Chng 1:

Vn chnh: Vn ln nht m a s mi ngi u vp phi khi hc assembly l s dng h nh phn v h thp lc phn.Tuy kh s dng nhng nhng u im m n mang li l rt nhiu, nhiu hn hn nhng kh chu ban u. Do , vic hiu r 2 h s trn l v cng cn thit. Nhng li th ca n s c cp r hn nhng phn sau 1.0 Tng quan: Chng ny s bn lun n vi vn quan trng v c bn bao gm: h nh phn v h thp lc phn(16), t chc h nh phn ( bits, nibbles, byte, words , double word), cc php tnh trn h nh phn, v b k t ASCII . y l nhng cht liu c bn v quan trng nht xy dng nn kin thc sau ny ca bn. Do , hy hc tht k trc khi bc qua chng sau. ng bo gi c tip nu nh bn cha thc s nm tht chc nh. 1.1 H s Hu ht cc my tnh hin nay u khng chp nhn h s 10. Thay vo chng ch chp nhn h s nh phn. Do , hiu c gii hn ca cc kiu s, chng ta phi hiu c cch my tnh miu t mt s. Hay ni cch khc, chng ta phi hiu mt s trong my tnh s c my tnh biu din ra sao? 1.1.1 Tng quan v h s 10 y l h s qu quen thuc vi chng ta v mi ngi u hiu qu r v n. Khi bn thy mt s 123, bn khng c ngh n gi tr 123 ca n. Thay vo bn hy th phn tch xem n c cu to nh th no? Trong thc t s 123 c hiu:

1*102 + 2 * 101 + 3*10

Hoc: 100+20+3 1.1.2 H s nh phn

Hu ht cc my tnh ( bao gm c my IBM PC) u vn hnh bng bng vic s dng logic nh phn. My tnh s dng 2 mc in th ( thng l 0v v +5v) . Vi mc in th ny c th biu din c 2 gi tr khc nhau . Hai gi tr ny c th l bt c s no, nhng theo quy c chng ta quy c l khng(0) v mt(1). Hai gi tr ny- tng ng- chnh l 2 gi tr c s dng trong h nh phn. Vy l r ngun gc ca 2 s 0 v 1 trong h nh phn ri nh. Lm vic trn h nh phn cng ging nh trn h thp phn; ch c 2 ngoi l: H nh phn ch chp nhn 2 s 0 v 1 H nh phn c s 2 ch ko s dng c s 10 Vic chuyn i c s gia 2 h s ny cng rt d dng. Ly V d vi: 110010102 khi chuyn qua h 10 s tnh nh sau: 1*2 + 1*2 + 0*2 + 0*2 + 1*2 + 0*2 + 1*2 + 0*2
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

= 128 + 64 + 8 + 2 = 20210 Vy , cng kh d phi khng no. Vic chuyn t h 10 qua h nh phn c kh hn 1 cht. Ta ly V d vi s : 1359 nh. - Ta bit 210=1024 v 211= 2048. So vi gi tr trn ta thy s m ln nht vi c s 2 nh hn 135 l 1024. Do chng ta c ch s u tin trong h nh phn l 1. Kt qu cn li: 1395-1024=335. Va ri l 210 ri ng khng. Tnh tip ( by gi l theo th t) 29=512. Ta thy 512>335 ri ng khng. Vy ch s tip theo s l 0. Gi ta c 2 ch s 10. Kt qu ca h 10 cn li vn l 335 Gi tnh tip. 28=256 <335 ri ng khng. Vy ch s tip theo s l 1. V ta c 3 s 101. Kt qu h 10: 355-256=79 Tip: 27=128>79 ri. Vy s tip theo s l 0 v kt qu h 10 vn l 79. Ta c dy mi 1010 Tip: 26=64<79 ri. Vy s tip theo s l 1 v kt qu h 10 s l: 79-64=15. Ta c dy nh phn mi: 10101 Tip : 25=32>15 ri. Vy s tip theo trong h nh phn s l 0. Kt qu h 10 vn gi nguyn. Ta c dy nh phn mi: 101010 Tip: 24=16>15 ri. Vy s tip theo trong h nh phn s l 0. Kt qu h 10 vn l 15. Ta c dy nh phn mi: 1010100 Tip 23=8<15 ri. Vy s tip theo s l 1. V kt qu l101001. S cn li h 10 l 7 Tip 22=4>1 ri. Nh trn ta s c dy nh phn mi : 1010011 v kt qu h 10 vn gi nguyn Tip 21=2>1 ri. Nh trn ta s c dy nh phn mi : 10100111 v kt qu h 10 vn gi nguyn Cui cng 20=1 ri. Vy ta s c dy nh phn: 101001111

c c th hi kh hiu nhng cc bn hy t bt lm th s thy rt d. Ngoi cch trn cn 1 cch khc l chia ly phn d ( hc ph thng) nhng ti m bo cch ny nhm d hn hn y. Mc d s nh phn ch hin hu rt t cc ngn ng bc cao nhng trong assembly n li xut hin mi ni. Vi mi s nh phn, chng ta c quyn vit vo bn tri n bao nhiu s khng 0 ty . V d 101 v 0000101 hay 00101 u biu din mt gi tr h 10 l 5. Chng ta chp nhn quy c: b qua mi s khng bn phi s nh phn. M, ngi ta thng tch cc ch s ra vi nhau bi du phy , cho d c hh. V d: 2,365,874,569. Vit nh th s d c hn rt nhiu so vi cch vit 2365874569 phi khng no? Vi s nh phn chng ta cng c mt cch vit ging nh th. Chng ta vit mt nhm

4bits thnh mt nhm v phn cch nhau bi 1 du cch. V d: 1010 1110 1110 1100 1111 0011 d dng hn na, chng ta s nh s cc bt vi quy c sau: - Bit ngoi cng bn phi s nh s 0 - Cc bits tip theo s nh s tip theo V d mt dy nh phn 8 bits : X7 X6 X5 X4 X3 X2 X1 X0 Bit v tr khng 0 cn c tn bit thp (low order L.O) Bit v tr ngoi cng bn tri cn c tn bit cao (hight order H.O) Cc bit gia s c gi theo s ca chng. 1.2 T chc d liu. 1.2.1 Bits n v thng tin nh nht trong my tnh c gi l mt bit n hay gi ngn gn l mt bit. Mt bit c th biu din 2 gi tr 0 v 1. C th bn s c n tng rng lng thng tin m mt bits mang li l v cng nh? S tht khng ng nh vy , vi 1 bit bn c th c mt lng thng tin rt ln Vi 1 bit bn c th miu t 2 cp i tng ( thng mang tnh i lp) no. V d nam hoc n, khng hoc mt, tt hoc m, ng hoc sai, . Tuy nhin, n khng th miu t mi i tng c (vi nhng i tng c nhiu hn 2 thuc tnh) 1.2.2 Nibbles Mt Nibbles l mt nhm gm 4 bits. Nibble cn c gi l semioctet (na octet) trong ng cnh mng my tnh v vin thng cng nh bi mt s t chc tiu chun. 1.2.3 Bytes Kiu d liu quan trng nht trong b vi x l 80x86 chnh l byte. Mt byte c cu to t 8 bits v l phn t d liu nh nht trong b vi x l 80x86. a ch b nh, cc a ch I/O trong x86 u l tnh bng byte. Cc bits trong mt byte c nh s t 0-7 ( hnh v)

Hnh 1.1: nh s bit trong mt byte Nh vy mt byte s gm c 2 nibbles:

Hnh 1.2: Hai nibbles trong mt byte Cc bt t 0-3 nm trong L.O nibble , cc bits 4-7 nm trong H.I nibble. Do cu to nh vy m mt byte s c biu din bi 2 ch s h thp lc phn ( t y t s vit tt nh).
8 Mt byte c cu to t 8 bit do n c th biu din c 2 (256)gi tr khc nhau .Ni chung, chng ta thng dng kiu byte miu t cc s trong khong t 0255. i vi s c du th gii hn s l -128+127.

Cc k t trong bng m ASCII v mt vi kiu d liu khc c th khng cn n 256 gi tr biu din, do , c th dng kiu byte biu din. Tuy nhin, vn c nhng kiu d liu cn nhiu hn 256 gi tr, v th kiu byte lc ny s khng . 1.2.4 Words Mt word l mt nhm gm c 16 bits. Chng ta nh s cc bits t 1-15 theo th t t phi qua tri:

Hnh 1.3: nh s bit trong word Cng ging nh byte,trong word, bit 0 c gi l L.O bit v bit 15 c gi l H.O bit. V mt word cng c cu to t 2 byte:

Hnh 1.4: Minh ha 2 byte trong mt word V tt nhin, mt word s gm 4 nibbles

Hnh 1.5: Mnh ha 4 nibbles trong mt word

Vi 16 bt ta c th biu din 216 (65 536) gi tr khc nhau t 065235 ( hoc -32768+32767 vi s c du ). Kiu gi tr integer, cc gi tr offset, segment u dng kiu word. 1.2.5 Double Words Doub word l g? Ngay ci tn ca n cng ni ln nh ngha rI : double Word c cu to t 2 word, v n c di 32 bits

Hnh 1.6: nh s bit trong mt double word Mt double word cng c th chia thnh 2 phn: H.O word v L.O word hay 4 bytes hoc 8 nibbles

Hnh 1.7: Nibbles, bytes words trong mt double word

1.3 H s thp lc phn (Hex) C mt vn ln vI s nh phn l biu din cc s ln. biu din s 20210 chng ta cn ti 8 bits.Nhng vi h thp phn chng ta ch cn 3 ch s, nh vy, n biu din mt s ngn gn hn h nh phn ri. H nh phn t r nhc im Khi lm vic vi cc s ln tuy nhin vi my tnh th y li l ngn ng d hiu nht. Tt nhin chng ta c quy tc chuyn i t h thp phn qua nh phn tuy nhin vic lm ny khng c hay cho lm. H Thp lc phn (thp lc phn) s gii quyt c vn ny. H thp lc phn c 2 tnh cht ni bt d thy: S thp lc phn rt nh gn v rt d chuyn i qua h nh phn v ngc li. Chnh v iu ny m hu ht cc my tnh ngy nay u c s dng h thp lc phn. Bi c s ca h thp lc phn l 16 nn chng ra s c quy tc chuyn i nh sau: ( ly V d vi s 1234 ): 1 * 163 + 2 * 162 + 3 * 161 + 4 * 160 hoc: 4096 + 512 + 48 + 4 = 466010. Mi ch s trong h thp lc phn c th biu din 16 gi tr t 015 trong h 10. Nhng trong h thp phn chng ta ch c 10 ch s, do , chng ta s s dng thm cc ch s t AF trong h thp lc phn. Di y l mt vi V d v h thp lc phn: 123416 DEAD16 BEEF16 0AFB16 FEED16 DEAF16 Nhng k t khi chng ta thng xuyn nhp cc s thp lc phn th li c mt vn ny sinh: Chng ta vn lm vic vi c s thp phnvy lm sao my tnh c th phn bit c chng y? Hu ht cc my tnh u khng cho php nhp ch s di do , chng ta phi chp nhn quy tc sau khi lm vic vi cc h s: Tt c cc gi tr s ( bt k c s no) u bt u bng mt ch s thp phn Cc s h thp lc phn s kt thc bng h. V d: 1231232h Cc s h nh phn ( nh phn) s kt thc bng b H thp phn c th c kt thc l t hay d

Mt vi V d v cch nhp h thp lc phn ng: 123416 DEAD16 BEEF16 0AFB16 FEED16 DEAF16 Nh cc bn c th thy, h thp lc phn rt d c v nh gn. Ngoi ra, chng ta c th d dng chuyn i gia h thp lc phn v nh phn. Cc bn tham kho bng sau:

Bng 1: Nh phn/Thp lc phn Nh phn 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 Thp lc phn 0 1 2 3 4

0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

Bng trn cung cp tt c cc thng tin m bn cn chuyn i gia h thp lc phn v nh phn v ngc li. Vic chuyn i rt n gin, cc bn ch vic thay th s thp lc phn tng ng bng gi tr nh phn ca n trong bng trn. V d: chuyn i: 0ABCDh v h nh phn ta ch cn thay th nh sau: 0 0000 A 1010 B 1011 C 1100 D 1101 Thp lc phn Nh phn

Vic chuyn i ngc li cng rt n gin. Trc ht chng ta cn thm vi s 0 vo bn tri s nh phn cn i sao cho s cc ch s chia ht cho 4( nh ni t trc, vic thm s 0 nh vy vn khng lm thay i gi tr ca s). Mt V d vi s: 1011001010. Chng ta s thm vo 2 s 0 ( thm bao nhiu l ty bn nhng 2 s l ti thiu) ta s c s 001011001010. By gi chng ta s chia thnh nhng nhm 4 bits: 0010 1100 1010. Cui cng chng ta ch cn nhn vo
bng trn tm ra kt qu thi. Cng vic ny tht n gin phi khng no, tri ngc hn vi vic chuyn i t h dec qua nh phn v ngc li. Nu bn thng xuyn phi chuyn i gia 2 h s ny th bn nn b ra vi pht ghi nh bng trn, n s gip bn rt nhiu y.

1.4 Cc php ton trn h thp lc phn v nh phn Cc php ton trn 2 h s ny gm c cng tr nhn chia v mt vi php ton s hc khc. Bn cn phi bit iu ny, tuy nhin bn khng cn phi l chuyn gia. Bn ch cn bit c th thc hin bng tay khi cn thi, trong thc t c rt nhiu loi my tnh c th lm gip bn cng vic ny ri. Cc php tnh cng nh trn h dec, iu duy nht bn cn nh h thp lc phn l: 10-1=E ( ch khng phi 10-1=9 :D ) // ch ny khng hiu sao tc gi khng ni g n cng tr m ch lu mt cu // cu hi kh din t thot nn tm gp cc li v cho ra cu ni kia :D

1.5 Cc php ton logic trn bits C 4 php ton logic thng dng trn h nh phn v thp lc phn : AND, OR ,XOR v NOT. Khng ging nh cc php ton s hc, cc php ton logic ny rt d lm bng tay. Bn hon ton c th tnh c d dng m khng cn my mc g c. Php AND: Php AND l mt php ton nh nguyn ( tc l ch chp nhn 2 ton hng). miu t mt cch ngn gn php ton AND ny ngi ta dng bng chn l. Bng chn l ca AND:

Bng 2: Bng chn l ca AND AND 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1

Nhn vo bng trn cc bn c th thy rt r kt qu ca php AND. d hnh dg hn: 0 and 0 = 0 0 and 1 = 0 1 and 0 = 0 1 and 1 = 1 Vy , vi php AND, cc bn ch cn nh: Nu c 2 ton hng u l 1 th kt qu l 1, cn li bng 0 Php OR Php OR cng l mt php ton nh nguyn. 0 or 0 = 0 0 or 1 = 1 1 or 0 = 1 1 or 1 = 1 V bng chn l ca OR: OR 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1

Cc bn thy kt qu ca n tri ngc hn vi php AND ng khng no. Cch nh ca n s l Nu mt trn 2 ton hng l 1 th kt qu s l 1, cn li bng 0

Php XOR Php XOR cng l mt php ton nh nguyn 0 xor 0 = 0 0 xor 1 = 1 1 xor 0 = 1 1 xor 1 = 0 V bng chn l ca XOR XOR 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

V cch nh ca XOR: Nu 2 ton hng ging nhau th kt qu bng 0, cn li bng 1 1" Php NOT Khng ging vi cc php ton trn, php NOT l mt php ton n nguyn. C ngha l n ch chp nhn mt ton hng. NOT 0 = 1 NOT 1 = 0 V bng chn l ca NOT s n gin hn: NOT 1.6 Cc php ton logic trn h nh phn Nh cc bn thy mc trn, cc php ton logic ch lm vic vi mi bit n. Tuy nhin, trong my tnh , chng ta li phi lm vic vi nhng s cc ln. Vy cc php logic s c thc hin nh th no? Rt n gin, chng ta s thc hin php logic theo tng bit (bit-by-bit). Mt V d, nu bn mun thc hin php AND vi mt s 8 bits, bn s phi thc hin php AND vi tng ct mt cch c lp: 1011 0101 1110 1110 -----------1010 0100 Php thc hin theo tng bit ny c th ng dng cho tt c cc php ton logic. Vic thc hin cc php ton logic trn h nh phn, nh cc bn thy, rt d dng phi khng no? Nu cc bn mun thc hin cc php logic trn h s khc th bt buc cc bn phi i v h nh phn. 0 1 1 0

1.7 S c du v khng c du Cho ti lc ny, chng ta vn coi cc s nh phn mang gi tr ca mt s khng du. S 000000 c coi bng 0, 000001 c coi bng 1, 000010 c coi bng 2.. cho ti v cng. Vy s m s c miu t nh th no? S c du c ni n cc phn trc nhng vic biu din cc s ny th cha c cp n. y chnh l vn m phn ny chng ta s ni n. c th biu din mt s m bng h nh phn chng ta c mt quy nh vi s cn biu din : s ca chng ta phi c mt s lng bit nht nh v s cc bit l mt s khng i . Vi b x l 80x86 chng ta c th gii hn s bit l 8, 16, 32 hoc mt s lng va phi cc bit. Vi mt s lng bit khng i chng ta c th biu din c mt s lng cc s nh phn nht nh. V d: vi 8 bit chng ta c th biu din c 256 s nh phn khc nhau, tt nhin l bao gm c s m trong . Vy c th chng ta s biu din mt s m nh th no? C rt nhiu cch lm vic ny, nhng vi b vi x l 80x86, n ch x dng 2 c im nhn dng s m. l da vo H.O bit. H.O bit c gi l bit k hiu ( sign bit). Nu H.O bit c gi tr l 0, s l mt s dng; nu H.O bit c gi tr l 1, l mt s m. V d: Vi mt s 16 bit: 8000h l s m bi H.O bit l 1. 100h l s dng bi H.O bit l 0 7FFFh l s dng. 0FFFFh l s m. 0FFFh l s dng. chuyn i mt s dng thnh mt s m cc bn dng thut ton sau: 1. Vit cc ch s nh phn theo th t ngc li 2. S dng php o bit NOT 3. Cng mt vo kt qu V d:
0000 0101 tng ng vi 5 trong h thp phn 1111 1010 sau khi o bit 1111 1011 Cng mt vo kt qu

Vic chuyn s m thnh mt s dng cng p dng quy tc tng t:

1111 1011 0000 0100 0000 0101 -5 trong h thp phn NOT Cng mt vo kt qu

1.8 Sign and Zero Extension C mt vn t ra rng. Bn c mt s 8 bits v bn mun bit gi trj ca n dng 16 bit , 32 bit s nh th no? Chng ta chia lm 2 trng hp: chuyn

s c c du v s khng du. Vic ny rt n gin. nn ti ch ly 2 V d , vic chuyn nh th no cc bn nhn V d s r ngay. Vi s khng du:

V s c du:

1.9. Php dch bit v xoay bit.( SHIFT and ROTATE) Dch v xoay bit l cc php ton logic trn h s nh phn. Php dch v xoay bit bao gm c dch tri, dch phi, xoay tri v xoay phi. Chng ta rt hay gp cc php dch v xoay trong ngn ng assembly v chng tht s rt c ch. Php dch tri l php di chuyn cc bit v bn tri mt v tr:

Hnh 1.8: M t php dch bit Cc bit s di chuyn v pha tri mt v tr. Bit 0 s v tr mt v c th cho n ht. Lc ny c th bn s hi: Vy ci g s v tr bit 0 v Bit 7 s i u? Tr li cu th nht: gi tr bit 0 s l 0. V d: 11011 SHL 1 = 110110 vo nh. Cc bn ch rng php dch bit ny tng dng vi vic nhn vi c s ca n. Mt V d (SHL 1 = dch tri 1 v tr)

Vi cu th 2: iu ny s ty vo tng trng hp , nu nh bit 7 khc 0 th n s c a

v php dch bit trn h thp phn 1234 SHL 1 = 12340 (SHL 1 = shift left one position)

Vi h s nh phn, do s dng c s 2 cho nn mi bit c dch s tng ng vi vic nhn bit c vi 2.( xem V d trn) . Nu bn dch 2 bit th s tng ng vi vic nhn 2 ri li nhn 2 ( nhn 4) . Tng qut: nu dch n bit th tng ng vi nhn 2n Php dch bit phi cng tng t:

Hnh 1.9: Minh ha vic dch bit phi Nu vic dch tri tng ng vi nhn c s 2 th theo logic chng ta c th on php dch bit phi tng ng vi chia cho s m c c s 2. Nu bn dch phi n bit th tng ng vi vic chia cho 2n, vic ny ng hay sai? C mt vn ny sinh vi vic dch bit l dch bit vi s m. V d: Bn dch bit phi s c gi tr 254 (0FEh) trong h nh phn v kt qu l 127 (07Fh) , rt ng phi khng? Nhng nu dch bit phi s c gi tr -2 (0FEh) kt qu s vn l 127 (07Fh). C g khng ng y? Vn ny xy ra bi chng ta cho bit s 7 nhn gi tr 0. Trc bit ny c gi tr l 1. Vy l chng ta lm thay i flag bit cho nn kt qu l mt s dng . Cho nn, dch bit phi khng c coi nh mt php chia cho s m vi c s 2. c th s dng php dch bit phi nh php chia bn phi t nh ngha ra mt kiu dch bit phi khc cho ring mnh. C th, n cng s ging nh php dch phi thng thng ngoi tr mt ngoi l: Bit 7 thay v 0 vo bn hy gi nguyn n( gi nguyn c). Cc bn xem thm hnh minh ha:

Hnh 1.10: Php dch phi s hc (Arithmetic Shift Right Operation)

Cn mt php ton khc cng rt hu dng l php xoay ( rotate) . Php xoay cng ging nh php dch bit ch c iu: bit no c di chuyn u tin s c mt ti v tr cui( thay v bin mt nh php dch bit). Cc bn xem hnh hiu r hn:

Hnh 1.11: Minh ha php xoay bit phi

Hnh 1.12: Minh ha php xoay bit tri 1.10 Di bit v ng gi d liu ( Bit Feld and Packed Data) B x l 80x86 thng lm vic vi cc kiu d liu c di 8, 16, 32 bit. Tuy nhin, thnh thong chng ta vn cn lm vic vi nhng kiu s c di khc. V d: chng ta cn biu din 4/2/88. N cn 3 bin s: ngy , thng v nm. Thng nhn cc gi tr t 112 v n cn 4 bit biu din. Ngy nhn cc gi tr t 131 v cn 5 bit biu din. Nm nhn cc gi tr t 099 v cn 7 bit biu din. Tng s bit cn hin ti l: 4+5+7=16 bits tng ng vi 2 bytes. Nh vy thay v dng 3 bytes biu din ngy, thng v nm chng ta ch cn 2 bytes lm vic ny. Tuy n ch gip chng ta tit kim 1bytes nhng vi mt cng vic ln hn, vic tit kim 1 byte cng l rt ng qu.

Hnh 1.13: Nn d liu

Nh vy 4/2/88 s c biu din bi 4158h:

1.11 Bng m ASCII Bng m ASCII c chia lm 4 nhm, mi nhm gm c 32 k t. Nhm 1 c m t 0 ti 1Fh(31) l nhng k t iu khin. Chng ta gi y l nhm k t iu khin bi chng thc hin c cc cng vic m k t hin th khng lm c nh: xung dng, xa k t, Nhm th 2 gm 32 k t tip theo. Nhm ny bao gm du chm cu, nhng k t c bit v cc con s. ng ch nht trong s ny l k t trng ( space bar) v cc s t 0-9. Nhm th 3 gm 32 k t tip theo. Chng gm c cc k t t AZ c m 41h..5Ah (65..90).
Cn li trong nhm ny c 6 k t c bit

Nhm cui cng bao gm 26 ch ci thng, 5 k t c bit v mt k t iu khin (delete). C mt iu kh th v trong bng m ASCII ny. Khi bn chuyn m ca cc ch ci ra s nh phn cc bn s nhn thy iu ny. l ch ci in thng v in hoa tng ng ch khc nhau ng 1 bit. Ly ch E v e lm V d:

Hnh 1.14: S khc nhau gia ch in hoa v in thng

S khc bit ny nm trong bit th 5. Vi ch thng th bit th 5 lun c gi tr 1, cn vi ch hoa, bit th 5 lun c gi tr l 0. Nu bn c mt ch in hoa v mun i thnh ch thng th bn ch cn i gi tr bit th 5 l c. Hn th, bit th 5 v 6 cn rt nng ng. Ch vi vic thay i 2 bit ny l cc bn c th c c bng m ASCII ri.

Xem xt thm mt cht v bng m ASCII chng ta s thy mt im th v na. l cc con s .

Nhn m thp phn th cha c g ng ch cho lm. Tuy nhin khi nhn sang m thp lc phn ca chng th mi vic s sng t. Bn c th thy L.O nibble mang chnh gi tr m c s biu din ng khng. Vy mun chuyn i cc s (dng string) t 0-9 thnh gi tr ca chng ( integer) trong bng ASCII th cng vic ch l cho H.O nibble nhn gi tr 3 thi. Tuy nhin vic chuyn i ny ch p dng cho s c mt ch s m thi. Vi cc s nhiu hn 1 ch s th cch trn khng cn ng na. Dch bi HTS --- Ht chng 1---