HYMOS.
Fig. 4: Double Mass Analysis
Analysis of Rating Curve Stability

The purpose of the study to examine the history of rating curve assessments at the site to see if the suspected discontinuity in the flow series has a rational explanation. The HYMOS offers an efficient and graphically very strong method for the development of rating curves.
Residual Analysis
A residual series is a series plotted relative to the mean value of the series. The residual series gives a quick insight in wet and dry periods. This shows best if the series is plotted as bars. Although not strictly necessary, plot only one series per graph. A typical example of residual series for monthly rainfall developed by HYMOS is shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5: Plot of Residual Series Mandla Station
Spatial Homogeneity Analysis

Rainfall exhibits some degree of spatial consistency. The degree of consistency is primarily based on the actual spatial correlation. The expected spatial consistency is the basis of investigating the observed rainfall values at the individual observation stations. An estimate of the interpolated rainfall value at a station is obtained on the basis of the weighted average of rainfall observed at the surrounding stations. Whenever the difference between the observed and the estimated values exceed the expected limiting value then such values are considered as suspect values. Such values are then flagged using HYMOS for further investigation and ascertaining the possible causes of the departures.
Statistical Tests on Means and Variances

This section provides the basic theory for testing whether two data samples should or should not be regarded as having come from the same parent population. Objective homogeneity tests of hydrological data series are most usefully carried out by someone who also understands the physical processes at work. If the basic observational data demonstrates non-homogeneity, it is as important to understand the reasons as to quantify the certainty with which it can be inferred. Whenever a quantitative estimate of data homogeneity is needed one should apply statistical tests for mean and variance making due allowance for correlation within and between the data series. Homogeneity testing begins with estimation of the homogeneity of the sampling variance; Fisher's ratio test is used for this. Homogeneity testing of the sample mean is carried out using Student's t-test.
Filling in Gaps
Historic hydrological series are often too short or include too many gaps for solving major problems. The techniques available in HYMOS are based on relations between such short or incomplete series and those from neighbouring sites which may be complete and/or longer.
Analysis of Processed Data

Various analyses normally performed with the processed data are: time series analysis, correlation and regression analysis, frequency analysis and computation of frequency curves etc.
HYDROLOGICAL DATA STORAGE AND DISSEMINATION

To efficiently fulfill the need of the users all available data sets are to be maintained in well-defined computerized databases using an industry standard database management system. This is essential for the long-term sustainability of the data sets in proper form and their dissemination to the end users. Both, raw and processed data sets are be properly stored and archived to specified standards so that there is no loss of information. All agencies will have standard procedures for the dissemination of data to the users from the computerized databases. Water Information System Data Online Management (WISDOM) is a user friendly software that facilitates the Data Storage Centres (DSC) in storing processed data from software residing in the Data Processing Centres, in a systematic and automated manner. The WISDOM software has been developed as a part of the computerized automation of HIS procedures under Hydrology Project Phase I. There are three national DSCs the CWC, CGWB and IMD. These centers store hydrological information in the form of metadata whose actual values were to be made available to Hydrological Data Users (HDUs). The DSC receive information from the Data Processing Centres (DPCs) located within their service areas. Fig. 6 illustrates the flow of HIS data. WISDOM is independent of all the other software from which it is importing data or to which it is exporting data. It provides information on spatial and temporal characteristics of water quality and quantity variables/parameters describing the water resources/ water use system in all the states. It also provides a valuable and convenient source of information for decision /policy makers. Fig. 7 shows an overview of the WISDOM processes.
District / Sub Divisional DPCs Field Stations MetaDatabase Catalogue Server HDU
Divisional/ Regional DPCs
Data Storage Centers
Fig. 6: HIS Data Flow

Software Format
Software: SWDES, HYMOS,IMD File Type: Access, Excel, CSV, Text, and Delimited
M A Import P P Export I N Objects Security control G Imp/Exp

DRF Import
Mail transfer
Dissemination Reports MIS Metadata Generate

WISDOM DATABASE
Metadata Export Metadata Import
CATALOUGE META Catalogue CD DATABASE
DRF
Internet
Metadata from other DSCs
Online HDUs
Fig. 7: Functions of WISDOM
CONCLUSION
Using Information Technology for the development of hydrological information system is not a single step process. For the development of hydrological information system which includes processing of hydrological data is to be carried out in a series of stages, starting with data collection to preliminary checking in the manuscript, through entry of raw data and successively higher levels of validation, before it is accepted as fully validated data. The surface water data processing software HYMOS utilises the GIS based catchment information and time series data is an effective manner. Handling and management of various time interval data can be carried out efficiently through HYMOS software. The GIS based map layer viewing and analysing capability of HYMOS is an added advantage for surface water data storage, processing, analysis and retrieval. Further, the advancement in information technology is playing an important role through SWDES, HYMOS and WISDOM software in data management and online hydrological data dissemination.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Chowdhary H., (1992). Training report on Hydrological Data Processing, March 1992. HYMOS (Version 4.01) Manual.( 1999). Delft Hydraulics, P.O. Box 177, 2600 M.H. Delft. Lohani A.K. (1993). Hydrological data collection processing and analysis, Report No. SR-27, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee. Lohani A.K., Chowdhary H, Singh R.D., 2000, Use of GIS based HYMOS for surface water data processing,, Spatial Information Technology-Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems, BS Publications, Hyderabad, India WISDOM User Guide, Document by Rolta (India) Limited
Flooding Hazards, Prediction and Mitigation Emerging Issues

Rajendra Chalisgaonkar1, Mukesh Mohan2 and Sanjay Singh3
1Superintending 2Executive
Engineer, Investigation and Planning Circle, Irrigation Department, Dehradun; chalisgaonkar@yahoo.com Engineer, Investigation and Planning Division, Irrigation Department, Dehradun; mukeshmohan3@gmail.com 3Executive Engineer, Irrigation Department, Dehradun, India; sanjaysingh1812@gmail.com
AbstractIn India, many places are situated in the hazard belts and are subject to floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, windstorms, tidal waves and land slides, etc., due to their geographical conditions. The State of Uttarakhand has witnessed large scale flood disasters in 2010 and created havoc due to cloud burst in August 2012 in Uttarkashi and Chamoli districts, resulting in loss of life and infrastructure. The paper discuses in detail flooding hazards, emergency action plan for flood mitigation, etc. to minimize the disaster in the context of State of Uttarakhand.
INTRODUCTION
In India, many places are situated in the hazard belts and are subject to floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, windstorms, tidal waves and land slides, etc., due to its geographical conditions. The major natural disasters that occur periodically in the country are largely due to climatic and seismic factors. Vulnerability to disasters has increased due to the increased aggregation of people in urban centres, environmental degradation, and a lack of planning and preparedness. The major natural hazards include: 1. Cyclone 2. Floods 3. Droughts 4. Land Slides 5. Earthquakes 6. Volcanoes 7. Tsunamis
FLOODS: AN INCREASING MENACE

Rapid population growth is accelerating vulnerability to disasters as settlements encroach into disaster-prone areas. This will ultimately cause more risk to human life in the years to come. Floods are a serious problem in many river basins throughout the world, particularly in the monsoon and typhoon areas of South East Asia. In Asia as a whole, floods are said to destroy about 4 million hectares of crops every year and the lives of some 17 million people are affected. It has been estimated that annual flood losses in some countries are 40 times more today than they were in the 1950s. According to the Indian Government, one out of every 20 people in the nation is vulnerable to flooding and in China over 85 per cent of the population is concentrated on alluvial plains or basins along river courses which comprise one third of the total land area. In recent years, floods seem to have been very much more destructive than usual. In 1978, India was struck by some of the worst floods in its history. Thousands of villages were flooded. Crops were damaged on millions of acres of farmland. Hundreds of people were drowned, millions were made homeless while damage to property and livestock is said to have run into billions of dollars.
In 1981, China was also devastated by record floods. In July and August of that year, 53 cities, 580 towns, 2,600 factories and vast areas of agricultural land were submerged in Sichuan Province. Houses containing 1.6 million rooms were destroyed; 1,000 people were killed and nearly 30,000 injured; and the cost of the damage to property was estimated at over a billion dollars. That very same year, floods ravaged neighbouring Shaanzi Province causing the death of 764 people, injuring 5,000 people, destroying 160,000 houses, washing away 230 villages and leaving 200,000 people homeless. In 2012, besides India, many countries have witnessed severe floods including China, Myanmar, Philippines, USA, etc. In India, the continuing torrential rain on 16th August 2012 in the Rajasthan State wrecked havoc as the railway track got washed away near Nokhada railway station on Bikaner-Phalodi route. The fate of passengers of Jaisalmer-Lalgarh Express can be imagined by looking at Fig. 1, but surprisingly no casualty was reported in the accident. In the State of Uttarakhand, Uttarkashi, Chamoli and Tehri Garhwal districts witnessed severe floods and cloud burst in the month of August and September 2012.
Fig. 1: Railway Track Washed Away
FLOODS IN UTTARKASHI
Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand is situated on the banks of Bhagirathi at an altitude of 1352 m above the sea level. Most of the terrain is hilly and becomes inaccessible during landslides and snowfall. The Yamuna and the Ganga are the biggest rivers in Uttarkashi district. The district has already witnessed incidents of Natural disaster like Cloud bursts, flash flood. In the year 1978 and 1980 the district got affected by the could burst, followed by an earth-quake in the 1991 which took 2000 lives, and 2002-03 major land slide tormented the people in the district. In the worst tragedy to hit Uttarkashi in more than 30 years, a cloud burst in the middle of Friday night on 4th August 2012 triggered landslides and flash floods, which destroyed hundreds of homes in the Uttarkashi area. The cloud burst swept away bridges and a large chunk of the Gangotri national highway. 31 people lost their lives and at least 40 feared missing in the flash floods. Nearly 2000 people were affected in the floods and about 200 families were evacuated from low lying regions of Uttarkashi and moved to higher ground.
Fig. 2: Aerial View of Uttarkashi Town
Fig. 3: Damaged Suspension Bridge in the Area
Flooding Hazards, Prediction and MitigationEmerging Issues 675
CLOUD BURST/FLASH FLOOD

Cloudburst is a localised weather phenomena representing highly concentrated rainfall over a small area lasting for few hours. This leads to flash floods/landslides, house collapse, dislocation of traffic and human casualties on large scale and can not always have a warning that these deadly, sudden floods are coming. There is no satisfactory technique for anticipating the occurrence of cloud bursts because of their scale. A very fine network of radars is required to detect the likelihood of cloud burst and this would be prohibitively expensive. Cloudburst events over remote and unpopulated hilly areas often go unreported. The states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand are the most affected due to the steep topography. Most of the damage to property, communication systems and human causalities result from the flash floods that accompany cloud bursts. Prediction of cloudbursts is challenging and requires high-resolution numerical models and mesoscale observations, highperformance computers and Doppler weather radar. In one of India's worst cloudbursts on 26th July 2005, Mumbai was completely paralysed, as approximately 950 mm of rainfall was recorded in India's financial capital over a span of eight to ten hours.
Cloud Bursts in Uttarkashi

Around midnight on 4th August 2012, cloud burst in the Assi Ganga area triggered flash flooding and landslides along the river Assi Ganga in Uttarkashi district. The flash flood resulted in loss of life and destroyed several houses and bridges. Twenty three workers of the state-run UJVN Ltd Assi Ganga hydro-electric project, who went missing early in the morning of 5th August following a cloud burst in the upper hills of Uttarkashi district, were declared dead.
Flash Floods in Ghansali, Tehri Garhwal

A heavy rain at Ghansali in Tehri Garhwal, which started on Sunday evening on 2nd September 2012 and continued throughout the night, wreaked havoc in the area, as swollen local rivulets washed away eight footbridges, several watermills and damaged fields. The district administration shifted a family, which lost its home in the flash floods, to some other place. The flash floods also washed away hundreds of nails of agricultural land in Gharaygoan and Nailchami villages. A large number of check dams, water supply schemes and irrigation channels have also been damaged. The KotiAkhora road in the district was also damaged at several places due to the flash floods and was closed to traffic.
HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH FLOODING

Hazards associated with flooding can be divided into primary hazards that occur due to contact with water, secondary effects that occur because of the flooding, such as disruption of services, health impacts such as famine and disease, and tertiary effects such as changes in the position of river channels. Primary Effects: The primary effects of floods are those due to direct contact with the flood waters, which include: 1. With higher velocities, streams are able to transport larger particles as suspended load. 2. Massive amounts of erosion can be accomplished by flood waters. Such erosion can undermine bridge structures, levees, and buildings causing their collapse. 3. Water entering human built structures cause water damage. Even with minor flooding of homes, furniture is ruined, floors and walls are damaged, and anything that comes in contact with the water is likely to be damaged or lost. 4. The high velocity of flood waters allows the water to carry more sediment as suspended load. When the flood waters retreat, velocity is generally much lower and sediment is deposited.
After retreat of the flood waters everything is usually covered with a thick layer of stream deposited mud, including the interior of buildings. 5. Flooding of farmland usually results in crop loss. Livestock, pets, and other animals are often carried away and drown. 6. Humans that get caught in the high velocity flood waters are often drowned by the water. Secondary Effects: Secondary effects are those that occur because of the primary effects such as disruption of services etc. as given below: 1. Drinking water supplies may get damaged or become polluted. 2. Telephone and electrical services may be disrupted. 3. Transportation systems may be disrupted, resulting in shortages of food, cooking gas and cleanup supplies. 4. Disruption in hydropower generation due to excessive silt content. Tertiary Effects: Tertiary effects are the long term changes that take place, which include: 1. Location of river channels may change as the result of flooding; new channels develop, leaving the old channels dry. 2. Sediment deposited by flooding may destroy farm land. 3. Jobs may be lost due to the disruption of services, destruction of business, etc. 4. Destruction of wildlife habitat.
FLOOD HAZARD MITIGATION: GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

The following goals articulate that commitment and provide a sense of direction to govern decisions and activities that may affect risk faced by the people residing in flood prone areas. While not all of the goals stated will be attainable in the short term, they nevertheless serve as a set of guiding principles by which future choices can be shaped. These goals will also set the framework as criteria for evaluating proposed mitigation actions.
Goal One: Reduce Loss of Life and Personal Injury from Flooding
Its fundamental objective is to minimize the human loss and suffering resulting from terrestrial flooding events. This implies the need for enforcement of strict standards for siting and construction, as well as regulation of land uses and development in flood-prone areas. Food hazard mapping(Fig. 4) is used to determine the areas susceptible to flooding when discharge of a stream exceeds the bank-full stage. Using historical data on river stages and discharge of previous floods, along with topographic data, maps can be constructed to show areas expected to be covered with floodwaters for various discharges or stages.
Fig. 4: Flood Risks: Before and after Downstream Development in Flood Prone Areas
Goal Two: Reduce Economic Damages and Social Dislocation from Flooding
This goal suggests a range of possible public actions, beginning with fundamental reforms of the planning and management of major public sector facilities management agencies. In this goal we aim to reduce the flooding-related costs of unwise government and private management practices. This Goal includes number of related Objectives: 1. Reduce damages to existing development from flooding. 2. Reduce damages to future development from flooding. 3. Reduce damages to present and future development financed by public funds. 4. Reduce public expense for response and recovery services following flood events 5. Preserve, enhance and restore features of the natural environment.
Goal Three: Integrate Effective Flood Hazard Mitigation Activities

This goal requires that the institutions planning, controlling and monitoring development be upgraded in their activities to assume Flood Hazard Mitigation functions. A major secondary focus of this goal will be to capacitate agencies and permitting authorities in addressing the special needs of flood hazard mitigation. 1. Incorporate Flood Hazard Standards in All Relevant Government Regulations 2. Train Government Institutions and Staff in Flood Hazard Mitigation Standards. 3. Provide Flood Hazard information to all property owners.
Goal Four: Develop a Flood Risk Management Cycle

Flood risk management circle should address all aspects of flood risk management focusing on prevention, protection, preparedness, including flood forecasts and early warning systems. Figure 5 presents the framework for flood risk management cycle. Statistical and real-time information is needed for formulating flood risk management cycle, where as flood disaster management plan addresses the response and recovery phase in the scheme. An Emergency Action Plan can be prepared on the basis of Flood Risk Management Cycle to mitigate the effect of floods.
Fig. 5: Flood Risk Management Cycle
EMERGENCY ACTION PLAN FOR MITIGATION OF FLOODS

The effects of flood can be mitigated to a great extent, if the magnitude and time of arrival of maximum flood can be estimated in advance and the Emergency Action Plan(EAP) is executed successfully. An Emergency Action Plan, or EAP, is a formal plan that identifies potential emergency conditions at a dam and prescribes the procedures to be followed to minimize property damage and loss of life. Every EAP has to be tailored to site-specific conditions and to the requirements of the owner agency and local emergency management authorities. The EAP specifies actions the dam owner should take to moderate or alleviate the problems at the dam site as well as in the areas downstream of the dam. It contains procedures and information to assist the dam owner in issuing early warning and notification messages to responsible emergency management authorities, viz., District
Magistrate/Collector, Armed forces, Paramilitary forces, Project Authorities and other Central/State Agencies. It also contains inundation maps to show the emergency management authorities of the critical areas for necessary relief and rescue actions in case of an emergency.
Why an Emergency Action Plan?

Emergency Action Plan (EAP) is intended to help emergency officials, save lives, minimize damages to property, structures and inhabitations and also to minimize environmental impacts in the event of flooding caused by large releases from the dam, dam failure or in other such events that present hazardous conditions. The EAP will guide the dam operation supervisory personnel in identifying, monitoring, responding to and mitigating emergency situations. It outlines who does what, where, when and how in an emergency situation or unusual occurrence affecting the dams. Apart from statutory reasons, an EAP is needed for two main reasons: 1. To preplan the coordination of necessary actions by the dam owner and the responsible Local & State officials to provide for timely notification, warning, and evacuation in the event of an emergency. 2. To reduce the risk of loss of life and property damage, particularly in downstream areas, resulting from an emergency situation.
Components of an EAP
The different components of the emergency action plan for any flood disaster management3 are: 1. Inundation Area 2. Warning and Notification 3. Constitution of Emergency Action Committee 4. Rescue and Evacuation Plan 5. Relief and Emergency Services Health Animal Care Arrangement of Electric Power Supply Telephone Services Restoration of Road Transport Communication Access Roads Stock Piling of Repair Materials, Machines and Labour Vigilance Action in Dealing with Public Safety
Maintaining an EAP
Even after the Emergency Action Plan has been developed, approved and distributed, EAP has to be periodically updated to maintain its usefulness and efficacy. The plan may lose its effectiveness and becomes unviable if the not tested periodically, moreover those involved in its implementation may become unfamiliar with their roles. Therefore 1. It is essential that an EAP be tested periodically by conducting an emergency drill. 2. At least once every five years, a drill should be conducted that is coordinated with all State officials having responsibilities under the plan.
3. Immediately following a test or actual emergency, a review should be conducted with all parties involved to identify deficiencies in the plan. 4. After the review has been completed, revised EAP be disseminated to all parties involved. 5. Besides regular testing, a periodic (at least annual) review of the overall plan should also be conducted to assess its workability and efficacy and to plan for further improvement in weak areas.
CONCLUSION
Recently State of Uttarakhand has witnessed large scale destructions due to cloud bursts and damaged infrastructural developments paralyzing the life in hilly districts. In 2010, severe floods in the entire State had damaged properties of millions of rupees and yet to recover fully from the aftermath. Effective Emergency Action Plan (EAP) can handle an emergency situation arising due to unprecedented floods and minimize and mitigate the impact of flooding on the people and property in the affected areas. However, it has been observed that the Cloud Bursts associated with flash floods cause landslides, building-collapse, dislocation of civil amenities and human casualties on large scale. Still there is no satisfactory technique for anticipating the occurrence of cloud bursts because of complexities involved. Thus extensive research may be carried out to predict the cloud bursts phenomena so that the large scale destructions can be minimized, especially in hilly areas.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Chalisgaonkar R. at el (2000) Dam Break Modeling for Jamrani Dam - A Case Study, 3rd International Conference Water & Energy for 21st Century, Research and Development Session of Central Board of Irrigation and Power (CBIP), Jabalpur (M.P.). Chalisgaonkar R. et al (2002) Emergency Preparedness for Dam Disaster Floods, National Seminar on Water & Environment Issues and Challenges, Indian Water Resources Society and WRDTC, IIT, Roorkee. Chalisgaonkar R., Mukesh Mohan and Singh, Sanjay(2011) Emergency Action Plan for Mitigating and Managing Floods, Workshop on Disaster Remedial Measures & Impact on Roads and Infrastructure in Himalaya Region(DRMIRIHR), The Institution of Engineers(I), Uttarakhand State Centre, Dehradun. Chalisgaonkar R., Mukesh Mohan and Singh, Sanjay(2011) Flood Hazard Mitigation-Issues and Challenges, Workshop on Disaster Remedial Measures & Impact on Roads and Infrastructure in Himalaya Region(DRMIRIHR), The Institution of Engineers(I), Uttarakhand State Centre, Dehradun. Guidelines for Development and Implementation of Emergency Action Plan (EAP) for Dams (2006), Central Water Commission, New Delhi. National Guidelines for Flood Management (2008), National Disaster Management Authority, New Delhi.
Applying Traditional Knowledge of Water Management for Construction

Poorva M. Kulkarni
Associate Professor, B.N. College of Architecture, Pune, India; poorva.kulkarni@bnca.ac.in, poorvamk@yahoo.com
AbstractNatural resource management refers to the management of natural resources such as land, water, soil etc with a particular focus on how management affects the quality of life for both present and future generations. Natural resource management specifically focuses on a scientific and technical understanding of resources and the life-supporting capacity of those resources. Soil, water and vegetation are three basic natural resources. The survival of Gods creation depends upon them and nature has provided them as assets to human beings. The management of natural resources to meet peoples requirements has been practiced since the pre-Vedic era. Farmers were ranked high in the social system and village management was in their hands. In order to manage land, water and vegetation, technical knowledge suitable to the specific conditions of a region was required. They gained this knowledge and developed skill through experience and learning by doing. Natural resource conservation has been considered as global issue with real impacts on both the environment and human health. Un-thoughtful use and wastage of resources in the construction operations is alarming as far as Indian construction industry is concerned. Current construction techniques and materials require a large quantity of water which is to be reduced which requires a judicial selection and constant monitoring to save this valuable natural resource. This calls for a well-planned, strategic use of water not only during and after construction but also its conservation. Over-exploitation of natural resources like water by growing population resulted in various severe problems. Destruction of vegetation has resulted in land degradation, denudation, soil erosion, landslides, floods, drought and unbalanced ecosystems. A balanced ecosystem is an urgent need. In order to achieve the objective of development, peoples participation is essential. It is required to involve them actively in project activities by respecting their traditional knowledge and experimental ethics. Traditional knowledge has a sound base as it has been tested and practiced over the years. It is appropriate technology in particular climatic conditions and in the living conditions of people. Projects to develop ecology should start with traditional knowledge as they are proven technology for natural resources management. In a real sense, every culture of a social system, traditionally, is the result of peoples action to survive and their attempts to optimize the use of available resources, i.e., soil, water and vegetation. The science of natural resource management is based on the ecologically sound traditional wisdom of farmers and its contribution in augmenting productivity. Traditional values which are sustainable in nature need to be compared with values of modern systems. It is obvious that traditional practices of water conservation may disappear unless their values are promoted. This study underlines the same. Keywords: Natural Resource management, construction, water.
INTRODUCTION
Traditional knowledge has been defined as a comprehensive body of knowledge, practices and representations maintained and developed and passed on by people with extended histories of interaction with the natural environment. Traditional knowledge generally refers to the long-standing traditions and practices of certain regional, indigenous, or local communities. Traditional knowledge also constitutes the wisdom, knowledge, and teachings of these communities. In many cases, traditional knowledge has been orally passed for generations from person to person. Some forms of traditional knowledge are expressed through stories, legends, folklore, rituals, songs, and even laws.
Applying Traditional Knowledge of Water Management for Construction 681
Traditional knowledge is always passed on from generation to generation .The next generation should always analyze it to understand it better. That generation has to blend the knowledge with traditional technology so that the next generation Traditional wisdom is always practiced and tested with respect to time so we can call it a proven technology. We find these practices where nature is respected .We have the ref of Vedic period where five elements of nature were respected like gods. There was a clear understanding that the nature is to be respected. Our motto also underlines the same saying that the traditional water conservation techniques are to be conserved and implemented to enhance a good construction practice. Traditional knowledge has a sound base as it has been tested and practised over the years. It is appropriate technology in particular climatic conditions and in the living conditions of people. Projects to develop ecology should start with traditional knowledge as they are proven technology for natural resources management. In a real sense, every culture of a social system, traditionally, is the result of peoples action to survive .The following aspects is to be considered for passing on traditional knowledge to the next generation. Material management: What were the materials used by these people which were eco friendly and were less harmful on environment. Sustainable Development: What type of technology was used which caused less stress on buildings and saved natural resources to some extent. Peoples participation: Peoples participation is very much important in passing on the traditional wisdom and implementing it to actual construction. The last two points are applicable for water management.
WATER: A MAJOR NATURAL RESOURCE

The demand of water resources is increasing by the day due to the population growth, expansion in urbanization, industrialization. Adopting the concept of sustainability and conservation of water resources can help meet with the problem of water shortage. The ancient Indian rainwater harvesting techniques can be implemented to meet the water shortage problem. These techniques would be helpful.
Need to Conserve Water

India is amongst the few countries in the world where Rivers are worshipped, not one or two but all of them. Yet water scarcity stares at us in the face today. If the Kuwait war in the 1990s and the Iraq invasion in the last decade were about Oil, it is widely believed that the next war would be for Water. There exists a dispute with Pakistan arising out of the Indus Water Treaty of the 1950s while China threatens to choke off supplies to North-east India by constructing huge dams in Tibet. Increasing demand for water arising of urbanization, increase in population, agriculture, greater electricity consumption especially thermal power, infrastructure growth and a depleting forest cover, the situation ahead can only be described as alarming. An uncertain monsoon, lack of adequate irrigation facilities and over exploitation of surface/ground water have only increased the severity of the problem. All these situations truly underline the need of the time, i.e. to conserve water.
Quick Solution to Growing Water Demand

One of the solutions that can be implemented quickly is Water Harvesting. It can be defined as the collection and storage of rainwater for later productive use. Rainwater harvesting has been practiced in India for centuries and the traditional methods of water harvesting need to be reviewed and successfully implemented in an economically viable and ecologically sustainable manner. The knowledge of hydrology is deeply rooted in the science of ancient India. Our ancestors applied the knowledge in water resource engineering. They designed and constructed dams and a variety of
water structures much earlier than the consciously believed Greek, Roman or other ancient civilizations. Every region of our country had its own water harvesting techniques, reflecting the geographical peculiarities and cultural uniqueness of different communities.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND IN INDIA

1. The Arthashastra by Chanakya (3rd century BC) talks of irrigation systems based on rain water harvesting structures. 2. Ancient Indian history is full of such references to techniques for harvesting all forms of water rainwater, groundwater, surface water such as streams and river and even floods. 3. These water harvesting structures were based on traditional models which had been refined over centuries to adapt to the prevailing climatic and hydrologic conditions in their area of use. 4. The potential of such water harvesting systems to supply adequate freshwater to all areas and sectors is high. (Source: Lecture by water conservation expert)
Typical Examples in India

Rajasthan, a large part of which is covered by the Thar Desert, has had a long tradition of water conservation. For instance builders of the famous Bundi and Chittorgarh forts had the vision of exploiting the natural catchments in the forts created by undulating hilltops. Rainwater was collected in several ways and water flowing down the hill slopes was also stored in a water body. Two pictures below of Bundi Fort illustrate it. Pic. 1 shows rainwater flowing down the hill was purified by a jaali (sieve) between the two structures. It then flows into the water body and gets accumulated as seen in Pic. 2.
Pic. 1
Pic. 2 (Source: www.esamskriti.com)
This system exactly matches with the requirement of credit point by IGBC for water efficiency. Source: IGBC Ref.Guide, water efficiency specification
Talab/ Bandhis
Talabs were reservoirs. They could be natural, such as the ponds at Tikamgarh in the Bundelkhand region or could be man-made, such as the lakes in Udaipur. They served the purpose of irrigation and drinking. When the water in these reservoirs dried up, the pond beds were used for cultivation.
Johads
Johads, in Rajasthan, were small earthen check dams built to capture and conserve rainwater, thus improving percolation and recharging ground water.
Pic. 3 Pic. 4 Source: (http://www.sikhiwiki.org/index.php/Gurdwara_Budha_Johad; http://www.mediaactiongroup.in/)
Baoris / Bers
Baoris or bers were community wells, found in Rajasthan, that were used mainly for drinking. Most of them are very old and were built by banjaras for their drinking water needs. They could hold water for a long time because of almost negligible water evaporation.
Jhalaras
Jhalaras were man-made tanks, found in Rajasthan and Gujarat, essentially meant for community use and for religious rites but not for drinking. Often rectangular in shape, jhalaras have steps on three or four sides. They were ground water bodies which were built to ensure easy and regular supply of water to the surrounding areas. The jhalaras collected subterranean seepage of a talab or a lake located upstream.
Water Temples or Step Wells

Another most unique example for harvesting rainwater and providing water for drinking purpose in arid parts of our country was the step well. Step wells are also called water temples of India. The idea to construct step wells was initiated due to the need to ensure water supply during the period of drought. Some of the step wells were dug very close to tanks to get drinking water throughout the year. Step wells are also called Bavadi and can be found in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
Pic. 5 Source: (http://bundidekho.com/bundi)
Pic. 6 Source: (http://infranetlab.org/blog/2009/07)
Kunds
Kunds, were the tanks were developed for tackling drinking water problems. Usually constructed with local materials or cement, kunds were more prevalent in the western arid regions of Rajasthan, and in areas where the limited groundwater available is moderate to highly saline. In such conditions, kunds provided convenient, clean and sweet water for drinking. They were also prevalent in Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh. There are many more such kunds that have met the water needs of the people of Rajasthan and other states over centuries.
Pic. 8 Source: http://www.apendowments.gov.in/MahanandiTemple
Tanks
Most houses in Bikaner have an underground tank (Tankas) which were used to store water. They were circular holes made in the ground, lined with fine polished lime, in which rain water was collected. It took care of their annual needs. One tank, one temple and a grazing land for cattle of a village was the concept of our ancestors which would support sustainable growth of villages Water tanks served the purposes like flood control, prevention of soil erosion, reducing wastage of run-off and recharging groundwater. The management of tanks was given to individuals or to village communities or to temples. Entire tank system was suitable for direct irrigation for agriculture and easy for decentralized water management. These tanks were constructed using stone, cement or mud or a combination of these. Tanks / Eris are one of the oldest in irrigation engineering designs in our country. The temples in south India have huge tanks as part of the temple premises. These were called Pushkarinis some of them have more than one tank. Besides serving the needs of the temple and use of water by devotees for purifying before darshan these tanks increased ground water levels. Picture number 8 shows a water tank in the Chidambaram Temple, Tamil Nadu. To conserve rainwater, the Chola kings built a network of tanks in Tamil Nadu. Most of these were used for irrigation purposes. However, since colonial timesand especially after independence in 1947-these systems have been increasingly abandoned and neglected in favor of large dam and canal irrigation projects. So far, these temples of modern India have been successful in providing water to selected portions of rural and urban India; yet high economic, social and environmental costs have reduced their overall benefit.
Some more ancient Indian methods of water conservation One of the oldest water harvesting systems is found about 130 km from Pune along Naneghat in the Western Ghats.
Every fort in Maharashtra shows a tank provision for water even at huge heights.
A large number of tanks were cut in the rocks to provide drinking water to tradesmen who used to travel along this ancient trade route. Each fort in the area had its own water harvesting and storage system in the form of rock-cut cisterns, ponds, tanks and wells that are still in use today. A large number of forts like Raigad had tanks that supplied water. In ancient times, houses in parts of western Rajasthan were built so that each had a rooftop water harvesting system. Rainwater from these rooftops was directed into underground tanks. This system can be seen even today in all the forts, palaces and houses of the region (Source: Lectures on History of Shivaji Maharaj by history experts of Maharashtra)
Reasons for Decline in Traditional Water Harvesting System

From above examples, it is very well understood that our ancestors had embedded the science and technology with their daily routine. These techniques are quite helpful if modified and applied to current context. Some of the reasons for the decline in traditional water harvesting system in our country are: 1. British redesigned the whole water distribution system and took over the role of main provider of water thus replacing traditional decentralized system with centralized ones. 2. Policy makers are not keen towards water harvesting structures after independence and lack of innovative ways to deal with water related issues. (With a basic reliance on big dams, surface transport of water through canals and inter-basin transfers). 3. Growing use of subsidized energized system (Subsidized electrical powers) to exploit deep aquifers. 4. Declining interest on the part of community to nurture various traditional water harvesting systems. 5. Subsidized supply of fertilizers reduced the dependence of farmers on the tank silt. 6. Some of these tanks were encroached for farming, sand mining, expansion of city, waste dumping, industry, etc. Old Pune city is the classic example of this kind of development where the old hauds (tanks) were completely filled up to generate new building sites. If these hauds are excavated and brought back to function, they will solve major problem of water other than drinking use.
CONTEMPORARY RELEVANCE OF RAINWATER HARVESTING: WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF RAINWATER HARVESTING IN CURRENT CONTEXT?
1. A large percentage of people currently lack access to clean drinking water and almost lack basic sanitation services. 2. As human population will grow faster than increases in the amount of accessible fresh water, per capita availability of fresh water will decrease in the coming century. 3. Climate change will cause a general intensification of the earths hydrological cycle in the next 100 years with generally increase in precipitation, occurrence of storms and significant changes in biogeochemical processes influencing water quality. As summers get hotter and anthropogenic climatic changes exert further strain on economic, social and natural systems, water scarcity is likely to grow in India and elsewhere. Under such circumstances, harvesting rain shall become crucial.
Rainwater Harvesting: A Most Promising Alternative

Rainwater harvesting appears to be one of the most promising alternatives for supplying freshwater in the face of increasing water scarcity and escalating demand. The pressures on rural water supplies, greater environmental impacts associated with new projects, as well as deteriorating water quality in
surface reservoirs already constructed, constrain the ability of communities to meet the demand for freshwater from traditional sources, and present an opportunity for augmentation of water supplies using this technology. Rain Water Harvesting has wide application in urban and rural areas where the reliability and quality of piped water is increasingly being questioned.
Rain Water is the Ultimate Source of Fresh Water

Rainwater harvesting is one of the most effective tools to arrest the rapidly depleting groundwater reserves. Pure water has a very little requirement for treatment or disinfection prior to supplying to the municipal water supply grid. The water being drawn from rivers and lakes are heavily contaminated because of discharge of partly or untreated industrial effluents and sewage to these water bodies. In industrial areas the harvested water can directly be supplied to the industries without any treatment as industries normally have their own treatment plants. In industry, Harvested Water is appreciated for its softness, requiring less effort for purification. To produce water that is biologically and chemically safe, is appealing to consumers, and is non-corrosive and non-scaling. Rain is the ultimate source of fresh water. With the ground area around houses and buildings being cemented, particularly in cities and towns, rainwater, which runs off from terraces and roofs, was draining into low-lying areas and not percolating into the soil. Thereby, precious rainwater is squandered, as it is drained into the sea eventually.
Measures to be Taken
1. Implement Traditional Rain Water Harvesting methods to overcome the imbalance in Water Demand Supply in India. 2. Harvest roof top rain water and use it for domestic non potable water requirements 3. Excess rain water can be recharged in to nearby underground water bodies such as bore well or open wells on parallel lines with the Johads.
WHY FOR CONSTRUCTION?

Construction sector is one of the major industrial sectors in India. Since water is required for major activities for construction, the industry can be referred as water intensive industry.follwing are the facts for a typical construction site. 1. The defined norms by local municipal council or any administrative government body regarding water for construction are not followed leading to unlimited use of drinking water. 2. No control on number of tankers procured on site if adequate water supply is not available 3. No control and accountability of the water required for mixing of concrete on site 4. Only 10% water is absorbed on concrete surface when cured, rest of the water goes waste 5. It is the default requirement of concrete to get cured for a specific period .So huge amount of water is required to cure concrete. 6. Any type of masonry needs to be cured for a long time to avoid cracks 7. Sand,aggregates,bricks need to be washed to remove dust and waste matter before their use for construction 8. Any major construction activity requires water at least for R.C.C. buildings. After analyzing the mentioned points we can clearly say that it is the need of time to conserve water as much as possible to protect our future. Since construction activity plays a major role, methods of conservations need to be applied for construction sector. (Source: Interview of a site supervisor working on a construction site in Pune.)
CASE STUDY: WATER CONSERVATION

In November 1998, the then-President of India K R Narayanan invited CSE to suggest measures to harvest water at the Rashtrapati Bhavan. An advisory committee was set up by CSE, which developed a plan for water harvesting at the Rashtrapati Bhavan. The Central Public Works Department (CPWD) and Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) are undertaking the implementation of the scheme. The Presidential Estate covers an area of 133 hectares (1.33 sq. km.). The water requirements of the presidential estate are huge since there are about 7,000 people residing in the estate. Approximately 3,000 people visit the presidential premises every day. The Mughal Gardens in the estate require a lot of water. The total demand is about 2 million liters of water per day (730 million liters per year). This demand is met through the New Delhi Municipal Corporation supply and the estates own bore wells. Since about 35 per cent of the water requirements are being met through groundwater sources, there had been an alarming decline of groundwater levels in the estate. Levels have gone down by 2 to 7 m in the past decade, with one well running dry. The rainwater endowment of the area is 811 million liters annually. Estimated cost of installing the system is Rs 20 lakh. The following measures are planned for the estate: 1. Rainwater from the northern side of roof and paved areas surrounding Rashtrapati Bhavan is diverted to an underground storage tank of 1 lakh liter capacity for low quality use. 2. Overflow from the one-lakh liter capacity rainwater storage tank mentioned above is diverted to two dug wells for recharging. Rainwater from the southern side of the roof is diverted for recharging a dry open well. Rainfall runoff from the staff residential area is also diverted to the dry well. Water passing into the recharge well is passed through a desilting tank to remove pollutants. The nine-lakh liter capacity swimming pool in the estate is planned to be connected to the dry dug well, so that during periodic emptying of the pool, water can be used for recharging instead of being drained away. 3. 15 m deep recharge shafts will be constructed in the staff residential area. Rainwater available from rooftops, roads and parks will be used for recharging. 4. A johad is a crescent-shaped bund that is built across a sloping catchment to capture the surface runoff. Water accumulating in the johad percolates in the soil to augment the groundwater. Johads have traditionally been used in Rajasthan for harvesting water. A johad is planned to be constructed near the Mughal Gardens. (Source: Centre for science and environment, http://cseindia.org/) This example clearly shows the application of traditional wisdom of water conservation in current Indian context. This needs to be considered as model for next similar type of developments. It is the need of the time to develop such models and use them for the welfare of the society.
NEED OF THE TIME: REDUCING WATER DEMAND

Simple techniques can be used to reduce the demand for water. The underlying principle is that only part of the rainfall or irrigation water is taken up by plants, the rest percolates into the deep groundwater, or is lost by evaporation from the surface. Therefore, by improving the efficiency of water use, and by reducing its loss due to evaporation, we can reduce water demand.
The Right Approach for Water Conservation

The most important step in the direction of finding solutions to issues of water and environmental conservation is to change people's attitudes and habits include each one of us. Conserve water because it is the right thing to do. We can store water in a variety of ways. A simple method is to place a drum on a raised platform directly under the rainwater collection source. You can also collect
water in catchment areas during the rainy season. These catchments are to be covered with a steel jaali and pebbles on top.This will add to beauty of landscape and collect water as well.
Rainwater Harvesting using Traditional Methods

1. In urban areas, the construction of houses, footpaths and roads has left little exposed earth for water to soak in. In parts of the rural areas of India, floodwater quickly flows to the rivers, which then dry up soon after the rains stop. If this water can be held back, it can seep into the ground and recharge the groundwater supply. This water can be stopped on huge sites by using embankments and used for any other activities like for watering landscape, washing, curing etc. 2. When a site is selected for a project which has got hectares of land and which is going to be executed in phases, it should be planned wisely so that the rooftop areas of few buildings would be available to collect rainwater which can be stored in underground tank and reused for some other activities and would save the extra water needed 3. Develop landscape with local species of plants that would consume less water and maintain cool environment like Islamic builders of India. This will also preserve the top soil. 4. Kund or pushkarini is a traditional element of Dravid temples architecture which we have studied like a water reservoir, can be used in a similar way on site creating a pit of 10ft x10 ft x 15ft.These pits are lined with some plastic sheet so that the water stored is retained. Planning of such pits would enhance the water storage on site and reduce the requirement to a large extent. 5. Similar type of concept has been developed by Dapoli Agricultural University, Maharashra, called Shet Tali means ponds in the farmland. They have developed the executing method to harvest rainwater which can be effectively used in hot days of Indian summer. 6. Town planners and civic authority in many cities in India are introducing bylaws making rainwater harvesting compulsory in all new structures. No water or sewage connection would be given if a new building did not have provisions for rainwater harvesting. Such rules should also be implemented in all the other cities to ensure a rise in the groundwater level. All you need for a water harvesting system is rain, and a place to collect it! Typically, rain is collected on rooftops and other surfaces, and the water is carried down to where it can be used immediately or stored. You can direct water run-off from this surface to plants, trees or lawns or even to the aquifer.
Benefits of Rainwater Harvesting are as Follows

1. Increases water availability 2. Checks the declining water table 3. Is environmentally friendly 4. Improves the quality of groundwater through the dilution of fluoride, nitrate, and salinity 5. Prevents soil erosion and flooding especially in urban areas
RECOMMENDED SUGGESTIONS FOR RAIN WATER HARVESTING USING TRADITIONAL WISDOM

1. Rain Water Harvesting System has been made mandatory for all new constructions. Ensure new buildings have Rain Water Harvesting provision while seeking building permission. It is also very important to monitor the functioning periodically by authorities of housing societies and apartments. If found working at level best, housing schemes are expected to get rewards by local Municipal Council for best Green Building practice.(Source: Residential scheme in Bavdhan, Pune was awarded for effective implementation of Green Building Practice, Newspaper article in local newspaper of Pune.)
2. Promote Rain Water Harvesting by offering a rebate on property tax as an incentive to citizens who implement the technique. This has been already implemented but awareness is still lacking. 3. Implement Rain Water Harvesting Technique in all public places like Parks, Parking areas etc. Municipal Authorities and representatives of common people should take efforts for this. 4. Create awareness among people on implementing Rain Water Harvesting by conducting seminars, exhibitions or trainings. 5. Implement Rain Water Harvesting Structures in Corporation owned buildings, commercial complexes, fly overs, bridges, Road Margins and Corporation streets. 6. Encourage promoters of Rain Water Harvesting. 7. Set up information centers to provide technical aspects of Rain Water Harvesting to public. 8. Encourage and support NGO participation in Rain Water Harvesting sector. 9. In Pune, it is observed that people are quite aware of the system but finding it unaffordable for installation considering everybodys participation. Municipal Council should provide such companies who would execute the installation to an affordable price.(Source: Interviews with authorities of co operative housing societies of Pune.) 10. Existing Landscape of Housing societies can be modified by introduction of catchment areas to recharge ground water.
CONCLUSION AND THE RIGHT WAY AHEAD

It is said that when an elder dies, a library burns! This underlines the significance of preserving traditional wisdom .A strong support to local practices for rainwater harvesting could provide substantial amounts of water in future time. Simple techniques such as ponds and earthen embankments could help in harvesting of rain water. Traditional methods of rainwater harvesting would become more efficient if scientific knowledge and those practices would go hand in hand. It will improve the productivity of local knowledge. We should not find it in outside world where it really lies in our own home. This initiative could be undertaken by NGOs and other voluntary organizations. There is a huge probability of acceptance from rural India where thousands of villages are thirsty. Management of water has to be done combining the traditional knowledge and scientific techniques to modify them to suit our requirement. Effective application of traditional methods of water harvesting cannot happen in one day. It requires community effort i.e. could be guided by the Gram Panchayats, Municipal Corporations and other local administrative bodies and funded by the State and Central government. The government could play the role of facilitator and provide adequate funds. Funds allocated under The National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme could be used to support the water harvesting effort. An effective increase in water supply would enhance agricultural produce and rural earnings with right momentum on the Indian economy. This would definitely help our nation grow in financial perspective.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] Pandey B .V., Natural Resource Management Chandrashekharan H, Sharma , Sundaram, Water Resources, development and management, Ali Nursadh, Natural Resource management and sustainable development in North East India. Ali Nursadh, Natural Resources accounting :Water resources AMC region Chakravarti Kalyan Kumar, Traditional water management systems of India. Bansil P.C., Water Management in India. Dixit Ajay, Mollinga Peter, Integrated Water Resources Management: Global Theory, Emerging Practice and Local Needs NEWSPAPER ARTICLES Water a scarce commodity Watershed approach and management Water management in Perspective
690 Twenty-eighth NCCE & National Seminar on Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development Rainwater Harvesting How to conserve water to save landscape History and development of water works etc. Online discussion with experts of India Water Portal Bonthakur S. (2009), Traditional Rain water harvesting techniques and its applicability by Saponthi Bonthakur. Ind. Trad. Knowledge, 8:4. Shenoy N.K. (2009) Traditional water harvesting methods of India. Jackson R.B. et al. (2001). Water in a changing world. Ecol. Appl., 11, 1027-1045. Sharma Neetu, Kanwar Promila(2009), Indigenous water conservation systems-A rich tradition of Himachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional knowledge, 8(4).
[9] [10] [11] [12] [13]
WEBSITES
[14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] www.ecohousingindia.org www.build-smarter.com/toc/toc.php www.cwms.co.in http://qccpn.nic.in/ www.constructionwaste.sustainablesources.com www.esamskriti.com www.rainwaterharvesting.org www.apendowments.gov.in/MahanandiTemple/Pages/Beliefs.aspx www.infranetlab.org/blog/2009/07/inverted-infrastructural-monuments-pt1/ /www.mediaactiongroup.in/?p=4481 www.bundidekho.com/bundi-photo-gallery.html http://www.environmentandpeople.org/WaterConservationCasestudy.html http://cseindia.org/)
Rainfall Trend Analysis in Saharanpur District of UP State-Agricultural Context

Pankaj Garg1, Gopal Krishan2, M.S. Rao3, C.P. Kumar4 and Rajesh Aggarwal5
National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India; drgopal.krishan@gmail.com
AbstractThe present study examines the general rainfall pattern in Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh, using monthly rainfall data for 30 years (1982-2011). The annual rainfall ranged from 498 to 1566 mm with an average rainfall value of 1027 mm. A falling trend was found during the years 2000 to 2011 with an exception in 2001 and 2010. The recent decline in the annual rainfall yield is predominantly as a result of the substantial decline in July to October rainfall. Decline in rainfall in the months of July to October might have serious agricultural implications because most agricultural activities of Kharif and Rabi seasons in this area rely on rainfall of this period. The decline in the annual rainfall yield also led to the lowering of water table in some parts of the study area. This has an implication in digging of wells, construction of bore holes, and other water resource development projects that depend on water from groundwater sources. Keywords: Rainfall trend analysis; Saharanpur; Kharif and Rabi seasons; water resource development
INTRODUCTION
Water resource has become a prime concern for any development and planning including food production and effective water resource management. Considering the importance of agricultural sector for the economy and food requirements, there is a need for reliable estimates of major crop production under varied climate change provisions and circumstances. In order to have a reliable estimate of varied climate change provisions, it is necessary to analyze the recent and expected future trend of annual and seasonal total rainfall. Rainfall is a renewable resource, highly variable in space and time and subject to depletion or enhancement due to both natural and anthropogenic causes. Knowing the variations in the general rainfall pattern is vital to understand the climate change variations and consequently change in cropping pattern and yield. Keeping above points in mind this study was carried out for district Saharanpur of Uttar Pradesh.
Study Area
7705 7725 77 45 ' 7805 ' 7825 30 28
200
400
3022
R. Yamuna
3012 '
Saharanpur
Haridwar
3002 '
29 52
29 42
R. Ganga
2932
Fig. 1: Study Area Map
Saharanpur district, with an area of 3689 sq. kms., situated in Western Region of Uttar Pradesh (Figure 1), is one of the most agricultural developed parts of the State (70 per cent of the land is under agricultural use). The district is divided into 4 tehsils namely Behat, Saharanpur, Nakur and Deoband. It has 11 development blocks and 1278 inhabited villages. According to census 2001, the district is having a total population of 28, 96,863 person, which accounts for 1.74 per cent of the States population.
Hydro-Geology
Saharanpur forms the most northerly position of the doab land which stretches between the holy rivers of the Ganges and the Yamuna. The Shivalik hills rise above it on the northern frontier. As regards its physical features, the north and the north east of the district is surrounded by Shivalik hills and separates it from Dehradun district of Uttarakhand. The river Yamuna forms its boundary in the West, which separates it from Karnal and Yamunanagar districts of Haryana. In the East lies the district of Haridwar (Figure 1) and in the South lies the district Muzaffar Nagar. The district is almost in a rectangular shape and lies between 29o3445and 30 o2130N and 77o9& 78o1445E. The main characteristics of the district can be divided into four parts: 1. Shivalik hill tract 2. The Bhabar land 3. Bangar land 4. Khadar land (Yamuna, Hindon) Yamuna is an important river of the district. Apart from this Solani, Hindon, Ratmau, Nagdev have also played an important role in the physical reconstruction of the district. All the rivers of the district submerge either in Yamuna or in Ganges.
Climatic Conditions
The climate of Saharanpur resembles the average climate of Uttar Pradesh in general, but its northern position and its proximity to the hills give its own peculiarity. Though the region lies well outside the tropics, yet its climate is like that of the rest of Northern India. It belongs to the uppermost part of the Upper Ganga plain which is a sub-humid region between the dry Punjab plain and the humid middle Ganga plain within the monsoonal region of the Great Plains and naturally resembles the characteristics of the two adjoining regions. The average temperature recorded is 23.3 degree Celsius. The month of June is being the hottest month while January is the coldest one. The highest percentage of humidity i.e. 72 to 85 per cent is found during the rainy season and the lower range of humidity between 29 to 51.5 per cent is recorded in the summers. The eastern part of the region is more humid than the western part and relative humidity tends to increase in winters. The atmospheric pressure of the region is inversely related to the temperature. July recording the lowest while December recording the highest pressure.
Land Use
It is very fertile agricultural belt famous for plentiful yield in grains and fruits. On account of high population pressure in Saharanpur district, more than 75% of the reporting area has been brought under cultivation in the district which is higher as compared to the proportion of net cultivated area at the State level (69 %). Although, the percentage of area under forest in the district is quite good (9.13 %) in comparison with the area of forest at the State level (6.97 %), but it is still low according to the norms set form the forest area for a district. Despite the higher proportion of net area sown in the district, cropping intensity has remained quite low (155 % in Saharanpur as compared to 193 % in the State), which indicates that traditional structure of agriculture has not changed much in the district despite the fact that level of irrigation in the district has been far better than what could be in the state as a whole.
Rainfall Trend Analysis in Saharanpur District of UP State-Agricultural Context 693
Table 1: Land Use Pattern in Saharanpur District

Items Reporting Area (hectare) Forest Barren and uncultivable Land Land put to non-agricultural uses Culturable waste land Permanent pastures and grazing land Current fallows Other fallows Net area sown Area sown more than once Cropping intensity Percentage of irrigated area to net area sown Percentage of irrigated area to gross area sown Source: Statistical Bulletin, 2006, District Saharanpur. Saharanpur (hectares) 363791 (100.00) 33229 (9.13) 1307 (0.36) 48971 (13.46) 1211 (0.33) 176 (0.04) 1315 (0.36) 1931 (0.53) 1449 (0.40) 274202 (75.37) 149534 (41.10) 155.73 90.43 89.13 Uttar Pradesh (000 hectares) 24201 (100.00) 1686 (6.97) 548 (2.27) 2594 (10.71) 467 (1.93) 66 (0.27) 359 (1.48) 1137 (4.69) 594 (2.46) 16750 (69.22) 8675 193.08 78.97 72.86
Irrigation Sources
It has been observed that the irrigation coverage has been much higher in Saharanpur district to the extent that more than 90 per cent of the net area sown in the district has been brought under irrigation. In this way, most of the cultivated land is irrigated in the district. Most important source of irrigation is tube wells, mostly the private, through which more than 78 per cent of the net areas are irrigated in the district. Second major source of irrigation in the district is canal irrigation. More than 17 per cent of net area sown is irrigated by canal source in Saharanpur district (Table 2).
Table 2: Sources of Irrigation in Saharanpur District during 200405
Source Area (hectare) Canal 43652 Tube well (Government) 10900 Tube well (Private) 200425 Well Pond 3 Other 66 Total 255046 Source: Statistical Bulletin, 2006, District Saharanpur. %age to Net Irrigated Area 17.12 4.27 78.58 00.00 00.03 (100.00)
Table 3: Categorization of Study Area and Variation in Water Table during 2000-2009
Site Badshahibagh Shakumbari Biharigarh Sherpur Meerpur Mohand Tanda MS Sadoli Quadim Raipur Muzaffarabad Badbala Source: Garg et al., 2012 Fall (-)/rise (+) in m Per Year + 0.06 0 - 0.09 - 0.23 -0.24 -0.27 -0.44 -0.5 -0.57 -1.01 -1.08 Category Safe (<0.1 m/yr) Low risk (0.1 to 0.3 m/yr) Medium Risk (0.4 to 0.8 m/yr) High risk (>0.8 m/yr)
From table 2, it is clear that 82.85% of the irrigation is done through the groundwater and as evident from the table 3 that out of 11 blocks, 5 blocks are in medium to high risk category. The only source of recharging the water table is rain and any declining trend in rainfall may adversely affect the groundwater availability in the study area. Keeping in view the above points, the rainfall trend analysis of the Saharanpur for the past 30 years is done.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

The hydro-geological, hydro-meteorological and topographical data was collected from UP State Groundwater Board, Saharanpur. The rainfall data have been collected from Meteorological Department, Muzafarrabad, and Saharanpur district and analyzed by using the mathematical and statistical techniques of data analysis. The arithmetical procedure involves the determination of average rainfall for a specific period. The departure of the rainfall from the average annual rainfall determines the rainfall pattern. The determination of cumulative departure of rainfall provides the information regarding the total departure of rainfall from the mean value over a specific period. The commonly used procedures of statistical analysis as followed by Gupta and Kapoor (1980) and Davis (2002) have been followed herein. The computation of statistical parameters includes mean, median, mode, standard deviation and coefficient of variation. Based on time series analysis (Croxten et al., 1988), the prediction of future rainfall trend has been visualized.

The mathematical method involving calculation of the average rainfall of years or months as shown by the arithmetic mean of the period of years or months, is the most commonly used method. A record of 30 years (1982-2011) is used for rainfall data analysis and to find the total monthly and annual rainfall values for Sahahranpur (Table 4, Fig. 2, 3).
Table 4: Rainfall Data (mm) of Saharanpur District for the Period 1982-2011
Year JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN 1982 68.4 68.9 69.9 61.5 51.9 48.8 1983 103 23.5 7.2 124 31.6 48.3 1984 59.4 115 0 3.8 0 289 1985 11.2 0 1 21.2 1.4 89.2 1986 0 89 12.5 10.2 78.1 110.7 1987 27.8 37.4 25.3 47.8 112 85.4 1988 0.6 37.5 81.5 2 22.3 84 1989 76 25 8 1.5 15 58.5 1990 0 118 33 7 20 23 1991 0 38.5 21.8 15.5 8.5 105.7 1992 42 47 4.5 9.2 0.2 21.5 1993 56.1 34.5 73.5 0 32.5 73.7 1994 48 42.5 1 49 21.8 106.1 1995 48.5 64.5 11 12 0 98 1996 24 79 24 2.5 10.5 159 1997 18.5 1 4 128 13.5 64 1998 2.5 25 100.5 39.5 42.5 168 1999 77.5 3 9 0 22.5 81.5 2000 40 65 26 38 29.5 29.5 2001 16 2 30.5 16.5 72.5 274 2002 27.5 111 4 23 15 166.5 2003 70.5 37.5 0 12.5 7 81.2 2004 83 0 67 19 70.5 299.5 2005 42.5 31.5 79.5 2 1 46 2006 10.5 0 58 0.5 136 129.5 2007 0.7 124 74.4 2.8 11.5 149 2008 0 0 0 0 0 313.6 2009 0 0 0 0 0 0 2010 8.3 20 0 0 19.3 28.3 2011 0 32.7 13.3 9 64 295.7 TOTAL 962 1273 840.4 658 911 3527.2 Annual average rainfall = 1027 mm JUL 168.3 607.8 307.5 298 188.4 64.7 503 328.5 45 116.2 302.1 384.2 457.9 422 24.5 582.5 315 320.5 315 441 183.5 312 168.5 277 351.8 182.9 196.8 142.2 462 191.7 8660.5 AUG SEP 254.2 6.9 436.9 59.6 251.3 48.4 188.3 139.2 217.9 118.2 44.6 40.8 502.5 261.2 503.5 80.5 376.5 320.5 132.5 134 617.3 77.7 372.6 372.6 291.5 80.5 492 159.5 676 150.5 100 164.5 242 139 363 250 220 133 168 2 194.5 287.5 209 109 42 48.5 102 441 61.5 42.7 324.6 35.8 225.1 24.6 193.9 218.9 285.3 399.7 154.9 126.3 8243.4 4472.6 OCT 3.3 4.8 0 155 12.5 0.4 0 0 16 0 0 0 0 0.5 93.5 43 133 0 0 2 10 0 5.5 0 27 0 8.3 0 0 0 514 NOV 0.9 0 0 0 19.6 0 0 20.5 12 0 10.4 30 0 1 0 40.5 0 0 0 1 0 8 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 144.4 DEC 59.4 8.2 0 50.6 37.4 11.4 71.5 98 114 39.5 0 0 0.5 0 0 83.5 0 3 0 5 0.5 12 0 0 10 0 0 0 1 0 605 Total 862.4 1454.6 1074.8 955 894.5 497.7 1566.1 1215 1084.5 612.2 1131.9 1429.7 1098.8 1309 1243.5 1242.5 1206.5 1130 896 1030.5 1022.5 858.7 804 1022.5 827.5 906.1 768.4 555 1223.9 887.6 30811.4
The total rainfall during the 30 years ranged from 497.7 mm in year 1987 to 1566.1 mm in year 1988 with an average of 1027 mm.
300 250
Rainfall (mm)
200 150 100 50 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Months
Fig. 2: Average Monthly Rainfall of Saharanpur for the Period (19822011)
1450
Rainfall (mm)
1250 1050 850 650 450 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 Year 2002 2006 2010 2014
Fig. 3: Total Rainfall of Saharanpur for the Period (19822011)
The departure and cumulative departure from the average rainfall for the study area has been depicted in table-5 and figure-4. The trend of annual departure from the computed value of average annual rainfall reveals that; 1. Years showing annual positive departure with respect to average annual rainfall were 1983, 1984, 1988, 1990, 1992-1999, 2001 and 2010. Positive trend of rainfall during these years shows the favourable conditions for recharge. 2. Years showing annual departure less than the average annual rainfall were 1982, 1985-1987, 1991, 2000, 2002-2009 and 2011. The negative trend during these years shows the unfavourable conditions for recharge.
600
Departure from average Rainfall (mm)
200
1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 -200
-600
Year
Fig. 4: Departure from Average Rainfall of Saharanpur for the Period (1982-2011)
Table 5: Annual Rainfall Data and its Departure and Cumulative Departure from Average Annual Rainfall in Saharanpur District (1982-2011)
Year Total Rainfall Departure from Average Rainfall 1982 862.4 -164.65 1983 1454.6 427.55 1984 1074.8 47.75 1985 955 -72.05 1986 894.5 -132.55 1987 497.7 -529.35 1988 1566.1 539.05 1989 1215 187.95 1990 1084.5 57.45 1991 612.2 -414.85 1992 1131.9 104.85 1993 1429.7 402.65 1994 1098.8 71.75 1995 1309 281.95 1996 1243.5 216.45 1997 1242.5 215.45 1998 1206.5 179.45 1999 1130 102.95 2000 896 -131.05 2001 1030.5 3.45 2002 1022.5 -4.55 2003 858.7 -168.35 2004 804 -223.05 2005 1022.5 -4.55 2006 827.5 -199.55 2007 906.1 -120.95 2008 768.4 -258.65 2009 555 -472.05 2010 1223.9 196.85 2011 887.6 -139.45 Total 30811.4 -0.1 Annual average rainfall = 1027 mm Cumulative Departure from Average Rainfall 164.6 592.15 639.9 567.85 435.3 -94.05 445 632.95 690.4 275.55 380.4 783.05 854.8 1136.75 1353.2 1568.65 1748.1 1851.05 1720 1723.45 1718.9 1550.55 1327.5 1322.95 1123.4 1002.45 743.8 271.75 468.6 329.15
1450 1250 1050 850 650 450 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 Year 2002 2006 2010 2014
Fig. 5: Trend Value of Rainfall of Saharanpur for the Period (19822016)
Statistical analysis of the rainfall data of recent 30 years reveals that the mean annual rainfall of the area is 1027 mm (Table 6). The computed value of the mode 1022.5 mm indicates ideal rainfall for the area. The calculated value of standard deviation reveals that deviation of rainfall is of 256.5 mm over a period of 30 years. The coefficient of variation was found to be 24.97. The coefficient of skewness has been computed as 0.01774, which indicates a positive trend.
Trend Value
Table 6: Computation of Statistical Parameters of Rainfall Data of Saharanpur

Statistical Parameter Mean Median Mode Standard deviation Coefficient of dispersion Coefficient of variation Coefficient of skewness Computed Value 1027 mm 1026.5 mm 1022.5 mm 256.50 0.250 24.97 0.01774
Table 7: Time Series Analysis of Rainfall Data of Saharanpur District

Year 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 x -14 -13 -12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 =0 y 862.4 1454.6 1074.8 955 894.5 497.7 1566.1 1215 1084.5 612.2 1131.9 1429.7 1098.8 1309 1243.5 1242.5 1206.5 1130 896 1030.5 1022.5 858.7 804 1022.5 827.5 906.1 768.4 555 1223.9 y=29923.8 x2 196 169 144 121 100 81 64 49 36 25 16 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 121 144 169 196 x2=2030 xy -12073.6 -18909.8 -12897.6 -10505 -8945 -4479.3 -12528.8 -8505 -6507 -3061 -4527.6 -4289.1 -2197.6 -1309 0 1242.5 2413 3390 3584 5152.5 6135 6010.9 6432 9202.5 8275 9967.1 9220.8 7215 17134.6 xy=-15360.5 Trend Value 1137.79 1130.22 1122.66 1115.09 1107.52 1099.96 1092.39 1084.82 1077.26 1069.69 1062.12 1054.56 1046.99 1039.42 1031.86 1024.29 1016.72 1009.15 1001.59 994.02 986.45 978.89 971.32 963.75 956.19 948.62 941.05 933.49 925.92
The time series analysis (Table 7) generates valuable information regarding the trend of a series of observations and the trend line is depicted in figure 5. It helps to measure the deviation from the trend and also provides information pertaining to the nature of trend. The analysis can be used as a tool to forecast the future behaviour of the trend. The method of least square fit of straight line has been used for performing the trend analysis of the behaviour of annual rainfall. On this basis, the future forecast of rainfall amount for a period of 5 years from 2012 to 2016 has been made (Table 8), which shows a negative trend for the coming years. Similar observations were also recorded by Singh and Dev (2009, 2012). Table 8 presents the expected rainfall during the period 2012 to 2016. However, in view of drought situation prevailing during the current year (2012), there may be deviations from these values.
Table 8: Determination Procedure of Expected Future Rainfall Trend of Saharanpur
Year 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Expected future rainfall trend (mm) 910.79 903.22 895.65 888.09 880.52
Impact on Agriculture
As we are aware that the increasing population put pressure to increase the food grain production. For producing the food crops in the Saharanpur area, the farmers mainly depend on the groundwater for the source of irrigation. Approximately 82% of the irrigation needs are being met through groundwater in Saharanpur district. The rainfall is one of the most important meteorological parameter that acts as a main source for recharge of groundwater system. The variation analysis of rainfall data of Saharanpur reveals a fairly good range of variation indicating the positive trend before 2000 and negative trend from 2000 onwards and that is resulting in depletion of groundwater. The present trend of over exploitation due to ever increasing population, industrialization, irrigation and lesser rainfall than the annual average value are affecting the groundwater levels, which are depleting at an alarming rate. According to Todd (1980), Groundwater levels may show seasonal variation due to rainfall. Drought extending over a period of several years, contribute to declining water level. The depletion of groundwater levels may be assigned to seasonal variations infiltration of rain water and extraction of groundwater. The implementation of an appropriate strategy for rainwater harvesting will generate the possibilities of improving the augmentation of groundwater reservoir. The control over depleting trend of groundwater level will provide remedy of sustained water supply to the farmers of the Saharanpur region.
CONCLUSION
The rainfall data analysis of Saharanpur region for a period of 30 years (1982 to 2011) reveals variation in the rainfall amount and points out a negative trend of rainfall in future. It is suggested that optimum development of rainwater harvesting and other water resource development projects that depend on surface water as well as groundwater sources will provide remedial solution to the prevailing problem of depleting groundwater level of the Saharanpur region. It is recommended that farmers should overcome the problem of declining rainfall by planting drought resistance crops or early maturity species. Diversifying the economic base of the populace with emphasis on reducing over dependence on rain fed agriculture is another way of coping with this problem. We assume that the global climate and the local environmental changes are the chief factors for the variation in rainfall over the recent times.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors thank the Director, National Institute of Hydrology for his support and encouragement for the study. Thanks to Dr. M.K. Goyal, Scientist F for his useful suggestions.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] Croxton, F.E., Cowden, D.J. and Klein, S. (1988), Applied general statistics. Prentice Hall India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Pp: 754 Davis, J.C. (2002), Statistics and data analysis in geology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Pp: 638. Garg, Pankaj, Rao, M.S., Krishan, Gopal, and Kumar, C.P. (2012). Assessments of groundwater recharge sources in foot hills of North-West UP using isotopes. In: National Seminar on Application of isotopes & radiation technology for societal benefits (AIRTS-2012), at Bangalore University, India. Pp: 45. Gupta, S.C. and Kapoor, V.K. (1980). Fundamental of mathematical statistics. Sultan Chand and Sons, New Delhi. Pp: 1100. Lal, D.S. (2002). Climatology. Sharda pustak Bhawan, Allahabad. Pp: 416. Singh, Vertika and Dev, Pramendra. (2009). Rainfall variation analysis and future trend in Saharanpur district-Environmental context. Indian Journal of Environmental Pollution. 29 (8): 710-717. Singh, Vertika and Dev, Pramendra. (2012). 50 Years rainfall data analysis and future trend in Saharanpur region. Mousam. 63 (1): 55-64. Statistical Bulletin, 2006, District Saharanpur. Todd, D.K. (1980). Groundwater Hydrology (2nd edition). New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto. John Wiley, ISBN, 0471, 87616X. PP: 535.
Implementation of Decision Support System for Integrated Water Resources Development and Management
A.K. Lohani 1, Rakesh Kumar2 and R.D. Singh3
1Scientist
E2, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, India; aklnih@gmail.com 2Scientist F, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, India 3Director, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, India
AbstractThe management of water resources requires integration of large volumes of disparate information from diverse sources. An efficient and easy to use framework is required to couple this information with hydrological modelling tools for assessment and evaluation that allow broad, interactive participation in water resources planning and decision making process and effective methods of communicating results to a broader audience. Better and useful information needs to be made available to a larger number of participants in more open and participatory decision making and this information is to be effectively integrated into decision making processes. It is a challenge to integrate new information technologies with traditional methods of analysis and to put these tools to work in practice. A Decision Support System (DSS) helps in attaining this objective. DSS (planning) presented in this paper pertains to a decision support system for water resources planning, groundwater planning, reservoir operation, irrigation management, drought management, and conjunctive use of surface and ground water, etc. The distinguishing element of the DSS (planning) is that they are intended to support decisions required at relatively infrequent time intervals such as one week, 10 days, one month, or longer planning horizons. In this paper the main characteristics of integrated water resources planning and management DSS are discussed. Key tasks carried out for the development and implementation of DSS (Planning) activities are elaborated in detail. Furthermore, DSS (planning) for Mahi basin is discussed. Keywords: Decision Support System, Water Resources management, Integrated Management
INTRODUCTION
Decision making for surface water resource planning and management is a daunting challenge, as it requires not only an in-depth understanding of physical flows, human activities, socio-economic conditions, societal, political and cultural contexts, but also of how they interrelate with each other. In India, as most river basins are quite large, the spatial heterogeneity of all these factors, as well as their scaling-up, is critical issues that need to be addressed. It was only about three centuries ago that the concept of water basins came to the fore (Batchelor et al., 1998), but it is only during the 20th century that this late recognition of hydrological and ecological entities gave way to more systematic scientific research on the interrelationships between land use, run-off and erosion, generally focusing on small scale and upland catchments. Furthermore, it was only very recently, in most cases during the second half of the second century, and in numerous cases during the last two decades, that river basins became not only the focus of hydrological investigations, but also of a societal concern for an improved planning and management of the most crucial resource for life. The main purpose of the surface water planning is to contribute in generating, synthesizing and disseminating useful information and knowledge on basin level water management challenges, for use by practitioners, development agencies, policy makers, and donors. To achieve this goal, an indepth analysis and comparison of the historical development and present status of selected basins is a must. The resulting knowledge is specifically aimed at improving the understanding of basin level processes and their interactions, and identifying trade-offs. The main issues relevant to each basin,
the problems faced, and the expectations of stakeholders generally vary from one basin to the other, depending on its relative degree of development. The holistic way to decision making is often beyond the cognitive ability of the decision makers. Decision theory is designed to support decision-makers dealing with unstructured or semi-structured decision problems. The formal approach of decision theory, which analyses subjective utility and measures goal satisfaction achieved by decision alternatives, makes the decision more transparent and consistent (i.e. rational), and allows multiple decision makers and stakeholders responsible for or affected by the decision to communicate their positions and compromise their expectations. Decision theory helps decision-makers to organise and synthesize information on a complex and conflicting nature of problems. A DSS provides the Water Management Authorities a well-structured, user-friendly, practical and complete water resources management information system consisting of the above-mentioned components. It may assist the decision makers in taking the right decisions on basis of good comparison of different strategies under various scenarios, and combine the benefits of Geographic Information Systems, expert systems and simulation models. Moreover, modern visualization techniques enable the managers to get a quick insight into the various options and trade-offs. In that respect a DSS can also be quite useful for priority ranking in master planning studies. Under World Bank Funded Hydrology Project II (HP-II), a DSS is being developed by the National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee for Integrated Water Resources Development and Management (IWRDM) of selected basins of nine peninsular states.
DSS FOR IWRDM

DSS are semi-structured computerized systems that combine databases (information), models (analysing tools), Geographical Information System (GIS) and web technologies with decision logics that allow water managers to make informed decisions and provide answers to important management questions. It may assist the decision makers in taking the right decisions on the basis of good comparison of different strategies under various scenarios. Moreover, modern visualisation techniques enable the managers to get a quick insight into the various options and trade-offs. In that respect a DSS can also be quite useful for priority ranking in master planning studies. Figure 1 presents a typical set of input and outputs of water resources planning & management DSS.
P la n n in g & M a n a g e m e n t D S S
S a m p le In p u ts S a m p le O u tp u ts
W a te r s u p p ly a n d d e m a n d a s s e s s m e n ts O p tim a l w a te r m a n a g e m e n t s tra te g ie s O p tim a l c ro p p in g p a tte rn s P o llu tio n m g m t. s tra te g ie s C o n ju n c tive u s e ro s te rs B a s ic o p e ra tio n a l m g m t. s tra te g ie s E c o n o m ic re tu rn s S im u la tio n o f a lte rn a tiv e fu tu re s /s e n s itivity C o n s e rv a tio n s tra te g ie s H o ts p o t m g m t. N e tw o rk fin e -tu n in g In fra s tru c tu re d v lp m n t.
B a s in , rive r s ys te m , c a n a l n e tw o rk , w a te r in fra s tru c tu re a n d c h a ra c te ris tic s A q u ife r P a ra m e te rs C lim a te /M e te o r. d a ta S u rfa c e F lo w s G ro u n d w a te r L e v e ls W a te r Q u a lity L a n d U s e /A g ric u ltu re W a te r/E n e rg y D e m a n d s E c o n o m ic P a ra m e te rs S ta k e h o ld e r N e e d s D e c is io n s to b e s u p p o rte d , e tc .
P la n n in g & M anagem ent DSS
Fig. 1: Water Resources Planning & Management DSS
Decision Support Systems have significantly improved the basis for decision making in river basin management in many countries and are particularly useful for developing management and planning
Implementation of Decision Support System for Integrated Water Resources Development and Management 701
options. DSS looks at different scenarios and show what happens when parameters are changed. These tools can be used by groups or individuals in offices, workshops and can also be accessed on internet to predict the outcomes of alternative plans /programmes. These tools assist in daily operational and long term strategic decision making. However it is important to recognise that such tools are means to complement, rather than replace, skilled well trained managers and consultation processes.
DEVELOPMENT OF DSS FOR IWRDM UNDER HYDROLOGY PROJECTII

Under World Bank Funded Hydrology Project II (HP-II), a Generic Decision Support System (DSS) is being developed for Integrated Water Resources Development and Management (IWRDM). Nine states and six central agencies, as given in Table-1, are involved in this activity. National Institute of Hydrology (NIH), Roorkee is the nodal agency for the development and implementation of DSS in the surface and groundwater departments of the nine states as given in Table 1. Generic DSS shall have the capabilities to address the following five components of water resources planning, development and management. i. Surface water planning; ii. Integrated operation of reservoirs; iii. Conjunctive surface water and ground water planning; iv. Drought monitoring, assessment and management; and v. Management of both surface and ground water quality The key tasks in the development & implementation of the DSS Planning activity include (i) DSS Needs Assessment (ii) DSS Model Conceptualization (iii) Database Development (iv) DSS Development (v) DSS Customization (vi) DSS Testing/Refinement (vii) DSS Applications (viii) DSS Evaluation/Fine tuning (ix) Dissemination/Training & Out Reach Plan and (x) Preparation of Final Report. The Generic DSS, developed under HP-II, is presently being customized for the pilot basin(s) of each of the nine participating states for addressing various water resources planning, development and management issues. The details of the basins and issues to be addressed by the DSS are given in Table-2.
Table 1: Participating States and Central Agencies
Participating States Andhra Pradesh Chhattisgarh Gujarat Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Orissa Tamil Nadu Participating Central Agencies National Institute of Hydrology (NIH) Central Water Commission (CWC) Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) Central Water and Power Research Station (CWPRS) India Meteorological Department (IMD) Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
DSS CAPABILITIES
A generic DSS for integrated water resources development and management has been developed. The developed generic DSS has been initially customized info. The developed generic DSS have a number of functionalities (capabilities), which can be grouped as follows: i. Data Management of spatial and time series data, including facilities for import, presentation and analysis of data; ii. Modelling tools for analysing hydro meteorological information;
iii. Scenario Management to define and execute model simulations and enable further analysis and processing of result; iv. Analysis in the form of e.g. benefit-cost analysis or multi-criteria optimization; and v. Reporting of results. Mathematical models such as hydrologic models, river basin models and groundwater models coupled with the field data are the component part of the DSS. Field data is used to build, validate and calibrate the models. The models have the capability to convert the complex system into the simpler one, making it easy for the reliable prediction of impacts of changes to the existing system. The models are able to address different issues within surface water, reservoir operation, conjunctive use of surface water and ground water, droughts and water quality. DSS allows decision makers to analyze hydrologic data, run hydrologic simulation models, run basin water allocation models and study the effects of potential decisions. A DSS is designed to access or display hydrologic data in an easily accessible manner, to model dynamic hydrologic conditions, and to determine the ability of the river system to meet future demand based on operational and administrative use of storage. Often these DSS allow users to simulate and evaluate various "what if" scenarios for river operation alternatives. Operational plans addressed by a DSS include the improvement of water use efficiency, exchanges between water users, the construction of new reservoirs or enlargement of existing facilities, the development of augmentation and replacement plans, as well as the development of additional beneficial uses, such as minimum stream flow. Important characteristics of a DSS for water resources planning include accessibility, flexibility, facilitation, learning, interaction and easy to use. The DSS (Planning) produces simple output from the complex system and large data set in the form of reports that's easy for decision making. These reports may be of different types depending upon the purpose. The reporting platform may be standard MS-office products (Word, Excel) or HTML for web publishing. Figure 2 shows various components of DSS for Integrated Water Resources Development and Management. Internet linkages between the various DSS(Planning) user is also designed so that they can run the planning scenarios and share the information to other users (Figure 3).
Fig. 2: Various Components of DSS and their Functions
Table 2: Pilot Basins of States and Issues for which DSS should Support Decision
States and Basins Andhra Pradesh (Middle Godavari Basin) Issues
Chhattisgarh (Seonath Sub-Basin)
Gujarat (Mahi Basin)
Karnataka (Palar Basin) (Tungabhadra Command area) Kerala (Bharathapuza Basin)
Madhya Pradesh (Wainganga Basin)
Maharashtra (Bhima Basin)
Combined management of reservoir and water transfers Providing water for all sectors considering the increasing demands Balancing head-end and tail-end abstraction along irrigation canals Crop selection and corresponding water requirement Tank operation in dry years Conjunctive use of surface and ground water Demonstrate benefits of changes in cropping pattern Support decision on canal lining Increased efficiency of water management in general Combined operation of reservoir in dry, normal and flood conditions Improving conditions for the population in drought prone areas Reduced periods of inundation in low-sloping command areas Drought management Indentifying recharge areas Determining impacts of over exploitation of GW Fertilizer pollution of groundwater Water logging at head-end and scarcity at tail-end canals Efficient management of water resources Suitable water management in dry years Potential hydropower production The impact of GW of measure to mitigate the effect of sand mining Environmental flows Assessment of water resources availability Assess the impact on water availability from infrastructure rehabilitation Increased efficiency of water management in general Crop selection, particularly in dry years The project area is severely drought prone and GW over exploited Increasing competition between domestic and agricultural water demand Evaluating reservoir operation to minimize the effect of drought Evaluating reservoir operation to minimize the effect of flooding Assessing the water pollution on Ujjain from upstream irrigation, municipal and industrial waste Conjunctive use in irrigated area Mitigating water logging through increased GW pumping Changing cropping pattern The impact of inter-basin transfer or additional surface storage Severe water shortage and competing sectors Inter-basin transfer of water to Agniyar basin Determining impacts of over exploitation of GW Multipurpose multi reservoir operation River pollution Drought management in some area Severe water shortage and competing sectors Inter-basin transfer Conjunctive use Water quality problems
Orissa (Mahanadi Basin)
Tamil Nadu (Agniyar Baisn) (Tamirparani Basin)
(Vaippar Basin)
DEVELOPMENT OF DSS FOR MAHI BASIN

The generic DSS Planning software has been customized selected basins to support decisions in water resources development and management and share data and information within the user organization. The main elements of the system are:
Database and associated tools to display, manage, and analyse GIS and time series data and provide easy access to this information for water managers and professionals at all levels within the user organisation. The state database already includes data of the case study basin, and import tools are available to easily expand the database to cover other areas. Modelling tools to analyse water management options and extract key results for decision makers. Comprehensive support has been provided to the state modelling team to set up and calibrate models for the case study area to address the identified issues in the basin. Web tools to easily upload data and information on the water resources situation, water management plans, etc. to external stakeholders.
The case study area selected by Gujarat for application of the DSS is the Mahi River Basin, for which water resources issues are described below. The Gujarat State team involved in the DSS(Planning) development and customization for Mahi basin (Figure 4) have diligently obtained, formatted, and imported spatial and temporal data into a geodatabases in ArcMAP where they have begun to perform preliminary analysis and develop a water allocation model. A summary of the time series data found in the database is given in Table 3. The specific issues associated with the Mahi River Study Area include: Managing the increasing demands for water resources for agriculture, domestic, industrial, and power generation purposes. Managing reservoirs and inter-basin transfer under normal, flood, and drought conditions. The command area of Mahi Right Bank Canal (MRBC) falls in the adjoining Sabarmati Basin, while the Sujalam Sufalam canal from Kadana Dam has been constructed to transfer water by linking rivers to the water-scarce North Gujarat region. Import of water from the Narmada canal is also possible. The water use in command areas may be limited by changes in cropping pattern and reducing losses. Some areas suffer persistent inundation when heavy rain falls on irrigated land. Changes in drainage or irrigation scheduling may help alleviate this problem. Some areas within the basin are drought prone Pollution from villages and industry is seen in some areas, a minor but increasing problem.
In addition, considerable variation is seen in the availability of water in this basin thus having both drought and flood. Although efficient management is taking place in the basin it is believed that further improvement in water management is possible.
THE MAHI RIVER STUDY AREA

The Mahi River Study Area was selected as the case study basin for the development of the DSS Planning tool for water resources management and planning within Gujarat. The Mahi is one of the major west flowing inter-state rivers of India, originating on the northern slopes of the Vindhya mountain ranges at an altitude of 500 m above m.s.l. in the Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh and draining to the Bay of Bengal to the east. The Mahi River Study Area lies between latitudes 22o 00' and 24o 35' N and longitudes 72o 30' and 75o 15'E. The river drains an area of 34, 842 sq.km. The distribution of the catchment lies in three states: Madhya Pradesh (19%), Rajastan (47%), and Gujarat (34%). Twelve major water structures occur within the basin, controlling water flows for irrigation, drinking water, and industrial use.
DSS DATA
A major effort has been made by Narmada and Water Resources Department (Central Designs Organization (CDO)) and Ground Water Resources Development Corporation Ltd (GWRDCL),
Gujarat to collect and process the data required for construction of a model for the study basin, assessment of the availability of both surface and groundwater, and analysis of water management options. With the DSS database installed on separate central servers at the CDO, Gandhinagar and another at GWRDCL, Ahmedabad, the staffs has easy access to view and apply the GIS and time series information.
Spatial Data
Spatial data incorporated into the geodatabase includes the locations of stream network, rain gauges, stream gauges, reservoirs, check dam structures as well as coverage of land use, lithology, geomorphology, soil type, DEM, command area boundaries, and political boundaries. The information has been used to the MIKE BASIN model (Figure 5). This figure presents the reservoirs, rain gauges, and stream gauges locations. From this data and the DEM, the MIKE BASIN network, rivers and river nodes, reservoirs, and catchments were developed.
Fig. 3: Relation between the Various DSS Users
Surface Water
Rainfall is characterized by 45 gauges in and around the Mahi Basin (Figure 11). Average period of record for the gauges is 1964 to the present for daily data. The time series data has been associated with the features (rain gage loca-tions) in the geodatabase. Nine state stream gauges have been loaded into the geodatabase with the data primarily reported from 1993 present (Table 3). The CWC gage has a period of record from 1980-2007 in the database (Table 3). In MS Excel files, additional stream flow data is available as a measured outflow from 9 reservoirs that will be used in the water allocation model of the Mahi Basin. Based on outflow, evaporation, and change in water level, the inflow will be calculated for the 9 reservoirs providing for additional flow records to understand the river flows and calibrate rainfall-runoff models.
Fig. 4: Location of Mahi Basin Selected for DSS (P)
Fig. 5: The Mahi Basin Information in the Arc MAP Geo Data Base Table 3: Time Series Data of the Mahi Basin used in DSS as of February 2010
Parameter Rainfall Stream Discharge Groundwater: Dugwell Piezometer Tube Well Interval Daily Hourly Daily Daily Quarterly Quarterly Quarterly Organization State State State CWC State/CWGB State/CWGB State/CWGB No of Gauges 45 17 9 1 161 39 15 Range of Data 1964-present 2001-Present 1993-Present 1980-2007 1978-Present 1988-Present 1982-Present
WATER RESOURCES RELATED ISSUES IN MAHI BASIN

In Mahi basin a number of water related issues are raised by the State Government on which DSS (P) applications should be developed so that it can help the decision makers for the better planning of the available water resources. These issues are: Inter Sectoral Sharing of Water Hydro Power, Irrigation, Domestic-Municipal, Industrial demands in the Basin. Intra-Sectoral Issues Priority within demand-e.g. Irrigation Commands(MRBC-KLBC-KRBC system), Heavy Industrial demand Integrated operation of the reservoirs Optimisation between drainage and irrigation task in MRBC system Most of the command of Mahi Right Bank Canal (MRBC) falls in the adjoining Sabarmati Basin. Sujalam Sufalam canal from Kadana Dam has been constructed to transfer water by interlinking of rivers to water scarce North Gujarat region .
Inter Basin Transfer Of Water
CONCLUSION
Water management is becoming increasingly complicated in relation to our society's requirements and needs. It has been recognized that an integrated and multidisciplinary approach must be adopted and the approach must consider the interrelations among the natural, environmental and socioeconomic aspects. A decision support system is generally designed to allow the integration of various aspects of water resources analysis scenarios and development measures. The developments of DSS to assist with water resources decision making holds the key to the integration of GIS and water resources models. Generic DSS (P) software has been developed under hydrology Project. Further it is being customized in different river basins in different States. Mahi basin has been selected as a pilot basin by the Gujarat State for the DSS (P) software customization. The DSS (P) tool has been set up for the Mahi River Study Area and applied to address surface water and reservoir management issues using the available hydrological time series data. Further applications of the DSS(P) can be developed to deal with the various issues related to water resources planning and management in the Mahi basin.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Andreu, J., Capilla, J. and Sanchis, E. (1996). AQUATOOL-a generalized DSS for water resources planning and operational management. Journal of Hydrology 177: 269-291. Catelli, C., Pani, G. and Todini, E. (1998). FLOODSS, Flood operational DSS. In Balabanis, P., Bronstert, A., Casale, R., and Samuels, P. (Eds.), Ribamod: River basin modelling, management and flood mitigation. Development of Decision Support System for Integrated Water Resources Development and Management, Hydrology Project-II, Volume IV, Needs Assessment Gujarat (DHI, 2009) Jamieson, D.G. and Fedra, K. (1996b). The 'WaterWare' decision-support system for riverbasin planning. 3. Example applications. Journal of Hydrology 177:199-211. Kanungo, S., Sharma, S., Jain, P.K. (2001). Evaluation of a decision support system for credit management decisions. Decision Support Systems 30 (4), 419e436.
Assessing the Dynamics of Glacier Lake Outburst Flood and its Impact on Hydro Power Projects
A.K. Lohani1, Sanjay Jain2 and R.D. Singh3
E2, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, India F, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, India 3Director, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, India; aklnih@gmail.com
2Scientist 1Scientist
AbstractThe number of moraine-dammed and supra glacial lakes are increasing, as Himalayan
glaciers recede and stagnate in response to climate amelioration or various other reasons. Many of these lakes are currently developing behind unconsolidated moraines and prone to failure, and may produce devastating Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs). Consideration of potential glacier lake
outburst floods (GLOF) is, therefore, of essential importance for the design of river engineering structures located downstream of hazardous glacier lakes. In this paper, as an example, a flood study carried out for a selected site in Dhauliganga River in Himalayan region of Uttarakhand is presented. Further, the methodology for simulation of glacier lake outburst floods has been discussed. The results indicate, that, in addition to the "classical" flood flow analysis, GLOF analysis should be considered for derivation of design floods of projects located in glacier dominated basins. Keyword: Outburst Flood, Glacier Lake, Hydro power Project, Climate Change
INTRODUCTION
In Himalayan region, several water resources projects are under operation and many more are coming up to harness the available water resources. These water resources projects are of considerable national and local importance in terms of hydropower generation, irrigation, flood control and subsequent socio-economic development of the region. Proper planning and management of these projects depends on correct assessment of basin yield and design flood. Many glacial lakes are known to have formed in the Himalaya in the last few decades, and a number of GLOF events have been reported in the region. Global climatic change during the first half of the twentieth century has had a significant impact on the high mountainous glacial environment. Glacier thinning and retreat in the Himalayas due to changing environment and various other reasons has resulted in the formation of new glacial lakes and the enlargement of existing lakes due to the accumulation of melt water behind loosely consolidated end moraine dams. Generally, such lakes are inherently unstable in nature and can be subject to catastrophic drainage, which is a potential source of danger to the hydro power projects, people and property in the valleys below them. All of a sudden, large river flow caused by an outburst of a glacier lake is generally termed glacier lake outburst flood or GLOF. Glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) may be caused by the failure of the damming moraine due to its own instability or glacier and/or snow collapse into the lake and may lead to overtopping and eventually to failure of the damming barrier. Consideration of potential glacier lake outburst floods is, therefore, of essential importance for the design and constructing any infrastructure, especially water resources projects, located downstream of hazardous glacier lakes and would be the prime target in case of GLOF. GLOF modelling may be carried out by either i) scaled physical hydraulic models, or ii) mathematical simulation using computer. A modern tool to deal with this problem is the mathematical model, which is most cost effective and reasonably solves the governing flow equations of continuity and momentum by computer simulation. Mathematical modelling of dam breach floods can be carried out by either one dimensional analysis or two dimensional analyses. In one
Assessing the Dynamics of Glacier Lake Outburst Flood and its Impact on Hydro Power Projects 709
dimensional analysis, the information about the magnitude of flood, i.e., discharge and water levels, variation of these with time and velocity of flow through breach can be had in the direction of flow. In the case of two dimensional analyses, the additional information about the inundated area, variation of surface elevation and velocities in two dimensions can also be assessed. In the present paper, methodology for simulation of glacier lake outburst floods has been discussed. Further, the discussed methodology has been demonstrated in Himalayan basins in order to compute the impact of GLOF on hydropower projects sites by routing of the GLOF along the river up to proposed dam site to workout the design flood considering the impact of GLOF at dam site.
THE STUDY AREA AND DATA USED

The study for the present study chosen is Dhauliganga basin up to a selected site in Chamoli district of Uttarakhand. The total catchment area of river Dhauliganga up to the proposed diversions site is 1666 km. The rain fed catchment area is 787 km (47%) and the snow fed area is 879 (53%). Dhauliganga River is the northernmost right bank tributary of river kali and lies entirely in the Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand state of India. The Dhauliganga basin is bounded between latitude 29o 5530o 35 N and longitude 80o 1580o 45 E. This is a glacial and snow fed river and originates in the lesser Himalayas from snow peaks at an elevation of 5,160 m and flows down as a small stream in a narrow valley, generally in NE SE direction over a length of 85 km before joining the Kali river at an elevation of approximate 1100.0 m. The average bed slope of the Dhauliganga River is approximately 1 in 20 and can be termed as a fast flowing ferocious river. The river valley is located in high mountain ranges on both banks over most of its stretch. The river brings down a considerable amount of sediment load particularly during snow-melt and flood season. The basic information used for the compilation of an inventory of glaciers and glacial lakes are different type of satellite images, topographic maps and published maps, field report and available literatures. Medium to high resolution satellite images of different dates are more useful for preparing the inventory of glaciers and glacial lakes. The combination of satellite remote sensing data and the digital elevation model (DEM) were also used for better interpretations and more accurate results for the inventory of glaciers and glacial lakes in the three dimension geographic information system platform.
METHODOLOGY
For identifying the potentially dangerous glacial lakes, a digital database of glaciers and glacial lakes is necessary. As it was not possible to survey the detailed geometry in the field, all topographic information required for the study was derived from a digital elevation model (DEM). Image enhancement techniques are generally useful for the identification of the individual glaciers and glacial lakes. Further, with the support of the visual interpretation method and knowledge and experience of the terrain conditions, glacier and glacial lake inventories and monitoring can be prepared. Using the combinations of different spectral band in false colour composite (FCC) and in individual spectral bands, glaciers and glacial lakes can be identified. The lake water appearance ranges from light blue to blue to black in colour composite images. However, the frozen lakes appear white. Sizes are generally small, having circular, semi-circular, or elongated shapes with very fine texture and are generally associated with glaciers in the case of high lying areas, or rivers in the case of low lying areas. The ERDAS imagine and Arc GIS have been used for the processing of satellite data and GIS analysis. In the present study, map of study area has been prepared using ASTER DEM. In the present study digital remote sensing data from the IRS-1D/ P6 LISS-III sensor has been utilized. When applying basic techniques of multispectral classification similar to those used for the normalized difference vegetation index, NDVI (Hardy and Burgan 1999), a normalized difference water index (NDWI) for lake detection was used (Huggel 1998).
NDWI =
B NIR-Bblue BNIR+Bblue
(1)
Sometimes, due to spectral reflection, some self shadowed areas are misclassified as lakes. Verification of identified lakes can be done by overlying the DEM on NDWI image.
IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIALLY DANGEROUS GLACIAL LAKES

For identifying potentially dangerous glacial lakes remote sensing data in conjunction with Google Earth have been used. It was observed that no lake is located in ablation zone of glacier and not connected with mother glacier. There were no breaching evidences and area of lake was not expanded much in the past. There is no lake which is vulnerable from GLOF point of view, however, breaching of the biggest lake has been considered for demonstrating the simulation of GLOF at the selected site in the study area. Arc-GIS and ERDAS Imagine software were used to delineate crosssections of the stream. For this purpose the vector layer of the stream and the buffer lines along the stream on the both side of stream at the distance of 1 km were created. ERDAS Imagine Software was used to overlay DEM of basin and vector layer of cross-section. The Spatial Profile Viewer in ERDAS allows visualizing the reflectance spectrum of a polyline of data file values in a single band of data (one-dimensional mode) or in many bands (perspective three-dimensional mode). There is no estimate available for the estimation of volume of glacial lakes in Himalaya from their water spread areas. However, Huggel et al. (2002) has given some estimates for glacial lakes in Swiss Alps. In the absence of information on the volume of potentially dangerous glacial lakes, it is considered appropriate to use the same relationships developed for the lakes in Swiss Alps for estimating the water volume for the lakes in this area. The empirical relations used by Huggel et al. (2002) are: The lake volume V = 0.104 A1.42 where V is the lake volume in m A is the lake area in m . The lake depth D = 0.104 A0.42 Where D is the lake depth in m Due to possible out bursting or breaching of lake existing in the study area may result a surge of flood at the outlet. Therefore, in order to estimate the maximum GLOF peak at the outlet, the out bursting or breaching of lake has to be considered along with channel routing. This study demonstrates the simulation of the flood hydrograph just upstream of selected outlet in the event of breaching of largest glacial lakes. Thus, the estimation of GLOF (Sharma et al., 2009) provides the flood hydrograph of discharge from the dam breach and maximum water level at different locations of the river downstream of the dam due to propagation of flood waves along with their time of occurrence. The essence of dam break modelling is hydrodynamic modelling, which involves finding solution of two partial differential equations originally derived by Barre De Saint Venant in 1871. These equations are: (Q/X) + (A + A0) / t - q = 0 (continuity equation) (Q/t) + { (Q /A)/X } + g A ((h/X ) + Sf + Sc ) = 0 (Momentum equation) where, Q = discharge; A = active flow area; A0 = inactive storage area; h = water surface elevation; q= lateral flow; x = distance along waterway; t = time; Sf = friction slope; Sc = expansion contraction slope and g = gravitational acceleration The mathematical models which approximately solve the governing flow equations of continuity and momentum by computer simulation are the cost effective modern tool for the dam break analysis. MIKE11and DAMBRK computer programs have been developed in the recent past;
2 3 2
(2) (3)
(4) (5)
however these computer programs are dependent on certain inputs regarding the geometric and temporal characteristics of the dam breach. The state-of-art in estimating these breach characteristics is not as advanced as that of the computer programs, and therefore these are the limiting factors in this analysis.
GLOF SIMULATION FOR BIGGEST LAKE

There is no lake which is vulnerable from GLOF point of view, however, in the present study, largest Lake has been considered to carry out GLOF study to demonstrate impact of GLOF at downstream areas. The area of the biggest lake is 0.203 km2 in 2008. The resulting dam breach flood, i.e., GLOF has been routed through Dhauliganga River along with 100 year return period flood in the valley. The Dhauliganga River from glacial lake location down to the project site (total length 44.2 km) has been represented in the model by a number of cross sections at an interval of 5 kms, developed from DEM. The classified DEM is shown in Figure 1. All the cross sections obtained at different intervals from lake to project site are shown in Figure 2.
5000 at 5 Km from lake at 10 Km from lake at 15 Km from lake at 20 Km from lake at 25 Km from lake at 30 Km from lake at 35 Km from lake at 40 Km fro lake at 44.17 km from lake
4500
E le v a tio n o f r iv e r b a d in m e te r
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000 0 500 1000 1500 Distance from right bank to left bank in meters 2000 2500
Fig. 1: Classified DEM of the Study Area
Fig. 2: C/S at 5 km Interval Downstream of Lake
The altitude of the biggest lake is 4663 m. The surface area of the lake and altitude are given in Table-1. The volume of the lake is calculated using equation 2 and it comes out to be 3.578 Mm3. The breach width has been taken as 80 m and breach depth is taken as 10 m. The side slope has been taken as 0.75H: 1V. The breach development time has been taken as 1 hour. The Manning's roughness coefficient has been taken as 0.040 considering the bouldery beds and hilly terrain of Himalayan Rivers and large debris flow associated with GLOF.
Table 1: Elevation-area Relationship of Glacial Lakes
Glacial Lake (Volume 3.578 Mcum) Elevation (m) Surface area (m2) 4644.000 0.000 4645.000 194500.000 4663.000 203000.000
The 100 year return period flood value available at selected site is available and its value is 790.0 cumec. MIKE 11 software was applied for generation of flood hydrograph for 80 m breach width. The flood hydrographs at just downstream of the lake and near project site are shown in Figure 3 for breach width 80 m. The flood hydrograph at project site shows the flood ordinates as a sum of GLOF ordinates and 100 year flood ordinates. The total flood peak, the flood peak due to 100 year flood, the flood peak due to GLOF and its travel time from GLOF site is given in Table-2 for breach width of 80 m.
2500 2000 Discharge m3/s 1500 1000 500 0 0:57 2:09
Dam breach flood just down stream to lake GLOF Flood along with 100 Year Flood at Project site
3:21
Time (h)
Fig. 3: GLOF Hydrograph (Including 100 Year Flood Ordinates) At Selected Site Considering 80 m Breach Width
It can be seen from the Table-2 that the GLOF peak for the above breach parameters is 1861.51 cumec for breach width of 80 m. The same get mitigated to 1614.70 cumec at the project site. The time of travel of flood peak from the lake site to project location is about 50 minutes. It is inferred from the study that the outburst of glacial lake with peak flood of 1614.76 cumec at the project site gives the a scenario of GLOF at selected site and the same may be considered for the project planning and designing particularly in the case when the selected lake is potentially dangerous lake.
Table 2: Flood Peak Due to Glacial Lake Outburst Considering 80m Breach Width
Location Just d/s of lake Project Site Distance (km) from Glacial Lake 0 44.2 Total Flood Peak (m3/s) 1861.51 2190.70 100 yr Flood Peak (m3/s) 0 576.00 GLOF Peak (m3/s) 1861.51 1614.70 Travel Time (hr-min) 00-00 01-10
CONCLUSION
The Dhauliganga basin upto the selected site covers an area of 1666.00 km2. The elevation values ranges from a minimum of 2593 m to maximum of 7693 m with in the study area. The biggest lake has been identified and the area of this lake is 0.203 km2 in the year 2008. Though no lake is vulnerable to breaching, even then a GLOF study for this biggest lake has been carried out to demonstrate the impact of GLOF at project site.
For GLOF study, MIKE 11 software has been used. In this study, 100 year return flood has also been considered in addition to GLOF peak at the project site. The flood peak at the lake site is 1861.51 cumec for breach width of 80 m. Total flood peak at project site due to GLOF only is computed as 1614.70 cumec. As earlier pointed out there is no danger of breaching of lake. But if in the worst case flood due to breaching of lake is to be considered then it is 1614.70 cumec.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] Ageta, Y; Iwata, S; Yabuki, H; Naito, N; Sakai, A; Narama, C; Karma, T (2000) Expansion of glacier lakes in recent decades in the Bhutan Himalayas. In Debris-covered glaciers, Proceedings of a workshop held in Seattle, Washington, USA, September 2000, pp. 165-175. Wallingford: International Association of Hydrological Sciences. Benn, D., S. Wiseman, and C. Warren 2000. Rapid growth of a supraglacial lake, Ngozumpa Glacier, Khumbu Himal, Nepal. Debris-Covered Glaciers, IAHS 264: 177-186. Bolch, T; Buchroithner, MF; Peters, J; Baessler, M; Bajracharya, S (2008) Identification of glacier motion and potentially dangerous glacial lakes in the Mt. Everest region, Nepal using spaceborne imagery. Natural Hazards Earth System Sciences 8: 1329-1340. Campbell, J. G., 2005, Inventory of Glaciers, Glacial Lakes and the Identification of Potential Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) Affected by Global Warming in the Mountains of India, Pakistan and China/Tibet Autonomous Region, Technical Report of APN Project 2004-CMY-Campbell, available online at http://ns.apn.gr.jp/en/products/project_reports/2004/Final%20Report/2004_03_CMY_Campbell.pdf. Frey, H., Haeberli, W., Linsbauer, A., Huggel, C., Paul, F. 2010. A multi-level strategy for anticipating future glacier lake formation and associated hazard potentials. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 10, 339-352. Hardy, C.C., and Burgan, R.E. 1999. Evaluation of NDVI for monitoring moisture in three vegetation types of the western U.S. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 65: 603610. Huggel, C., Kb, A., Haeberli, W., Teysseire, P., and Paul, F., (2002b): Remote sensing based assessment of hazards from glacier lake outbursts: a case study in the Swiss Alps, Can. Geotech. J. 39: 316-330. Huggel C. (1998): Periglaziale Seen im Luft- und Satellitenbild. Diploma Thesis, Department of Geography, University of Zurich. ICIMOD (2010), Formation of glacial lakes in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas and GLOF risk assessment, J.D. Ives, R.B. Shrestha and P.K. Mool, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu, May 2010. Jain Sanjay K., Anil K Lohani, RD Singh, Anju Chaudhary, LN Thakural, 2012: Glacial lakes and glacial lake outburst flood in a Himalayan basin using remote sensing and GIS, Natural hazards. Kumar, R., Singh, R.D. and Sharma K.D. 2005: Water resources of India. Current Science 89, 774811. Kulkarni, A.V. 2007: Effect of global warming on Himalayan cryosphere. Jalvigyan Sameeksha 22, 93107. Kulkarni, A. V., Mathur, P., Rathore, B. P., Alex, S., Thakur, N. and Manoj Kumar, Effect of global warming on snow ablation pattern in the Himalayas. Curr. Sci., 2002, 83, 120123. Lichtenegger, J., Gurung, D.R., Mool, P.K., Bigot, J., 2008, Near Real-Time Monitoring of Glacial Lake Imja (Khumbu-Everest region). Proceeding of the ESA living planet Symposium, Bergen, Norway, 28 June to July 10. Mool, PK (2005) Monitoring of glaciers and glacial lakes from 1970s to 2000 in Poiqu Basin, Tibet Autonomous Region, PR China. Unpublished report prepared by ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal, and CAREERI, Gansu, China. Molnia, B.F., 2009, Inventorying and monitoring the recent behavior of Afghanistans glaciers, debris-covered glaciers, supraglacial lakes, and the potential for catastrophic flooding (jkulhlaups): in European Geosciences Union General Assembly 2009, Geophysical Research Abstracts, v. 11, EGU2009-13939, Vienna, Austria, April 1924, 2009. Quincey, D. J., S.D. Richardson, et al. (2007). "Early recognition of glacial lake hazards in the Himalaya using remote sensing datasets." Global And Planetary Change 56(1-2): 137-152. Raj Govinda K Babu (2010), Remote sensing based hazard assessment of glacial lakes: a case study in Zanskar basin, Jammu & Kashmir, India, Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk, Vol. 1, No. 4, December 2010, 339-347. Reynolds, J.M. (2000): On the formation of supraglacial lakes on debris-covered glaciers. IAHS Publication, 264,153-161. Sharma Devendra, Bhagat Singh, M. Perumal and N. N. Rai, 2009, Study of glacial lake outburst flood for punatsangchhu hydro electric project, Bhutan, presented in National symposium on climate change and water resources in India, 18-19 Nov., 2009 organised by IAH, Roorkee at NIH, Roorkee. Thompson, S., Benn, D., Luckman, A., and Kulessa, B., 2010, The evolution of supraglacial lakes, Ngozumpa Glacier, Khumbu Himalaya, Nepal. Geophysical Research Abstracts Vol. 12, EGU2010-11396-1. Ukita Jinro, C Narama, T. Tadono, T Yamanokuchi, N Tomiyama, S Kawamoto, C ABE, T UDA, H Yabuki. K Fujita, K Nishimura, 2011, Glacial lake inventory of Bhutan using ALOS data: Part 1, methods and preliminary results, Annals of Glaciology, 52(58), 2011. Watanabe, T; Ives, JD; Hammond, JE (1994) Rapid growth of a glacial lake in Khumbu Himal, Nepal: Prospects for a catastrophic flood. Mountain Research and Development 14: 329-340. Yao T and 7 others (2010) Glacial distribution and mass balance in the Yarlung Zangbo River and its influence on lakes. Chinese Sci. Bull., 55(20), 20722078.
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Section J Waste Utilisation
Construction and Demolition Waste ManagementA Case Study of Pune

Vaishali Anagal1, Geeta Nagarkar2, Kanchan Atnurkar2 and Anisha Patel2
1Associate 2Graduate
Professor, Bhanuben Nanavati College of Architecture, Karve Nagar, Pune, India; vmanagal@rediffmail.com Students, Bhanuben Nanavati College of Architecture, Karve Nagar, Pune, India; geeta.nagarkar@yahoo.com
AbstractConstruction by nature is not an eco-friendly activity. Currently, Construction sector in India is growing at the rate of 10% per annum. The housing market will witness very good growth
rates of up to 14% in 2012. Construction accounts for nearly 65 per cent of the total investment in infrastructure and the trend is continuously increasing. By 2013, 20 million square meter of office space will be completed in India. Half of the demand will come from the metro-cities in India. With the increasing demand for built spaces and scarcity of land, a trend of redevelopment projects is upcoming. Construction and demolition (C&D) waste management in India is subject of concern in the construction market. C&D waste generation is about a one third of the total municipal solid waste generated in India. Infrastructure sector (construction and repair of roads, bridges, flyovers etc.), real estate (especially redevelopment and renovation work), demolitions of unauthorized structures etc. are sources of bulk generation of waste. With increased urbanization and increased housing demands, there is a shortage of aggregates to the extent of 55,000 million cu.m in housing sector, where as the road sector requires an additional 750 million cu.m. of aggregates. This emphasizes the need of C& D waste management in India. Construction and waste management through reuse, recycle, deconstruction is being practiced abroad in countries like U.K., USA, France, Denmark, Germany and Japan. According to a study commissioned by Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC), 70% of the construction industry is not aware of recycling techniques. This paper examines the present practices of C & D waste in India with the special case of city of Pune. It also elaborates possibilities and methodologies of recovery of waste materials and their application in new construction. It also studies institutional, regulatory and legislative framework in India in the field of construction and demolition waste management. It identifies loopholes in the framework and reasons of ineffective implementation. It also discusses about the provisions in various building rating systems prevailing in India like TERI GRIHA and LEED (India) with regard to C & D waste management. It studies provisions in NBC, BIS regarding recycled materials and C & D waste. It identifies issues and a challenge related to C & D waste management and also elaborates the role of key stake holders. It discusses about the advantages of deconstruction over demolition. The paper emphasizes on the strategies involving technological solutions, policies, administrative and legislative framework of solving the issue and moving towards green C & D waste management. Keywords: Construction and demolition waste management, Green waste management, IGBC, TERI-GRIHA, deconstruction, reuse, recycle, up-cycling, down-cycling, closed loop material cycles, Pune
INTRODUCTION
With rapid economic growth after the development of Special economic Zones(SEZs) and subsequent increase in urbanization in Pune, environmental impacts from construction and demolition (C&D) waste are becoming a major issue in urban solid waste management. Environmental issues such as increase in flood levels due to illegal dumping of C & D waste into rivers, resource depletion, shortage of landfill and illegal dumping on hill slopes are evident in the city. The scope of this study is limited to the construction industries in residential and non-residential buildings in city of Pune. This paper includes information from secondary sources such as research
papers, reports, surveys, case studies etc. Field surveys and interviews with various stakeholders were undertaken by the authors to ascertain the status of C&D waste management in the city of Pune. Diagnostic analysis of current status of C&D waste management in terms of policies, laws and regulations, current management practices, technologies and key stakeholder participation were conducted and analyzed.
OVERVIEW OF C & D WASTE IN INDIA

Asian institute of technology, Thailand had conducted a survey in various Asian countries and published a report on reduce, reuse and recycle (3R) practices in C & D waste management in Asia in May 2008. The study included the countries like Bhutan, Japan, Hong Kong SAR, PR China, Thailand and others including India. The study reveals the current status on C & D waste management in terms of technologies is poor in India, whereas reusing and recycling facilities have moderate existence. The management practices, technologies, stakeholders participation is relatively low. Presently, C & D waste generation in India accounts upto 23.75 million tons annually and these figures are likely to double fold upto 2016. The International Society of Waste Management, India reports that estimated waste generation during construction is 40 to 60 Kg. per sq. m and 40 to 50 kg/sq. m during renovation/ repair work. The highest contribution to waste generation is due to demolition of buildings. Demolition of Pucca and Semi-Pucca buildings generates approximately 500 & 300 kg/ sqm respectively. In India, limited C & D waste is being re-used. The private contractors remove this waste and dump it in an un-authorized manner along roads or other public land, resulting into narrowing width of roads and consequently the traffic congestion. Although, the responsibility of removing the waste is primarily of the builder or the owner, it is usually assigned to the demolition contractor. The disposal of C & D waste into Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) land filling site degrades the quality of bio-degradable waste for treatments such as composting or energy recovery. The problem of increasing cost of construction materials and ban on mining activities is faced by executing agencies. The raw materials used in construction are largely non renewable natural resources hence meticulous use of these materials is essential. The demand for aggregates in 2007 has seen an increase by five percent, to over 21 billion tones, the largest being in developing countries like China, India, etc. To address the problem of waste management in the country the Ministry of Environment and forests, Government of India constituted a committee to evolve a road map for the management of waste in India and to suggest a policy and strategy for achieving the same. The scope of the committee was to examine the existing administrative and regulatory mechanism in waste management. Working Groups appointed by this committee interacted with various stakeholders to evolve a consensus on the strategy for waste management. The Committee has made number of recommendations for C & D management.
PRESENT CONDITION AND ISSUES RELATED TO C & D WASTE IN PUNE

There are 44 SEZs in and around Pune. With these developments in last decade Pune is experiencing boom in construction sector. With the change in culture, change in lifestyles and technology, many redevelopment projects are coming up in Pune. The C& D waste in Pune constitutes 40% of MSW in Pune. The illegal dumping of construction rubble in the riverbeds and hills continued in the city. In many instances debris is dumped in the green belt of the river, affecting its natural flow. Pune Municipal Corporation (PMC) with support from United Nations Environment Programme International Environmental Technology Centre (UNEP-IETC), Osaka, Japan implemented a project to develop an Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) action plan for Pune in September 2007. On behalf of UNEP-IETC, Environmental Management Centre (EMC) provided technical inputs. The
Construction and Demolition Waste ManagementA Case Study of Pune 719
ISWM action plan addresses the problems of not only the household solid waste (garbage), but also other types such as hazardous waste, C & D waste, biomedical waste and electronic waste (e-waste). Moreover, the action plan proposes various innovative ideas and approaches in line with the current national and international trends to ensure an efficient, cost-effective and sustainable solid waste management. These approaches include, for instance: 3R (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle); optimization of centralized and decentralized treatment systems, life cycle thinking towards minimizing consumption, enhancing value from wastes through Public Private Partnerships (PPP) and making right choice of technologies by factoring economic, environmental and social considerations. A strong emphasis was given on public education and awareness of various key stakeholders and technical capacity building of implementing agencies for the success of the ISWM action plan. However, practically, hardly anything from this action plan is implemented till the date. The Fig. 1 gives projection regarding C & D waste in Pune.
800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 Projected C & D Waste for Pune
C & D Waste (TPD)
Fig. 1: Projected C & D Waste in Pune

Source: ISWM, Pune
The dumping of construction debris at both sides of the Mula river resulted into flash floods of 2010. The river is losing its flora and fauna, the migratory birds are also disappearing because of the pollution of the river. The issue of disposal of construction debris has been a burning one with Pune Municipal Corporation (PMC) since last few years (Fig. 2& 3). Initially PMC had plans to take the debris to the MSW land fill site of Urali Devachi. With the given the distance and the high cost of transportation, builders and owners are not willing to dispose the debris to MSW landfill site. The consistent protest of residents and environmental activist has compelled PMC to take action against builders and developers practicing illegal dumping into the rivers. However, issue of illegal dumping of debris on hill slopes is still continuing according to Pune Sakal, 15th August 2012 (Fig. 4). In monsoon, the residential colonies near hill slopes are suffering from mud coming from hills due to washing of the debris. Though directives exist for disposal of waste to landfill areas, presently penal action against violators is hardly taken. PMC considered making provision of space for dumping of construction debris in the city's new Development Plan which will going to include comprehensive policy for debris dumping as per the urban development department (UDD) norms. The norms emphasize to build institutional
mechanism to take care of the collection, transportation, intermediate storage (if necessary), utilization and disposal of C& D waste. In addition the civic authority should notify that no person should dispose of construction or demolition waste on the streets, pavements, storm water drains/open land owned by the government.
Fig. 2: Illegal Dumping of C & D Waste in Open Lands, in Pune

Source: DNA
Fig. 3: Dumping of Debris into River Bed of Ramnadi Reduced River Width
Source: K Atnurkar
Fig. 4: Newspaper Pune Sakal Cutting Regarding C & D Waste on 15th Aug, 2012
Source: Field Survey by Authors
Fig. 5: Townships Coming Up in Pune
Surveys conducted by author included redevelopment and new construction projects ranging from medium to large scale projects. The area of redevelopment project varied from 5000 SFT to 25000 SFT. The age of the buildings which are demolished in redevelopment projects rages from 2540years. Percentage ratio of RCC framed building to load bearing building was 60-40% and the waste generated includes concrete, bricks, cement plaster, gypsum boards and iron. 30% of the materials like bricks and blocks are segregated and sold at the 30-50% of market rate after removal of mortar. Mostly slum dwellers are the buyers for these reusable materials. Reinforcing steel is either straightened onsite to increase the resale value and sold or sold as scrap. Rest of the material is used for re-filling on the same site or transported to the other construction site of same builder. Presently
private contractors are involved in collection, transportation and disposal of C & D waste. These contractors either dispose C & D waste to the site of same builder or they identify site of other builder where land filling is required. These private agencies will charge Rs. 800-2000/- one and half to two brass to both sender and receiver builder. The transportation charges vary according the location of site weather it is within the municipal limits or outside the municipal limits.
Fig. 6: Segregation at Source: Reinforcing Steel
Fig. 7: C &D Waste Sold to Slum Dwellers
NECESSITY OF C & D WASTE MANAGEMENT

Construction industry has one of the highest resource uses and responsible for waste pollution. Due to high transportation costs of these raw material demand environmental restrictions. It is essential to find functional substitutes for conventional building materials in the construction industry. With the global concern of conservation of energy and natural resources, there is urgent need of implementing C & D waste management strategies through technological and design solutions of adoptability, deconstruction, recycling and reusing and effective formation of legislative, administrative and monitoring framework for implementation of the same. Development of human resources for implementation of C & D waste management through awareness and training is another important concern. R&D work towards exploring newer applications and maximizing use of existing technologies for a sustainable C & D waste management is need of a time.
BENEFITS OF CONSTRUCTION WASTE MANAGEMENT

Effective recycling and reuse of waste building materials reduces the need for new materials, reduces space for disposal, reduces transportation and creates a cleaner & safer project site. Thus, the environmental impact of the project can be reduced. Segregation of C & D waste at source increases the efficiency of waste materials for reuse and recycle and increases salvage value of the same. Construction management techniques also help developer/owner to earn points towards qualifying for LEED (India) and TERI GRIHA rating systems prevailing in India. It also helps the developer to promote and sale their project in the market. Deconstruction and Segregation of waste are labor intensive activities.
COMPOSITION OF C & D WASTE AND POSSIBILITY OF RECOVERY

Different waste management options can be arranged in a hierarchy based on environmental benefit. Waste reduction can be achieved by keeping building materials as long as possible in their own cycle.
The typical com mposition of o Indian C & D waste is given in Fig g. 8. Fig. 9 in ndicates the future potentia al of solid waste w recyclin ng and utiliz zation. At the start s of a project, an evaluation e ca an be done whether w these e materials can be salv vaged, donated d, or sold loc cally. Reused items can have function nal or aesth hetic features of import tance. The list of reuse and a salvage materials in nclude applianc ces, Bathroo om Fixtures s, Bricks, blocks, b masonry y stone, structural steel, Cab binets, Carpetin ng, Ceiling Tiles, T Timber and timber based boards, door and window w fram mes and shu utters, Flooring g tiles, ston ne tiles/platf forms, Insul lation, Landsca aping Materi ials, Lighting Fixtures, Metal Framing g including for partitio ons and ce eiling, Paneling g, Pipes, Trim/Antique Moldings, accessor ries and hard dware of furn niture, PVC water tanks, ro oofing sheet ts used for garages, ou utdoor areas, fa abric of tensil le structures etc.
S/S S Land Disposal Hig gh Value Added Materials M Pa aint, Binder & Plaster Ag ggregates Co oncrete, Roofing Sheet S Bricks, Blocks & Tile es
The concept of f closed loo op material cycles Ce ement (CLMC) as applie ed to build dings consis sts of extractin ng materials from buildin ngs at the end e of Ce eramic products, Extraction of met tals Soil Conditioner their us seful life an nd directly reintegrating g into Pa article Board, Pan nels, Composites, Wood Subsitute products building gs or other pr roducts. The e ideal option n is to create an a infinite cycle c in whi ich the proc cesses Str ructural fill, Soil Stabilisation S & Ro oad Embankment t work involved d must no ot subject the materia al to significa ant loss of qu uality or mas ss within a li imited Fig. 8: Typical Com mposition of f Indian C & D Waste period and a without significant s po ollution emis ssions. Building g materials that satis sfy the ge eneral en Wood Metals Bitume So oil, Sand hers Oth requirem ments for CL LMC include e timber, wh hich is 2% 2% 5% & Gravel 1 1% minimal lly processed d, biodegrad dable, and part p of 36% Con ncrete a natur ral closed loop, and steel, which is 2 23% homoge eneous and can c be industrially reproc cessed without losing significant qualit ty or mass. Other material ls can achie eve a near-CLMC con ndition with so ome drawb backs. For example, virgin material l must some etimes be added a to rec cycled material l to ensure proper p quality, as in gyp psum, Brick & which allows a a ma aximum rec cycled conte ent of Masonary 20%. Other O mater rials lose mass m during g the 31% recycling g process, as s in aluminu um oxidation n. The worst materials m fo or achieving g a CLMC C are Fig. 9: Future Pot tential of Solid Waste Re ecycling composi ite and com mpound materials, suc ch as and Utilizati ion melamin ne and conc crete, as we ell as compo onents with adh hesives or co oatings. In all a cases, it is s necessary to t limit haza ards associate ed with the recycling process, such as em missions of dioxins, heavy y metals, fluo orides, and alkali a fumes associated with w steel recycling g that are strictly regulate ed.
POTENTIAL OF VARIOUS WASTE MATERIALS FOR REUSE AND RECYCLE

Special townships with a minimum area of 100 acres have been launched in Pune and Nagpur since 2008 as a sequel to Maharashtra's new housing policy of 2007. According to the provisions in the act, 60% of the area to be purely residential and out of the total floor area proposed to be utilized for residential development, 20% of the residential area to be used for residential tenements of 40 sq m for economically weaker section. This gives estimate of 48,562.2 sq.m area to be built for economically weaker section for a100 Acre Township. In this case, role of reusable and recyclable material become crucial in the view of keeping the cost of new construction low. When considering a reusable and recyclable material, three major areas need to be taken into account are: economy, compatibility with other materials and material properties.
Following are some of the C & D Waste Materials

Bricks: If deconstructed properly, bricks can be reused after removal of mortar. Broken bricks can be used for refilling or for manufacturing debris paver blocks or debris blocks. Stone: Stone can be reused for plinth formation, masonry construction, landscape purpose, ledges, platforms, window sills, coping etc. depending upon the form of available stones. Concrete: The utilization of recycled aggregate is particularly very promising as 75 per cent of concrete is made of aggregates. In that case, the aggregates considered are slag, power plant wastes, recycled concrete, mining and quarrying wastes, waste glass, incinerator residue, red mud, burnt clay, sawdust, combustor ash and foundry sand. The enormous quantities of demolished concrete can easily be recycled as aggregate and used in concrete. Research & Development activities have been taken up all over the world for proving its feasibility, economic viability and cost effectiveness. Work on recycled concrete has been carried out at few places in India by CBRI and CRRI, but waste and quality of raw material produced being site specific, tremendous inputs are necessary if recycled material has to be used in construction for producing high grade concrete. Timber: Whole timber arising from construction and demolition works can be utilized easily and directly for reused in other construction projects after cleaning, de-nailing and sizing. In some cases, timber elements from deconstructed building may have aesthetic and antique value. Plywood and other timber based boards: Plywood and other timber based boards can be either reused for interior works in new construction or it can be recycled for manufacturing of timber based boards. Gypsum: In India, about 6 MT of waste gypsum such as phosphor-gypsum, fluro-gypsum etc., are being generated annually. Plaster developed from this waste gypsum has showed improved engineering properties without any harmful effect. Phosphor-gypsum and lime sludge can be recycled for manufacture of Portland cement, masonry cement, sand lime bricks, partition walls, flooring tiles, blocks, gypsum plaster, fibrous gypsum boards, and super-sulphate cement. Metals & metal alloys: Ferrous Metals are the most profitable and recyclable material. In India more than 80% scrap arising is recycled. Scrap steel is almost totally recycled and allowed repeated recycling. Structural steel can be reused as well as 100% steel can be recycled to avoid wastage at construction site. The main non ferrous metal collected from construction and demolition sites are aluminum, copper, lead and zinc. In India aluminum usage is up to 95000 tonnes with about 70% recycled in 2004. Copper is recycled up to 119000 tonnes out of a national market of 262000 tonnes. Debris: Construction debris can be recycled to manufacture paver blocks which can be used in light traffic areas and masonry blocks. Other uses of processed debris include use in lean concrete for leveling purpose, as mortar for masonry, as bedding mortar for pavement tiles and used for land
filling. Market rates processed debris products cost 32% less than new construction material and the strength of these materials is comparable with new materials. Market potential on an average in Pune city estimates about 40 crores of bricks in a year. Composite materials: The plastic wastes are best possible for recycling if these materials are collected separately and cleaned. Recycling is difficult if plastic wastes are mixed with other plastics or contaminants. Plastic may be recycled and used in products specifically designed for the utilization of recycled plastic, such as street furniture, roof and floor, PVC window noise barrier, cable ducting, panel. Japan practices adopted burning of waste plastic at high temperature and turning them in to ultra fine particles, known as man-made soil. The third largest consumer of composite materials is construction sector, automobile and aeronautics being first two largest consumers. Composite materials like thermoplastics are not only using non-renewable resources, they are non-biodegradable products. Thermoplastics (Polycarbonate, polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC etc.) can be recycled, but recycling involves high costs, whereas thermo sets (Epoxy adhesives) are difficult to recycle. The lack of adequate markets, high recycling cost, and lower quality of the recyclates are the major commercialization barriers in recycling of composite materials. PVC-U sourced mostly from window and door fabricators is being recycled into wiring accessories and cable management systems including skirting and trunking. Composite materials can be down-cycled (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10: Recycling Process of Composite Plastics

Source: http://bura.brunel.ac.uk
BARRIERS IN THE USE OF RECYCLED MATERIALS IN INDIA

1. Unawareness about use of recycled materials. 2. Less confidence among users about quality of recycled materials 3. Unavailability of platform or market available for recycled materials. 4. No provisions for quality standards for recyclable materials in National Building Codes and Bureau of Indian Standards. Potential of use of these materials for high rise buildings and long span structures yet to be studied especially in case of recycled concrete.
NEED OF EQUIPMENTS AND FACILITIES

There are three types of recycling plants Viz. Mobile, Semi-Mobile and Stationary plant. In the Mobile plant, the material is crushed and screened and ferrous impurities are separated through magnetic separation. The plant is transported to the demolition site itself and is suited to process only noncontaminated concrete or masonry waste. In the semi-mobile plant, removal of contaminants is carried out by hand and the end product is also screened. Magnetic separation for removal of ferrous material is carried out. End product quality is better than that of a Mobile unit. These plants are not capable to process a source of mixed demolition waste containing foreign matter like metal, wood, plastic, hardbound etc. Stationary plants are equipped for carrying out crushing, screening as well as purification to separate the contaminants. Issues necessary to be considered for erection of a Stationary plant are: plant location, road infrastructure, availability of land space, provision of weighbridge, provision for storage area etc. Different types of sorting devices and screens are used for separating contaminants from end-product and grading the recycled product in various grain sizes. Vibrating screens, star screens or disc-separators are used for removal of impurities. A fixed recycling plant requires higher volumes of demolition waste to justify high investment in complex, screening and separation systems, which are necessary to process mixed demolition waste. It has to be located in a place, where large volume of waste is available and the market for recycled product is close by. Unless the market for recycled aggregate is developed, economic viability of such a unit would be questionable. Looking at the capital investments involved in equipments and facilities required for recycling the materials a R & D shall be done on modifications of existing equipments like jaw crusher and impact crusher prevailing in India to suit the requirements of recycling and processing of building materials.
LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK
The policy and legislative framework forms the backbone of any institutional and implementation system. At the national level, there are numerous provisions in the Indian legislative structure to have a bearing on the States management of environmental resources. Some international and local construction industries in Singapore have already adopted the structured approach for improvement of the environmental performance of construction by ISO 14000 EMS. Another case in Hong Kong where the local industry has been promoting measures such as establishing waste management plans, reduction and recycling of construction and demolition wastes, providing in-house training on environmental management, and legal measures on environmental protection. Regulations and laws on C&D waste management fully exist and are effectively administered in Singapore, Hong Kong SAR, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan. India has provisions for the protection and improvement of the environment in its constitution. The Department of Environment and several enforcement agencies like Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) were already given statutory authorities, by then. Environmental considerations have been integrated into making at all levels and the National Environment Policy of 2006, which incorporates the concept of the 3Rs, is the latest attempt in this direction. Major strategies and activities includes (1) Mandatory requirement of Environmental Statement(Form V) (2) Charter on Corporate Responsibility for Environment Protection (CREP), (3) Rregistration scheme in which recyclable waste can process it in an environmental friendly manner (4) Promotion of cleaner technologies (5) Ecomark Scheme.
The Solid Waste Management in India is covered under various regulations. Some guidelines are also prescribed by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB). Ministry of Environment and Forests notified the Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, in 2000 which is applicable to every municipal authority responsible for collection, segregation, storage, transportation, processing and disposal of municipal solid wastes and as also to upgrade existing facilities to arrest contamination of soil and ground water. According to MSWM rules 2000, it is the responsibility of generator, to avoid littering and ensuring delivery of wastes as stipulated by the municipal authority. Specific regulations for the recent waste streams such as Electronic waste (E-waste) and C &D waste have not yet been formulated. Maharashtra has notified the Maharashtra Non-Biodegradable Solid Waste (Proper Scientific Collection, Sorting and Disposal in Areas of the Municipal Corporation) Rules, 2006 wherein reuse of this waste is included in the action plan. The Action Plan prescribes separate collection and disposal of debris and bulk waste. Each city needs to have its own mechanism for collection and disposal of waste from bulk waste producers and construction debris. It also provides the prevention of the garbage into open drains, roads, wetlands, waste lands, water bodies and open places to public view, and regulating the use of non-biodegradable material. State Government holds the powers to impose restriction or prohibition on the use of certain non-biodegradable or any other material harmful to the environment. Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai notified the Construction, Demolition and De-silting waste (Management and Disposal) Rules. These guidelines provide the framework that would govern the storage, collection, transportation, management and disposal of waste generated from all types of construction and demolition activities within the city of Mumbai. The guidelines also stipulate the processes and procedures to be followed by various categories of generators for C&D Waste Management in Mumbai. In Pune, C & D waste is considered as part of MSW only. Hence, provisions of MSWM rules 2000 are applicable to C & D waste in the city. The state of Maharashtra has also enforced Maharashtra Non-Biodegradable Garbage (Control) Act, 2006. In this situation, the Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, in 2000, Maharashtra Non-Biodegradable Solid Waste (Proper Scientific Collection, Sorting and Disposal in Areas of the Municipal Corporation) Rules, 2006 and Maharashtra Non-Biodegradable Garbage (Control) Act, 2006 are the 3 legislation that can be applicable to C & D waste. Legislations well exist on paper, but there is hardly any or no enforcement of the same.
CASE STUDY OF MUMBAI

Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) came up with Debris Management Regulations, aim at taking care of the 2,000 tons of construction debris produces every day. But it failed to have the desired effect, owing to the sluggish attitude of the Building Proposal department, which was in charge of the task. However, the responsibility for implementing the regulations have now been passed on to the Environment Engineers, who will not only monitor the new constructions, but also collecting the debris management plan from prospective builders and issuing no-objection certificates for their construction activity on the basis of the plan. The builders and developers have to compulsorily submit a Debris Management Plan, giving details like the amount of C&D waste likely to be generated, arrangements for its proper storage on site, transportation of debris to a suitable disposable place etc. The plan will then be submitted to the assistant engineers (Environment) of the Solid Waste Management Department, who will issue the required no-objection certificate to the builder.
LOOPHOLES IN LEGISLATIVE AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK IN PUNE

Interviews conducted by author with urban local bodies and other relevant stakeholders have raised some issues. It includes the fact that MSWM Rules are not being effectively implemented. The reasons
are inadequate finances, multiplicity of agencies for operation and maintenance, inadequate training of personnel, lack of performance monitoring, inadequate emphasis on preventive maintenance, lack of management and lack of facilities, unawareness about the legislation related with C & D waste and its provisions and most importantly indifferent attitude of municipal officials from all the concerned departments against the issue. Neither of these legislations in India has any provisions regarding reduction of the C & D waste through planned deconstruction nor the Bureau of Indian standards (BIS) and National Building Code (NBC) has any provisions regarding quality standards of reuse, salvage, and recycled materials.
INSTITUTIONAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK

There should be a proper institutional mechanism to take care of the collection, transportation, intermediate storage (if necessary), utilization and disposal of the construction and demolition waste. During the interaction with municipal officials from various departments, it was revealed that the Sanitary Department, the Health Department, Engineering or the Planning Department, solid waste management department are responsible for construction and demolition waste in different situations. For example, if debris is disposed into river bed, irrigation department will take action against the concern builder/owner and remove the debris from river bed. Under such circumstances, it is extremely important that either the Solid Waste Management Department is made responsible for all the activities related with C & D waste, since non-co-ordination among various departments being one of the major reasons for ineffective infrastructure management in India. It is essential that proper accountability is fixed and official information is readily available regarding day to day situation. Private- public participation may resolve the issue regarding collection, transportation and disposal of C & D waste effectively, since accountability, optimum use of resources, availability of funds and skilled personnel being the assets of private sectors.
VARIOUS RATING SYSTEMS AND PROVISIONS OF C&D WASTE MANAGEMENT

The green rating system of Teri Griha offers total 3 points under criteria 22, 23 & 24, each point offering 1 point. Criteria 22 prescribes reduction of waste during construction where it gives emphasis on deconstruction practices and measures to be adopted during design stage itself including avoiding designs that require more material than necessary e.g. over specification of the material quantities for beams or columns, that restrict use of reclaimed & recycled materials, the specification & use of high embodied energy Materials and avoiding sizing of members & components, which involve a lot of wastage from cuts. Griha, Criteria 23 prescribes efficient waste segregation by using different colored bins for collection of different categories of waste from building. The objective of criteria 23 is to ensure maximum resource recovery & safe disposal of wastes generated during construction & reduce the burden of land fill. Griha, criteria 24 prescribes storage and disposal of wastes by allocating a separate place for the collected waste before transferring it to the recycle/ disposal stations. The objective of criteria 24 is to prevent the mixing up of segregated waste before processing or disposal. The green rating system of LEED 2011 for India for new construction and major renovations under the criteria of materials and resources offers maximum 10 credit points which includes provision of C& D waste management through storage and collection of recyclables, reuse of building elements (walls, floors, roofs and envelop etc.) in range of min. 55 to max. 95% (MR Credit 1.1), reuse of building by maintaining interior non-structural members at least 50% of building area (MR Credit 1.2), recycle and/or salvage nonhazardous construction and demolition debris in the range of 50 to 75% by developing construction management plan (MR Credit 2), reuse building materials and
products to reduce demand for virgin materials and reduce waste, thereby lessening impacts associated with the extraction and processing of virgin resources in the range of 5 to 10% based on cost of materials (MR Credit 3), incorporating recycled content (in the range of 10 to 20%) materials, thereby reducing impacts resulting from extraction and processing of virgin materials (MR Credit 4).
KEY STAKEHOLDERS INVOLVED IN C& D WASTE MANAGEMENT

The key players in the sector of C&D waste management policies are local authorities, developers/builders, contractors, owners, NGOs, research institutes, academic institutes, professionals like architects and engineers etc. According to the report published by Asian institute of technology on reduce, reuse and recycle (3r) practices in construction and demolition waste management in Asia, participation of national and local authority is moderate, participation of contractors and NGOs is relatively low whereas participation of clients, consultants and associations is unknown. This study reveals that participation of academe is high. CRRI and CBRI have done R & D in the field of recycling of building materials.
THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF THESE KEY STAKEHOLDERS ARE AS FOLLOWS Responsibility of Municipal Authorities
(1) Providing and developing infrastructure for collection, storage, segregation, transportation, recycling, processing and disposal of C & D waste. (2) Complying with the MSW rules as per the implementation schedule laid down in legislation. (3) Proper co-ordination among various departments of authority. (4) Conducting Training programmes regarding C & D waste for the officials of concerned departments. (5) Generating awareness among all the stakeholders with the collaboration of print and electronic media. (6) Monitoring the performance of waste processing and disposal facilities (7) Improvement of existing land filling sites, if any. (8) Identification of landfill sites for future use
RESPONSIBILITY OF THE WASTE GENERATOR

(1) Avoidance of littering and ensuring delivery of wastes as stipulated by the municipal authority. (2) Complying with the MSW rules/ C & D waste rules. (3) Insisting on designs and technologies for reducing waste and reduce the use of raw
RESPONSIBILITY THE STATE POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD (SPCB)

(1) Monitoring the compliance of the standards regarding ground water, ambient air, leachate quality and the compost quality including incineration standards as specified under Schedules II, III and IV4. The details of application procedure, grant of authorization for setting up waste processing and disposal facility including landfills are also given in the Rules. (2) Co-coordinating with CPCB and the Committees with particular reference to implementation and review of standards and guidelines and compilation of monitoring data. Most of compliance monitoring and enforcement is done by SPCBs. The few direct enforcement actions taken by the CPCB are generally done by the zonal offices. All the waste management rules and regulations address specific wastes separately and their enforcement is with the SPCB.
RESPONSIBILITY OF AN ARCHITECTS, ENGINEERS AND POLICY MAKERS

1. Designing for Adoptability(less function specific), deconstruction and dismantling 2. Use of modular co-ordination with pre-fabricated components, use standard accepted technologies 3. Designing building for parallel disassembly rather than sequential disassembly (time saving, material saving, labor cost saving) 4. Specify materials and assemblies that can be easily disassembled at the end of their useful life. 5. Choosing durable non-toxic interior finishes or materials. 6. Surveying the site before demolition or deconstruction. 7. Identifying salvage and reuse items, recyclable materials and hazardous materials for special handling. 8. Developing a Construction Waste Management Plan. 9. Preparing cost benefit analysis of reusable, salvage, recycled and use of recycle content materials 10. Assessing the functional or aesthetic value of having reused material on-site 11. Reusing materials (on-site) or installing salvaged materials from off-site sources and using recycled content materials. 12. Use of construction methods that prevent waste. 13. Planning for protecting, dismantling, handling, storing, and transporting items. 14. Discussing reuse ideas and the project timeline with the owner and the designer. 15. Discussing reuse ideas with building departments if there are structural applications. 16. Selecting a contractor with proven waste reduction experience. 17. Use of a Construction Waste Management Specification. A Construction Waste Management Specification written with legally enforceable language is most effective tool to ensure waste reduction happens successfully in a project. 18. Monitoring the waste reduction program. The architect and designer play an important role in assuring the contractors compliance with the waste reduction program by requiring and reviewing waste management progress reports and invoices from recycling and garbage haulers and recycling facilities. Monitoring the success of the program and potential barriers by including a discussion about the waste reduction program during the project meetings.
FACILITY MANAGERS, PROPERTY OWNERS AND MANAGERS AND DEVELOPERS

1. Establishing requirements for waste reduction. Beginning with making waste reduction a priority from the start of the project and planning for it throughout all phases of design, construction, installation, and occupancy. 2. Setting goals for waste reduction for each project and preparing a team of qualified professionals experienced in environmentally sound design and construction practices. 3. Identifying materials that can be salvaged and reused. 4. Monitoring and supporting the program. Monitoring the progress of waste reduction efforts by requiring contractors to submit the waste management plan and waste management progress reports. 5. Training own or hiring a deconstruction crew.
6. Contacting a salvage company to come on-site to remove valuable materials. 7. Contacting a charity institute to arrange pick-up of salvaged items. 8. Conducting a yard sale at edge of the job-site to sell salvaged items. 9. Allowing workers to remove salvageable items for their own use. 10. Planning for recyclable materials 11. Investigating removal and separation techniques. 12. Selecting material with high resale value. 13. Planning for collection procedures and allocate space on site. 14. Estimating the costs and savings.
CONCLUSION
In urban India, there has been a little executed in the field of C & D waste management though policy framework exists. As discussed in the paper, all the stakeholders have their role to play in this regard for sustainable development. With the increase demand of infrastructure and housing and subsequent growth in construction sector, future challenges are enormous on the background of current construction practices. High rise buildings are coming up with in situ concrete construction for framing and envelop which will come under redevelopment project after 30-40 years. With given a situation of scale of these projects and material inputs that it requires, there is huge challenge to manage C & D waste in near future. Presently, there are loopholes in current legislative and regulatory framework as discussed in the paper. While strengthening these frameworks, it shall be clear that legislative and regulatory actions cannot alone resolve the environmental issues. Following strategies are suggested for effective management of C & D waste: 1. Comprehensive legislation shall be formulated with mandatory provisions and strategies of waste reduction and waste management plans. 2. Infrastructure shall be developed by local authorities such as recycling plants, location of land filling sites and recycling plants shall be allocated in Development Plan. Exhausted stone quarries in Pune can be reclaimed by designating them for land filling of C & D waste. 3. For building permissions, plans shall be assessed in terms of design for adoptability and deconstruction (DFAD). A range of percentage of building footprint can be prescribed which follows DFAD principles. Incentives on building permission fees shall be given on based on this percentage. 4. Proactive roles shall be geared in promoting manufacturing of reusable, recyclable and recycle content building materials as well as manufacturing of equipments and machineries for recycled materials. With positive strategies to promote Ecomark scheme, all the building materials can be included to be considered for Ecomark labeling. 5. Fiscal incentives shall be given to the builders/developers, owners of building using reusable, recyclable and recycled content materials and construction technologies. 6. Charges shall be levied on the disposal of C & D waste to the designated landfill sites based on amount of waste generation. 7. BIS and NBC shall include provisions for quality standards of reusable, recyclable and recycled content building materials and construction technologies. 8. MSW department shall be made accountable for all the activities related to C & D waste management to reduce the confusion among various departments regarding accountability.
9. Awareness campaigns and training shall be conducted regarding C & D waste management for all the stakeholders. Academic and Research institutes, NGOs, Government departments, print and electronic media, Construction sector can contribute towards this aspect. 10. Legislative, regulatory and financial framework shall be worked out for Private-Public Participation. Private 11. A market shall be developed for reusable, salvage and recycled content materials through the development will allow qualified and selected members to access information regarding the generation of waste, its quantity, location, quality and the organization. Through an interactive user-interface, the members will then be led to the information on treatment processes, costs, recycling options and the organizations involved in the transactions. This is a valid proposal of ISWM plan for Pune developed by Environment Management Center for Pune Municipal Corporation. 12. Data shall be generated regarding generation of C & D waste, availability of materials according to categorization of materials as reusable, recyclable and recycle content materials, their quality standards and suggested application in future. 13. There shall be easy access to the information regarding C & D waste generation, legislative and regulatory frame work and procedures to all the stakeholders and common public. 14. Awareness and promotion of Green Rating Systems shall be geared up since these rating systems include credit points for C & D waste management.
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Websites
[27] Deconstruction vs. Demolition http://www.ct.gov/dep/cwp/view.asp?a=2714&q=469620, Accessed on 1.8.12 [28] ParthaSarathiBiswas(Apr 18,2012 ),DNA, Mula river wasted, get set for flash floods this monsoon, Accessed on 3.8.12 [29] Rebuilding C&D Waste Recycling Efforts in India http://www.waste-management-world.com/index/display/articledisplay.articles.waste-management-world.volume-12.issue-5.features.rebuilding-c-d [30] waste-recycling-efforts-in-india.QP129867.dcmp=rss.page=1.html, Accessed on 20.6.12 [31] Construction Waste Recycling http://theconstructor.org/concrete/construction-waste-recycling/1088/, Accessed on 20.6.12 [32] Recycling plant for construction waste soon, http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/recycling-plant-for-construction-wastesoon/357605, Accessed on 20.6.12 [33] Use of RECYCLED AGGREGATES In CONCRETE- A Paradigm Shift, http://nbmcw.com/articles/concrete/waste-material-byproduct/576-use-of-recycledaggregates-in-concrete-a-paradigm-shift.html [34] Planning for deconstruction, http://www.branz.co.nz/cms_display.php?sn=106&st=1&pg=4141, Accessed on 7.9.12 [35] http://www.ceeraindia.org/documents/ecomarkindia.htm accessed on 06.09.12 [36] Recycling of plastics, http://www.polymers.com/dotcom/home.html, accessed on 06.09.12 [37] Utilization of Waste from Construction Industry, http://www.tifac.org.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=710&Itemid=205,(2001), Accessed on 20.6.12 [38] Construction and demolition waste management presentation transcript http://www.slideshare.net/s181185/construction-anddemolition-waste-management, Accessed on 4.9.12 [39] Namzi Nargis, Trends in the Construction Industry in India, Business Leaders, 12 Dec 2011, http://www.businessreviewindia.in/business_leaders/trends-in-the-construction-industry-in-india, 06.09.12
Use of Solid Waste Generated at Oxide Production Facility of Zirconium Complex, Pazhayakayal, Tuticorin in Preparation of Clay Bricks
K. Ganesan1, M. Palavesam2, S.K. Jain3 and G. Kalyanakrishnan4
Officer/E, Oxide Production Facility Zirconium Complex, Pazhayakayal, Tuticorin Material Testing Laboratory Zirconium Complex, Pazhayakayal, Tuticorin 3Sr. Superintending Engineer (Civil) Zirconium Complex, Pazhayakayal, Tuticorin; skjain@nfc.gov.in 4Project Director, Zirconium Complex, Pazhayakayal, Tuticorin
2Officer-in-Charges, 1Scientific
AbstractIn Zirconium Complex (a unit of Nuclear Fuel Complex, Hyderabad) nuclear grade zirconium sponge is produced by following TBP-Nitrate solvent extraction route for the production of zirconium oxide followed by chlorination and magnesio thermic reduction process for converting it to zirconium sponge. During the process of conversion of dried frit to Zirconium Oxide the insoluble solids get generated and require further reprocessing before disposal. A method has been devised for reuse of effluent, reduction in its quantity and its use for preparation of clay bricks with superior quality. This paper describes the process adopted in reduction of solid waste effluents quantity, its use in preparation of quality clay bricks meeting the requirements of IS: 1077-1992Common Burnt Clay Building BricksSpecifications and comparison of results with conventional clay bricks.
INTRODUCTION
Nuclear Fuel Complex has set up a 500 TPY Zirconium Oxide Plant and 250 TPY Reactor Grade Zirconium Sponge Plant (NZOSP) at Pazhayakayal, Tuticorin to meet the increased demand of structural components & tubes required for fuel bundles for upcoming nuclear power reactors. In Zirconium Complex, nuclear grade zirconium sponge is produced by following TBP- Nitrate solvent extraction route for the production of zirconium oxide followed by chlorination and magnesio thermic reduction process for converting it to zirconium sponge.
PROCESS
The washed and dried frit (starting material obtained from Zircon sand) is dissolved in Nitric acid and the Zirconium present in this slurry is selectively extracted by solvent extraction (in 30% TBP in Kerosene). Further the loaded solvent is scrubbed to remove Hafnium by Zirconium nitrate solution. Then the pure extract is stripped with deminaralised water to get pure zirconium nitrate solution. This pure solution is precipitated with ammonium hydroxide to zirconium hydroxide. Zirconium hydroxide is calcined at two different temperatures, first at low temperature of 250C followed by high temperature of 830 C to remove impurities like ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulphate and also to convert hydroxide to zirconium oxide. This oxide is mixed with Calcined petroleum coke and starch to produce briquettes. These briquettes are coked and chlorinated to produce zirconium tetra chloride. This chloride is reduced by Krolls reduction to produce pure zirconium.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE & OBJECTIVE OF WORKS CARRIED OUT

During the process, various types of chemicals are consumed and at the same time they get converted into by-products (effluents). These by-products have to be stored properly and then disposed off to other industry as per established guidelines. Also, as per Tamilnadu Pollution Control
Board consent order, the plant shall be a zero discharge unit. It was therefore become necessary to improve/modify the process to reduce the chemical consumption and also to find out the best possible viable reuse of the effluents/ waste.
Effluent Quantity Reduction

During acid dissolution, the dry frit is dissolved in dilute nitric acid. The dry frit contains 15% acid insolubles which hampers solvent extraction process. The dissolution slurry is allowed to settle and the supernatant liquid is transferred to feed slurry tank. The residue is washed with deminaralised water (reslurrying) and taken to tank for recovery of zirconium values and acidity adjustment. This residue is then transferred to neutralization tank, where it is neutralized with caustic lye and then the residue is filtered dried and packed. This was the process followed for production. Then laboratory level experiments were carried out by washing the residue, based on the experiments the residue was washed with twice the quantity of process water, then residue was filtered, dried and packed. The filtrate was taken for neutralization. On receipt of encouraging results the process was modified. The comparison of important parameters before and after the modification is given below in Table-1.
Table 1: Comparison of Important Parameters before and after the Modification
Parameter Quantity of Silt Produced Sodium nitrate Acid insolubles ZrO2 Before Modification 500 Kgs. 51.2% 35.1% 13.7% After Modification 200 Kgs. 1.0% 95.5% 2.7%
From the above Table-1, it is evident that quantity of silt produced & production of sodium nitrate has drastically reduced while at the same time ZrO2 recovery has increased.
Reuse of the Silt

After finding the encouraging quality of the Silt after washing & drying as mentioned in Table-2, mainly being silica was considered for different uses, one of them was for making of clay bricks.
Table 2: Quality of Washed & Dried Silt
S. No 1 2 3 4 Parameters Silica ZrO2 Nitrite as NaNO3 Moisture Result 84.9% 2.4% 0.9% 11.1%
Mix Proportion of Silt in Clay Bricks

Beginning from 5%, 10%, 15% etc. of the residue were mixed with the clay and cohesiveness of the mix was observed. Finally, the ratio of 1:3 (residue: clay) was found optimum. This material was mixed with clay and burnt in Kiln in the conventional manner. The quality of the bricks produced with respect to its strength and other properties like leachable were acceptable as per standards. Initially, 100 Kg of the washed silt for the production of 55 nos. of bricks was used. These bricks are proposed for in-house consumption in pavements and to observe leaching properties in ground. Based on the results, 10MT of silt is now proposed for use in making clay bricks.
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

After bricks were taken out from the kiln, various tests were conducted to check the properties and their compliance with the IS: 1077-1992. The comparative study was also made with respect to conventional clay bricks. The tests were conducted in accordance with IS: 3495-1992 (Part 1 to 4) Methods of tests for Burnt Clay Bricks.
Use of Solid Waste Generated at Oxide Production Facility of Zirconium Complex, Pazhayakayal 735
The bricks are classified on the basis average compressive strength varying from 3.5 N/mm2 to 35.0 N/mm2 as per Table -1 of clause 4.1 of IS: 1077-1992. A brick that is used for construction should have compressive strength more than 3.5 N/mm2. The average value of compressive strength of these bricks was found to be 5.4 N/mm2 when tested in accordance with the procedure laid down in IS 3495 (Part 1):1992.
Water Absorption Test

Water absorption test is used to find out the water absorption ratio as the brick which absorb more water cannot be used in water logged area or exterior walls to avoid dampness. The bricks were tested in accordance with the procedure laid down in IS 3495 (Part 2):1992. The water absorption is found to be 11.4% against the permissible 20% by weight up to Class 12.5.
Efflorescence
The efflorescence test conducted in accordance with the procedure laid down in IS 3495 (Part 3):1992. The rating of efflorescence is found as slight against the moderate permitted up to Class 12.5.
Bulk Density
Even though the IS: 1077-1992 does not specify the bulk density as one of the physical requirements, the bulk density test was carried out in accordance with the procedure laid down in clause 6.4.1 in IS: 2180-1988Specification for heavy duty burnt clay building bricks. The bulk density 1.69 kg/cm3.
Chemical Contents
The bricks were also tested for different chemical contents such as Sulphates, Chlorides and Nitrates which are important from leaching and detrimental to structure purpose.
Comparison of Various Results with the Results of Conventional Clay Bricks

The tests mentioned in para 4.1 to 4.5 were also conducted on conventional clay bricks produced in the same klin along with the bricks using silt. The comparison of tests results is made in Table-3.
Table 3: Comparison of Tests Results of Bricks Manufactured by Mixing Silt & Conventional Clay Bricks
Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Parameter Chloride Sulphate Nitrate Bulk density Efflorescence test Water absorbance Compressive Strength Unit ppm ppm ppm g/cc % N/ mm2 Bricks Manufactured By Mixing Silt 65 375 10 1.69 Nil 11.6 5.4 Conventional Clay Bricks 75 225 7 1.98 Slight 11.4 <3.5
Analysis
From the analysis of various tests conducted it is found that the bricks manufactured by mixing silt in clay and conventional bricks, the bricks manufactured by mixing silt are slightly lighter, less efflorescent while other properties are same as conventional clay bricks.
CONCLUSION
1. The bricks manufactured by mixing silt are having similar properties of conventional clay bricks. 2. The weight of these bricks is lesser than conventional clay bricks. Reduction in dead load of the structure can be achieved by use of these bricks. 3. Reduction in consumption of chemicals, pollution and landfill requirement.
OTHER APPLICATION
The silt waste product is appears to be a prominent substitute for Zircon flour used in foundry industry as paste in critical high temperature moldings applications.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to Sri R. N. Jayaraj, the then Chief Executive, NFC and Sri N. Saibaba, Chief Executive, NFC for their continued guidance and support. The efforts of many other officers, supervisors and workmen associated with the work are also acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] Malathy R. Dr., Jegatheewaran D. Comparative study on Papercrete bricks with conventional bricks, ICI Journal, JanuaryMarch, 2011, pp 15-19 IS: 1077-1992Common Burnt Clay Building BricksSpecifications. IS: 2180-1988Specification for heavy duty burnt clay building bricks IS: 3495-1992 (Part 1 to 4)Methods of tests for Burnt Clay Bricks.
Application of Industrial and Agricultural Waste Materials for Highway Construction

Praveen Kumar1, G.D. Ransinchung R.N.2 and Aditya Kumar Anupam3
1Professor 2Assistant
of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; pkaerfce@iitr.ernet.in Professor of Professor Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; gdranjan@gmail.com 3Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; addiknit03@gmail.com
AbstractIn the present paper, authors have attempted to presents the comprehensive literature
review related to the utilization of industrial and agricultural waste material for use in highway sector. Correlations established between various test parameters with or without industrial and agricultural wastes have also been highlighted. Thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA) conducted on rice straw ash indicate that substantial mass loss took place in the first stage (25-150C) then the second stage (150-200C). However, the maximum mass loss of 60-68% is reported at third stage (175-325C). For rice husk ash maximum silica was produced at 700C and possessed highest specific surface area. In addition to these information studies conducted on the moisture-density relationships, compressive and flexural strength, Atterberg limits, shear strength parameters etc. have also been presented meticulously. Hence, this comprehensive review paper would immensely help researchers to understand efficacy potential use of various industrial & agricultural wastes with respect to other popular pozzolanic materials. Keywords: Waste materials, fly ash, rice husk ash, rice straw ash
INTRODUCTION
Enormous quantities of domestic, industrial, agricultural and mining waste are generated annually in the India. Many of the wastes produced today will remain in the environment for hundreds, perhaps thousands, of years. The creation of non decaying waste materials, combined with a growing consumer population, has resulted in a waste disposal crisis. One solution to this crisis lies in recycling waste into useful products. . In the majority of rice producing countries much of the husk produced from the processing of rice is either burnt for heat or dumped as a waste. India alone produces around 120 million tonnes of rice paddy per year, giving around 24 million tones of rice husk per year (Govindarao, 1980). Many highway agencies, private organizations, and individuals have completed or are in the process of completing a wide variety of studies and research projects concerning the feasibility, environmental suitability, and performance of using recycled products in highway construction. These studies try to match society's need for safe and economic disposal of waste materials with the highway industry's need for better and more cost-effective construction materials. There are three techniques for waste disposal as recycling, incineration with and without generation of energy and burial. They have also researched the use of a variety of waste products in highway construction to find an alternative source of material supply to offset the rising cost of quality natural aggregates, waste disposal, and energy. This study is also an attempt to search for additional waste products which are technically, economically, and environmentally feasible for use in highway construction. This paper presents the comprehensive literature review related to the utilization of industrial and agricultural waste material in highway sector. Published articles have been the main source of information. This paper also includes state-of-the-practice in the use of waste materials in highway construction and discussion on the applications of the selected waste products in the highway industry, considering technical feasibility, environmental consequences, and economic benefits. It also
summarizes the conclusions of the study and recommends the materials, and their specific uses, which provide the best economic alternatives to conventional highway materials and which should be projected for future construction.
APPLICATIONS OF FLY ASH (FA)INDUSTRIAL WASTE

Kumar P. and Singh S.P. et al. (2008) utilized fiber-reinforced fly ash as a sub-base material. Fly ash as such has CBR value of 8.5%, so it cannot be used in sub-base as such. After mixing 25% soil, CBR value becomes 14.6%, which still is less than 15% and so not suitable for sub-bases. Fly ash with 0.2% fiber content has CBR value 16.6%. Therefore fly ash with 0.2% fiber content is suitable for rural road sub-bases. After mixing 25% soil with fly ash 0.1% fiber content is sufficient. For rural roads with higher traffic IRC 37 (IRC 2001) is to be followed, which states the CBR requirement of 20 and 30% depending upon the traffic. Fiber reinforcement of 0.3 and 0.4% will make the fly ash suitable for these conditions. Resilient modulus (Mr), modulus of sub-grade reaction (k), and field CBR value of fly ash increase due to reinforcement and mixing of soil. Soni, D.K. and Jain A. (2008) described the strength behavior of black cotton soil treated with the lime and FA. Lime percentages in the soil have been varied from 0 to 10% with FA percentage ranging from 0 to 20%. For comparing the strength and durability of the various soil-stabilizer mixtures, split tensile strength tests have been conducted on cylindrical samples prepared for each mixture. The 28-day cured specimens have been subjected to 14 cycles of freezing-thawing and wetting-drying in an open-ended system to study the durability characteristics of stabilized soil. It was observed that at a particular lime-FA percentage; increase in amount of lime and FA in soil increases the strength. Initially, this increase is quite high, but as the total content increases, percentage increase is on the lower side. From the experimental study, it was concluded that due to stabilizing of the cohesive soil, its tensile strength increases. Maximum strength gain is obtained when the 8% of lime and 20% of FA mix with black cotton soil. It was observed that when FA is added to soil-lime; its durability to freezing and thawing increases and in the optimum range of 8% lime and 20% FA, the soil shows more resistance to weathering. The same trend was seen from the results of wet-dry cycles also. Altun S. and Goktepe A.B. (2008) investigated the effects of freezing and thawing on the mechanical behavior of silty soils stabilized with FA. Silty soil was stabilized by 10% and 30% percents of FA, as well as 2% and 8% percents of cement. After the compaction process in proctor densification, uniaxial tests were performed on the silty samples for various freezing and thawing cycles (one, three and seven) under different curing conditions. Curing process increased the strengths of all samples. Minimum effect of curing was observed for natural soil sample. In other words, there was slight difference in the strength of natural soil sample related with the change in curing duration. When focusing on cement added specimens, curing time increased the strength; nevertheless, the rate of the increase was less than those of FA added samples. It was concluded for cured samples that the addition of 10, 20, and 30% of FA is more advantageous than adding of 2, 5 and 8% cement into the silty soils. For cases in which only cement or FA content was generally increased, the strength values increased with the increase in the additive. More additive resulted in more compressive strength; therefore sample 30FA8C exhibited the best performance in terms of unconfined compressive strength. In the results of the experiments, both natural and mixed soils exhibited crisp and brittle behavior with higher compressive strengths after cycles of freezing/thawing. It was considered that these results were based on the remarkably lose of water content of samples during the curing period. Kumar A. et al. (2007) studied the effects of polyester fiber inclusions and lime stabilization on the geotechnical characteristics of FA-soil mixtures. Lime and FA were added to an expansive soil at ranges of 110% and 120%, respectively with 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2% of plain and crimped polyester fibers by dry weight of randomly oriented fibers. They was observed that with increase in
Application of Industrial and Agricultural Waste Materials for Highway Construction 739
lime content, the maximum dry density of soil-lime mixes decreased and optimum moisture content increased. With the addition of FA, there is further decrease in maximum dry density and increase in optimum moisture content. There was no significant effect on maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of inclusion of fiber in FA-soil-lime-fiber mixtures. The increase in unconfined compressive strength with curing period upto 8% of lime after this result showed a decrease in strength. In addition the strength of FA-soil-lime mixtures increases with increasing curing time with 15% of FA. The optimum value of FA and lime may be adopted as 15 and 8%, respectively. The addition of 1.5% of 6 mm plain fibers or 1.0% of 6 mm crimped fibers to FA-soil-lime-fiber mixtures (at 8% lime content and 15% FA content) increases unconfined compressive strength and split tensile strength by about 74 and 100% respectively, as compared to that of same mixture without fibers. Also, with the addition of 1.5% of 6 mm crimped fibers or 1% of 12 mm plain fibers, the gain in unconfined compressive strength and split tensile strength was about 100 and 135%, respectively, in comparison to that of the same mixture without fibers. The ratio of split tensile strength and unconfined compressive strength increased with increase in fiber content, which shows that polyester fibers are more efficient when soil was subjected to tension rather than to compression. Prabakar J., et al. (2004) described the behavioral aspect of soils mixed with FA to improve the load bearing capacity of the soil. Three different types of soil have been considered using different percentage of FA viz. 9, 20, 28.5%, 33.5, 41.2 and 46% by weight of soil to determine the engineering behavioral aspects. They covered the characterization of soil, FA, compaction behavior, settlement, California bearing ratio, shear strength parameters and swelling characteristics of admixed soil with FA. For all samples of FA addition into the soils, the dry density decreased at optimum moisture content beyond which the increase in water content reduced further dry density. They observed that the value of cohesion increases, while increasing the amount of FA for all the types of soil. The friction angle varying with FA content shows a nonlinear variation. Deviator stress of all soils mixed with FA indicates the improvement in the deviator stress. Deviator stress of FA admixed soils also increased with an increase in confining pressure for soil mixed with FA with 46.0%, so FA effectively utilized in soil to get improvement in shear strength. CBR values of soil mixed with different concentration of FA improved upto 46% of FA. Swelling is reduced by increasing amount of FA. Further increasing amount of FA in soils leads to further reduction in swelling. Sobhan K. and Mashnad M. (2003) evaluated the mechanical behavior of a soilcementFA composite, reinforced with recycled plastic strips. They evaluated the compressive, split tensile, flexural strength characteristics and toughness characteristics of the composite recycled plastic strips. Experimental data show that the soilcement matrix stabilized with 4% to 10% by weight of FA and reinforced with 0.25% to 0.5% by weight plastic strips. The soilcement base course material containing 10% cement, 10% FA, and 0.5% of 38 mm long fibers can develop compressive and split tensile strengths in the order of 7000 kPa and 1000 kPa, respectively. When reinforced with 0.8% Fibers in same mix increased a flexural strength of approximately 1200 kPa. Use of fiber reinforcement showed significant improvement in toughness index (TI) compared to unreinforced specimens. Zia N. and Fox P.J. (2000) used Class C FA to improve the engineering properties of Indiana loess soils. Various percentages of FA were mixed with loess soil and specimens were permitted to cure for 3 h to 28 days. Pure loess also was tested for comparison. Changes in Atterberg limits, moisture-density relationships, swell potential, and unconfined compression strength were presented. The maximum dry unit weight decreases abruptly at 11 to 15% FA content and then decreases slightly thereafter. The optimum moisture content generally increased with increasing FA content. The increase could be attributed to progressive hydration of loess and FA mixtures and increased number of finer particles (specific surface) in the loessFA mixtures. The maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content of the loessFA mixture increased with FA contents up to 9 percent. Unconfined compression strength increased with FA content up to 11% for specimens cured up to 14 days. The strength of specimens that contained higher FA contents (15 and 20 percent) increased up
to 7 days of curing. Most strength development occurred within 7 days for all mixtures. Unconfined compression strength decreased for all the mixtures after 7 to 14 days, reaching the level consistent with the pure loess specimen at 28 days when FA contains more than 11%. CBR values for pure loess and two mixtures containing 10 and 15 percent FA were presented. The CBR increased for the mixture containing FA upto 10 percent, and then further addition of FA decreased CBR. The maximum swell magnitude for the mixture containing 10% FA decreased by 55 percent compared with the pure loess soil, whereas values for the mixture containing 15 percent FA were 255 percent higher than those for pure loess soil. Kaniraj S.R. and Havanagi , V. G. (1999) mixed Rajghat FA from Delhi, India, and Baumineral FA near Bochum, Germany with the locally available soilssilt and Yamuna sand with different proportions and added cement varying from 39% to stabilize the FA-soil mixtures. Unconfined compression tests were conducted on these samples. Correlations for unconfined compressive strength and secant modulus as functions of curing time, FA content, and cement content have been established. Correlations for water content as functions of curing time and cement content have also been established and shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Summary of Correlations Established
S. No. Test Name 1. Unconfined compressive strength(qc) Where, 0.00292 0.0292 1.014 2. Secant modulus(Es) Where, 1.487 10 1.016 0.00116 1.0041 0.603 3. Change in water content(w) 37.52 37.64 0.0834 0.9975 0.563 0.9836
5
Relations 1.0113 0.724 0.686
R2 0.91 0.87 0.93 0.74 0.92 0.92
0.771
Where, qco=Measured initial unconfined compressive strength Eso=Measured initial secant modulus t=Curing time FA=% Fly Ash C=% Cement The authors assumed the gain in unconfined compressive strength and secant modulus of FA-soil mixtures with time to be hyperbolic. The results showed that strength and modulus increases with increase in cement content and decreases with increase in FA content. The cement content has a significantly higher influence than the FA content as observed. The water content of a FA-soil mixture depends on the curing time and cement content. The water content decreases with increase in curing time and cement content. The influence of cement content is more pronounced than that of the curing time. Shirazi H. (1999) observed the performance of lime and FA-stabilized base as an alternative to soil-cement-stabilized base for flexible pavement systems on reconstructed highways in Louisiana. He tested two combinations one with 2 percent lime and 4 percent FA, and another with 3 percent lime and 6 percent FA and soil-cement base at 8 percent cement by volume. The analysis was based on cracking, rutting and unconfined compression strengths tests. Both field and laboratory samples were tested for unconfined compression at 7, 28, and 56 days. The results revealed that the sections stabilized with soil-cement cracked earlier and more extensively than the lime and FA test sections. The authors concluded that lime and FA was less prone to shrinkage than the soil-cement stabilized base. Dynaflect results for the test lanes and control sections on both FA-stabilized and cementstabilized revealed that no significant rutting occurred in any of the test or control section monitoring
strips. The unconfined compression strengths of the lime and FA bases were much lower than soilcement bases. This fact did not result in reduced structural numbers or long-term performance.
Table 2: Summary of Studies Conducted on Application of Fly Ash
S. No. 1. Combination of Materials Used Kumar P. and Singh FA+ Fiber S. P. (2008) FA + Soil + Fiber Authors (Year) Laboratory/ Field investigations Unconfined compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, shear strength, California bearing ratio, permanent strain, resilient strain, and resilient modulus Split tensile strength tests and freezingthawing & wetting-drying Freezing and thawing cycles and unconfined compressive strength Recommendations FA + 0.3 to 0.4 % fiber FA + 25% soil + 0.1% fiber Lime-FA ratio varies from 1:3 to1:4 Silty soils + FA (30%) + Cement (8%) Silty soils + FA (10%) + Cement (2%) 8% lime+ 15% FA 8% lime+ 15% FA + 1% of 12 mm plain fibers 8% lime+ 15% FA + 1.5% of 6 mm crimped fibers 46 % FA 10% Cement + 10% FA + 0.8% of 38 mm fibers 10 % FA Empirical correlations have been established
2. 3.
Soni, D. K. and Jain A. (2008) Altun S. and Goktepe A.B. (2008) Kumar A. et al. (2007)
Lime + FA+ Black cotton soil Silty soils + Cement Silty soils + FA Silty soils + FA + Cement Lime + FA + Soil Lime + FA + Polyester fiber (plain) + Soil Lime + FA + Polyester fiber (Crimped) + Soil Different types of soils + FA Cement + FA + Recycled plastic strips + Soil Indiana loess soils + Class C fly
4.
Optimum moisture content, maximum dry density, unsoaked unconfined compressive strength and split tensile strength
5. 6. 7. 8.
Prabakar J. et al. (2004) Sobhan K. and Mashnad M. (2003) Zia N. and Fox P. J. (2000) Kaniraj S.R. and Havanagi, V.G. (1999) Shirazi H. (1999)
9.
Rajghat fly ash + Cement+ Silty soil Rajghat FA + Yamuna sand Baumineral FA+ Rhine sand Lime + FA + Soil Cracking, rutting and unconfined compression strengths test
Compaction behavior, settlement, California bearing ratio, shear strength parameters and swelling characteristics Compressive strength, split tensile strength, flexural strength and toughness index Atterberg limits, moisture-density relationships, swell potential, and unconfined compression strength Unconfined compression test, Secant modulus and Change in water content
2 % lime + 4 % FA for 540 ADT 3 % lime + 6 % FA for 780 ADT
APPLICATIONS OF RICE HUSK ASH (RHA)INDUSTRIAL WASTE

Olawale et al. (2012) worked on characterization of local rice husk with an objective of determining its chemical constituents. They used atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) to characterize the chemical constituents of RHA. Analyzed raw rice husk is as shown in Table 3
Table 3: Analysis of Raw Rice Husk
Component Amount (%) Moisture Content 9.38 Bulk Density 0.72 Ash 11.34 Volatile Matter 6.74 Nitrogen 1.15 Carbon 20.63 Sulphur 1.31
Table 4: Chemical Constituents of Raw Rice Husk Ash

Temp (C) 400 500 600 700 750 SiO2 (%) 97.425 97.386 97.464 97.504 97.397 Fe2O3 (%) 0.370 0.400 0.460 0.410 0.390 Zn (%) 0.003 0.015 0.003 0.009 0.007 Mn (%) 0.059 0.034 0.004 0.038 0.038 CaO (%) 0.203 0.185 0.029 0.039 0.038 MgO (%) 0.180 0.180 0.260 0.110 0.290 Na2O (%) 0.880 0.900 0.890 0.880 0.920 K2O (%) 0.880 0.900 0.890 1.010 0.920 LOI (%) 1.71 0.67 1.33 2.33 0.92 SSA (m2/g) 150 75 125 216.6 100
The ash samples prepared at different conditions and temperatures were examined. Standard wet chemical methods with instrumental techniques were used to determine the chemical constituents of the RHA (Table 4), calcinated at 50-750C. Significant effects were noted from calcination temperature of 400C. From the results, the maximum silica was produced at700C and also the highest specific surface area. AAS results showed RHA contained high % of K2O and Na2O. These impurities along with black particles are attributed to the carbon content of RHA and also due to the dark colour of the raw rice husk. It was also noted from the analysis of raw rice husk that high amount of Carbon is present in it. The low impurity level of the RHA showed that it is highly reach in silica. Muntohar, A. S. (2011) stabilized clay soil with lime and RHA mixtures with plastic waste fibers to Improvement of tensile strength. The fiber content was varied as 0.2% and 0.4% by dry weight of soil, and fiber length was 20 mm. Three sizes of cylindrical specimens viz. 50 mm diameter by 100 mm height, 70 mm diameter by 140 mm height, and 150 mm diameter by 300 mm height were tested. The lime used for stabilization was estimated to be 12% of the dry soil mass and the ratio of the lime to RHA is one to one of the weight of dry soil. The specimen size of 70 mm in diameter is the threshold in producing reasonable representative strengths for fiber lengths of less than 20 mm. Increasing the specimen size to be greater than 70 mm does not show significant difference in the tensile strength. Inclusion of 0.2% and 0.4% plastic waste fibers is able to improve the tensile strength behavior of the stabilized soil. Higher fiber content resulted in a higher tensile strength and toughness index of the stabilized soil. Yadu L. et al. (2011) investigated the potential of RHA to stabilize black cotton (BC) soil. Soil was stabilized using different amounts of RHA, as 3, 6, 9, 11, 13, and 15 %. The performance of RHA modified soils were evaluated using different performance tests namely, California bearing ratio (CBR) and unconfined compressive strength (UCS). They determined CBR value of unsoaked soil samples, to maximum value of 24% with addition of 9% RHA. Further increase of RHA amount resulted lowering down the CBR value. There was approximately 77% increase in UCS at 9% RHA as compared to black cotton soil. Based on these performance tests, optimum amount of RHA was determined as 9% of RHA for improving the strength characteristics of black cotton soils. Choobbasti A. J. et al. (2010) investigated the influence of adding RHA on the reaction between soil and lime and lime reaction and determine physical and mechanical characteristics of soil admixed. They carried out different soil tests, such as Atterberg limits, compaction, California bearing ratio (CBR), and direct shear test to analyze the influence of adding RHA between soil and lime. An increase in lime percent causes a decrease in plasticity index quantity. Moreover, the combination of soil and lime shows fluctuating trend by increasing RHA percent up to 7%. Maximum dry density of soil decreases gradually with an increase in the percent of lime. By adding RHA to the combination of soil and lime, optimum water content increases. By adding lime to the soil causes an increase in cohesion and internal friction angle parameters and adding RHA into the combination of soil and lime causes an increase in soil internal parameters and then causes a decrease in this trend. The shear strength of soil-lime increases with RHA amount increase. These figures clearly show that RHA increase, more that 5%, does not have positive influence on shear strength quantity. Adding lime and RHA to the soil causes a decrease in deformability of soil samples and gives more brittle materials. Moreover, this action causes an increase in shear strength. Maximum shear strength of soil and lime combination occurs in 5% RHA. Increasing the amount of RHA to the combination of soil with 4% lime causes an increase in the dilation parameter, but it shows a decreasing rate in the combination of soil with 6% lime. Basha E.A. et al. (2004) studied the stabilization of residual soils by chemically using cement and RHA. They evaluated compaction, strength, and X-ray diffraction of such properties of the soil. It was observed that cement and RHA reduced the plasticity of soils. In general, 68% of cement and 10 15% RHA show the optimum amount to reduce the plasticity of soil. They observed that the adding
of cement and RHA increased the OMC and diminish amount of the MDD correspond to increasing of cement and RHA percentage. It was observed that the optimum cement content is 8% without RHA. CBR value determined maximum at 4% cement and 5% RHA mixtures with soil. According to compressive strength and PI, 68% of cement and 1520% RHA showed the optimum amount to improve the properties of soils. Noor M.J.M.M. et al. (1993) investigated the effect of various RHA-cement proportions for road construction of a lateritic soil. They determined compaction, soaked and unsoaked unconfined compressive strength, tensile strength and durability of different mix proportions of cement and RHA. Compaction characteristics were determined of soil with various percentage of RHA with constant 10% of cement mixes. It was seen that the optimum moisture content increase while the maximum dry density decreases with increase in RHA contents. It was seen that dry strength of soil without any stabilizing agent achieved 0.2MN/m2 while at 10% cement content significant improvement in strength of above 1.5MN/m2. Addition of RHA at 5% showed a slight increase to approximate 2.6MN/m2 and further increase in RHA, there was no significant in strength development. The maximum soaked UCS is achieved at 1.4MN/m2 for a 10% addition of RHA, greater than 10% did not contribute to improvement in strength. The admixing of RHA did not affect the tensile strength of soil.
Table 5: Summary of RHA Applications
S. No. 1. 2. 5. 3. 4. Combination of Materials Used Olawale et al. (2012) Only RHA Muntohar, A.S (2011) Lime + RHA + plastic waste fibers + clay soil Yadu L. et al. (2011) Choobbasti A.J. et al. (2010) Basha E.A. et al. (2004) Noor M.J M.M. et al. (1993) Authors (Year) Laboratory/Field investigations Recommendations Maximum silica at 700C 12 % lime + 12% RHA+ 0.4% fiber 9% RHA 4% lime + 5% RHA 8% cement 68% cement + 1520% RHA 10% cement + 10 % RHA
6.
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer Maximum dry density (MDD), optimum water content (OMC), split tensile strength and toughness index RHA + Black cotton soil California bearing ratio and unconfined compressive strength Lime + RHA + clay soil Atterberg limits, compaction, California bearing ratio, and direct shear test Cement + Residual soils Compaction, compressive strength and Xray diffraction Cement + RHA + Residual soils Cement + RHA + Compaction, soaked and unsoaked Lateritic soil unconfined compressive strength, tensile strength and durability
APPLICATIONS OF RICE STRAW ASH (RSA)AGRICULTURAL WASTE

Han Y.W. and Anderson A.W. (1974) analyzed the problem of waste rice straw which More than half of the dry matter of straw consists of cellulose and hemicelluloses. The rest is comprised of lignin, nitrogenous compounds, and ashmostly silica as shown in Table 6. There is very little interest at the present time in using straw in fiber board, other building materials or animal feed. The main shortcomings of straw as animal feed are its (a) low digestibility, (b) low protein content, (c) poor palatability, and (d) bulkiness. The TGA curves show that mass loss of 10-10.5% in the first stage took place in the temperature range 25-150oC and corresponds to the removal of moisture from the material. The second stage occurred in the range 150-200oC which hardly had mass loss of 0.5-1%. This was considered as the transition stage. The major part of the mass loss took place in the third stage, in the range 175-325oC indicating a steep fall in the TGA curve. The mass loss of 60-68% in this stage was due to the removal of volatile matter. The mass losses and the temperature ranges of substages IVa and IVb were 7.5-17.75% and 1.5-2.25%, at 315-500oC and 500-750oC respectively. The mass loss in this stage was due to slow combustion of solid (fixed) carbon. From Table it is also clear that the minimum temperature required for the oxidation of fixed carbon ranges from 315 to 325oC. This implies that the minimum furnace temperature should be above 325oC for complete combustion of rice straw to obtain silica.
Fig. 1: TG GA Curve of Rice R Straw
Sam mple Mass=3 301.7mg; hea ating rate=5 5oC min1

Table 6: Co omposition of f Rice Straw
Comp position Digestible e energy, mcal/kg g Crude pro otein Ether extr ract Crude fiber Lignin Cellulose Nitrogen-free extract Total Dige estible Nutrient Ash Silica Ca K Mg P S % of f Dry Matter 1.9 4.5 1.5 35.0 4.5 34.0 42.0 43.0 16.5 14.0 0.19 1.2 0.11 0.10 0.10
Cha araverty, A. and Kaleem mullah, S. (19 991) analyze ed the RSA by Thermo o-gravimetric c analysis (TGA) to obtaining the change in physical and chemica al behaviour r of rice straw w when bur rnt under controlle ed condition ns in a furna ace. TGA sh howing the burning b beha aviour of ric ce straw is shown s in Figure1. . The percen ntage mass lo oss at various s stages is shown in Table e 7.
Table 7: Percen ntage of Mass Loss at Dif fferent Stages s for Rice Str raw
The e Temperature e Ranges of Different St tages Temperat ture ranges (oc) % mass lo oss I 25150 10.5 II 15020 00 1.0 III 2003 315 68.0 0 IV Va 315 500 7 7.5 IVb 50 00750 1.5
Ran nasinghe and d Arjurna, P. P (1993) rep ported abou ut the ash an nd silica con ntent of som me of the plants derivatives d as shown in Table 8. It has been seen s that ric ce straw hav ve 14.65% ash a after burning, , thus for eve ery 1000 kg of rice straw w burnt 146.5 kg ash are e produced h having abou ut 82% of silica con ntent. El-S Sayed M. A. and El-Sam mni T. M. (2 2006) condu ucted the eff fect of partia al replacing of three different t types of ce ement as or rdinary Port tland cement, high-slag cement and d sulphate resistance cement with RSA on n the proper rties of produ uced cement t pastes. The ey used for o one hour at 550C 5 to obtain th he maximum m pozzolanic c activity and d minimum percentage of carbon. It t was sieved d through
sieve No. 200 before use. It was absolutely isolated from humidity by packing until use. The specific gravity of ash was found to be 2.25 and the specific surface area was 18,460 cm2/g. Laser diffraction analysis was carried out to determine particle size distribution of RSA as shown in figure 2. Chemical composition of RSA was also analyzed and reported in Table 9 .The chemical reactivity of the ash is related to the form of silica and carbon content in the ash.
Table 8: Ash and Silica Content of Some Plants
Plant Sorghum Wheat Corn Bamboo Bagasse Lantana Sunflower Rice husk Rice straw Bread fruit tree Part of Plant Leaf sheath epidermis Leaf sheath Leaf sheath Nodes(inner portion) -------Leaf and stem Leaf and stem --------------Stem Ash (%) 12.25 10.48 12.15 1.44 14.71 11.24 11.53 22.15 14.65 8.64 Silica (%) 88.75 90.56 64.32 57.40 73.00 23.38 25.32 93.00 82.00 81.80
Fig. 2: Grain Size Distribution of RSA Table 9: Chemical Composition of RSA

Constituents Silica dioxide, SiO2 Aluminum oxide, Al2O3 Ferric oxide, Fe2O Calcium Oxide, CaO Magnesium Oxide, MgO Sulfur trioxide, SO3 Loss on ignition Silica Activity Index (SAI)=70.3% RSA 65.92 1.78 3 0.2 2.4 3.11 0.69 9.71
Rice straws are a residue produced in significant quantities on a global basis. While they are utilized in some regions, in others they are a waste causing pollution and problems with disposal. When burnt, the RSA is highly pozzolanic and suitable for use in lime-pozzolana mixes and Portland cement replacement. The contents of RSA were 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% by the weight of cement for experimental tests. For the three types of cements used in this test, the experimental results on cement paste showed an increase in the water demand in the standard consistency test as the ratio of RSA replacement increased. He further mentions that RSA is a pozzolanic material that satisfies the minimum requirements of ASTM Class N, F and C pozzolana.
Table 10: Summary of RSA Applications

S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. Authors (Year) Han Y. W. and Anderson A. W. (1974) Charaverty, A. And Kaleemullah, S. (1991) Ranasinghe and Arjurna, P. (1993) El-Sayed M. A. and El-Samni T. M. (2006) Combination of Material Rice straw RSA Different types of plants RSA + different types of cements Laboratory/ Field Investigations X-ray diffraction and chemical treatment, TGA Chemical analysis Laser diffraction analysis, Standard consistency, Initial and final setting times Recommendations Poor-quality animal feed in its natural state Furnace temperature 325-350oC for complete combustion of rice straw to obtain maximum silica Rise straw have 14.65% ash which contains 82% silica RSA is pozzolanic and satisfies the requirements of ASTM class N, F and C
CONCLUSION
The highway construction industry can effectively use large quantities of diverse materials. The use of waste byproducts in lieu of virgin material for instance, would relieve some of the burden associated with disposal and may provide an inexpensive and advantageous construction product. The following conclusions have drawn from the above literature review: 1. For clayey soil stabilization, used of both lime and FA is more efficient than that of FA alone. 2. Admixing of small amount of fiber along with FA improve resilient modulus and modulus of subgrade reaction. 3. Admixing the fly ash would reduce the swelling potential of clayey soil. 4. RHA upto 9% can be admixed with clay soil for improving the strength characteristics of the soils. Further increase the RHA beyond 9% resulted lowering down the CBR value. 5. The TGA study shows that maximum carbon loss took place at the temperature between 175325C. This loss is due to the removal of volatile matter. However, the minimum temperature required for the oxidation of fix carbon ranges from 315-325C. This implies that the minimum furnace temperature should be above 325C for complete combustion of RSA. Current research on the beneficial use of waste byproducts as highway construction materials has identified several promising uses for these materials. Some of these materials include: FA, RHA and RSA. Much of this research has been conducted primarily in the laboratory. The next step will be to put these ideas into action by initiating a systematic program to determine the viability and long-term performance of these materials in actual highway construction projects.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] Altun, S. and Goktepe, A.B. (2008). Effects of freezing and thawing processes on the mechanical behavior of silty soils stabilized with fly ash, Advances in Transportation GeotechnicsEllis, Yu, McDowell, Dawson & Thom (eds),Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK, 635-641. Basha, E.A., Hashim,R., Mahmud, H.B. and Muntohar, A.S.(2005). Stabilization of residual soil with rice husk ash and cement Stabilization of residual soil with rice husk ash and cement. Construction and Building Materials, 19, 448453. Charaverty, A. and Kaleemullah, S. (1991). Production of amorphous silica and combustible gas from rice straw, Journal of Materials Science, 26, 4554-4560. Choobbasti, A. J., Ghodrat, H., Vahdatirad, M. J., Firouzian, S.,Barari, A., Torabi, M. and Bagherian, A.( 2010). Influence of using rice husk ash in soil stabilization methodwith lime, Front, Earth Sci. China, 4(4), 471480. El-Sayed, M. A. and El-Samni, M. T. (2006). Physical and chemical properties of rice straw ash and its effects on the cement paste produced from different cement types, J. King Saud Univ., Riyadh. 19. 1427H/2006 Eng. Sci.(1): 21-30. Govindarao, V. M. H. Utilization of rice husk - a preliminary analysis. Journal of Science and Industrial Research, 39(6), 1980, pp. 495-515. Han, Y.W. and Anderson, A.W. (1974). The Problem of Rice Straw Waste: A Possible Feed through Fermentation. Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station, Technical Paper No. 3713. Kaniraj, S. R. and Havanagi, V. G. (1999). Compressive strength of cement stabilized fly ash-soil mixtures, Cement and Concrete Research, 29, 673677.
Application of Industrial and Agricultural Waste Materials for Highway Construction 747 [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] Kumar, A.,Walia, B. S. and Bajaj, A.(2007). Influence of Fly Ash, Lime, and Polyester Fibers onCompaction and Strength Properties of Expansive Soil, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 19(3), 242248. Kumar, P. and Singh, S. P. (2008). Fiber-reinforced fly ash subbases in rural roads, Journal of Transportation Engineering ASCE, 134(4), 171-180. Muntohar, A.S (2011). Effect of Specimen Size on the Tensile Strength Behavior of the Plastic Waste Fiber Reinforced Soil LimeRice Husk Ash Mixtures, Civil Engineering Dimension, 13(2), 82-89. Noor, M. J. M. M., Aziz, A. A. And Suhadi, R. U. R. (1993). Effect of cement-rice husk ash on compaction, strength and durability of Melaka series of lateritic soil, The professional journal of the institution of surveyors Malaysia, 28(3), 61-67. Olawale, Olamide and Oyawale, F. A. (2012). Characterization of Rice Husk via Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer for Optimal Silica Production, International Journal of Science and Technology, 2(4), 210-213. Prabakar, J., Dendorkar, N. and Morchhale, R. K. (2004). Influence of fly ash on strength behavior of typical soils, Construction and Building Materials, 18, 263267. Ranasinghe and Arjurna, P. (1993). Use of Rice Straw as Pozzolana, Master Thesis No. St-85-1, Asian Institute of Technology. Shirazi, H. (1999). Field and Laboratory Evaluation of the Use of Lime Fly Ash to Replace Soil Cement as a Base Course, Transportation Research Record 1652, 270-275. Sobhan ,K. and Mashnad, M. (2003). Mechanical Stabilization of Cemented SoilFly Ash Mixtures with Recycled Plastic Strips, Journal of Environmental Engineering, ASCE, 129(10), 943947. Soni, D. K. and Jain, A. (2008). Effect of Freezing-Thawing and Wetting-Drying on Tensile Strength of Lime-Flyash Stabilized Black Cotton Soil, 12th International Conference of International Association for Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics (IACMAG), 1-6 October, Goa, India, 2285-2291. Yadu, L., Singh, D. and Tripathi R. K. (2011). Strength Characteristics of Rice Husk Ash Stabilized Black Cotton Soil, Proceedings of International Conference on Advances in Materials and Techniques for Infrastructure Development (AMTID 2011), NIT Calicut, India, 28-30 September, Paper No.T022, 1-6. Zia, N. and Fox, P. J. (2000). Engineering Properties of LoessFly Ash Mixtures for Road base Construction, Transportation Research Record 1714, Paper No. 00-0886, 49-56.
Properties of Recycled Concrete Aggregate and its Use in Buildings and Other Structures
Surya Maruthupandian1, V.V.L. Kanta Rao2 and Lakshmy Parameswaran3
Student, Ac SIR, Bridges and Structures Division, CSIR-CRRI New Delhi; surya07b55@gmail.com Scientist, Bridges and Structures Division, CSIR-CRRI, New Delhi; vvlkrao.crri@nic.in 3Sr. Principal Scientist & HOD Bridges and Structures Division, CSIR-CRRI, New Delhi; lakshmy.crri@nic.in
2Principal 1M.Tech
AbstractThe concrete is the most consumed man made material in the world. Although, many
efforts have been put in towards Sustainable Development, concrete production itself involves more unsustainable practices. The two concerns which demand attention of mankind in the field of construction are rapid depletion of quality aggregates for concrete and the enormity of construction debris and demolition wastes in the land fill. The above two factors demand recycling of the construction and demolition waste and its fruitful utilization rather than disposal. However, many research studies indicated the inferiority in quality of recycled aggregates, which has resulted in limited use or negligible use of recycled aggregates in buildings and other structures. These issues and possible suggestions to mitigate the detrimental effect of use of recycled aggregate in concrete and to enhance the strength and durability properties of recycled aggregate concrete are discussed in this paper. The real time examples in which the recycled aggregates are used in building and other structures are also discussed. Keywords: Recycled concrete aggregate, Recycled Aggregate Concrete, Sustainable Development
INTRODUCTION
Concrete is the most widely used structural material. It is obtained by mixing cementitous material(s), aggregate and water in required proportions. Proportioning of concrete is done to economically achieve the required workability, strength and durability, and a well proportioned concrete contains up to 70%-80% of aggregates. This amounts to a requirement of about 14 billion tons of aggregates per year. At this enormous rate of consumption, the world is sure to face intense scarcity of quality aggregates in near future. With urbanization and with rapid growth in infrastructure the numbers of old structures being demolished are increasing day by day. This is resulting in a huge pile up of construction and demolition waste (CDW) which is being dumped in landfills. A glimpse of CDW generation in different EU countries and the India is presented in Table 1: Generation of such a huge quantity of waste is posing a major problem in its disposal and also resulting in conversion of useful land into landfills and dump yards.
Table 1: Construction and Demolition Waste Generated Annually in Different Countries (MT)
Netherlands
Denmark
Germany
Portugal
Belgium
Sweden
Finland
Austria
Greece
France
Spain
59
30
24
20
13
11
The viable solution suggested by researchers to address the above twin problems i.e. increasing demand for quality aggregates and disposal of the huge quantum of CDW, is the recycling of aggregates from the CDW and using them in new construction. These aggregates are known as
India 12
Italy
UK
Properties of Recycled Concrete Aggregate and its Use in Buildings and Other Structures 749
recycled concrete aggregates (RCA). These aggregates are extracted by crushing the CDW in suitable crushers and then subjecting it to a series of processes such as separation, sieving etc. Apart from addressing the above two major problems, the other advantages of using recycled aggregates are: The exploitation of natural resources for need of aggregates can be minimized. The transportation costs of aggregates from quarries to site can be minimized. The quantity of useful material getting into waste can be minimized. Proportion of CDW to be dumped in land fill can be minimized, and thus the precious land can be saved from becoming a dumping yard. As waste material is used as a part of concrete, use of recycled aggregate makes the concrete production economical.
Despite the above advantages, the use of recycled aggregates in structural concrete is still sparse because their use in concrete posed problems related to workability, strength and durability, the three basic parameters for which the concrete is proportioned. To overcome these problems there is a need to understand the behavior of recycled aggregates and recycled aggregate concrete properly.
PROPERTIES OF RECYCLED AGGREGATES

As the recycled concrete aggregates are extracted by crushing the hardened concrete, their properties are not same as those of the natural (virgin) aggregates. This is due to the quality and quantity of the cement mortar adhering to the recycled concrete aggregate particle. It was reported that RCA can be produced with acceptable gradation suitable for concrete construction. However, the recycled concrete aggregates exhibit a lower bulk density, up to 17%, than that of natural aggregate (Deshpande et al, 2011). The water absorption of recycled concrete aggregates was reported to be twice as that of natural aggregates (Limbachiya et al, 2004). Recycled concrete aggregates are generally lighter with a specific gravity of up to 6% lower than the natural aggregates. Sulphates and chloride contents of recycled aggregate was similar to that of natural aggregate. The recycled concrete aggregates exhibit inferior mechanical properties than the natural aggregates, which was employed in the construction from which the recycled aggregates are extracted. Recycled concrete aggregates extracted from high strength concrete exhibit 42% higher Los Angeles abrasion value, and the corresponding value for the aggregates extracted from low strength concrete was 52% (Casuccio et al, 2008). The aggregate impact value of recycled aggregate was 36.3 %, which is almost twice as that of natural aggregate (17.6 %). The aggregate crushing value of recycled concrete aggregate was found to be 70% more than that of natural aggregate.
DIFFICULTIES IN USE OF RCA IN STRUCTURAL CONCRETE AND POSSIBLE REMEDIAL MEASURES

Despite the inferior properties of the recycled concrete aggregates, worldwide efforts are on to use them in concrete construction by partly or fully replacing the natural aggregates with the recycled concrete aggregates. Various studies by different researchers showed that the performance of recycled aggregate concrete is inferior to the concrete made natural aggregates and this is primarily due to presence of adhered mortar. These limitations have to be taken into consideration when recycled aggregate is used in any concrete so that the associated problems can be minimized at the design stage itself. Some of the difficulties associated with the use of recycled aggregates in structural concrete and the possible remedial measures to overcome the same are discussed below:
Slump
The slump of recycled aggregate concrete decreases with increase in percentage of recycled aggregates. With every 20% increase in recycled aggregates the slump decreases by 1.5-5.5% (Chai, 2004). It has been suggested to a) use super plasticizers, b) use recycled aggregates in SSD condition or c) use mineral admixtures, in order to overcome the slump loss.
Compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete decreases with increase in percentage replacement of recycled aggregate above a certain minimum replacement. The compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete was lower by up to 30% (Butler et al, 2011, Chai, 2004) than that of natural aggregate concrete. Limbachiya et al reported that there was no detrimental effect on the compressive strength of standard 100mm concrete cube when coarse recycled concrete aggregate replaced the natural aggregate by up to 30% (Limbachiya et al, 2004). The decrease in compressive strength can be compensated by a) reducing the water cement ratio (Chai, 2004), b) using supplementary cementitious materials (Kou et.al, 2008), and c) adopting two stage mixing (Tam et al, 2005; Sober on, 2002).
Tensile Strength
The behavior of recycled aggregate concrete under tension varied with change in aggregate source and hence no proper trend was observed in variation of tensile strength. Casuccio et al. (2008) reported that the split tensile strength decreased with an increase in percentage of replacement of natural aggregate with recycled aggregate. However, Limbachia et al (2004) observed that there was only a negligible difference between normal aggregate concrete and recycled aggregate concrete with respect to flexural behavior. A few other studies indicated that there was a decrease in tensile strength of concrete with increase in percentage of recycled aggregate. This decrease in strength due to use of recycled aggregate can be minimized by use of a) Mineral admixtures like fly ash, silica fume etc. (Kou et.al, 2008), b) reduced water cement ratio (Chai, 2004) and c) using saturated surface dry aggregates.
Shear Strength
Shear crack pattern in recycled aggregate concrete was similar to that in natural aggregate concrete. The shear resistance of the recycled aggregate concrete slabs was on average 6.13% lower than the resistance calculated as per codal provisions (Schubert and Hoffmann, 2004).
Modulus of Elasticity
A decreasing trend in modulus of elasticity was observed, when the percentage of recycled aggregate was increased (Casuccio et al, 2008). Measures such as a reduction in water cement ratio of the mix b) use of mineral admixtures like fly ash, silica fume etc, and/ or c) increase of the curing period can be adopted to achieve a higher elastic modulus of concrete when the recycled concrete aggregate were used (Kou et.al, 2008).
Durability
Concrete made with recycled concrete aggregate was reported to exhibit a) an increase in water absorption with increase in percentage of recycled aggregate (Soberon, 2002; Casuccio et al, 2002), b) higher vulnerability to chloride ingress, c) higher permeability to water (Olorunsogo and Padayachee, 2002), d) greater depth of carbonation (Shayan and Xu, 2003). The possibility of occurrence of alkali aggregate reaction in concrete depends purely on the source of aggregate (Shayan and Xu, 2003). All these durability related problems in recycled aggregates are mainly due to the increased porosity of recycled aggregate due to presence of adhered mortar. The detrimental effects can be mitigated by a) Increasing the cement content, b) Increasing the curing period (Olorunsogo and Padayachee, 2002) and c) adding mineral admixtures to the concrete mix. Apart from all these measures there are also methods to improve the quality of recycled aggregate by impregnating it with organic polymers or mineral admixtures. Though the use of recycled aggregates for structural applications is limited there a few real time structures in which recycled aggregates have been used by adopting one or more of the above discussed measures.
Properties of Recycled Concrete Aggregate and its Use in Buildings and Other Structures 751
APPLICATIONS OF RECYCLED AGGREGATES IN BUILDINGS

The instances of use of recycled aggregate in structural concrete have been very few till now. The following are some of the examples where the recycled concrete aggregate was used in real time buildings: Vilbeler Weg office building, Darmstadt, Germany (Fig. 1), 1997/1998480 m3 of recycled aggregate concrete was used. Waldspirale residential building in Darmstadt, Germany (Fig. 2), 199812000 m3 of recycled aggregate concrete was used
Fig. 1: Vilbeler Weg Office Building
Fig. 2: Waldspirale Residential Building
The BRE office building in Watford, UK, 1995/96 where 1500 m3 of recycled aggregates were used for foundations, floor slabs, structural columns and waffle floors.
Reuse of waste and creation of zero waste were among the mottos of Olympics and Paralympic Games, London 2012. Accordingly, recycled concrete aggregates from various parts of the British Union were used in the construction of the Olympic village. Fig. 3: shows the birds eye view of the Olympic village where the recycled concrete aggregate was employed.
Fig. 3: Olympic Village, London 2012 (www.london2012.com)
The locations where recycled aggregates were used are indicated as : 1. Olympic Stadium Recycled granite from King George V docks was used for the construction Stadiums river banks. Also recycled aggregates were used in the construction of the concrete foundations for the stadium.
2. Aquatics Centre Recycled aggregates were used in concrete foundations in large proportions. 4 Hand Ball Arena The piling systems were made with 100% recycled aggregates. 11 Concrete Batching Plant Recycled aggregates were used as raw materials.
CONCLUSION
The need for the use of recycled concrete aggregates in concrete construction is being realized worldwide from the environmental and sustainable development point of view. Hence the use of recycled concrete aggregates is increasing all over the world. Hitherto, the use was confined to sublayers of pavements. However, the real time examples presented conclusively establish that the recycled aggregates are suitable for structural applications and can be used. With proper understanding of behavior of recycled aggregate and adoption of necessary precautions, recycled aggregate can find a considerable usage in structural applications.
ACKNWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to the Director, CSIR-CRRI for kindly permitting to publish the paper.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] Butler L., West J.S., Tighe S.L., (2011), Quantification of Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) Properties for Usage in Bridges and Pavements: An Ontario Case Study, Innovative Developments in Sustainable Pavements Session of the 2011 Annual Conference of the Transportation Association of Canada, Edmonton, Alberta. Casuccio M., Torrijos M.C., G. Giaccio G., and Zerbino R., Failure mechanism of recycled aggregate concrete, Construction and Building Materials, Elsevier, 22, Issue 7, pp 1500 1506. Chai. Nelson Shing NGO (2004) ,High-Strength Structural Concrete with Recycled Aggregates, B.E Thesis (Unpublished), Report submitted to University of Southern Queensland Faculty of Engineering and Surveying , Queensland, Australia. Deshpande. Neela, Kulkarni S.S, Patil. Nikhil, (2011), Effectiveness of using Coarse Recycled Concrete Aggregate in Concrete, International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, 04, No 06 SPL, pp 913-919. Kou. Shi Cong, Poon. Chi Sun and Chan. Dixon, (2008), Influence of fly ash as a cement addition on the hardened properties of recycled aggregate concrete, Materials and Structures (2008), 41, pp 11911201. Limbachiya M.C., Koulouris A., Roberts J.J. and Fried A.N.,(2004), Performance of Recycled Aggregate Concrete, RILEM International symposium on Environment Conscious Material And systems for sustainable development, pp 127-136. Nisbet. Michael, Venta. George, Foo. Simon, Demolition and Deconstruction: Review of the Current Status of Reuse and Recycling of Building Materials, Air and Waste Management Association. Olorunsogo F.T., Padayachee N., Performance of recycled aggregate concrete monitored by durability indexes, Cement and Concrete Research, Elsevier, 32, pp 179 185. Schubert S. and Hoffmann C,(2004), Structural Behavior of Concrete with Recycled Aggregates, EMPA Materials Science and Technology , 342, Issue 2004. Soberon. Jose M.V. Gomez, (2002), Porosity of Recycled Concrete with Substitution of Recycled Concrete Aggregate -An Experimental Study, Cement and Concrete Research, Elsevier, 32 , pp 13011311. Shayan. Ahmed and Xu. Aimin, (2003), Performance and Properties of Structural Concrete Made with Recycled Concrete Aggregate, American Concrete Institute Materials Journal, pp 371-380. Tam W.V.Y, Gao X.F, and Tam C.M, (2005), Micro structure analysis of recycled aggregate concrete produced from two stage mixing , Cement and concrete composites , Elsevier, 35, pp 1500- 1507. www.london2012.com
Recycling of PavementsAn Approach Suitable for Sustainable Development

T. Anil Pradyumna1, Abhishek Mittal2 and P.K. Jain3
1PGRPE 2Scientist,
Student, AcSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, India; pradyumna1989@gmail.com CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, India; abhishekmittal.crri@nic.in 3Chief Scientist, CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, India; pramodj.crri@nic.in
AbstractA good road network is a critical infrastructure requirement for rapid growth. It provides connectivity to remote areas; provides accessibility to markets, schools, and hospitals; and opens up backward regions to trade and investment. Roads play an important role in inter-modal transport development, through links with airports, railway stations, and ports. Road network in India aggregates to about 4.2 million kilometer. This extensive road network, the second largest in the world only after US, caters to about 65 per cent of the freight traffic and 87 per cent of the passenger traffic. National Highways (NH) constitute about 70,934 kilometers which is only 2 percent of the total network. However, it caters to nearly 40% of the total road traffic. State Highways (SH) and Major District Roads (MDR) together constitute the secondary system of road transportation which contributes significantly to the development of the rural economy and industrial growth of the country. The conventional method of providing bituminous surfacing on flexible pavements require significant amount of energy for production of bituminous binder from crude petroleum, drying aggregates and subsequently production of bituminous mix at Hot Mix Plant (HMP). For example, approximately 6 liters of fuel is used for drying and heating one ton of aggregates which would expand to enormously huge quantities considering lakhs of tons of aggregates that is used for road construction. This paper mainly discusses the methods of Recycling of pavements particularly HMA recycling is one such technology which may be adopted for Indian conditions and the advantages and drawbacks of different types of recycling techniques. The characteristics and performances of recycled mixes are also discussed. Keywords: Recycling Asphalt Pavement, Hot in place recycling, hot mix asphalt
INTRODUCTION
Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is the term given to removed and/or reprocessed pavement materials containing asphalt and aggregates. These materials are obtained when asphalt pavements are removed for reconstruction, resurfacing, or to gain access to buried utilities. When properly crushed and screened, RAP consists of high-quality, well-graded aggregates coated by asphalt cement (FHWA 1998). Over the years, recycling has become one of the most attractive pavement rehabilitation alternatives in developed countries. The burial of bitumen which is our countrys property is being done indiscriminately on some of our highways, which are being six-laned from the existing four lanes. Existing four lanes of bituminous pavement get buried while constructing vehicle under passes, public under passes, and flyovers. In such cases, the existing bituminous pavement usually consisting of dense bituminous macadam (DBM) and bituminous concrete (BC) can be milled off and the reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) transported to hot mix plant for recycling on service roads and/or main line. Asphalt pavement is 100% recyclable. Recycling or reuse of pavement material is a very simple but powerful concept. Recycling of existing pavement materials to produce new pavement materials has resulted into considerable savings of materials, money and energy. At the same time, recycling of existing material also helps to solve disposal problems. Because of the reuse of existing material, pavement geometrics and thickness can also be maintained during construction. In some cases, traffic disruption is less than that for other rehabilitation techniques.
The specific benefits of recycling can be summarized as follows: 1. Reduced costs of construction 2. Conservation of aggregate and binders 3. Preservation of the existing pavement geometrics 4. Preservation of the environment 5. Conservation of energy 6. Less user delay This paper mainly discusses the methods of recycling of pavements and the advantages and drawbacks of different types of recycling techniques. The characteristics and performances of recycled mixes are also discussed.
REVIEW ON RECYCLING METHODS

Recycling of existing asphalt pavement materials to produce new pavement materials results in considerable savings of material, money, and energy. The specific benefits of recycling can be summarized as follows: (a) substantial savings over the use of new materials, (b) conservation of natural resources, (c) performance equal or even better than new materials, (d) pavement geometrics is maintained, and (e) saving of considerable amount of energy compared to conventional construction techniques. The last benefit is very important due to the recent urgent need for reducing greenhouse gases that is, reducing carbon footprint thereby earning carbon credits for India. Over the years, recycling has become one of the most attractive pavement rehabilitation alternatives in developed countries. The burial of bitumen which is our countrys property is being done indiscriminately on some of our highways, which are being six-laned from the existing four lanes. Existing four lanes of bituminous pavement get buried while constructing vehicle under passes, public under passes, and flyovers. In such cases, the existing bituminous pavement usually consisting of dense bituminous macadam (DBM) and bituminous concrete (BC) can be milled off and the reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) transported to hot mix plant for recycling on service roads and/or main line. Asphalt pavement is 100% recyclable. Besides huge savings in cost and earning carbon credits, we will also have to obtain less virgin aggregate from our stone quarries and also will have to import less crude oil to produce the paving bitumen. Recycling can be divided into three basic categories based on the recycling methods used: 1. Hot Recycling, and 2. Cold Recycling 3. Full Depth Reclamation (FDR)
Hot Recycling
Hot recycling is so named because RAP is used as an aggregate in HMA (hot mix asphalt). In hot recycling, old HMA pavement is removed, broken down into aggregate-sized chunks and then incorporated into new HMA as an aggregate. There are two basic methods for accomplishing this:
Recycled Hot Mix (RHM)

Recycled Hot Mix (RHM) is the most common way of using RAP. Basically, new HMA is produced at a batch or drum plant to which a predetermined percentage of RAP is added. RAP addition is typically 10 to 30 percent by weight although additions as high as 80 percent by weight have been done and additions as high as 90 to 100 percent by weight are feasible.
Recycling of f PavementsA An Approach Su uitable for Susta ainable Development 755
Fig. 1: Introduction I of RAP Mate erial in a Dru um Plant
Hot In-Place Rec cycling (HIP PR)

For hot in-place recy ycling, the as sphalt pavem ment is softened by heating, and is scarified or hot h milled and mix xed to a dep pth 18.75-3 37.5 mm. Ne ew hot-mix material (virgin aggrega ate and new w binder) and/or a recycling agent a are ad dded in a si ingle pass of f a specialized machine in the train n. A new wearing course may also be add ded with an additional a pa ass after compaction (Dav vio1999).
Fig. 2: Illus stration of th he Process of f Hot in Place e Recycling
Cold Recycling R
Cold recycling is so o named be ecause RAP is used as an aggrega ate in cold m mix asphalt. . In cold recycling g, old HMA A pavement is removed d, broken do own into ag ggregate-size ed chunks and a then combine ed with emu ulsified or fo oamed aspha alt. This mix x is then typ pically used as a stabiliz zed base course fo or reconstruc cted paveme ents. There are a two basic cold recyclin ng methods:
Cold In n-Place Re ecycling (CIR)

For cold d in-place rec cycling, the pavement p is removed by y cold planin ng to a depth h of 75-100 mm. m The material l is then pul lverized, size ed, and mixe ed with an additive. a Vir rgin aggrega ate may be added a to modify RAP R charact teristics. An asphalt emu ulsion or a re ecycling age ent is added. . Once the gradation g and asphalt content meet specifi ications, the material is placed p and compacted. c A An additiona al layer is optional l, such as a chip c seal or 75-100 7 mm of o hot-mix as sphalt on top p.
A 3-piece train may be used. This consists of a cold-planing machine, a screening and crushing unit, a mixing device and conventional lay down and rolling equipment. This train occupies only one lane, thus maximizing traffic flow. Cost savings range from 20 to 40% more than conventional techniques. Since heat is not used, energy savings can be from 40 to 50% (Davio 1999).
Cold Plant Mix Recycling

Cold plant mix recycling, the less common of the two cold recycling methods, involves mixing RAP with an asphalt emulsion or foamed asphalt at a central or mobile plant facility. A rejuvenating agent can be added to improve the recycled asphalt binder viscosity and new aggregate can also be added to improve overall performance. The resulting cold mix is then typically used as a stabilized base course.
Fig. 3: Cold In-Place Recycling Process
Full Depth Reclamation (FDR)

FDR has been defined as a recycling method where all of the asphalt pavement section and a predetermined amount of underlying base material are treated to produce a stabilized base course. It is basically a cold mix recycling process in which different types of additives such as asphalt emulsions and chemical agents such as calcium chloride, Portland cement, fly ash, and lime, are added to obtain an Fig. 4: Full Depth Reclamation improved base. The four main steps in this process are pulverization, introduction of additive, compaction, and application of a surface or a wearing course. If the in-place material is not sufficient to provide the desired depth of the treated base, new materials may be imported and included in the processing. New aggregates can
Recycling of PavementsAn Approach Suitable for Sustainable Development 757
also be added to the in-place material to obtain a particular gradation of material. This method of recycling is normally performed to a depth of 100 mm to 300 mm. The train consists of recycling machine hooked to a water tanker and steel drum roller with pad foot shell. The advantages of full depth reclamation are that most pavement distresses are treated, hauling costs are minimized, significant structural improvements can be made (especially in base), material disposal problems are eliminated, and ride quality is improved.
CHOOSING THE RIGHT SOLUTION

There is no universal solution to the problem of recycling. Mittal et al. (2010) stated that Selection of a recycling technique depends on the local situation.
From the Technological Point of View

Several factors are to be considered such as type of pavement, nature of the defects, nature and homogeneity of the asphalt to be recycled, size of the project, type and suitability of the material available for recycling, environmental aspects etc.
From the Financial Point of View

In-place solutions are generally less costly than traditional solutions due to lack of transport costs, no need for storing RAP and fewer disruptions to traffic.
Table 1: Comparative Summary of Advantages and Drawbacks of Hot and Cold Recycling
Recycling Category Hot Recycling Advantages High quality of recycled mixes Reactivates old bitumen Enables the old asphalt to be entirely reused at the highest level of quality 100 % reuse Drawbacks High energy consumption Air pollution emissions Depends on environmental regulations
Cold Recycling
Requires special knowledge of binder technology (emulsion, foam bitumen)
Table 2: Comparative Summary of Advantages and Drawbacks of In-place and In-plant Recycling Techniques
Recycling Category In-plant Recycling Advantages High quality of recycled mix Grading control Very homogenous mix Upgrading of mix possible Reactivate old bitumen Reuse in new asphalt wearing course High flexibility of use 100 % reuse of RAP Minimizes transportation costs Very economical Very efficient Quick opening to traffic Suitable for big and small projects Single traffic lane recycling possible Drawbacks Potentially expensive solution High energy consumption Extensive material transportation required Stockpiling of RAP necessary Air pollution/emissions sensitive
In-place Recycling
Requires generally a new surface course Difficult to counteract the heterogeneity of the existing asphalt Long recycling trains not suitable for small of rural roads Simple recycling equipment only suitable for lower volume and rural roads
MECHANISTIC EVALUATION OF RECLAIMED ASPHALT PAVEMENT Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement Characteristics

Recycling of asphalt pavements is a valuable approach for technical, economical, and environmental reasons (Kennedy et al. 1998). Considering material and construction costs, it was estimated that using reclaimed HMA pavement provides a saving ranging from 14 to 34% for a RAP content varying between 20 to 50% (Kandhal and Mallick 1997)
Using traditional hot mix asphalt to rehabilitate asphalt pavement, the material and energy required is equivalent to an eco-burden of 3.45 kPt. per lane-kilometer. Using recycled hot mix asphalt can reduce the eco-burden by 23 %. (TeChui et al.). In 1996, Puttaguanta et al. compared the predicted fatigue performance and moisture damage of HMA mixtures containing 0, 25, and 50 % RAP materials. The data for the predicted numbers of load repetitions to fatigue failure of the various mixtures at three temperatures showed that the virgin mix can sustain a higher number of load repetitions than the HMA mixtures containing 25 and 50% RAP at 5C, whereas at higher temperatures all the mixtures had an equal number of load repetitions to failure. In 2004, Li et al. conducted a study for the Minnesota DOT to investigate the effect of RAP type and percentage on the final asphalt mixture properties. The limited data obtained in this project showed that the addition of RAP increased the dynamic modulus and that the asphalt binder grade and RAP source had a significant effect on the mixture modulus.
Performance of RAP Mixtures

Aravind and Das (2006) conducted a laboratory study on recycled mix design of two different Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) samples. In their study they concluded that Marshall Stability and flow values almost remained within the permissible ranges and even comparable to the virgin mix. They observed at lower strain levels, the fatigue lives of the recycled mixes are better or similar to that of virgin SDBC mix. However, at higher strain the fatigue lives of the recycled mixes are better or similar to that of virgin SDBC mix. The stiffness values of recycled mixes are observed to be higher than virgin mix. Elie et al (2000) presented the findings of a laboratory-based project that evaluated the impact of three RAP sources at three levels of RAP content (0, 15, and 30%) on the mechanical properties of the final mix. The addition of 15 or 30% RAP to a mix resulted in an acceptable resistance to moisture damage, reduction in the unconditioned and conditioned tensile strengths and a better resistance to rutting than the virgin mix. Paul (1996) compared the field performance of recycled pavements (six to nine years old) to conventional pavements in Louisiana in terms of pavement condition, serviceability, and structural analysis. A RAP percentage between 20 to 50% had been used. In general, no significant difference was found between recycled and conventional pavements in terms of pavement condition and serviceability ratings. Mohammed et al (2003) had stated that by the utilization of RAP rutting resistance had increased and fatigue resistance had decreased. Mcdaniel and shah (2003) stated that rutting resistance had improved. If more than 20% of RAP used it shows decrease in the fatigue life.
CONCLUSION
1. From the technological point, type of pavement, nature of the defects, nature and homogeneity of the asphalt to be recycled, size of the project, type and suitability of the material available for recycling, environmental aspects and from the financial point of view In-place solutions are generally less costly than traditional solutions due to lack of transport costs, no need for storing RAP and fewer disruptions to traffic. 2. From the performance of HMA mixtures rutting performance has typically been improved by the use of RAP, the fatigue and thermal performance has been inconsistent. Further lab investigation is required on the optimization of RAP content and Mechanistic evaluation of RAP mixes.
Recycling of PavementsAn Approach Suitable for Sustainable Development 759
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the kind permission of Dr S. Gangopadhyay, Director CSIR-CRRI, New Delhi for publishing the paper.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] Kumar, Aravind and Das, Animesh (2006), Pavement design with central plant hot-mix recycled asphalt mixes. Science Direct, 21 (3), 928-936. Davio, R. (1999). June: Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement. Year of the Recycled Roadway Materials. FHWA. (1998), User Guidelines for Waste and By-Product Materials in Pavement Construction, Washington DC: Federal Highway Administration. Kandhal, P. S., and Mallick, R. B. (1997), Pavement Recycling Guidelines for State and Local Governments Participants Reference Book, Report No. FHWA-SA-98-042, National Center for Asphalt Technology, Auburn, AL, Kennedy, T. W., Tam, W. O., and Solaimanian, M.,(1998) Optimizing Use of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement with the SuperPave System, Journal of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, 67, 311-333. Li, X., Clyne, T. R., and Marasteanu, M. O. (2004). Recycled Asphalt Pavement (RAP) Effects on Binder and Mixture Quality, Report No. MN/RC 2005-02, Minnesota Department of Transportation, Research Services Section. McDaniel, R. S., and Shah, A., (2003) Use of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) Under SuperPave Specifications, Journal of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, 72, 226-252. Mittal, Abhishek, Bose, Sunil and Nagabhushaha, M.N., (2010) Recycling of Pavements An Approach Suitable for Sustainable Development, (in Hindi), Nirman Surbhi, Rashtriya Sangoshti, Nirman Samagriya Vision 2030, Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi. Mohammad, L. N., Negulescu, I. I.; Wu, Z., Daranga, C., Daly, W. H. and Abadie, C. (2003) Investigation of the Use of Recycled Polymer Modified Asphalt Binder in Asphalt Concrete Pavements, Journal of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, 72, 551-594. NAPA. (2010).Benefit of using RAP. Available: http://www.coasphalt.com/documents/ Position paper on the Road Sector in India, Ministry of Finance, Govt. of India, (2009). Paul, H. R., (1996) Evaluation of Recycled Projects for Performance, Proceedings of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, 65, 231-254. Puttagunta, R., Oloo, S. Y., and Bergan, A. T. (1997). A Comparison of the Predicted Performance of Virgin and Recycled, Candian Journal of Civil Engineering, 24,115-121.
Utilization of Ceramic Ware Waste in Construction

K.L. Chhabra1 and Rajeev2
1Principal 2Senior
Technical Officer, CSIR, Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee; kl_chhabra@yahoo.co.in Technical Officer, CSIR, Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee; rajeev_cbri@yahoo.com
AbstractAbout one forth of the Sanitary ware production is a waste in the form of de-shaped, damaged and broken sanitary ware, as market-exploration revealed. Perhaps the most resistant of all wastes against natural forces of biological, chemical and physical degradation; the waste is piling up day after day, building pressure on Indian industry to find a solution for disposal, which has been a problem all over the world. This indestructible waste is generally being dumped as landfill causing wastage of huge area, which is now very difficult to reclaim. Conversion of this waste into useful building material is therefore in the interest of both the industry and the nation as well. Visualising that the material so durable, hard and almost inert to day-to-day chemicals and may be useable as an alternate building material; an exploratory research has been taken-up to study this waste for its utility in a cement matrix. Experimental results indicate that there is possibility of a workable cement concrete using ceramic aggregate. The various uses have been attempted with different sized aggregate obtained from waste ceramic ware in the field of civil engineering. In addition, paper has highlighted the mechanism of converting waste ceramic ware into aggregate; ascertain its suitability in cement concrete and engineering properties of concrete made with this waste. Keywords: Sanitary ware, Concrete aggregate, Cement concrete, Industrial waste
INTRODUCTION
Meaningful disposal of broken sanitary-ware is a problem for sanitary-ware industry not only in India but in other countries. A range of solutions for the disposal/ re-use/recycling of the waste sanitary ware in the form of intermediate aggregate in making concrete (Ceracrete) and producing higher abrasion resistant flooring and paving tiles/blocks etc. have been taken up in this study. Here, an easy and efficient process to convert the waste sanitary ware into aggregate, establishing the properties of the aggregate and engineering properties of the concrete made with this aggregate has been explained here.
WASTE SANITARY WARE AGGREGATE (CERA-AGGREGATE)

Waste sanitary ware is a hard, ceramic materials, which if broken properly into smaller size (Ceraaggregate) can act as aggregate for mortars and concrete. Waste sanitary wares are available in various shapes and sizes and are generally too big to be fed into any crushing/disintegrating machine directly and converting them into Cera-aggregate. This waste sanitary-ware is therefore first required to be broken to smaller pieces of about 10 cm to 15 cm size. Due to brittleness of the material and curved shapes of the units the sanitary ware break, rather easily, into thin flaky pieces of the required size by impact, and this has been easily achieved by using simple steel rammers. These pieces are further converted into Cera-aggregate suitable for concrete. From economy point of view, the larger size of aggregate is required lesser breaking energy. But, the thickness of sanitary ware units are generally of 10mm or lesser. The aggregate is in cubical shape and is flat & flak. The glossy enamelled surface area increase with the increase of aggregate size and therefore, aggregate larger than 10 mm size is not ideal for use in cement-bonded matrix.
Utilization of Ce eramic Ware W Waste in Constru uction 761
Man nual breaking g has been tried using hammer, h ram mmer and pounding p but t the same has h been found to oo labour-int tensive and uneconomic u cal. Therefore e, the following common nly available crushing machine es are tried fo or mechanica al breaking of o the waste sanitary war re into aggreg gate; Ja aw crusher Ro oller crusher Ro otopactor ma achine Di isintegrator
All the t machines as per the arrangemen nts suggested d above are trial tested (with a truck k load of broken sanitary wa are) and ar re found to o give good d results, at t reasonable e cost. A schematic arrangem ment of a Ja aw-crushing unit u has been n shown in Fig-1. F
Fig. 1: The Sc chematic Arra angement of a Jaw-crushi ing Unit, Sui itable for Mak king Ceracre ete
PROPE ERTIES OF F CERA-AG GGREGAT TE

Properties of Cera-a aggregate as determined d a CBRI are shown in Ta at able 1.
Table 1: Pro operties of Ce era-aggregate e
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Insolub ble residue pH (1:1 1) Loss ignition Sp. Gra avity Lime Reactivity R Strengt th At Blain ns Fineness 417 70 sq.cm/g 7770 sq q.cm/g (Minim mum Specified) Aggreg gate Crushing Va alue (Specif fied Limits : for use u in Concrete other th han wearing surf faces) For wearing surfaces Alkali Aggregate A Reativ vity Reduct tion in Alkalinity Soluble e Silica (Potent tially Deleterious s Material, Fig.2) ) Acid Re esistance: Loss (Specif fied Limits: for Cer ramic Vitreous Tiles for Acid d Resistant Brick ks) 97.38% 7 0.1% 2.5 28.3 kg/sq.cm m 42.2 kg/sq.cm m 50.0 kg/sq.cm m 16.9% 45.0% max 30.0% max. . 88 mM/litre 127 mM/litre e < 1.2% 1.5% 4.0%
6.
7.
8.
CHARA ACTERISA ATION OF CERA-AG GGREGATE E

Cera-aggregate satis sfies require ements with regard to engineering g properties of fine and d coarse aggregat tes for cement concrete. Certain deg gree of lime reactivity r and d pozzolanic c properties possesses p by the Cera-aggrega C ate although put it under r the categor ry of slightly y Deleterious Material as a per IS: 2386 (p pt.VII) as sho own in Fig. 2. This prop perty of Cer racrete has been b found gain in com mpressive strength for a longer r time. Trials s are made with w a basic concept c of accelerating a t the reaction so that it is compl leted early.
CONCR RETE MAD DE WITH CERA-AGG C GREGATE

Necessa ary laboratory y trials on pl lain Ceracret te, blended Ceracrete C an nd Cera-mort e. Details tar are made of ingred dients used, mix-proport tions and res spective Com mpressive an nd Flexural s strengths/ wo orkability are summarized as fo ollows (Table 2 to Table 12):
Fig. 2: Alkal liaggregate Reactivity as s per BIS: 23 386 (Part VII) ) Table 2: In ngredients of f Ceracrete
In ngredients OPC Cem ment (43 grade) Coarse St tone Aggregate: 10mm down Coarse Ce era-aggregate: 10mm 1 down Fine Cera a-aggregate: Fineness Modulus: M 2.77 Local rive er (the Solani san nd: Fineness Modulus: M 1.20 Badarpur r Pit Sand: Fineness Modulus: M 2.20 Bulk Density 1460 kg./cu. m 1460 kg./cu. m 1280 kg./cu. m 1340 kg./cu. m 1450 kg./cu. m 1440 kg./cu. m
Table 3: Mix Propo ortions of Ceracrete (By Weight) W

C Ceracrete (1:2:4) Cement Solani riv ver sand Cera-aggr regate 2.4 mm down) d Cera-aggr regate 10 m dow wn) Water Compacti ion on vibration table 1.0 kg k 2.0 kg k 2.0 kg k 2.0 kg k 750 ml m 0.80 0 Ceracrete (1:1. 5 5:3) Cemen nt Solani river sand Cera-a aggregate 2.4 mm m down) Cera-a aggregate 10 mm m down) Water Compa action on vibrati ion table 1.0 1 kg 1.5 1 kg 1.5 1 kg 1.5 1 kg 560 5 ml 0.8
Utilization of Ceramic Ware Waste in Construction 763
Table 4: Mix Proportions of Natural Aggregate Concrete (By weight)

Natural Aggregate Concrete (1:2:4) Cement 1.0 kg Solani river sand 2.0 kg Stone dust 2.0 kg 2.4 mm down) Stone aggregate 2.0 kg 10 mm down) Water 750 ml Compaction on vibration table 0.80 Natural Aggregate Concrete (1:1.5:3) Cement 1.0 kg Solani river sand 1.5 kg Stone dust 1.5 kg 2.4 mm down) Stone aggregate 1.5 kg 10 mm down) Water 560 ml Compaction on vibration table 0.8
Table 5: Compressive Strengths (kg/sq.cm.) of Ceracrete vs. Natural Aggregate Concrete

Mix Proportions (by weight) 1:2:4 With Cera-aggregate (10 mm) and cera-fines 1:2:4 With stone aggregate (10 mm) and river sand 1:1:5:3 With Cera-aggregate (10 mm) and cera-fines 1:1:5:3 With stone aggregate (10 mm) and river sand 1-day 5.0 5.3 20 23 7-day 78.3 81.2 145 149 28-day 168 172 303 297 90-day 247 212 482 316 180-day 298 221 497 322
A careful study of the shape and particle size distribution in Cera-aggregate has showed that a concrete mix designed in the same manner as for natural aggregate yields a harsh concrete having low workability and strengths lower than expected. The Cera-mortar and Ceracrete mixes are therefore redesigned maintaining a more uniform gradation to overcome these shortcomings. Better compressive strengths were achieved and a continuous gain in strength was noticed over a period of 180 days.
Table 6: Compressive Strengths (kg/sq.cm) of Certain Design Mixes (Compaction by Rodding and Vibro-Compression)
Proportion by Volume 1 Cement: 0.4 Fly ash: 1.6 Cera-fine: 4 cera- aggregate (10 mm down) 1 Cement: 0.4 Fly ash: 1.6 river sand: 4 stone- aggregate (10 mm down) 1 Cement: 0.3 Fly ash: 1.2 Cera-fine: 3 cera- aggregate (10 mm down) 1 Cement: 0.3 Fly ash: 1Badarpur sand: 0.2 river sand: 3 cera-aggregate Cera-fines: FM 1.22River sand: FM 1.20 28 Days 290 205 392 302 90 Days 468 227 545 346 180 Days 488 241 538 358
Table 7: Flexure Strength (28 Days)

Composition by Volume 1 Cement : 2 Cera Fines : 4 Cera aggregate (10 mm down) 1 Cement : 2 River sand : 4 Stone aggregate (15 mm down) Compaction by Vibration Table 41 kg/sq cm 43 kg/sq cm Compaction by Rodding and PressureVibration 49 kg/sq cm 48.3 kg/sq cm
DISCUSSION
Ceracrete can be prepared and used in the same manner as cement concrete with natural stone aggregate and sand. However some special properties and observations are given below which need to be considered during using cera-aggregate and Ceracrete. Engineering properties of Ceracrete are similar to that of normal cement concrete prepared using natural stone aggregate and sand of similar particle size. Use of 10mm and down size cera-aggregate is preferred because of it more cubical in shape, and better engineering properties.
Finer particles of cera-aggregate should be included into concrete for better Pozzolanic reaction of cera-fines with free lime present in cement increases compressive strength of Ceracrete with time. Compressive strength of Ceracrete after 90 and 180 days is comparatively higher. Due to lower specific gravity of the Cera-aggregate as compared to natural stones and sand, the mix prepared by weigh proportioning gives higher yield. If quantity of cement is kept constant per unit volume of concrete, the Ceracrete gives higher strength as compared to usual cementconcrete. There is a slight tendency of segregation of lighter cera-aggregate under vibro compaction. Ceracrete therefore gives higher strength when compacted by rodding and/or vibrocompression. Cera-aggregate is very suitable for use with Composite/Pozzolana cements, now being produced in abundance in India, since such cements already contain fly-ash or other pozzolanic materials.
CONCLUSION
From the present study it is evident that cera-aggregate (Aggregate obtained from waste sanitary ware) can be used to make concrete. In addition, cera-aggregate may be blended with natural aggregate to make higher strength concrete that can be used in accordance with IS-456. Due to some special characteristics having in Cera-aggregate like acid & chemical resistance, good hardness, low water absorption and capability of taking polish, it can be successfully used for manufacturing flooring/ paving tiles of better quality. As per laboratory Investigations, the cera aggregate can also be used in manufacturing the acid resistant tiles. Therefore, it is seen that a problematic waste s material can be converted into valuable products.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] In-house R&D project: OLP-0120-01 Rport on Utilization of Waste Ceramic Ware in Cement Concrete / other products , period 1997-1999. Project Report of sponsored project : SSP 3418 -01 on Development of Ceracrete, Flooring/Paving and Acid Resistant using Waste Ceramic Ware of M/s EID Parry (I) Ltd. (Authors were the members of the team) CSIR-CBRI Annual Report for the period 2003- 2004 Lakhani, Rajni and Jain, H.K. (2009) Use of sanitary ware waste for making acid resistant tiles International Seminar on Waste to Wealth, in India Habitat Centre, New Delhi.
Section K Environmental Aspects of Infrastructure Development
Prediction of Hourly Surface Ozone Concentrations at Major Traffic Intersection using Artificial Neural Network Approach
Chandrrasekar1, Bhola Ram Gurjar2 and C.S.P. Ojha3
Scholar, CED, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee; chandrrasekar@gmail.com Professor, CED, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee; brgurjar@gmail.com 3Professor, CED, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee; cspojha@gmail.com
AbstractSurface ozone is noticeable itself in its effect on organisms as a toxic gas. This paper reveals that artificial neural network model for the prediction of hourly surface ozone concentrations require interactions and non-linear relationships between predictor variables in order to accurately capture the ozone behavior. In this paper, examination of the hourly distribution of ozone levels in a major traffic intersection is studied. An artificial neural network model is developed to predict the hourly surface ozone concentration using meteorological parameters (atmospheric pressure, temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, wind direction, cloud cover, sunshine, time of the day, day of the week, visibility) for a period of recent three years. The statistical error analysis of the model predictions of hourly ozone concentration shows that the artificial neural network model performance is well. Keywords: Artificial neural networks, surface ozone, hourly concentration, traffic intersection.
INTRODUCTION
In last few decades, there is an increase in energy consumption which has led to rise in air pollutants emissions such as CO2, SO2, NOx, PM, and VOCs. Due to increase in the emission of these pollutants, the concentration level of secondary air pollutants like ozone (O3) has also increased. The secondary pollutants are formed by reactions between primary pollutants in favorable meteorological conditions. Pollutants like NOx and NMVOCs (non-methane volatile organic compounds) react in the presence of sunlight to produce ozone at ground level which is not only injurious to human health but also could do serious damage to the agricultural yield (Fagnano et al., 2009; Grnhage et al., 2012; Volk et al., 2003; Seguel et al., 2012; Fuhrer et al., 1997; Schlink et al., 2006; Camalier et al., 2007). In order to provide an adequate early warning, it is important to have an accurate and reliable forecast of future ozone levels. In practice, there are many different models for ozone forecasting. There are several modeling studies explaining the relationships between meteorological conditions, air pollutant parameters and ozone concentrations (Gardner and Dorling, 2000). Many of these used statistical approaches, such as correlation and regression analyses. Artificial neural network (ANN) is an another statistical approach which is frequently used in atmospheric research (Gardner and Dorling, 1998) (Shiva Nagendra and Khare, 2004) (Cai et al,, 2009). Neural networks have been found to outperform other statistical techniques like multiple regressions, auto regressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) etc. In this work an optimal ANN model is developed to predict hourly ozone concentration at major intersection (ITO), New Delhi, (latitude, 28 4 N and longitude 77 2 E), India.
INPUT DATA PREPARATION

Examination of the hourly distribution frequency of ozone concentration observed for the period of three years (20072010), in the study location reveals that the maximum daily O3 concentration is 244 g m-3 and minimum is 0.917 g m-3 and the results of the data analysis also indicate that the daily maximum O3 concentrations is found between 11 am to 4 pm, seasonal highest O3
concentrations occurred mainly in the period from January to May (winter and summer) and the lowest during the rainy seasons (June to December). The hourly monitored O3 concentration data was collected from Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) for the study period (2007 - 2010). The hourly O3 data is used in this study for the study place (ITO intersection) observed in the location. The hourly average O3 observed in the study location is used for modeling. O3 concentrations are monitored hourly from 1:00 am to 00:00 pm which includes the morning rush hours of the day. The previous hour concentration of NO2 and O3 are used as background concentrations. Hourly meteorological data at Safdarjung for selected meteorological variables (atmospheric pressure (P), relative humidity (RH), wind speed (WS), visibility (V), wind direction (WD), temperature (T). cloud cover (C), sunshine (SH), and rainfall (RF)) is collected from Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), New Delhi. The input variable containing hourly average of these above mentioned meteorological variables with time of the day and day of the week as input variables is produced a better model performance as compared to other trials with various combinations of input variables. Table 1 gives the statistics for the different meteorological variables used in the model.
Table 1: Summary Statistics of the Meteorological Input Variables
Variable/ Parameter Atmospheric Pressure (mb) Relative Humidity (%) Wind Speed (mt/s) Visibility (mt) Cloud Cover (octa) Temperature (0C) WD (angle) Sunshine (hours) Rainfall (mm) Minimum 909.81 10.70 0.00 14.00 0.00 6.40 22.50 0.00 0.00 Maximum 999.39 100.19 36.53 98.60 9.06 44.40 360.00 11.10 859.30 Mean 982.67 66.26 1.42 94.50 2.70 25.66 221.27 4.99 7.50 Std Deviation 6.88 23.35 1.93 1.62 2.83 8.47 95.93 3.45 41.26
ANN-BASED PREDICTION MODELS Basis Considerations

ANN is a system consisting of many parallel processing elements that can store experiential knowledge and make it available for future use. It resembles the human brain in two ways: knowledge is acquired by the network through a learning process and inter-neuron connection strengths known as synaptic weights are used to store the knowledge. There are many kinds of ANNs among which back-propagation (BP) neural network is one of the simplest and most widely used in different air quality modeling studies (Gardner & Dorling, 1998). BP algorithm refers to the method for computing the error gradient for a feed-forward network, an implementation of the delta rule. This algorithm is a supervised learning method that requires a teacher who knows the desired output for any given input. The step-by-stet procedure to model NO2 dispersion phenomena was explained by Nagendra and Khare (2006). Fig. 1 shows the structure of BP network used in this paper, from left to right are input, hidden and output layers and they are connected with synaptic weights. BP networks learning process consists of two iterative steps: forward computing of data stream and backward propagation of error signals. During the forward computing, original data are transmitted from the input layer to the output layer through the hidden processing layer and the neurons of each layer can only affect the next layers neurons. If the desired output cannot be obtained from the output layer, it turns to the process of backward propagation in which error is propagated backward through the network against the direction of the forward computing. During the process, the synaptic weights are all adjusted in accordance with the error signals. With these two steps performing iteratively, the error between network output and desired output can be minimized using the delta rule.
Prediction of Hourly Surface Ozone Concentrations at Major Traffic Intersection using Artificial Neural Network Approach 769
Fig. 1: ANN Model for the Prediction of Hourly Ozone Level
Network Model
The total dataset used for the modeling includes 8760 patterns (one per hour) and 13 variables (atmospheric pressure (P), relative humidity (RH), wind speed (WS), visibility (V), wind direction (WD), temperature (T). cloud cover (C), sunshine (SH), and rainfall (RF), the time of the day and day of the week and previous hour concentrations of NO2 and O3). To avoid overflow of network due to large or small weights and eliminate the influence of different dimensions of data, the inputs have to be normalized (Gardner & Dorling, 1999). In this study, the data are normalized into the range [-1, 1] using the following formula: 2 1 (1)
The data were later returned to original units using the formula: (2) The data set is randomly divided into three distinct sets called training, testing and validation sets. The training set is largest set (60%) and is used by the neural network to learn patterns present in the data. The testing set (20%) is used to evaluate the generalization ability of theoretically trained network. A final check on the performance of the trained network is made using validation set (20%). In a BP neural network, hidden layers acts as feature detectors, and according to the universal approximation theory (Ming et al, 2009), a network with a single hidden layer with sufficiently large number of neurons can approximate any smooth, measurable function between input and output vectors by selection a suitable set of connection weights and transfer functions. Sigmoid transfer function (Sigmoid function) is the most commonly used function in air quality modeling (Gardner and Dorling, 1999) studies and the same is selected as the transfer function in this study. The Tan Sigmoid transfer function (Sigmoid function) is defined as (3) In this study we have selected the feed-forward back propagation Multi Layer Perceptron (MLP) to develop the ANN model with varying the number of neurons in the hidden layer and also the learning parameters (learning rate and momentum rate). The output from the MLP model is the
hourly ozone level for the study location. The simulations are carried out using Matlab and the Levenberg-Marquardt back propagation and Gradient descent with momentum back propagation training algorithms are used to develop ANN models in this study.
RESULTS
The ANN models are trained first using Gradient descent with momentum back propagation training algorithm using 13 input variables with learning rate 0.23 and momentum rate 0.3. A randomly selected set consisting of 20% of the total samples in the dataset is used for testing. The model gives an R2 of 0.9689 for all data points with RMSE=6.0434. The R2 value can be interpreted as the proportion of the variance in the simulated values attributable to the variance in the actual values. A comparison of the models simulated output values with the actual output values is seen in Fig. 2. Further the model was trained for 6 input variables using the above mentioned training algorithm, learning rate and momentum rate. The model performance is lower compare to the previous one with R2 value 0.9457 and RMSE=7.9074. A comparison of the models simulated output values with the actual output values is illustrated in Fig 3.
Fig. 2: Scatter Plot of Observed vs. Predicted Ozone Fig. 3: Scatter Plot of Observed vs. Predicted Ozone Concentrations (13 Input Variables) Concentrations (6 Input Variables)
Further the study is extended by using Levenberg-Marquardt back propagation training algorithm for 13 and 6 input variables respectively. The learning rate and momentum rate are 0.25 and 0.9 respectively for both the models of different group of input variables. The model gives an R2 of 0.9999 for both models and for all data points with RMSE of 0.2651 and 0.2627 respectively. Figure 4 and 5 shows the scatter plot of observed versus predicted ozone concentrations.
Fig. 4: Scatter Plot of Observed vs. Predicted Ozone Concentrations (13 Input Variables)
Fig. 5: Scatter Plot of Observed vs. Predicted Ozone Concentrations (6 Input Variables)
The statistical analysis for ANN models is given in table 2.
Prediction of Hourly Surface Ozone Concentrations at Major Traffic Intersection using Artificial Neural Network Approach 771
Table 2: Summary Statistics of the Model Output for Different Training Algorithms and Input Variables
Training Algorithms Statistical Parameters Gradient Descent with Momentum Back Propagation Input Variables 13 6 Levenberg-Marquardt Back Propagation Input Variables 13 6
R RMSE MAE MBE d R2
0.9838 6.0434 4.7334 0.9680 0.9916 0.9689
0.9720 7.9074 5.8513 0.8269 0.9854 0.9457
1.0000 0.2651 0.1849 0.0129 1.0000 0.9999
1.0000 0.2627 0.1768 0.0082 1.0000 0.9999
CONCLUSION
Application of neural networks and other artificial intelligence techniques is on the increase due to their high potential. Artificial Intelligent systems make it possible to obtain expert knowledge and to discover new knowledge to improve data analysis and the decision making process. The R2 values were found to be significant. Clearly, this study indicates that the potential of the neural network approach for capturing the non-linear interactions between O3 and NO2 levels along with meteorological variables. The values of RMSE and the correlation show that the surface ozone concentration at this location is influenced not only by the meteorological parameters as well as the level of O3, NO2 other precursor pollutant concentrations. The model can be used not only to gain insight into the typical nonlinearity involved in the process and also to evaluate each parameters sensitivity. The developed ANN model consistently gives good predictions and the results produced were satisfactory.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to thank India Meteorological Department (IMD), Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), for providing the meteorological data and monitored air pollution data.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] Cai, M., Yin, Y and Xie, M. (2009). Prediction of hourly air pollutant concentrations near urban arterials using articial neural network approach. Transportation Research Part D, 14, 3241. Camalier, L., Cox, W., and Dolwick, P. (2007). The effects of meteorology on ozone in urban areas and their use in assessing ozone trends. Atmospheric Environment, 41, 71277137. Fagnano, M., Maggio, A., and Fumagalli, I. (2009). Crops responses to ozone in Mediterranean environments. Environmental Pollution, 157, 14381444. Fuhrer, J. (1997). Critical levels for ozone effects on vegetation in Europe. Environmental Pollution, 97(1), 91-106. Gardner, M. W., and Dorling, S. R. (1998). Artificial neural networks (the multilayer perceptron)a review of applications in the atmospheric sciences. Atmospheric Environment, 32(14), 26272636. Gardner, M. W., and Dorling, S. R. (1999). Neural network modelling and prediction of hourly NO and NO concentrations in urban air in London. Atmospheric Environment, 33(V), 709-719. Gardner, M. W., and Dorling, S. R. (2000). Statistical surface ozone models : an improved methodology to account for nonlinear behaviour. Atmospheric Environment, 34, 2134. Grnhage, L., Pleijel, H., Mills, G., Bender, J., Danielsson, H., Lehmann, Y., and Castell, J. (2012). Updated stomatal flux and flux-effect models for wheat for quantifying effects of ozone on grain yield, grain mass and protein yield. Environmental Pollution, 165, 147157. Schlink, U., Herbarth, O., Richter, M., Dorling, S., Nunnari, G., Cawley, G., and Pelikan, E. (2006). Statistical models to assess the health effects and to forecast ground-level ozone. Environmental Modelling & Software, 21, 547558. Seguel . J. Rodrigo, Morales S Raul G.E, and Leiva, G. Manuel A. (2012). Ozone weekend effect in Santiago , Chile. Environmental Pollution, 162, 7279. Shiva Nagendra, S. M., and Khare, M. (2004). Artificial neural network based line source models for vehicular exhaust emission predictions of an urban roadway. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 9(3), 199208. Shiva Nagendra, S. M., and Khare, M. (2006). Artificial neural network approach for modeling nitrogen dioxide dispersion from vehicular exhaust emissions. Ecological Modeling, 190, 99115. Volk, M., Geissmann, M., Blatter, A., Contat, F., and Fuhrer, J. (2003). Design and performance of a free-air exposure system to study long-term effects of ozone on grasslands. Atmospheric Environment, 37, 13411350.
Development of Car RealWorld Driving Cycle for Sustainable Development: A Case Study
Bagul Tushar Rajendra1, Shingare Vilash Rajendra2 and Rakesh Kumar3
2Assistant
Scholar, CED, S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat, India; tusharaj89gmail.com Professor, MED, Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering, Pune, India; vilahhingare04@yahoo.co.in 3Associate Professor, CED, S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat, India; rakeshkumar1999@gmail.com
1Research
AbstractThe exhaust emission and fuel economy are a few critical parameters to gauge sustainability of urban transport system. Indian urban heterogeneous traffic behaviour has different driving characteristics as it changes with types of road and composition of vehicles. Real world driving cycles developed in a region may be good representative of urban driving characteristics such as acceleration, deceleration, idling time, cruise time, average speed average trip length and average cycle duration. This objective of this paper was to develop a methodology for real world driving cycles that is representative of traffic in Surat. These real world driving cycle data were collected by driving a car equipped with a V-Box. Different driving characteristics, including various speed-time profiles of microtrips, are analysed from the collected during weekday and weekend data. Five driving scenarios were studied such as off-peak, peak and free flow on arterial road of 3.1 km stretch. The impact of heavy vehicles on driving cycle was also studied during free flow condition during night hour. Significant deviation from Indian driving cycle was found with respect to acceleration, deceleration, idling time, and cruise time. Therefore, this approach is expected to be a better representative to estimate emission and fuel consumptions based on time and distance
INTRODUCTION
The urban traffic scenarios will be very complex and estimation of fuel consumption and vehicular emission will be important part to make mobility sustainable on this city. A driving cycle is an important tool that relates fuel consumption, vehicular emission and sustainable mobility. In India, vehicular emissions and energy consumption have been increasing considerably over last two decades especially in metropolitan cities. There is no any control strategy depends on accurate emission models are often represented by emission factors and are normally expressed in terms of grams of pollutants per unit of distance travelled. The emission factors in turn depend on several other factors such as type of fuel, type of engine, age of the vehicle, driving cycle, etc. In Europe, vehicle emission are measured using the legislated new European drive cycle (Justin bishop et.al, 2012), this however, can underestimate emission by up to 30% and 50% for cold and hot emission (Andre, 2004). Urban roads are designed for dedicated infrastructure for different modes and functions. Under heterogeneous traffic stream, mix-up of slow and fast moving vehicles is high and vehicles do not follow the lane discipline. The average cycle speed & average running speed of rural highway were both higher than those the urban roads (Kumar et.al, 2008). The efficiency of vehicles operations is greatly depends upon road categories such as arterial, sub-arterial, collector and access streets. Right of way (ROW) and speeds for each category of urban roads varies widely. The recommended ROW and design speed for Indian urban roads are as follows, for arterial road, it is 50-80 m and 80 kmph, for sub-arterial road 30-50 m and 60 kmph, for collector road 20-30 m and speed 50 kmph and finally for local road, it is 10-20 m and speed 30 Kmph( IRC 86&69). In this paper driving cycle is a representative plot of driving behavior of a given city or a region and is characterized by speed and acceleration. Driving cycle consist of a sequence of several vehicle operating conditions (idle, acceleration, cruise and deceleration) and is considered as a signature of driving characteristics of that city or region, driving cycle is varies from city to city and region to region and time to time.
Development of Car RealWorld Driving Cycle for Sustainable Development: A Case Study 773
METHODOLOGY
The steps included in methodology are collection of driving data (speed-time) from V-BOX (10Hz GPS Engine).find target parameters from frequency distribution matrix and normalized matrix. Generation of micro trips with fix interval, clustering, data analysis, and finally constructed a driving cycle.
Driving Data
The speed-time data is required to be collected using on board measurement technique. In this technique set up the v-box instrument, one is sensor of satellite, five cameras, and one display shows speed of the vehicle through satellite signaling and makes twenty-four trips in peak hour and five trips in off peak hour in existing traffic from a selected arterial and sub arterial route. The data collection should be carried out in peak period for varying traffic conditions.
Generation of Micro Trips

Development of driving cycle is based on micro trips. In this study pick up the micro trips of every 2.6 seconds from those micro trips. The rapidly varying acceleration, deceleration, cruise, idle values are found. These parameters are mostly responsible for emission of vehicle.
Data Analysis
In this research the data analysis is carried out in two parts as analysis of base data and the analysis of micro trips. The speed acceleration frequency matrix (Fm) and Normalized speedacceleration matrix (Nm), by these two matrices the base data is distributed. The speed acceleration frequency matrix is the frequency of occurrence of acceleration, deceleration, cruise and the idle corresponding to a speed values. From fm, generate the (Nm) matrix by normalizing the entries on percentage basis so that the total of all the velocity acceleration entries sum to 100. From the normalized matrix (Nm) several parameters representing travel characteristics are computed, this parameters include the percent time in acceleration Pa, Percent time Deceleration Pd, percent time in cruise Pc, and the Vavg. These parameters are called as target parameters. A similar analysis is carried for micro trip data the speed acceleration frequency matrix FM and normalized speed-acceleration matrix NM are computed as before. Further, parameters representing travel characteristics corresponding to micro trip data are also computed as before. Hence parameters from the micro trip include parameters such as acceleration percentage time (APT), deceleration percentage time (DPT), cruise percentage time (CPT), idle percentage time (IPT), and average speed Vavg from the micro trip data.
Construction of Driving Cycle

In this study six cluster are developed for closely arranging varying micro trips like 10k,11k,12k,13k,14k,15k (k-cluster) distribute all micro trips in the all cluster from SPSS software they find a cluster center , and gives the micro trip which has centroidal distance is less. Arrange that selected micro trips by programming for each six cluster. Then on the basis of performance value and sumsqure differences we can find out the final driving cycle out of six cycles.
Performance Value
It represents the absolute sum of the differences of selected parameters between the candidate driving cycle and the target statistics. The smaller the PV value, the better the real world driving pattern is represented. Mathematically, performance value (PV) is given as
PV = i T WT
(1)
Where, WT is the transpose of the row weight vector corresponding to the set of statistics. We take average of parameters of final six cycles as a weight vector
Step -I
START
Driving Data using v-box (GPS) Engine
Statistical matrices for base data -Frequency matrix (fm)-Normalized matrix (nm)
Calculate target parameters such as Pa, Pc, Pi, Pd, and Vavg. For base data
STEP II
Driving Data using v-box (GPS) Engine
Statistical matrices for micro trips data - Frequency matrix (fm) - Normalized matrix (nm)
Calculate target parameters such as Pa, Pc, Pi, Pd, Vavg. Find data base parameters value for micro trips
Clustering each trip of micro trips in 10k, 11k, 12k, 13k, 14k, 15k in SPSS
We got selected micro trips from each cluster, that centroidal distance is less.
Find Performance value (PV) & Sum square difference for 6-cycle
Finally we got one driving cycle on the basis of PV & SSD
Sum Square Difference

The most representative driving cycle for the corresponding group was determined by the smallest sum square differences (SSD) between the SAPD of the SAPD of the candidate cycle and the overall SAPD of the base data as given:
SSD =
i =1
NS
( p
j =1
Na
ij
qij ) 2
(2)
where Ns is the number of speed classes, Na is the number of acceleration classes, pij is the ijth entry of the SAPD of the candidate cycle, and qij is the ijth entry of the SAPD of the overall driving speed profiles. It is basically the sum of the squared differences of the corresponding cells of the Base SAPD and Candidate Driving Cycles SAPD.
CASE STUDY
The methodology is illustrated using a case study based on the data collected from in Surat city on Ring road area in peak and off peak hour, because this is the busiest street in Surat many Textile markets are on the road and the bus stop and railway station are also on this street. The traffic varies considerably within the short distance, so in order to understand the traffic variation and its impact on this study area.
Driving Cycle Development

Extensive, time and space data was collected using GPS from ring road of the Surat city is the busiest street approximately about 3.1 km. i.e. Sahara Darwaja to ring road. We make 24 trips, in morning evening peak hour including weekend.
Fig. 1: Existing Driving Condition
Fig. 2: V-Box Set Up in the Car
RESUL LTS AND DISCUSSIO D ON

As per the t methodo ology that me entioned in this t paper worked w on th he data of arterial road using u one mode, fi inally we ha ave six drivin ng cycles. Selected arteria al corridors were w able to o capture the e essence of Surat t busy street network. So o, on the ba asis of PV &S SSD we gen nerated exclu usive driving g cycle in peak and off peak ho our for Surat t city on car mode data.
Table 1: Results of Arterial Road R in Peak Hour
D.C. PV SSD % Acl. 33.14 3 4 45.19 4 43.56 4 42.11 4 42.11 4 43.72 43.6 % Dcl. 51.636 5 4 49.79 4 46.212 5 51.93 50.9 51.2 5 52.53 % Cruise 14.47 4.6 8.712 8 5.24 6.12 3.59 3.87 % Idle 0.754 0.42 1.515 0.72 0.95 1.49 0 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Avg. Speed (km/h) ( 17.97 19.11 19.22 19.37 19.57 19.21 19.77
1 2* 3 4 5 6
Ba ase Characteristics 15.67 0.016 1.48 0.015 3.55 0.019 3.03 0.018 3.79 0.017 4.39 0.018
Table 2: Results of f Arterial Roa ad in Off Pea ak Hour

DC PV SSD % Acl. 34 4.347 48.98 41.51 47.45 46.88 46.38 44 4.59 % Dcl. 50.14 5 5 51.02 5 52.83 4 49.16 4 46.87 4 49.27 5 52.71 % Cruise 14.85 1 0 5.66 3.39 6.25 4.35 2.7 % Idle 0.668 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Avg g. Speed (km/h) ( 25.96 23.39 23.64 25.18 25.09 26.45 26.582 2
1 2 3 4* 5 6
Ba ase Characteristic cs 6.617 0 0.0449 3.132 0 0.0383 3.931 0 0.0345 2.624 0 0.0275 3.532 0 0.0353 5.549 0 0.0335
It is observed fr rom table 1 of peak hou ur results the shows sec cond no. Driving cycle have h less performance value i.e. 1.48 and less sum squ uare differen nce value i.e. . 0.0015 as c compare to other o five c parame eters .final parameters p ar re % Acl. is 43.56, % Dcl. is 46.212 2, % Cruise 8.712, 8 % driving cycle idle is 1.515. Becau use of the les ss time ratio select this driving d cycle as peak hou ur. From tab ble 2 It is observed d that the fou urth no. Driv ving cycle ha ave less perfo ormance valu ue i.e. 2.624 4 and less sum m square differenc ce value i.e. 0.0275 as co ompare to other five driv ving cycle pa arameters .fin nal paramete ers are % Acl. is 46.88, 4 % Dcl is 46.87, % Cruise 6.25 5, % idle is zero. z Because e of the less time ratio co ompared to others s select this driving d cycle as off peak hour driving g cycle for car r mode in Su urat city (Rin ng road).
Fig. 3: Developed Driving D Cycle e of this Case e Study
Table 3: Comparisons IDC Peak and Off-Peak Hour

Driving Cycle IDC Peak Off peak % Acl. 38.89 43.56 46.88 %Dcl. 34.26 46.212 46.87 %cruise 10.43 8.712 6.25 %idle 16.43 1.515 0 Avg. Speed 21.9 19.22 25.09
CONCLUSION
1. In this study urban road (arterial) are taken. 2. Data collected using on board measurement technique by using v-box to record speed time profile as they travel along predetermined routes by conducting survey in peak and off peak hour including weekend scenario. 3. A methodology for development of driving cycle using micro trips extracted from real-world driving data was developed. Methodology was based on six important parameters of timespeed profile namely the vehicle composition, % acceleration, % deceleration, %idle, % cruise and avg. speed. 4. It was observed that vehicle spend more time in acceleration in off-peak period i.e. 46.88% than peak (43.56) similarly during deceleration vehicle spend more time i.e. 46.87% in off peak hour than peak (46.212%) on arterial road. 5. It was observed that vehicle spend more time in acceleration & deceleration in peak and off peak period than the IDC results, so more varying peaks shows that the fuel emission fuel consumption is more on the selected route of the city. 6. The uniqueness of the methodology was that the clustering of the micro trips using k-means clustering algorithm based on five target parameters, therefore this approach expected to be a better representation of heterogeneous traffic. 7. The driving cycle for various traffic management condition for Surat city in India is constructed using the proposed methodology 8. In this study case study driving cycle is compared with different time in a day to understand how driving cycle varies from traffic management to traffic management and time to time.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Hartigan, J.A., (1975), Clustering Algorithms. New York: John Wiley. Hung, W.T., et al., (2007), Development of a practical driving cycle construction methodology: A case study in Hong Kong, Transportation Research, Part D 12, 115-128. Kamble, Sanghpriya, H., Mathew, T. V. and Sharma, G.K. (2009), Development of real-world driving cycle: Case study of Pune, India, Transportation Research, t D 14, 132-140. Lina, J., Debbie, A. Niemeierb, (2002)* An exploratory analysis comparing a stochastic driving cycle to Californias regulatory cycle, page 1-12 Saleh, W., Kumar, R., Kirby, H., and Kumar, P. Real world Driving Cycle for Motorcycles in Edinburgh, (2009), Transportation Research, D 14, 326-333 Tzirakis, E., Pitsas, K. and Zannikos, F., (2006) Vehicle Emissions and driving cycles comparison of the Athens and European driving cycle, Global NEST 83, 282-290.
Advance Treatment Technologies for Pharmaceutical Effluents

Vijayalakshmi Gosu1 and B.R. Gurjar2
1Department 2Department
of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; vijaya.che@gmail.com of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; brgurjar@gmail.com
AbstractIn recent years, concerns about the occurrence and fate of active pharmaceutical ingredients, solvents, intermediates and raw materials that could be present in water and wastewater has gained increasing attention. The literature regarding pharmaceutical wastewater treatment is scarce, and the technique is still not being utilised on an industrial scale. Most researches are focused on treating singular contaminants found in pharmaceutical effluents. Moreover traditional wastewater treatment methods are not sufficient for the complete removal of active pharmaceutical ingredients and other wastewater constituents from these waters. As a result, complementary treatment methods are often used in conjunction with the traditional methods for treatment of pharmaceutical wastewater. This article aims to provide an overview of the current knowledge regarding the range of advance treatment technologies available for pharmaceutical wastewaters in order to get baseline knowledge of the effectiveness of the various treatment options. Keywords: Pharmaceutical effluents, Advance treatment technologies, Advance oxidation processes
INTRODUCTION
Since the 20th century, the rapid development of the pharmaceutical industry, bringing leap to human civilization. At the same time, in its emissions in the production process of wastewater pollution of the environment is also growing; pose a serious threat to human health. The growth of population and increased healthcare requirement has also increased the quality (strength/potency) and quantity of drugs being used and eventually discharged into the environment as pollutants. Furthermore, pharmaceutical manufacturing companies are one of the major contributors of hazardous and toxic effluents. These industries usually have batch production processes. And also generate large volume of wastewater during production. As a consequence, the wastewater lacks homogeneity and varies widely in terms of its quality and quantity. Pharmaceutical wastewaters may contain organic solvents, catalysts, additants, reactants, intermediates, raw materials and APIs (Sreekanth et al., 2009), which makes them difficult to treat. The presence of toxic or recalcitrant substances in such wastewater results in lower Chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal efficiencies (Chelliapan et al., 2006). It has been estimated that up to half of the pharmaceutical wastewater produced worldwide is released without any treatment (Enick and Moore, 2007). However, biological methods have shown to be insufficient for the removal of all potentially hazardous constituents of the wastewater (Giri et al, 2011). Recently, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have shown varying degrees of efficiency for the treatment of pharmaceutical wastewaters (Andreozzi et al., 2005). As the awareness of the inefficiencies of the individual treatment technologies for the removal of hazardous substances in pharmaceutical wastewater is increasing, the integration and combination of treatment or advance treatment technologies may provide a more effective, albeit expensive solution in the future. This review aims to provide an overview of the current knowledge regarding advance treatment technologies available in order to get baseline knowledge of the effectiveness of the various treatment options.
Advance Treatment Technologies for Pharmaceutical Effluents 779
BACKGROUND Characteristics of Pharmaceutical Industry Wastewaters

Pharmaceutical waste is one of the major complex and toxic industrial wastes. Wastes generated from these industries vary not only in composition but also in magnitude (volume) by plant, season, even time, depending on the raw materials and the processes used in manufacturing of various pharmaceuticals. Hence it is very difficult to specify characteristics of wastewater from pharmaceutical industry. The characteristic of waste generated from a synthetic organic chemical pharmaceutical plant located in Hyderabad, India, are presented in Table.1.
Table 1: Characteristics of Waste Generated from a Synthetic Organic Chemical Pharmaceutical Plant
Parameters pH BOD5 at 200c (mg/L) COD (mg/L) BOD/COD Total Organic Compound (TOC) (mg/L) Range 2.9-7.6 1,840- 2,835 4,000-5,194 0.46 -0.54 1,965-2,190
Strategies for the Choice of Appropriate Treatment Processes

1. Possibility of recycling and reuse treated wastewater (pollution prevention). 2. If recycling of wastewater constituents is not suitable for any reason, biological processes are preferred because of low costs compared to other processes. 3. If the wastewater contains non-biodegradable organic pollutants, microorganisms cannot degrade the main part of the organics, biological processes are not suitable. 4. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are suitable alternatives for the treatment of the wastewater containing toxic or non-degradable pollutants.
Fig. 1: Strategies for the Choice of Appropriate Treatment Processes
ADVANCE OXIDATION PROCESSES FOR PHARMACEUTICAL EFFUENTS

In the past two decades, advanced treatment processes have been proven to be powerful and efficient treatment methods for degrading recalcitrant materials or mineralizing stable, inhibitory, or toxic contaminants. In that advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) belong to the chemical treatment
category and are used to oxidise organic compounds found in wastewater which are difficult to handle biologically into simpler end products. The ultimate aim of AOPs is the mineralisation of pollutants, with conversion to carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen and other minerals. Various studies have confirmed the potential of AOPs for removing pharmaceuticals (Andreozzi et al., 2005; Ternes et al., 2003). AOPs may enhance biodegradability as a pre-treatment method to biological treatment or as a tertiary treatment. AOPs also handle fluctuating flow rates and compositions with less difficulty than microbes, as the same level of adaptation to the wastewater is not necessary (Ikehata et al., 2006).
Ozonation
Ozone has been applied to the treatment of waters primarily due to its strong disinfection and sterilisation properties. Its application for the treatment of waters containing pharmaceutical residues is now a broad area of research (Andreozzi et al., 2005; Dantes et al., 2008). The main mode of action in the ozonation process is the formation of OH- radicals due to ozone decay in the water shown in Eq.(1).

(1)
Ozone is an effective oxidising agent which reacts with most compounds containing multiple bonds, such as C=C, C=N, N=N, but not with species containing single bonds (C-C, C-O, O-H) at high rates. Ozone production is an energy intensive process, making it costly to implement. An ozone treatments system may increase the energy demand over a conventional wastewater treatment plant by 40-50 % (Larsen et al., 2004). The use of ozone as a means of breaking down pharmaceuticals in water has been the subject of numerous studies over the last ten years. A significant contribution to this work has been in the area of antibiotic removal (Ternes et al., 2003; Andreozzi et al., 2005; Dantes et al., 2008), where removal rates >90 % have been reported. Although the degree of removal and mineralisation of pharmaceuticals in water or synthetic industrial effluent has been reported, little or no literature exists on the ozonation of pharmaceuticals in actual pharmaceutical wastewater (Cokgor et al., 2004). Furthermore, details of process optimisation and kinetics for the elimination of pharmaceuticals using ozone are limited. Also, disagreement exists for the ozone dose necessary for pharmaceutical removal. Ternes et al. (2003) almost complete removal of pharmaceuticals except for iopromide in a study using an ozone dose of 10 to 15mg for every litre wastewater (contact time 18 min) treated in a municipal WWTP. On the other hand, Huber et al. (2003) pointed out, that only about 2 mg/L of ozone was needed to oxidise a range of pharmaceuticals (among them diclofenac and sulfamethoxazole) to a removal rate of 90 to 99 %. In general, both studies demonstrated that the increased pharmaceutical oxidation increased with ozone levels. The amount of ozone required depends on various parameters, such as the level of background dissolved organic matter and wastewater pH and alkalinity, as well as the desired elimination performance. The main disadvantage of ozonation is that in general the target compounds are not fully mineralised, but merely transformed, and so even more harmful substances can be produced as a result. For example, Microtox analysis showed a slight increase in acute toxicity in the first stage of ozonation of sulfamethoxazole (Dantes et al., 2008). Therefore, an additional treatment such as sand filtration is required after ozonation to break down reactive oxidation products. However, as well as removing micro pollutants, ozone reduces not only the microbial count but also odour, colour and foam. At the same time, it is associated with higher energy costs.
Per Ozonation
Per ozonation, is a combination of hydrogen peroxide and ozone. The addition of hydrogen peroxide to the aqueous solution of ozone enhances the decomposition of O3 with the formation of Hydroxyl radicals. (Eq. 2) 3 2 3 (2)
The action of both ozone molecules and the generated hydroxyl radicals results in a significant improvement in the rates of decomposition of pollutants in aqueous solutions. It has been successfully used to degrade penicillin formulation effluent (Balcioglu and Okter, 2003; Arslan-Alaton et al., 2004; Cokgor et al., 2004). The conjugate base of H2O2 at low concentrations increases the rate of decomposition of O3 into hydroxyl radicals (Balcioglu and Okter, 2003). 30% removal of COD in penicillin formulation effluent was accomplished using ozonation alone (Arslan-Alaton et al., 2004). Removal efficiency was enhanced through the addition of H2O2, to a maximum of 76 % in the presence of 2 Mili Molar of H2O2. However, it was found that a certain fraction of the resulting COD was non-biodegradable in the subsequent bio treatment. This inert fraction of the waste remained in the effluent. Only overall COD loading was monitored and not actual penicillin levels or breakdown compounds (Arslan-Alaton et al., 2004). Thus, the true treatment efficiency of the method in terms of the penicillin removal was unclear. Cokgor et al. (2006) examined the pre-treatment of synthetic penicillin formulation effluent containing procain penicillin G (PPG) with the O3/H2O2 process (applied ozone dose = 1440 mg/h treatment time= 60 min; pH 7; H2O2= 10 mM). The pretreatment resulted in more than 70 % COD removal and a 50 % decrease in the acute toxicity towards Daphnia magna. Other studies involving penicillin showed COD and aromaticity results increased from 69 % and 29 % for ozone alone to 95 % and 90 % in the presence of 20mM hydrogen peroxide (Balcioglu and Okter, 2003). The presence of UV increased the COD removal in penicillin formulation wastewater to almost 100%.
Fenton Reactions
Fenton chemistry involves reactions of hydrogen peroxide in the presence of iron to generate hydroxyl radicals. (Eq. 3)
.
(3) (4) (5)
The generated ferric ion decomposes H2O2 forming hydroxyl radicals (Eq. 4, 5).

After the reaction (3), the formed ferrous iron again decomposes H2O2 (4) etc. The hydrogen peroxide decomposition is an iron salt catalyzed reaction and in reactions (4, 5) Iron is regenerated again to iron (II). Moreover, in photo assisted Fenton process, Fe3+ ions are added to the H2O2/UV (Ultraviolet) process.

The photolysis of Fe (Eq. 7).

3+
(6) complexes allows Fe2+ regeneration and formation of hydroxyl radicals

.
(7)
The combination of H2O2/UV and iron salt produces more hydroxyl radicals compared with a conventional Fenton process or photolysis. Since iron is abundant and non-toxic, Fenton reactions are a viable option for wastewater treatment. Photo-Fenton reactions have been used for the degradation of diclofenac (Ravina et al., 2002; Perez-Estrada et al., 2005b). Complete mineralisation of diclofenac and its intermediates via photo-Fenton reactions in a concentric photo reactor took approximately 50 min (Ravina et al., 2002). Another advantage of Fenton reactions is that mineralisation is possible in sunlight avoiding the use of UV (Ultraviolet) light (Prez-Estrada et al., 2005). Penicillin was completely degraded after 40 min with Fe2+/H2O2 at pH 3. Higher COD and Total organic carbon (TOC) removals were obtained. Photo-assisted reactions using UV-C provided only slightly higher removal efficiencies. TOC removal was higher with photo-Fenton reaction and COD removal was slightly higher with photo-Fenton-like reactions. Since Fenton reactions operate at room temperature normal pressure and without the highly complicated apparatus, there should be a smooth transition from laboratory scale to large scale (Kavitha and Palanivelu, 2004). On the other
hand, the strong dependence on the aqueous solution pH (optimum pH 2- 4 for the production of OH. radicals) and on the concentrations of hydrogen peroxide and ferric / ferrous ions and the disposal of the iron sludge are factors which need to be taken into consideration. One possibility is the partial use of Fenton reactions to produce a non-toxic and biodegradable intermediate which could then be treated in an inexpensive biological step to achieve complete mineralisation.
Direct Photolysis
In a photo-oxidation reaction, UV radiation (photon) excites an electron of an organic molecule (C) from the ground state to the excited state (C*) (Eq. 8). The excited organic molecule excites further molecular oxygen (Eq. 9) with a subsequent recombination of the radical ions or hydrolysis of the radical cation, or homolysis (Eq. 10) to form radicals which can react with oxygen (Eq. 11)
.

. . . .
(8) (9) (10) (11)
The rate of the photo-oxidation reaction depends on the adsorption cross section of the medium, the quantum yield of the process, the photon rate at the wavelength of excitation. Indirect photolysis is caused when photo sensitisers, such as nitrate and dissolved organic matter, absorb light and generate active oxygenated radicals that subsequently degrade other compounds (Legrini et al., 1993). APIs (active pharmaceutical ingredients) do not absorb light above 290 nm are more resistant to direct photolysis with natural light (Khetan and Collins, 2007). Lamps employed in the removal of micro pollutants focus mainly on low and medium pressure mercury lamps. Low pressure mercury lamps characteristically generate light at 254 nm while medium pressure lamps emit their energy at multiple wavelengths (Takashi et al., 2007). Using a 110W, 254 nm UV lamp at 313K and 0.5 g/L, a 70 % conversion of 0.25 L of 2-chloropyridine (typically found in effluent of pharmaceutical processing) was achieved in 20 min (Stapleton et al.,2006). Pharmaceutical compounds include Carbamazepine and clofibric acids have photo degradation half-life of 100 d in winter at 50C. Conversely sulfamethoxazole, diclofenac, ofloxacin and propranolol undergo faster degradation with half-lives of 2.4, 5.0, 10.6 and 16.8 days, respectively. In a different set of experiments, clofibricacid, diclofenac, fenoprofen, isopropylantipyrine, ketoprofen, phenytoin and triclosan were removed in a laboratory situation (> 96 %) by ultraviolet photolysis alone (Giri et al., 2011). Alternatively, photolysis coupled with Fe (III) and H2O2or TiO2 can remove over 98 % of pharmaceuticals including estrogens (Benotti et al., 2009).
Photo Catalysis
The Photo catalysis is the acceleration of a photochemical transformation by the action of a catalyst such as TiO2 or Fentons reagent (Eq. 12). Most of photo catalysts are semiconductor metal oxides which characteristically possess a narrow band gap. Radicals formed degrade impurities in the water relatively unselectively, reacting with impurities in the wastewater as well as the target pharmaceuticals.
(12) Formed electrons can reduce some metals and dissolved oxygen to produce a superoxide radical ion O2- (Eq. 13, 14):

. .
(13) (14)
Remaining holes then oxidise and adsorbed H2O or HO- to reactive hydroxyl radicals (Eq. 15, 16):
. .
(15) (16)
The degradation of chlorobipenyls and bi phenyls from aqueous media using TiO2 photo catalysis was first reported (Carey et al., 1976) the number of publications on the removal of micro pollutants from aqueous media using TiO2 has grown considerably (Prez-Estrada et al., 2005). Titania is the most widely investigated of the heterogeneous photo catalyst due to its cost effectiveness, inert nature and photo stability. Investigations into the removal of the pharmaceuticals using TiO2, include but are not limited to work on antibiotics, lipid regulators, x-ray contrast media, antiepileptics and antiphlogistics (Doll and Frimmel, 2005, Perez-Estrada et al., 2005). Removal rates have been reported at 98 % for antibiotics when used in combination with UV (Addamo et al., 2005). However, removal rates for carbamazepine are under10 % (Doll and Frimmel, 2005). TiO2 is available at a relatively modest price and would be recyclable in an industrial application when fixed on films or beads, reducing the quantities of TiO2 required (Legrini et al., 1993). Furthermore, solar studies have proved effective for a wide range of pharmaceuticals replacing the expense of generating UV light. There are difficulties in implementation on a commercial scale due to the number of operating parameters e.g. type and geometry of reactor, the photo catalyst, optimum energy use and wavelength of radiation. Moreover, it is difficult to assess the true success of the photo catalytic process in the absence of identified intermediate compounds and end products.
CONCLUSION
Various treatment methods for pharmaceutical wastewater found in the literature have contributed greatly to our knowledge regarding the different AOPs treatment systems. There are a number of promising treatments including AOPs such as Oxidation, Ozonation, Per Ozonation, Direct Photolysis, TiO2, Photo Catalysis, Solar photo catalysis, Fenton reactions and Ultrasonic irradiation. These significantly enhance the removal rate of pharmaceuticals from wastewaters. Research is required in this area to improve treatment efficiencies, identify degradation compounds and to determine the cost and feasibility of full-scale applications. There is also interest in coupling AOPs with more conventional treatments. And also the use of AOPs, as a pre-treatment step which is followed by biological treatment processes, could achieve lower cost and sufficient organic compounds removal. Finally, the problem of pharmaceuticals in wastewaters cannot be solved merely by adopting end-of-pipe measures. At-source measures like replacement of critical chemicals, reduction in raw material consumption should continue to be pursued as the top priority.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First author sincerely acknowledge and thank the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. of India, for supporting this research work.
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Indian Coal Fired Power Plants: Sustainable Technologies

P.P. Walvekar1 and B.R. Gurjar2
Scholar, CED, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; walvekarpralhad@gmail.com Professor, CED, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India; brgurjar@gmail.com
AbstractIndian power sector is dominated mainly by coal fired power and is projected to be a mainstay in coming decades. Consequently, this has led to increase in local pollution by significant emissions of particulates, SO2, NOx, CO2 and hazardous pollutant like Hg. With due attention towards urban sustainability, adoption of advanced technological policies would certainly solve the problems associated with the effects of concerned air pollution. The supercritical steam cycle technology has commonly been used in developed countries and also adopted even by China for all coal fired thermal power plants. Ultra-supercritical (even higher efficiency) is also being deployed, while oxy-fuel combustion for providing capture of CO2 is under development. Integrated gasification with combinedcycle (IGCC) is expected to be commercially available in coming future with high efficiency for costeffective reduction of CO2 and other emissions. This study aims to overview the suitability of current and emerging advanced technologies for the Indian power perspective and present policy interventions to help the Indian coal power sector meet the countrys energy needs in a sustainable manner. Keywords: Thermal power plant, supercritical, integrated gasification with combined cycle
INTRODUCTION
Most of the air pollution problems faced by India today are credited mainly to rapid growth of the economy and energy consumption. Energy is the imperative element for development of industry, public services, and transport. More than 200 million persons in India are still below the poverty line and to elevate them above poverty line, gross domestic product (GDP) of India needs to grow at 8 % and energy consumption must also grow correspondingly (Parikh, 2009). The energy sector plays a vital role in societies and economies as it accounts for major share of countries GDP on average. Energy sector also plays a prominent role in the national policies of all countries (Sengupta, 2007).
Indian Energy Scenario

India is one of the fastest growing economies in Asia, with an annual average GDP growth of 6.1% (WDR, 2000). The economic growth of any country is fundamentally based on the reliable supply of energy. In case of energy demand and consumption, India has 6th position in the world (Ghosh, 2010). In 2002, per capita consumption was 420 kWh, in contrast to the non-Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) average of 1100 kWh and the OECD average of 8000 kWh (IEA, 2004). As a modern energy carrier, electricity is a key component of energy supply in any country. Lack of power availability is widely seen as a bottleneck to industrial development as the country aims to rapidly increase its pace of economic growth (World Bank, 1999). However, even if commercial energy consumption and electricity generation have increased many times over the previous decades, the fact is that the electricity has neither reached to more than half of Indias population nor any other form of commercial energy is fully available to them (PC, 2008). Consequently, there is a call for increase in countrys energy supply by at least 3 or 4 times and its electricity generation by 5 or 6 times of their 20032004 levels to achieve the target of sustained 8% growth through 20312032 as India has one of the lowest per capita electricity consumptions. The demand for utility-generated electricity by 2016-17 was projected to be nearly three times the demand in 2001-02, with an average annual growth rate of about 8 % (CEA, 2000). It is also noted that Indias power generation capacity should increase from the current capacity of 156 Giga Watts
(GW) to o virtually 80 00GW by th he year 203 312032 so as to achiev ve target el lectricity to all. The Thermal l Power Plan nts (TPPs) are a pre-requisite to meet the bulk of this addition nal capacity (Ghosh, 2010).
Relianc ce on Coal l Fired The ermal Powe er

Power plants p used for electrici ity productio on provide the energy required fo or technolog gical and econom mic developm ment. The mix of primar ry fuels used d to generate e electricity has changed d a great deal ove er the past tw wo decades on a worldw wide basis. In ndian Power Generation is largely do ominated by cons sistently incr reasing share e of therma al generation n. According g to MoP (2011), the all India installed d power gene eration capacity as on December 31, , 2010 was about a 16974 49 MW comp prising of ~11103 34 MW therm mal (~65%), , ~36367 MW M hydro (22 2%), 4560 MW M nuclear ( (~3%), and ~16787 MW ren newable (~1 10%), which h clearly ind dicate the dominance d o thermal p of power. Some e project authoriti ies had the capability c to commission n TPPs in abo out 40 mont ths from the time of placement of order. However, H per rformance in n regard to th he constructio on of hydro projects rem mained unsatisfactory. This mig ght be one reason for the t focus on n thermal an nd mainly coal-fired c gen neration to continue (Ghosh, 2010). other import tant issue of o energy security s can be achieved by max ximum utiliz zation of Ano indigeno ously availab ble energy resources. The T only na atural resou urce and fos ssil fuel ava ailable in abundan nce in India a is coal. Th herefore, it is used exte ensively as a fuel for th hermal powe er plants producin ng electricity y. Thus consu umption of coal c is projec cted to grow w by a factor of six, main nly to fuel power generation. g W While special efforts are made m by the Governmen nt of India to increase the e share of hydro an nd other alte ernative ener rgy sources, coal is likely y to remain the t dominan nt fuel for ma any years given In ndias vast indigenous coal resourc ces. Similar growth rate es like coal l are anticip pated for renewab ble energy e.g., e hydropo ower and wi ind, but star rting from a much lower r level (TER RI, 2006). Longer-t term scenar rios explored d by the Planning Com mmission (PC, 2006) su uggest that coal will continue e to domina ate the powe er sector con nsumption at a least for th he next thre ee decades li ike other developing countries s of the regio on.
Fig. 1: Sector Wise Share of Fuels in Elec ctricity Gene eration as on March 31, 2 2010 (CEA, 2010) 2
Fig. 1 gives secto or wise share e of coal and d other fuels in electric generation as s on March 31, 3 2010. The sha are of coal in n the total installed gener rating capac city of all the ermal power plants is ala arming to 82.18% which clearl ly insist reliance on coal as the main fossil fuel in n thermal pow wer generation. Also, among the t States with w thermal installed generating cap pacity greate er than 1700 0 MW, West t Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand J an nd Orissa (E East), Punjab b (North) and Madhya Pradesh P and Chhattisgar rh (West) have alm most 100% of their ther rmal installed d capacities in coal. Moreover, only y Maharashtr ra (West) and Tam mil Nadu (So outh) have a mix of 3 or r more fuels, which const titute more t than 93% of f the total thermal installed cap pacity within the individu ual States (Gh hosh, 2010).
Indian Coal Fired Power Plants: Sustainable Technologies 787
Conversely, in case of capacity addition in coal-power generation, a careful consideration is required based on not only the countrys growth and security needs but also promising environmental challenges. Also, the power generation sector has grabbed the attention of public and policy makers due to increasing environmental awareness. Air pollution and greenhouse gas mitigation is considered to be the most economically efficient method of improving local air quality while addressing climate change by experts in this field (Boldt and Das, 2008). Energy technologies play a vital role in an expansion and enhancement of the power sector. Government policies should support the research, development, demonstration, and early deployment of appropriate power technologies. This is justified particularly in case of India as the government and public sector units in the country play a crucial role in determining the direction and focus of the power sector. But the corresponding analysis of robust technology policies is really less in India. So, the purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the sustainable technologies used in coal fired power generation worldwide and also to provide various alternative technological options which are suitable for application in India in a sustainable manner.
COAL POWER TECHNOLOGIES World Scenario

The proposed hasty increase in coal fired capacity calls for an assessment of emerging advanced technologies that meet the existing and expected future challenges. The majority of coal power plants worldwide utilize subcritical pulverized coal technology, but a substantial percentage, 22% of the installed coal-fired capacity, is supercritical and ultra supercritical (USC). Supercritical and USC are fully commercial options. These technologies are suitable for all types of coals and can achieve significant efficiency improvements compared to subcritical technology leading to 10-20% CO2 reduction. In the past, supercritical and USC were used mostly in developed countries, but developing countries are also using these in the last 10-15 years. The best example is of China that had 30 GWs installed capacity (utilizing supercritical technology) at the end of 2006 and is expected to have 120 GWs by the end of 2007 (World Bank, 2008). However, there is now a range of advanced, efficient and sustainable technologies are available internationally for generating coal fired electricity. Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion (CFBC) has gained significant acceptance, but it is mainly used with low quality fuels and plant efficiency similar to subcritical plants. Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) for hard coal is a commercial option, but not economically competitive yet. It promises to achieve higher efficiency and may have a competitive advantage as its costs are reduced with more experience being accumulated and if carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) are required in the future.
Indian Coal Power Technologies

The total operating coalfired power plants in India has 101 GW of generation capacity; 57% of the total operating coalfired power plants are younger than 20 years; 37% are younger than 10 years; 29% have a generation capacity above 300 MW; 1% have supercritical steam parameters; 1% that are younger than 20 years has supercritical steam parameters and 2% that are younger than 10 years has supercritical steam parameters (Finkenrath et al. 2010). Accordingly, Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) based subcritical pulverized coal (PC) combustion technologies licensed from various international manufacturers is the backbone of Indias coal-power sector. According to World Bank (2008), supercritical plants are being introduced at unit sizes of 660 MW and 800 MW. Six 660 MW units are under construction at Sipat and North Karanpura plants. Also, supercritical plants have been specified for five ultra-megapower plants (4,000 MW each) which have received approval and are proceeding to be implemented. At present, the need to increase generating capacity is the factor which primarily drive technology investment decisions in the Indian power sector resulting in the cheapest and least risky technology
i.e. subcritical PC. While the recent Integrated Energy Policy Report (PC, 2006) calls for technology missions in various coal utilization technologies, less attention is paid in general to technology policy for the future of the coal power sector in India. However, Central Electricity Authority (CEA) set guidelines on the introduction of large supercritical plants are appropriate and clear. CEA recommends that 800-1,000 MW supercritical plants are utilized with steam conditions in the 565oC to 593oC range or even higher depending on site-specific techno-economic considerations. The comparison of performances of these technologies in India compared to worldwide be shown in table 1.
Table 1: Comparison of Performance of Technologies in India and Worldwide
Technology Subcritical PC Supercritical PC Ultra supercritical PC Circulating Fluidized Bed Oxy fuel IGCC India Almost all Sipat-I TPS; Barh TPS Surat lignite TPS, Akrimota lignite TPS R&D, pilot scale plant. Plans for demonstration plant Worldwide Standard technology worldwide Europe (Denmark, Netherlands, Germany), Japan, USA, China, Canada. Netherlands, Denmark, Japan. USA, Europe, Japan, China, Canada. Development and planned pilot plants in Europe, Australia, Canada. Useful mainly for CCS. A 6 MW unit in Europe, 100 MW demo plant in USA, biomass IGCC in Brazil. Widespread use for chemicals production and polygeneration.
TECHNOLOGY POLICY IMPLICATIONS, CHALLENGES AND CONSTRAINTS

The performance and cost characteristics of technologies can vary significantly depending on technical and economic assumptions. It is found that supercritical PC and CFBC rank as the best overall technology options in the present circumstances as supercritical PC has advantages like its efficiency, maturity, and relatively low cost while CFBC has advantages like its fuel flexibility and reduction in SO2 and NOx emissions. Poor efficiency and environmental drawbacks of subcritical PC confirms that it is not the best overall option though it is the cheapest and most reliable technology today. Oxy-fuel combustion and IGCC are currently not suitable because of their low maturity and relatively high costs, in spite of their better efficiency and environmental advantages. The technology assessment and analysis indicate that the technical and environmental performance of any particular technology is rapidly evolving globally. Therefore, it is wise step for India not to rely on a particular technology at present for the long-term, but rather to keep its technology options open. Certain measures enhancing plant efficiency should be adopted. It is estimated that nearly all existing power plants can improve their efficiency by 1-2%, and efficiency improvement by one percentage point would reduce coal use and other environmental impacts by about 3% (Sharma, 2004). Current losses in the Indian technology and development system are very high and reducing these losses to a more convenient 10% will release power equivalent to about 10,000-12,000 MW of capacity (CEA, 2007). The broad challenges facing Indian coal power sector include an urgent need to increase energy and electricity availability for human and infrastructure development, increasing energy security, local environment protection and pollution control and control of greenhouse gas emissions particularly carbon dioxide. On the contrary, there are several constraints which further complicate meeting these broad challenges like availability and quality of domestic coal, limited financial resources, inadequate technical capacity for research and development, manufacturing, and operations and maintenance and the institutional characteristics of the Indian power sector.
CONCLUSION
Modified operating practices and robust technology policy analysis should be critically used to ensure that India makes the appropriate technology choices as it attempts to add substantial coal-power generation capacity in the coming decades. The preliminary analysis indicates the country should not make rigid technology choices presently because of the evolving nature of challenges of the coal-
Indian Coal Fired Power Plants: Sustainable Technologies 789
power generation options. Thus, the short-term focus should be to wait for making the right choices by enhancing the overall efficiency of the existing power system and by deploying available highefficiency combustion technologies. At the same time, a strategic research and development program must be targeted to advance key technology options and keep them open while new and emerging technologies worldwide must be monitored and assessed continuously.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First author sincerely acknowledge and thank the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. of India, for supporting his PhD research work, which is the basis of this paper.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] Boldt, J. and Das, A. (2008). Study on Environment and Energy in India. EU-India Cooperation on Climate Change, available at http://ec.europa.eu/clima/documentation/international/docs/consolidated_report_0608.pdf, assessed on 14/12/2010. CEA (Central Electricity Authority), (2000). Sixteenth Electric Power Survey of India, Central Electricity Authority, Government of India. CEA (Central Electricity Authority), (2007). Report of the Working Group on Power for 11th Plan, Central Electricity Authority, Government of India, see http://cea.nic.in/planning/WG%2021.3.07%20pdf/03%20Contents.pdf. CEA, (2010). Power Scenario at a Glance. Central Electricity Authority, Planning Wing, Integrated Resource Planning Division, Sewa Bhawan, R.K. Puram, New Delhi. Sharma, D. (2004). Coal-fired power plant heat rate and efficiency improvement in India, presented at Workshop on NearTerm Options to Reduce CO2 Emissions from the Electric Power Generation Sector in APEC Economies, February, Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), Queensland, Australia. Finkenrath, M., Smith J. and Volk D. (2012). CCS Retrofit: Analysis of the Globally Installed Coal-Fired Power Plant Fleet. Sustainable Energy Policy and Technology Directorate, International Energy Agency, Paris, France. Ghosh, S. (2010). Status of thermal power generation in India - Perspectives on capacity, generation and carbon dioxide emissions. Energy Policy, 38 (11), 68866899. IEA (International Energy Agency), (2004). Energy Balances of Non-OECD Countries 2001- 2002 (2004 Edition), International Energy Agency, Paris, France. MoP, (2011). Annual Report, 2009-10, Ministry of Power, Government of India, Shram Shakti Bhawan, Rafi Marg, New Delhi. Parikh, K. S. (2009). Indias Energy Needs, CO2 Emissions and Low Carbon Options. In: 22nd International Conference on Efficiency, Cost, Optimization, Simulation and Environmental Impact of Energy Systems. August 31 September 3, 2009, Foz do Iguau, Paran, Brazil. PC (Planning Commission), (2006). Integrated Energy Policy: Report of the Expert Committee, Planning Commission, Government of India, see http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/rep_intengy.pdf. PC (Planning Commission), (2008). Eleventh Five Year Plan of India, Sections on Energy of Eleventh Plan (20072012). Planning Commission, Government of India. TERI, (2006). National Energy Map for India. Technology Vision 2030: Summary for Policy Makers. Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India, New Delhi, India. Sengupta, I., (2007). Regulation of suspended particulate matter (SPM) in Indian coal-based thermal power plants: A static approach. Energy Economics 29, 479502. WDR, (2000). World Development Report 1999/2000: Entering into the 21st century. The World Bank, Washington DC. World Bank, (1999). Fueling Indias Growth & Development: World Bank Support for Indias Energy Sector, World Bank, Washington, DC. World Bank, (2008). Clean Coal Power Generation Technology Review: Worldwide Experience and Implications for India. Background Paper, India: Strategies for Low Carbon Growth. World Bank, Washington, DC.
Environmental Clearance for Infrastructure Projects in India

Niraj Sharma1, Rajni Dhyani2, Sumi Biswas3 and Anil Singh4
1Principal
Scientist, ES Division, CSIR-CRRI, New Delhi, India; sharmaniraj1990@rediffmail.com Student, AcSIR, CSIR-CRRI, New Delhi, India; rajnidhyani_84@rediffmail.com 3Reasearch Intern, ES Division, CSIR-CRRI, New Delhi, India; sumi_2285@yahoo.com 4Head, ES Division, CSIR-CRRI, New Delhi, India; anilsingh1234@gmail.com
2Phd
AbstractA nations infrastructure development plays a vital role in socio-economic development of that country. However, these developments should not have adverse affect on environment. In India, various Rules/Regulations/Acts have been stipulated by the Central and State Government(s) which make the infrastructure development and environmental sustainability go hand in hand. Earlier in India, during the execution of infrastructure project, Environmental Clearance was considered as administrative requirement rather than statutory requirement. However, by introduction of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) notifications of May 1994 various development activities projects have been brought under the purview of Environmental Clearance process, if they meet the threshold criteria specified under the notification, making it mandatory to obtain EC before starting of the projects. In India, infrastructure projects may have to obtain any of the following Environmental Clearance (i) Prior Environmental Clearance [(EIA, Notification, 14th September 2006 (amendments 2009) under the Environment Protection Act 1986], (ii) Forest Clearance [Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 including Forest (Conservation) Rules 2003], (iii) Wildlife Clearance [Wildlife Conservation Act 1972] and (iv) Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Clearance (Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 2011). Based on the location of the site or threshold criteria of the project, various infrastructures projects may require any one or more clearances which could be obtained concurrently as per the guidelines of Ministry of Environment & Forest (MoEF) Govt. of India. In any case, all the infrastructure project(s)/activities are required to comply with various environmental laws whether they require any of the Environmental Clearance (s) or not. Many-a-times, these environmental clearances are considered as hindrance in the execution of infrastructure projects as various issues such as environmental, resettlement & rehabilitation (R&R) and land acquisition etc need to be dealt with during the Environmental Clearance process. The present paper elaborates on various Environmental Clearances procedures, which any infrastructure development project may have to obtain. It is expected that the paper will give an insight in to whole environmental clearance process in India. Keywords: Infrastructure projects, Environmental Clearance(s), Environmental Laws, Environmental Impact Assessment
INTRODUCTION
Infrastructure includes basic facilities like communications systems, water and power lines, roads, highways, airports etc. which are not only required for development of economy but also required for the overall welfare of the society. Well developed infrastructure can be taken as yard stick for countrys economic as well as social development (John, 2011). Inadequate infrastructure is recognized as a major constraint on rapid growth. In India, 2011 Census shows an increase in the urban population from 27.8% in 2001 to 31.2% in 2011, which is expected to exceed 40.0% by 2030. This would generate a heavy demand for better quality infrastructure in urban areas, especially water, sewerage, public transport and low cost housing (GOI, 2011). For the consistent and sustained growth/ development country needs synergism between economy and infrastructure development. Huge investment has been made by Central and various State governments to improve infrastructure facilities. Many times, development of infrastructure
Environmental Clearance for Infrastructure Projects in India 791
may violates various environmental laws/ rules and regulations or required land in ecologically sensitive areas like forest, coastal zone, protected areas: Wildlife sanctuary, National park etc due to their siting/ location requirements, which results in disturbance of the environmental setting of these ecologically sensitive areas mostly due to sheer size of the project or activity associated with it during different stages of development viz., Pre-construction, during Construction and Operation stage. It is vital for planning and development of any infrastructure project to ensure that development should not be done at the cost of environment or loss of natural resources. In India, ecologically sensitive areas and other environmentally significant areas had given patronage of stringent rules and regulation in form of Environmental Clearances. Apart from these due to nature and size of the proposal project activity the surrounding environment may also be adversely affected, requiring projects/ activities to initiate measures/ safeguards so that there adverse environmental impacts can be completely avoided or minimised to an acceptable level. Overall any project or activities including infrastructure project may require any of the following four Environmental Clearance viz. 1. Prior Environmental Clearance [under Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Notification, 14th September 2006 (amendments 2009) under the Environment Protection Act 1986], 2. Forest Clearance [under Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 including Forest (Conservation) Rules 2003], 3. Wildlife Clearance [under Wildlife Conservation Act 1972] and 4. Coastal Regulation Notification 2011). Zone (CRZ) Clearance (under Coastal Regulation Zone
Various development activities projects have been brought under the purview of Environmental Clearance process, if they meet the threshold criteria specified under the notification, making it mandatory to obtain any one, two or EC before starting of the projects. The above mentioned act/ rules and guidelines are stipulated to promote to keep pace of infrastructure development swift as well as conservation of environment. The present paper elaborates on various Environmental Clearances, which any infrastructure development project may have to obtain. It is expected that the paper will give an insight in to whole environmental clearance process in India.
Prior Environmental Clearance Under EIA Notification of Sept. 14th, 2006 (As Amended in 2009)
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has become one of the most successful policy innovations of the 20th century for environmental conservation and management and a pre-requisite for funding by various International funding agencies like World Bank, UNEP, ADB) etc. In India, to mitigate and cease the adverse environmental and social impact of the developmental activities and infrastructure project under the Environment Protection Act (1986), Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification was introduced [presently EIA Notification, 14th September 2006 (amendments 2009)](MoEF 2006; 2009). This notification has been introduced with a spirit to ensure sustainable development. In India, Prior Environmental Clearance (EC) is taken for new as well as for expansion/ up-gradation/ modification of existing projects/ activities as per EIA notification 2006(amendments 2009). Under EIA notification 2006, different industrial projects/ processes/ developmental/ infrastructure activities have been divided into 8 major heads requiring EC either from the Central Government (MoEF) or at State Level from the State Environmental Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA). As per the EIA notification 2006, various industrial and developmental/ infrastructure activities requiring EC have been categorized into Category A and Category B as per the threshold criteria/ conditions stipulated under the notification (Sharma et al. 2007). The categorization of projects and activities has been based on the spatial extent of potential impacts on human health and natural and manmade resources. Physical Infrastructure has been kept in Category 7 as per the EIA Notification 2006 (amendment 2009). Projects under Category includes 7(a) Air ports; 7(e) Ports,
Harbors and Category 7(f) Highways (Table 1). As per EIA Notification, various project categories has been further divided into different category based on project type and further sub divided into category A and B based on their threshold limit. These projects are appraised both at centre (Category A) as well as state level (Category B) depending upon the criteria specified under the notification and has to undergo EC procedure like any other project depending on the Category (A or B) of the project. Category B projects are appraised at state level by State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) through a duly constituted State Level EAC, if General Condition (GC) applies to these two project or activity specified they will be treated as Category A if located in whole or in part within 10 km from the boundary. It is also stipulated that under General Condition (GC), any project or activity specified in Category B will be treated as Category A if located in whole or in part within 10 km from the boundary of (i) Protected Areas notified under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, (ii) Critically Polluted areas as notified (changed to identified as per December 1st, 2009 Amendments of the EIA notification of September 14th, 2006) Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) from time to time, (iii) Notified ecosensitive areas, (iv) inter-state boundaries and international boundaries. These projects are appraised as per EIA Notification 2006 (Amendments 2009) (MoEF, 2009) (Table 1). The Prior Environmental Clearance (EC) Process for New Projects comprises mainly four stages (Fig. 1) viz., Screening, Scoping, Public Consultation and Appraisal of project by EAC or SEAC, as the case may be. In any development/ infrastructure projects of Category A and Category B1 has to carry out public consultation/ hearing for the people affected people (PAPs) by that project activity and will also take comment/concern/ queries of various stakeholders who have plausible stake in the environmental impacts of the project or activity. This aides in decision making and project implementation process to avoid, reduce, or mitigate potential negative impacts and enhance positive impacts, sustainability and developmental benefits during the design stage8. The whole EIA report is made available to various stakeholders and also discussed in Public Consultation/ Public Hearing process. The Public Consultation enclosing public hearing is carried out as per the prescribed procedure which has been described in details in EIA Notification (2006) (as amended in 2009). In fact, the overall objective of the Public consultation process is to disseminate project information related to its impact on environmental and socio-economic aspects as to bring view of general public and PAPs into decision making process. Screening
Scoping
Public Consultation
Appraisal of Projects by EAC (Cat. A)/ SEAC (Cat. B)

Fig. 1: Different Stages of Prior Environmental Process in India
Table 1: Threshold Criteria for Prior Environmental Clearance of Various Infrastructure Projects as per EIA Notification of Sept. 14th, 2006(As Amended in 2009)
Clause 7 Project or Activity Air ports 7(a) Ports, Harbours, break waters, dredging. 7(e) Physical Infrastructure Including Environmental Services Category with Threshold Limit Conditions if Any A B All projects including Note: Air Strips, which do not airstrips, which are for involve bunkering/ refuelling facility commercial use. and on Air Traffic Control, are exempted 5 million TPA of cargo < 5 million TPA of cargo General Condition shall apply handling capacity and/or Note: handling capacity Capital dredging inside ports/ harbours 10,000 1. (excluding fishing and outside the ports or harbours TPA of fish handling harbours) and channels are included; capacity 2. 2. Maintenance dredging is exempt provided it formed part of the original proposal for which Environment Management Plan (EMP) was prepared and environmental clearance obtained., General Condition shall apply. i) State Highways i) New National High Note: Highways include Project; and (ii) State ways; and expressways. ii) Expansion of National Highway expansion projects in hilly terrain High ways greater than (above 1,000m AMSL) 30 KM, involving and or ecologically additional right of way sensitive areas. greater than 20m involving land acquisition and passing through more than one State.
Highways
7(f)
Forest Clearance as per Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 [Including Forest (Conservation) Rules 2003] Over the years due to the population growth and increased land requirement for various developmental activities, forests are cut down and the forest land being diverted legally as well as illegally for non-forest purposes in many areas to create new locations for population settlements as well as for various developmental activities. Government has tried to protect these forests by declaring them Protected or Reserved Forest etc. and by creating various rules and regulation to safeguard them from anthropogenic activities and/or for non-forest purposes/activities. Most important amongst them are the Indian Forest Act (1927) and the Forest (Conservation) Act (1980) including Forest Conservation Rules (2003). All proposals for diversions of such areas to any nonforest purpose, irrespective of its ownership, would require the prior approval of the Central Government i.e. (MoEF). Nevertheless, the, felling of trees in these private plantations shall be governed by various State Acts and Rules. Felling of trees in notified private forests will be as per the working plan/management plan duly approved by Government of India (MoEF, 2004).The sole purpose of these guidelines are to avoid any kind of alteration in forest ecosystem and if it is not possible to fully avoid that, then stipulate strict conditions and ensure through monitoring to minimize any adverse impact on forests. There are certain statutory provisions under the rules and guidelines which have to be followed for obtaining approval (MoEF, 2006). For example, in case of road/ highway infrastructure projects many a times, only a small portion/stretch of a long highway/road passes through the forest. In these cases, it is advisable that the project should be made in such a way that it does not require additional forest land or even better that completely avoids the forest land (Sharma et al. 2009). If additional forest land requirement is unavoidable due to technical reasons, a separate package i.e. out of the whole package may be considered for the portion likely to pass through the forestland. In this way unnecessary time delays for obtaining Prior Environmental Clearance/Forest Clearance (in case of road/ highway project) for the whole road corridor/package, including that portion of the corridor which is not under the forest land, can be avoided.
For the proposals involving forest land up to 5 ha except the proposals related to mining and regularization of encroachment, the Regional Chief Conservator of Forests, who heads the Regional Office, has been empowered to take decisions on. Proposals involving forest land up to 40 ha are sent to the concerned regional offices of MoEF. These offices are situated at Shillong, Lucknow, Chandigarh, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar and Bengaluru. In regional offices of the MoEF, proposals involving forest land between 5-40ha are examined by the State Advisory Group (SAG) pertaining to the concerned State/UT. In MoEF at New Delhi, the proposals involving forest land more than 40 ha are examined by Forest Advisory Committee (FAC) constituted under Sec. 3 of the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980. The decision is then taken by the Competent Authority in the MoEF on the basis of the recommendations of the FAC. The decision is then taken by the Competent Authority in the MoEF, New Delhi on the basis of the recommendations of the SAG. A detailed procedure for obtaining forest clearance requiring approval / recommendation at the State Govt. and Central Level has been shown through flow diagrams in Fig.2. According to the existing procedure, the project proponent has to fill the prescribed Form A related to obtaining forest clearance [Seeking Approval of the proposal by the State Government and other Authorities under Section 2 of the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980] that has to be vetted/approved by the State Government [through various steps involving approval / recommendation from District Forest Officer/ (Chief) Conservator of Forest/State Forest Department (Part I to Part V of the Form A for Forest Clearance)] and then finally by the Central Govt. at the MoEF/ any other authority, depending upon the area of the forest land proposed to be acquired by the project proponent Fig. 2.
Wild life Clearance Under the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972

Government of India through MoEF introduced the Wild Life (Protection) Act in 1972, to save the endangered species of flora and fauna as well as those who are on the verge of extinction. The first National Park in India was declared in 1935, now famous as the Corbett National Park and since Independence, there has been a steady rise in the number of Protected Areas (National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserve and Community Reserve), especially after the enactment of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972). With increase rapid rise in human population and our dependency on natural resources natural habitat for animals are shrinking. In order to safeguard, protect and better manage wildlife and Central Government in the year 2003, constituted National Board for Wild Life (NBWL) under Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act (2003) which is headed by Prime Minister of India. The main functions of NBWL is to promote conservation, to frame policies for development of wildlife and forests, management of protected areas, controlling poaching and illegal activities, to carry out impact assessment of various projects /activities on wildlife and its habitat and to recommend state govt. on alteration of boundaries of National Park and Sanctuaries. As such, no developmental activities are permitted in these protected areas. Moreover, in order to control the developmental activities inside and around these protected areas, several restrictions are made to ensure controlled development which is not detrimental to wildlife in these protected areas. As per EIA Notification Sept. 14th, 2006, environmental clearance requires that any infrastructure or other developmental activities (as per the stipulated conditions) requires Wildlife Clearance, if it is proposed to be located in or within 10 Km of any Wildlife Sanctuary or National Park as notified under the Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972). Procedure for obtaining Wildlife Clearance is almost similar to the forest clearance. However, it is even more difficult than forest clearance, if the proposed site is located within wildlife sanctuary or national park. Developmental activities within 10 km radius are also closely scrutinized through EIA clearance to ensure that these developmental activities in no way adversely affect the wildlife. A detailed procedure for obtaining Wildlife Clearance has been shown in Fig.3 as flow diagram. As per the General Conditions specified
Form A
Proposal by User Agency (Part I of Form A)
State Govt. / UT
Returned if, incomplete Nodal Officer*
Deputy Conservator of Forests (Part II)
Scrutiny of documents/ Maps, Site Inspection, Enumeration of trees, preparation of formal proposal, Site Inspection Report
90 days Conservator of Forest (Part III) or (DFO)
210 days
30 days
Site Inspection, Specific Recommendations acceptance or Otherwise
Recommendations of Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (Part IV)
State Government/Union Territory Administration (Concerned Secretary)(Part V) 60 days Recommendations Chief Conservator of Forest or CoF of Regional Office of MoEF
Central Govt. (MoEF) 15 days
Regional Office of MoEF (For Area upto 40ha)
Area upto 5ha. Other than Mining & Regularization or Encroachment
Area 5-40ha Including Mining and Encroachment Proposals
Ministry of Environment & Forest (MoEF) Area>40ha (Copy of concerned Regional office of MoEF)
45 days Consultation with Regional Empowered Committee (State Advisory Groups) Forest Advisory Committee (FAC) (MoEF) Site inspection (If required)
Scrutiny, Remarks, Recommendations 45 days
Final Approval
Scrutiny, Remarks & Recommendations
MoEF (Competent Authority)
Rejected (Case Returned to Concerned State with Remarks)
Stage I Clearance (In-Principle Approval)
Communicated to State Govt. With a Copy to Project Proponent
Stage I Clearance granted with Conditions Specified (e.g. NPV, CA, Penal CA, Cost of Environmental Damages)etc.
No Physical Handover of Forest Land
Compliance Report Received from concerned State Govt. / UT
Final Clearance from MoEF (Competent Authority) (Stage II Clearance)
Physical Handover of Forest Land
Fig. 2: Procedure for Obtaining Forest Clearance under Section 2 of the Forest (Conservation) Act (1980)
Part- I
Proposal for Investigation & survey in National Park/ Sanctuary
Opinion of Incharge N.P/WLS Opinion of CWLW (attach signed copy)
Part -II
Project Details to be filled by the Applicant
DOCUMENTS REQUIRED 1. Project report, 2. Map (1:150000 scales) of the area, 3. Report of 2 alternatives; 4. Biodiversity impact assessment report; 5. Details of displacement of people
Recommendations
Part-III
Completed by Officer In charge of National Park/Wild Life Sanctuary (within 30 days of the receipt of PART-II)
DOCUMENTS REQUIRED Positive impacts & negative impacts due to diversion, Management Plan and other important details (attach copy)
Recommendations
Part-IV
Completed by the Chief Wild Life Warden (within 15 days of the receipt of PART-II & PART-III)
Recommendations DOCUMENTS REQUIRED Opinion of the State Board for Wild Life (attach copy)
Part-V
Completed by the Department In charge of Forest & Wild Life in consultation with State board (within 30 days of receipt of PART-II, III, IV)
Rejection
Submitted to MoEF
Resubmission
Clearance according to Stipulated Conditions
Review of clearance by CEC
Fig. 3: Procedure for Wildlife Clearance in National Park/ Sanctuaries for Developmental Activity under Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972)
under the EIA Notification, Sept. 14th, 2006, if any new or up gradation of project of Category B which passes within 10Km of the boundary of protected areas notified under the Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972), the project will be treated as Category A Project and will be appraised by the MoEF at Central level which will also include conducting Public Hearing as per the specified procedure. It is important to note that the procedure for obtaining Environmental Clearance is separate then the
Wildlife Clearance as per the Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972). However, Wildlife Clearance is prerequisite for obtaining Environmental Clearance. Both of these clearances can be processed concurrently by the project proponent/user agency. Wildlife clearance is a prerequisite for forest clearance for the diversion of forest and located in protected area. However, for both, the clearance process can be taken up concurrently. Further, as per the O.M. dated 31st March, 2011 by MoEF, the prior environmental clearance can be granted to project involving protected area/ forest land, before wildlife clearance but the formal prior environmental clearance will be issued only after the Stage -I forestry clearance for the forestland involved in the project has been obtained and submitted. A maximum time limit of one year has been provided to project proponent during which time the proposal will be kept in abeyance. In case, if the project proponent fails to submit the formal forestry clearance, the project will stand rejected and process for obtaining prior environmental clearance will start afresh.
Costal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Clearance under Environment (Protection) Act 1986
Indias coastline is about 7,516 km long and it is under increasing pressure due to high rate of human population and increase in anthropogenic activities along the coastal areas. Development along the coast has resulted in degradation of coastal ecosystems and thinning in the coastal resources. To protect the coastal ecosystems and habitats, MoEF has issued Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) 2011 notification under the provisions of Environment (Protection) Act 1986 including the Environment (Protection) Rules 1986 replacing the earlier CRZ notification of February 19th, 1991. The CRZ notification is a specialized legislation, which has been introduced with the intention of protecting the coastal environment of India. As per the recent CRZ notification, the coastal regulation zone has been defined as the land area from High Tide Line (i.e. HTL) to 500m on the landward side along the sea front. The CRZ area also include the land area between HTL to 100m or width of the creek whichever is less on the landward side along the tidal influenced water bodies (that are connected to the sea and are at a distance at which the salinity concentration exceed the limit of 5parts per thousand, measured during the driest period of the year). The CRZ also includes the water and the bed area between the Low Tide Line (i.e LTL) to the territorial water limit (12Nm) in case of sea and the water and bed area between LTL at the bank to the LTL on the opposite side of the bank, of tidal influenced bodies. For the purpose of conserving and protecting the coastal areas and marine waters the CRZ areas have been classified as CRZ-I (areas that are ecologically sensitive and the geomorphologic features which play a role in the maintaining the integrity of coast such as mangroves, corals and coral reefs, sand dunes, mudflats, National Parks, sanctuaries,, forests, turtle nesting grounds, horse and shoe crab habitats etc.), CRZ- II( the areas that have been developed up to or close to the shoreline, CRZ III( the areas that are relatively undisturbed and those do not belong to either CRZ-I or II, which include coastal zone in rural areas ( developed and undeveloped) and also areas within municipal limits and CRZ-IV(the water area from LTL to 12Nm on the seaward side and the water area of the tidal influenced water body from the mouth of the water body at the sea up to the influence of tide measured as 5ppt) The CRZ notification has provided guidelines / list of the projects/activities which are completely prohibited or regulated in these CRZ areas depending upon the CRZ classification. Only those activities or projects which have been permitted or regulated may be allowed in the CRZ areas. Thus due to nature and their locations various Ports and Harbour projects, airports (e.g. Navi Mumbai), sea water intake and outfalls etc are require to obtain CRZ clearance as per the specified procedure. Any project seeking CRZ clearance is required to submit and fill the form prescribed in the CRZ notification along with the HTL & LTL demarcation map (along with 500m and 200m line demarcated with respect to HTL) and CRZ classification map (as per the CRZ notification) carried out by one of the authorised agencies of MoEF on the map of scale 1:25,000 superimpose on the Coastal Zone Management Map (CZMP). It is essential that the State Coastal Management Zone Authority clearly provide recommendation in its favour and forwards it to MoEF for CRZ clearance.
CONCLUSION
Infrastructure projects mostly accompanied by various environmental and social issues varying from disruption in the environmental setting of the project site, over exploitation of natural resources to land/ property acquisition, migration of people, compensation etc. and these environmental and social issues play a major role during all the phases of the project viz., Pre-construction/ Planning, Construction and Operation Phase. Many times it becomes unavoidable to construct any project near ecologically sensitive area or needs land acquisition or migration of people due to their strategic location, major financial implications or no alternate left. In those cases, EIA study along with other rules and regulation ensures that such projects environmental impacts are minimum to surrounding or to the people social or economical status. Earlier in India before 1994 EIA Notification, environmental clearance was considered as administrative requirement rather than statutory requirement. With global awareness/ concerns about the environmental the EIA process strengthen in India with its 1994 EIA notification which made environmental clearance a statuary requirement and paved way for the sustainable development. Later the then EIA process was further refined and revised in 14th September 2006 EIA notification. Environmental Clearances become way more important because being a developing economy sometimes economic growth become top priority rather than environmental conservation and well being. So, it becomes way more important to thoroughly adhere to the process of environment clearance. Due to bubbling infrastructure sector in India the EC process is considered as time consuming and as green hurdle or brake to economic as well as to infrastructure growth. Sometimes environmental clearance process for infrastructure project attracting ecologically sensitive area or some significant social issues can run into year or so. This not only escalates the cost of the projects but also its importance and increases technical difficulties of that project. To simplify the clearance process MoEF has initiated the process of establishing an independent National Regulator [National Environment Appraisal and Monitoring Authority (NEAMA)] to bring about greater professionalism in the appraisal of projects vis--vis environment and forestry clearances. It should be always kept in mind that the project may or may not require to take one / two or any of the environmental clearance but has to comply all the environmental rules / regulations stipulated by the Central or State Govt. defiance of which may attract stringent fine / punishment. Further, there is an urgent need to further strengthen the monitoring procedures so that compliance conditions indicated in these environmental clearances can be better monitored and complied.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are thankful to Director, CSIR-CRRI, New Delhi for kindly permitting to publish the present paper.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] John (2011). Infrastructure Development and Economic Growth website: http//www.chillibreeze.com/articles/infrastructureDevelopment-and-Economic-Growth.asp. MoEF (2004), Handbook of Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 (With Amendments made in 1988), Forest (Conservation) Rules, 2003(With Amendments made in 2004): Guidelines & Clarifications, Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India. MoEF (2006), MoEF Notification (Regarding Amendments in EIA Notification of Dept. 14th, 2006, Published in The Gazette of India: Extraordinary Part II) Dated Sept. 14, 2006, Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India (website: www.envfor.nic.in) MoEF (2009b), MoEF Notification (Regarding Amendments in EIA Notification of Dept. 14th, 2006, Published in The Gazette of India: Extraordinary Part II) Dated December, 1, 2009, Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India (website : www.envfor.nic.in) MoEF. Ministry of Environment & Forest, Govt. of India. Website: www.enfor.nic.in. Planning Commission (2011) Faster, Sustainable and More Inclusive Growth; An approach to the Twelfth Five Year Plan, Planning Commission, Govt. of India, October, 2011. Sharma, N., Dhyani, R. and Gangopadhyay S. (2009). Review of Environmental Laws and their Applicability to Road/Highway Projects. Journal of the Indian Roads Congress 70(2):165-185. Sharma N, Nair P, Gangopadhyay S (2007). Environmental Impact Assessment of Roads Projects: Salient Features Under Revised Notification (September 2006). Journal of the Indian Roads Congress; 68(3):253-270.
Author Index
Agrawal, Nikhil, 317 Agrawal, S.K., 259, 266 Agrawal, Shailesh Kr., 64 Ahmad, Z., 651 Ahuja, A.K., 259, 266, 334, 386 Alimchandani, C.R., 1 Anagal, Vaishali, 717 Anupam, Aditya Kumar, 737 Arya, Padmashree Anand S., 110 Atnurkar, Kanchan, 717
Aggarwal, Rajesh, 691
Bala, D.C., 521
Hussain, A., 651 Jagannathan, A., 281
Gosavi, Meenal, 491 Gosu, Vijayalakshmi, 778 Gupta, A., 237 Gupta, P.K., 259, 266, 274, 386 Gupta, Pramod, 325 Gupta, S.K., 64 Gupta, V.K., 317, 427 Gurjar, B.R., 393, 778, 785 Gurjar, Bhola Ram, 767
Balreddy, Muttana S., 457 Bansal, Deepak, 230 Bhargava, P., 259, 266 Bhaskar, D.V.M., Bhattacharjee, B., 75 Bhattacharyya, S.K., 243, 359 401, 476 Biswas, Sumi, 790 Bongirwar, Raksha V., 184
Chalisgaonkar, Rajendra, 658, 673 Chandrrasekar, 767 Chani, P.S., 152, 209 Chauhan, J.S., 161 Chauhan, M.P.S., 551 Chhabra, K.L., 760 Chourasia, Ajay, 243, 401, 413, 476
Chakrabarti, Anupam, 334, 420
Dalbehera, M.M., 243, 359 Deol, Sunny G., 592 Deoliya, Rajesh, 209 Deshmukh, S.K., 237 Dey, Tushar Kanti, 420 Dhyani, Rajni, 790 Dias, N., 191 Dwivedi, R.D., 463
Ganesan, N., 253 Gangopadhyay, S., 81 Ganjoo, B., 510 Garg, P.K., 577 Garg, Pankaj, 691 Garg, R.D., 521 Garg, R.K., 199 Goel, Manoj, 663 Goel, R.K., 463, 628 Goel, Rajeev,
Frederick, Franklin F.R., 427 Ganesan, K., 733
Kadaba, Raghunandan V., 291 Kadkade, D.G., 447 Kajale, Yogesh P., 94 Kalyanakrishnan, G., 733 Karade, S.R., 433, 438 Kaushik, S.K., 27 Kesavan, D., 360 Khaudhair, Ziyad A., 386 Krishan, Gopal, 691 Kulkarni, Poorva M., 680 Kumar, Ashok, 209 Kumar, C. Naveen, 557 Kumar, C.P., 691 Kumar, Dalip, 64 Kumar, N. Muni, 503 Kumar, Narendra, 485 Kumar, Praveen, 600, 638, 737 Kumar, Rakesh, 133, 699, 772 Kumar, Sharad, 638 Lakhani, Hitesh, 372 Lakumalla, N., 259, 266 Lohani, A.K., 663, 699, 708 Mahadik, Vinay, 372
Makade, S.H., 409 Mallesh, K.M., 606 Manrai, P., 510 Maruthupandian, Surya, 748 Mhaske, Sumedh, 623 Mitra, Alpana, 113 Mittal, Abhishek, 753
Jain, Kunal, 551 Jain, M.K., 557 Jain, P.K., 753, 733 Jain, S.S., 521, 551, 557, 568, 577, 584 Jain, Sanjay, 708 Johar, Amita, 577 Joshi, G.J., 531
800 Author Index
Mittal, Achal K., 317 Mittal, Neeta, 145 Mittal, Satyenda, 491, 503, 510 Mohan, Mukesh, 658, 673 Murugesan, A., 299
Nagarkar, Geeta, 717
Nagendra, R., 291 Narayan, K.R.S., 291, 306 Naveen, T.R., 457 Negi, S.K., 199 Noguchi, T., 46
Ojha, C.S.P., 651, 767 Padmanaban, R., 281

Palavesam, M., 733 Pandit, Koushik, 463 Panigrahi, S.K., 485 Parameswaran, Lakshmy, 748 Parashar, Jalaj, 413 Parida, M., 152, 568, 592 Parida, Purnima, 541 Parkash, Suraj, 347 Parulekar, Y.M., 380 Patel, Anisha, 717 Pathade, Vivek U., 623 Pradyumna, T. Anil, 753 Prasad, J.K., 64 Prasad, V.V.R., 628 Raj, Gautam G., 541 Raj, Ritu, 334 Rajeev, 760 Rajendra, Bagul Tushar, 772 Rajendra, Shingare Vilash, 772 Ramakrishnan, R., 611 Ramesh, G., 259, 266 Ransinchung, G.D. R.N., 638, 737 Rao, M.S., 691 Rao, V.V.L. Kanta, 748 Raut, Shweta J., 184 Reddy, G.R., 372, 380 Reddy, K.R.C., 339
Raj, Bharati, 253
Sakthivel, P.B., 281 Sameer, 485 Saran, Swami, 491 Sekar, A.S.S., 306 Sekhar, Ch. Ravi, 541 Shagoti, Archana N., 606 Shah, Yogesh U., 557 Sharma, Akanshu, 372 Sharma, Niraj, 790 Sharma, P.C., Sharma, R.K., 393 Sharma, Umesh Kumar, 420 Shashikala, A.P., 253 Sing,h Rakesh K., 592 Singh, Anil, 790 Singh, Anu, 221 Singh, D., 628 Singh, Heaven, 274 Singh, M., 463 Singh, Maninder, 600 Singh, Pooja, 152 Singh, R.D., 140, 118, 699, 708 Singh, S.K., 243, 347, 359, 401, 413 Singh, Sanjay, 658, 673 Singh, Tarvinder, 372 Singhal, Vivek, 584 Singla, Shivika, 140 Srinivasan, V., 199 Swami, Mansha, 592 Swarnkar, Dinesh, 177 Thakare, Kalpana R. (Kawathekar), 169 Thakare, Raju M., 169 Thapliyal, A., 628 Thirugnanam, G.S., 299 Tiwari, Archana, 177 Tiwari, Devesh, 557
Tandon, Mahesh, 12
Sadhale, K.D., 191 Sahakari, K.A., 191 Sahu, Ram Ranjan, 325
Vagadia, D.H., 531 Vaze, K.K., 372, 380 Velmurgan, S., 541 Verma, A., 628 Verma, H.K., 628 Viladkar, M.N., 463
Walvekar, P.P., 785
S Sponso ors
We express our sincer W re thanks to t all spon nsoring org ganisations for their help h in or rganizing the t Twenty y-Eighth Na ational Con nvention of f Civil Engineers and National Se eminar in th he most bef fitting mann ner.
D Departm ent of Sc cience and Techno ology, Ne ew Delhi i Building Material B ls and Te echnolog gy Promo otion C Council, New Del lhi National N l Building Construction Corporatio C on L , New Ltd. w Delhi Airports s Authori ity of Ind dia, New Delhi Council of Scient tific and Industri ial Resear rch, N Delhi Uttarakh hand Stat te Counc cil for Sci ience and d Technol logy, Deh hradun
Relianc ce Indust tries Ltd (Fibre ( M Marketing g Division n) Ministr ry of Eart th Scienc ces, New Delhi THDC India Lim mited (A JV of Go ovt. of In ndia & UP P)
Co-sponsors
B. G. Sh hirke Constructio on Techn nology Pv vt. Ltd., Pune P CSIR-C Central Road R Rese earch Ins stitute, N New Delh hi CSIR-C Central Building B Research h Institut te, Roork kee
ISBN 93-82062-61-0
9 789382 062615 >

Role of Infrastructure For Sustainable Development

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Twenty-eighth National Convention of Civil Engineers

& National Seminar on

Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development

Twenty-eighth h Nationa al Conven ntion of Civil C Eng gineers

Role of Infrastruct ture for r Sustai inable Develo opment t

EXC CEL IND DIA PU UBLISH HERS N Del New lhi

S.K. Singh M. Parida V.K. Gupta Ajay Chourasia

National Advisory Committee

Co-Chairman Er. Ashok Basa, FIE

Members Padmashree Prof. A.S. Arya Prof. A.K. Jain

Er. Jose Kurian

Er. L.K. Jain

Dr. S.R. Wate

Prof. Abhijeet Mukherjee

Dr. Shailesh Kr. Agrawal

Er. Dig Vijay Setia

Er. S.K. Mittal

Prof. C.V.R. Murty

Prof. D.N. Trikha

Er. Mangu Singh

Prof. D.K. Paul

Prof. Mahesh Tandon

Dr. G.M. Sabnis

Prof. Mukhesh Khare

Er. H.C.S. Berry, FIE

Er. H.O. Thakare, FIE

Er. Narendra Singh, FIE

Dr. Nagesh R. Iyer

Er. R.K. Rathore, FIE

Prof. Sudhir K. Jain

Dr. S. Nagabhusana Rao, FIE

Dr. R.D. Singh

Prof. R.K. Jain

Er. R.S.T. Sai

Convener Prof. V.K. Gupta, FIE

Co-Convener Prof. M. Parida, FIE

Treasurer Dr. B.R. Gurjar, FIE

Organising Secretary Er. S.K. Singh, FIE

Co-Organising Secretaries Er. Ajay Chourasia

Dr. Umesh K. Sharma

Finance Reception Registration Catering Venue Management

Dr. K.L. Rao Memorial Annual Lecture

State of the Art Lecture

94 110 113 118

Section A Sustainable Infrastructure Planning and Construction

145 152 161

184 191 199

Section B Green Building Construction and Green Retrofitting

221 230 237

Section C Advances in Construction Materials and Technologies

Section D Tall Buildings and Special Structures

Section E Design and Construction for Extreme Loads

Section F Repair and Rehabilitation of Structures

409 413 420 427

Section G Tunnelling, Underground Construction and Ground Improvement

476 485 491 503 510

Section H Transport Infrastructure System

Section I Water Resources & Management

Section J Waste Utilisation

Section K Environmental Aspects of Infrastructure Development

772 778 785 790 799

Dr. K.L. Rao Memorial Annual Lecture