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Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 Exponent Laws...................................................................................540 Expanding and Simplifying Polynomial Expressions...........................542 Factoring Polynomial Expressions.......................................................544 Working with Rational Expressions ....................................................545 Slope and Rate of Change of a Linear Function..................................549 The Zeros of Linear and Quadratic Functions ....................................551 Exponential Functions....................................................................... 553 Transformations of Functions .............................................................554 Families of Functions..........................................................................557 Trigonometric Ratios and Special Angles ............................................559 Graphing y sin x and y cos x ......................................................562 Transformations of Trigonometric Functions ......................................564 Solving Trigonometric Equations in Degrees ......................................567 Proving Trigonometric Identities ........................................................570

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Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

539

R1
Rule Word Description

Exponent Laws
Algebraic Description Example

Multiplication Division Power of a Power Power of a Product Power of a Quotient

If the bases are the same, add the exponents. If the bases are the same, subtract the exponents. Keep the base, and multiply the exponents. Raise each factor to the exponent. Raise the numerator and the denominator to the exponent separately.

am an am n am am n, a an ( am ) n amn ( ab ) n anbn a n an a b n, b b b

107 105 1012 10100 1095 105 (2x ) 2 22x (2x 5 ) 3 23 ( x 5 ) 3 8x 15 0 x 2 x2 a b 3 9 170 1

Zero Exponent A power with zero as the exponent equals 1, except when zero is also the base. Negative Exponents A power with a negative exponent equals the power with the reciprocal base and a positive exponent. The denominator determines the root.

a0 1, if a 0 Exception: 00 is undefined.

1 n 1 an a b n , a a a a n b n a b a b , a, b a b an a
1

0 0

104 x a b 2
4

1 10
4

1 10 000 0

2 4 16 a b 4, x x x
1

Rational Exponents with Numerator not 1

The denominator determines the root and the numerator indicates the exponent applied to the root.

a n Q aRm or
m

325 Q 32R
6

a n a m

26 64

EXAMPLE

Simplify. Express your answers using positive exponents. a) A2


3x y

BA2

x 4y

b) 64

2 3

c)

Axy 2B 4

Ax 2y 3B 2

540

Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

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Rational Exponents with Numerator 1

10003 252 1000 25 10 5 15

Solution

a) A2 BA2 B 3x y x 4y 2 22x 5y
3x y x 4y

b) 64

2 3

c) 1
2

Axy 2B 4

Ax 2y 3B 2

643 1 Q 64R 2
3

x 4y 6

x 4y 8 x 8y 14

1 42 1 16

Practising
1. Simplify. Express your answers using positive exponents.

a) x 2y 7 b) A y 3B 5 c) ( x 2) 4 ( x 2) d) a a3
9

e) f)

y4 y7

i) 41 j) 45 1 1 b 10 4 2 l) a b 3 k) a

Ax 2yB 2 Axy 3B 4

m) Aa 3bc 0B 2 n) a o) x 2y 5 x 2y b 3
4

g) 80 h) A20 2B 0

( y 1) 3 ( y 2) 4 ( y 1) 5 ( y 2)

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2.

Evaluate. Express your answers in fraction form. 1 3 a) 27 3 b) 2252

c) 1000.5

d) 64 3 16 2

R-1 Exponent Laws: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

541

R2

Expanding and Simplifying Polynomial Expressions

To convert a polynomial expression from factored form to expanded form, use the distributive property: a ( b c ) ab ac Some patterns occur frequently and are worth memorizing.
Square of a Sum Square of a Difference Difference of Squares

(a b)2 ( a b )( a b ) a 2 2ab b 2
EXAMPLE

(a b)2 ( a b )( a b ) a 2 2ab b 2

( a b )( a b ) a 2 ab ab b 2 a2 b2

Expand and simplify ( x 5)(3x 2 4x 5).


Solution

( x 5)(3x2 4x 5)

Use the distributive property to multiply each term in the binomial by each term in the trinomial. There are 2 3 6 terms in the expanded form, before it is simplified. Collect like terms to simplify the expanded form.

3x 3 4x 2 5x 15x 2 20x 25

3x 3 11x 2 15x 25
EXAMPLE

2
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Expand and simplify 2( x 2)( x 1)( x 3) .


Solution

2( x 2)( x 1)( x 3) 3 2( x 2) 4 3 ( x 1)( x 3) 4 (2x 4)( x 2 3x x 3) (2x 4)( x 4x 3)


2

Since multiplication is associative, you can multiply the expressions in any order you like. Use the distributive property to multiply. Drawing arrows will help you to keep track of the multiplications.

2x 3 8x 2 6x 4x 2 16x 12 2x 3 4x 2 10x 12

542

Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

EXAMPLE

Expand and simplify (2x 3) 2 (3x 2)(3x 2).


Solution

(2x 3) 2 (3x 2)(3x 2) (2x ) 2 2(2x )(3) (3) 2 3 (3x ) 2 (2) 2 4 4x 2 12x 9 9x 2 4 5x 2 12x 13

Use the patterns for ( a b ) 2 and ( a b )( a b ).

Practising
1. Expand and simplify.

a) 3x A5x 2 3x 4B b) (2x 7) 2 c) 3( x 4) 2 (2 x )(2 x ) 1 1 d) 6 a x b a x b 3 2 e) 5x (2x 4) 2 f ) 3 2x ( x 1) 4 2

2. Write in simplified expanded form.

a) b) c) d) e) f)

5( x 1)( x 1)( x 2) 2( x 2 x 3)( x 7) 4( x 2) 3 ( x 5)( x 2)( x 5)( x 2) (3x 4) 2 (2x 3) ( x 3) 4

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R2 Expanding and Simplifying Polynomial Expressions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

543

R3
Type

Factoring Polynomial Expressions


Example Comment

Common Factoring ab ac a ( b c ) Factor out the largest common factor of each term. Factoring Trinomials ax 2 bx c, when a 1 Write the trinomial as the product of two binomials. Determine two numbers whose sum is b and whose product is c. Factoring Trinomials ax2 bx c, when a 1

10x4 8x3 6x5 2x 3 (5x 4 3x 2 )

Each term has a common factor of 2x 3.

x 2 4x 21 ( x 7)( x 3)

( 21) 7( 3) and 4 7 ( 3)

Look for a common factor. If none exists, use decomposition and write the trinomial as the product of two binomials. Check by expanding and simplifying.

3x2 4x 4 3x 2 2x 6x 4 (3x 2 2x ) (6x 4) x (3x 2) 2(3x 2) (3x 2)( x 2) Check: (3x )( x ) (3x )(2) ( 2)( x ) ( 2)(2) 3x 2 6x 2x 4 3x 2 4x 4 2x2 18 2( x 2 9) 2( x 3)( x 3)

Multiply 3( 4) 12. Find two numbers whose product is 12 and whose sum is 4. In this case, the numbers are 6 and 2. Using these numbers, decompose the x-term. Group the terms, and factor out the common factors. Common factor first, when possible.
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Factoring a Difference of Squares x2 y2 ( x y )( x y ) This is a special case of factoring trinomials, when b 5 0.

Practising
1. Factor. 2. Factor.

a) b) c) d) e) f)

6x 2 5x 28x 14xy x2 x 6 3y 2 18y 24 x 2 64 x 4 81

a) b) c) d)

6y 2 y 2 12x 2 x 1 5a 2 7a 6 12x 2 18x 12

3. Expand to show that ( x y )( x 2 xy y 2 )

is the factored form of x 3 y 3.

544

Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

R4

Working with Rational Expressions

A rational expression is an algebraic expression that can be written as the quotient of two polynomials. A rational expression is undefined if the denominator is zero, so we write restrictions on the variables to avoid this.
Simplifying Rational Expressions

A rational expression can be simplified by factoring the numerator and the denominator, and then dividing out the common factors.
EXAMPLE

1
x2 1 x 2 4x 3 4x 6 9 6x

Simplify and state restrictions. a) 21m 3n 2 6mn


4

b)

c)

Solution

a)

21m 3n 2 6mn
1 4

b)

3mn2 (7m2 ) 3mn2 (2n 2 )


1

x2 1 x 2 4x 3 ( x 1)( x 1) ( x 1)( x 3) ( x 1) ( x 1) ( x 1) ( x 3)
1

Factor the numerator and the denominator to find the largest possible common factor to divide out.

7m 2n 2 0, n

x1 x3 x 1,3

Write restrictions on the variables to prevent the denominator from equalling zero.

c)
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4x 6 9 6x 2(2x 3) 3(3 2x ) 2(3 2x ) 1 3(3 2x ) 1 2 3 opposites When factors are opposites, factor out 1 from one of the factors to make the factors identical.

x 3 2

R4 Working with Rational Expressions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

545

Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions

To multiply or divide rational expressions, factor the numerators and the denominators (where possible), and then look for common factors that can be divided out.
EXAMPLE
2

Simplify
Solution

4x 20 x 9 2 . 2x 6 x 6x 9

4x 20 x2 9 2 2x 6 x 6x 9 4( x 5) ( x 3)( x 3) 2( x 3) ( x 3)( x 3)
1 1 2

Factor each polynomial.

4 ( x 5) ( x 3) ( x 3) 2 ( x 3) ( x 3) ( x 3)
1 1 1

2( x 5) x3 3, 3

Divide out the common factors to reduce the expression to lowest terms. Write restrictions to prevent the denominator from equalling zero, which would result in undefined values.

EXAMPLE

Simplify
Solution

4x 2 4x 1 2x 2 9x 5 . x3 x5

4x 4x 1 x5 2 x3 2x 9x 5
2

Change the division into multiplication by the reciprocal. Factor. Divide out the identical factors.

(2x 1)(2x 1) x5 x3 (2x 1)( x 5)


1 1

(2x 1)(2x 1) x5 x3 (2x 1) ( x 5)


1 1

2x 1 x3 3, 5, 1 2 Write restrictions to avoid undefined values.

546

Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

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2x2 9x 5 4x2 4x 1 x3 x5

Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions

To add or subtract rational expressions, you must have a common denominator. To ensure that you will use the lowest common denominator, factor the numerators and the denominators first. This will keep the expressions as simple as possible.
EXAMPLE

Simplify
Solution

3x 6 x 2 8x 15 . 2 7x 21 x 4

3x 6 x2 8x 15 7x 21 x2 4 3( x 2) ( x 3)( x 5) ( x 2)( x 2) 7( x 3) ( x 3) ( x 5) 3( x 2) ( x 2) ( x 2) 7( x 3)
1 1 1 1

Factor the numerators and the denominators. If possible, divide out like factors (but only within each rational expression). The lowest common denominator is 7( x 2). Multiply the numerator and denominator of each rational expression to create an equivalent expression with the desired common denominator. Simplify the numerator.

3 x5 x2 7 7 x5 x2 3 ba b a ba b x2 7 7 x2

a x

21 x 2 7x 10 7( x 2) 7( x 2) 21 ( x 2 7x 10) 7( x 2) 21 x2 7x 10 7( x 2) x 2 7x 11 7( x 2) 2, 2, 3

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Write restrictions to avoid undefined values.

R4 Working with Rational Expressions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

547

Practising
1. State the restrictions (if any) on each rational expression.

a)

5 x 2ab 4b x 2 5x x 2 4x 5 2y 2 6x 8y 3x

b)

x 5 3h 2 6h h 2 4h 4 b 3 a 2b b 2 2ab a 2

c)

17 x2 x 2 3x 2 x 2 5x 6 t3 t2 t t3

d)

3x x 36
2

2. Simplify, and state restrictions. Write your answers using positive exponents.

a) b)

c) d)

e) f)

3. Simplify, and state restrictions.

a) b)

2ab 6ac 5bc 10b ( x 1) 2 x 2 2x 1 c) x 2 2x 3 x 2 4x 3 x7 2x 14 d) 10 25 2 x 5x 6 x 2 4x 5 x5 2 e) 2 2 x 1 x 4 x 3x 2 2 9m 2 4 3m 7m 6 9m 6 f) 6m 2 3m 2m 2 5m 3 4m 2 4m 1


4. Simplify, and state restrictions.

2 4x 2 11x 1 , 5. Show that 4x 1 x 3 x3

3.

548

Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

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4 2 5x 3x 5 2 b) x1 x1 2x 1 5 c) 3 x2 6x 3x 2 d) 2 x 5x 6 x x 12 x3 x1 e) x4 x2 x1 x2 2 f) 2 x 2x 3 x 4x 5 a)

R5

Slope and Rate of Change of a Linear Function

The slope of a line is a ratio that compares the change in the dependent variable, y, with the change in the independent variable, x. y2 y1 change in y y rise Slope m run x change in x x 2 x1 The equation of a linear relation can be written in the form y mx b, where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept. Values of the Slope The slope of a line that rises to the right is positive. The slope of a line that drops to the right is negative. The slope of a horizontal line is zero. The equation of the line can be written in the form y b. The slope of a vertical line is undefined. The equation of the line can be written in the form x a. Equations of Straight Lines point-slope equation of a line: y y1 m ( x x1 ) general form of the equation of a line: Ax By C 0 slope-intercept equation of a line: y mx b Parallel and Perpendicular Lines Two lines, with slopes m1 and m2, are parallel if and only if m1 m2 perpendicular if and only if m1 m2 1; that is, if their slopes are negative reciprocals: m2 m1
EXAMPLE
1

Find the slope and equation of a line that passes through points (5, 6) and (15, 2). Explain how the slope is a rate of change.
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Solution

The slope is m x2 x1 15 5 10 5. 2 1 Substituting m 2 5 and ( x1, y1 ) (5, 6) into y y1 m ( x x1 ), 2 y 6 ( x 5) 5 2 y x26 5 2 y x8 5 2 The slope of the line is 2 5 , and the equation is y 5 x 8.

y y

26

R5 Slope and Rate of Change of a Linear Function: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

549

The slope is a rate of change because y will decrease by 2 units for each 5 unit increase in x.
y 10 8 6 4 2 0 5 10 x run = 5 rise = 2

Practising
1. Determine the slope of a line that passes through 3. Suppose that you buy a plant. The height of the

each pair of points. a) (1, 5) and ( 4, 9) b) ( 1, 4) and (7, 4) c) (5, 2) and (5,4) d) ( 3, 5) and ( 2, 9)
2. Describe the graph of

plant t weeks after you buy it is h ( t ) 26 1.2t, where h is the height in centimetres. What is the slope of the height function, and what does the slope mean in the context of this situation?
4. Determine the slope and y-intercept of each line.

a) x 3

b) y 6

a) 3x 5y 10 0

b) Ax By C 0

550

Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

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R6

The Zeros of Linear and Quadratic Functions

The Zero of a Linear Function

A linear function of the form y mx b has one zero (x-intercept), unless the line is horizontal. (A horizontal line has no x-intercepts, unless it lies on the x-axis. Then every point on the line is an x-intercept.) Factoring out the slope will give the x-intercept.
EXAMPLE

What is the x-intercept of y 2x 6?


Solution

y 2x 6 y 2( x 3) Solving for the zero, let y 0. 0 2( x 3) 3x

Factor out the slope.

The x-intercept is 3, since substituting x 3 results in a y value of zero. (Hence the name zero of the function for an x-intercept.)
y 2 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 x

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The Zeros of a Quadratic Function

A quadratic function can have two zeros, one zero, or no zeros. The zeros of a quadratic function are also found by factoring the equation. When factoring is not possible, the quadratic formula can be used. The discriminant can be used to determine the number of zeros.
Quadratic Formula Discriminant

The zeros of the function y ax2 bx c are x


b b2 4ac . 2a

If b2 4ac 0, there are two zeros. If b 2 4ac 0, there is one zero. If b 2 4ac 0, there are no zeros.

R6 The Zeros of Linear and Quadratic Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

551

EXAMPLE

2
b) g ( x ) x 2 x 2

Determine the zeros of each function. a) f ( x ) 2x 2 x 6


Solution

a) Factoring gives f ( x ) 2x 2 x 6 f ( x ) (2x 3)( x 2) Solving for the zeros, let f ( x ) 0. 0 (2x 3)( x 2) 0 2x 3 or 0 x 2 3 x or x 2 2

y 6 4 2 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 2 4 6

b) To solve for the zeros, let g ( x ) 0. 0 x2 x 2 Using the quadratic formula gives x b b 2 4ac 2a ( 1) ( 1) 2 4(1)(2) x 2(1) 1 7 2 Since the square root of 7 is not a real number, the function g has no zeros. x

y 8 6 4 2 6 4 2 0 2 4 2 4 6

The graph of g is entirely above the x-axis. Therefore, the function has no zeros.
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Practising
1. What are the zeros of each function? 3. Determine the zeros of each quadratic function.

a) b) c) d)

y 3( x 4) y 2( x 3)( x 7) y 4( x 9) 2 y 2x 2 x 15

a) f ( x ) x 2 x 42 b) y 16x 2 8x 1

c) g ( x ) x 2 3x 1 d) y 3x 2 5x 4

4. The zeros of a quadratic function are 2 and 2, and

the y-intercept is 8. Write the equation of the function.


5. Use the discriminant to determine the number of

2. Determine the zero of each linear function.

1 a) y x 2 3 b) line with y-intercept 3 and slope 1 2

zeros for each quadratic function. a) y 16x 2 40x 25 b) y 16x 2 40x 23

552

Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

R7

Exponential Functions

The exponential function f ( x ) b x has the following characteristics: The base is restricted to 0 b 1 or b 1. The domain is { xR }, and the range is { yR y 0}. The x-axis is a horizontal asymptote. The y-intercept is 1. If b 1, the graph increases (is a growth function). If 0 b 1, the graph decreases (is a decay function).

EXAMPLE

Sketch the graph of each exponential function. 1 x a) y 2x b) f ( x ) a b 3


Solution a)
x y 2x

y 10 8 6 4 2 3 2 1 0 2 1 2 3

b)
x

23 22 21 0 1 2 3
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1 8 1 4 1 2 1 2 4 8

1 x ya b 3

y 10 8 6 4 2 3 2 1 0 2 1 2 3

22 21 0
x

1 2

9 3 1 1 3 1 9
x

Note that y 2x is a growth curve and y A1 3 B is a decay curve.

Practising
1. Sketch the graph of each exponential function.

a) f ( x ) 3

b) f ( x ) 10x they related?

1 x c) f ( x ) a b 2 d) f ( x ) (1.5) x

4. The function T 20 76(0.92) t models the

2. Compare the graphs of y

x x A1 3 B and y 3 . How are

3. For the function f ( x ) 4x, state the domain, range,

intercepts, and equation of the asymptote.

temperature, in C, of a cup of coffee t minutes after it is poured. a) What is the initial temperature of the coffee? b) What is the temperature after 10 min? c) What is the temperature after 60 min? d) Determine the equation of the horizontal asymptote. What does it represent? e) What is the significance of the number 76 in the equation?

R7 Exponential Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

553

R8

Transformations of Functions

You can graph functions of the form y af ( k ( x d )) c by applying the appropriate transformations to key points on the parent function y f ( x ). Stretches/compressions and reflections (based on a and k) must be applied before translations (based on c and d ). The value of a determines whether there is a vertical stretch or compression and whether there is a reflection in the x-axis. The y-coordinate of each point is multiplied by a. If a 1, the graph of y f ( x ) is stretched vertically by the factor Z a Z . If 0 a 1, the graph is compressed vertically by the factor a. If a is negative, the graph is also reflected in the x-axis. The value of k determines whether there is a horizontal stretch or compression and whether there is a reflection in the y-axis. The x-coordinate of each point is multiplied by k . If 0 k 1, the graph is stretched horizontally by the factor k . If k is negative, the graph is also reflected in the y-axis.
1 1

If k 1, the graph of y f ( x ) is compressed horizontally by the factor k .

The value of c determines the vertical translation. This value is added to the y-coordinate of each point. If c 0, the graph is translated c units up. If c 0, the graph is translated c units down. The value of d determines the horizontal translation. This value is added to the x-coordinate of each point. If d 0, the graph is translated d units to the right. If d 0, the graph is translated d units to the left.
EXAMPLE

What transformations to the parent function y f ( x ) would you perform to create the graph of y 2f (3( x 4)) 5? What happens to the coordinates of each point on the parent function?
Solution

Comparing the transformed function with the general form y af ( k ( x d )) c, we have a 2, k 3, d 4, and c 5.

554

Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

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Since a 2, there is a vertical stretch by a factor of 2 and also a reflection in the x-axis. The y-coordinate of each point is multiplied by 2. Since k 3, there is a horizontal compression by a factor of 1 3 . The 1 x-coordinate of each point is multiplied by 3. Since c 5, there is a vertical translation 5 units down. The value 5 is added to the y-coordinate of each point. Since d 4, there is a horizontal translation 4 units to the right. The value 4 is added to the x-coordinate of each point.

EXAMPLE

2
1

2 (x 3) 1 by applying of the appropriate Graph the function y 3 2 2 transformations to the parent function y 2x.

Solution

Table of values for y 2x


x y

22 21 0 1 2

1 4 1 2 1 2 4

Graph of y 2x y 6 4 2
4 2 0 2 2 4 6

We start with points on the parent function y 2x.

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2 x Table of values for y 3 2 2


1

2 x Graph of y 3 2 2
1

y 6 4 2 4 2 0 2 2 4 6

4 2 0 2 4

3 8 3 4 3 2 3 6

Apply any stretches/compressions and reflections next. Since a 3 2 , there is a vertical stretch. Each y-coordinate is multiplied by 3 2. Since k 1 2 there is a horizontal stretch and also a reflection in the y-axis. Each x-coordinate is multiplied by 2.

R8 Transformations of Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

555

Table of values for

3 1 y 2 22 (x 3) 1

Graph of y 2 22 (x 3) 1
1

y 6 4 2 4 2 0 2 2 4 6

7 5 3 1 1

3 8 3 1 4 1 2 2 4 7 1

Apply any translations last. Since c 1, there is a translation up. The value 1 is added to each y-coordinate. Since d 3, there is a translation to the right. The value 3 is added to each x-coordinate. Notice that the horizontal asymptote is shifted up to y 1.

Practising
1. Describe the transformations that you would apply

to the graph of y f ( x ) to graph each of the following functions. a) y 3f ( x ) 2 1 b b) y f a ( x 3) 2 c) y f (2x ) 7 d) y 3f (2( x 1)) 2 e) y f ( x ) 4 1 f ) y f ( x ) 3 5
2. The point (2, 5) is on the graph of y f ( x ). State

3. Given the function f ( x ) x 2, state the equation of

the transformed function under a vertical stretch of factor 3, a reflection in the x-axis, a horizontal translation 3 units to the right, and a vertical translation 2 units up.
4. Consider the function f ( x ) x 3.

the coordinates of the image of this point under each of the following transformations. a) y f (3x ) c) y f ( x 4) b) y 2f ( x ) d) y f ( x ) 7

5. Consider the functions Y1 x and Y2 4 x.

What transformations to Y1 result in Y2?

556

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a) Make a table of values for f using x { 2, 1, 0, 1, 2 }. b) Describe the transformations to f that result in 3 the function g ( x ) 1 2 ( x 4) 5. c) Determine the five points on the graph of g that are the images of the five points in your table of values for f in part a).

R9

Families of Functions
y 6 4 2 4 2 0 2 2 4

Families of Linear Functions Consider the equation y mx 3. It represents a straight line with y-intercept 3 and slope m. Different values of the parameter m will result in lines with different slopes. Together, these lines make up a family of lines with the same y-intercept.

Families of Quadratic Functions The equation y a ( x 1)( x 3) represents a family of quadratic functions. Each member of the family has zeros at 1 and 3. Their differences are determined by the value of the vertical stretch factor a.

y 6 4 2 2 0 2 4 6 2 4 6

EXAMPLE

What member of the family of quadratic functions with the vertex (3, 1) passes through point (5, 5)?
Solution

The graph shows several members of the family of quadratic functions with the vertex (3, 1). This family has an equation of the form f ( x ) a ( x 3) 2 1. Substitute point (5, 5) into the equation, and solve for a. 5 a (5 3) 2 1 5 a (2) 2 1 6 4a 6 3 a 4 2 2 The equation is f ( x ) 3 2 ( x 3) 1.

y 6 4 2 2 0 2 4 6 2 4 6

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R9 Families of Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

557

Practising
1. a)

Determine the general equation of the family of straight lines with slope 3, but varying y-intercepts. b) Find the equation of the member of this family that passes through point (4, 7).

b) Why does the parameter k vary in the graphs of this family? c) Show that k 3 4 results in a curve that passes through point (4, 8).
4. Determine the equation of the quadratic function

2. a)

Determine the equation of the family of quadratic functions with zeros at 2 and 4. b) What is the equation of the member of this family with y-intercept 4? y 2(kx). a) At what point do all the members of this family meet?

that has vertex ( 2, 5) and passes through (1, 8).


5. Determine the equation of the quadratic function

3. A family of exponential functions has equation

that has x-intercepts 5 and 1, and passes through (7, 40).


6. Determine the equation of the quadratic function

f ( x ) ax 2 6x 7 if f (2) 3.

558

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R10 Trigonometric Ratios and Special Angles


Right-Triangle Definitions of Trigonometric Ratios

The trigonometric ratios for an acute angle can be defined using a right triangle, as shown below. sin u cos u tan u opposite hypotenuse adjacent hypotenuse opposite adjacent csc u sec u cot u hypotenuse opposite hypotenuse opposite adjacent opposite
hypotenuse u adjacent opposite

The Pythagorean theorem is often useful for solving problems that involve right triangles: (adjacent) 2 (opposite) 2 (hypotenuse) 2 The right-triangle definitions given above cannot be used for an angle that is not acute, so we need to broaden the definitions.
Definitions of Trigonometric Ratios for Any Angle

An angle in standard position has its vertex at the origin and rotates counterclockwise from the positive x-axis to its terminal arm. If point (x, y) is on the terminal arm of angle u, at a distance r units from the origin, we define the trigonometric ratios of u as follows: sin u cos u
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y r x r y x

csc u sec u cot u

r y r x x y

(x, y) y r b x

y u x

tan u

In the diagram above, b is the acute angle related to u. The related acute angle always has one arm on the x-axis. The trigonometric ratios for angle b are equal in magnitude to those for angle u, but they are always positive. The CAST rule is an easy way to remember which trigonometric ratios are positive in each quadrant. Since r is always positive, the sign of each ratio depends on the signs of the coordinates of the point. In quadrant 1, all (A) ratios are positive because both x and y are positive. In quadrant 2, only sine (S) and its reciprocal cosecant are positive, since x is negative and y is positive. In quadrant 3, only tangent (T) and its reciprocal cotangent are positive, because both x and y are negative. In quadrant 4, only cosine (C) and its reciprocal secant are positive, since x is positive and y is negative.

S
0

A C

T
3

R10 Trigonometric Ratios and Special Angles: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

559

The exact values of the primary trigonometric ratios for 30, 45, and 60 angles can be found by using an isosceles right triangle and half of an equilateral triangle, as shown below. These triangles are often referred to as special triangles.

45 2 1 2 1

30

45

60 1
u sin u cos u tan u

30 45

1 0.5 2 2 0.7071 2 3 0.8660 2

3 0.8660 2 2 0.7071 2 1 0.5 2

1 3 1

3 0.5774 3

60

3 1.7321

EXAMPLE

1
Copyright 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

Determine the exact value of sin 240.


Solution

The following diagram shows that a 240 angle is related to a 60 acute angle.
y 240 60 x

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Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

3 sin 240 sin 60 2 sin 240 3 2

To determine the sign of sin 240, consider that sine y is the ratio x. Since 240 is in quadrant III, y is negative. Therefore, sine is negative.

EXAMPLE

If tan u 2, find an exact value for sin u. Confirm the value with a calculator.
Solution

There are two possible terminal arms, as shown in the following diagram. y 2 (1, 2)
1 5 2 1 0 1 2 5 (1, 2) u1 u2 1 2 x

Since tan u 2, we know that any point on the terminal arm of the angle y must satisfy x 2. A point on the terminal arm in quadrant II is ( 1, 2). A point on the terminal arm in quadrant IV is (1, 2).

Using r 2 x 2 y 2 gives r 5. Therefore, sin u r 5.


y 2

Copyright 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

Practising
1. Using exact values, show that sin2 u cos2 u 1 3. Determine the angle(s) u between 0 and 360 if

for each angle. a) u 60 b) u 45


2. Determine the acute angle that each line makes with

a) cos u sin u b) sin u 1


4. Determine an exact value for

the x-axis. a) y 5 x b) y 5 2 3x

a) b) c) d)

sin 135 cos 210 tan 225 csc 300

R10 Trigonometric Ratios and Special Angles: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

561

R11 Graphing y = sin x and y = cos x


The functions y sin x and y cos x are periodic functions since their graphs consist of a regularly repeating shape. The period of both of these functions is 360. The minimum value of these functions is 1, and the maximum value is 1. The amplitude of a function is defined as, maximum minimum, so the amplitude 2 of these functions is 1 2( 1) 2 2 1. The axis (or midline) of a function is the horizontal line halfway between the maximum value and the minimum value. For both of these functions, the equation of the axis is y
maximum minimum 2
1 ( 1) 2

0.

1 0 1

y y = sin x y = cos x x

180

180

360

EXAMPLE

At what values of x, in the interval 360 to 360, does sin x 1 2?


Solution

Draw the sine function from 360 to 360 along with the line y 1 2.
y 1 0 1
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x 360 180 180 360

We can read the intersection points directly from the graph. The values of x in the interval 3 360, 360 4 are 330, 210, 30, and 150.

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Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

EXAMPLE

At what values of x does the function y cos x have a minimum value?


Solution

Examine the graph. y 2 1


360 180 0 1 2 180 360 540

x 720

We can see that the minimum values occur at x 180, 180, 540, and so on. There are an infinite number of values of x, so we cannot list all of them. (This would take forever!) Notice, however, that they occur at regular intervals due to the periodic nature of the function. Each minimum value is a multiple of 360 that is either less than or more than 180. Therefore, we can write all the values of x as follows: x 180 k (360 ), where kI

Practising
1. At what values of x does the function y sin x have

a maximum value?
2. At what values of x do the functions y sin x and

y cos x meet?
y 2 1 0 1 2

3. Consider the graph of y sin x from 0 to 360.


Copyright 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

x 90 180 270 360

a) Determine the values of x that correspond to an angle in i) quadrant I ii) quadrant II iii) quadrant III iv) quadrant IV b) Describe the behaviour of the sin x function in each quadrant.

R11 Graphing y = sin x and y = cos x: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

563

R12 Transformations of Trigonometric Functions


We can transform the sine and cosine functions in the same way that we transform other functions. The general forms of the transformed functions are y a sin( k ( x d )) c and y a cos( k ( x d )) c.
Transformation Characteristics of the Transformed Function

The value of a determines whether there is a vertical stretch/compression and whether there is a reflection in the x-axis. The value of k determines whether there is horizontal stretch/compression and whether there is a reflection in the y-axis. The value of c determines the vertical translation. The value of d determines the horizontal translation.

Since the vertical stretch/compression factor is a , the amplitude of the transformed function is a .
1

Since the horizontal stretch/compression factor is k , the period of the transformed function is k . The axis of the transformed function is y c. The horizontal shift of the transformed function is d.
360

EXAMPLE

Describe the transformations that have been applied to a parent function to get each of the following transformed functions. State the amplitude, period, and axis of the transformed function, and determine whether there is a horizontal shift. Then sketch the graph of the transformed function. 2 1 a) y 2 cos 2x 1 b) g ( x ) sin a x 15b 3 2
Solution
Copyright 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

a) To obtain the transformed function y 2 cos 2x 1, the parent function y cos x undergoes a vertical stretch of factor 2, a reflection in the x-axis, a horizontal compression of factor 1 2 , and a vertical translation 1 unit down.
The amplitude of the transformed function is 2, the period is 360 2 180, and the axis is y 1. There is no horizontal shift.

y 2 1 90 0 1 2 3 x 90 180 270 360 450

Start with the parent function y cos x. The amplitude is 1. The period is 360.

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Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

y 2 1 90 0 1 2 3 x 90 180 270 360 450

Apply the stretch, compression, and reflection. y 2 cos 2x The function is reflected in the x-axis. The amplitude is 2. The period is 180.

y 2 1 90 0 1 2 3 x 90 180 270 360 450

Apply the translation. y 2 cos 2x 1 The function is reflected in x-axis. The amplitude is 2. The period is 180. The axis is y 1. There is no horizontal shift.

1 b) The transformed function g ( x ) 2 3 sin A2 x 15B is not in the general form we work with, so we must factor the argument of the function. 2 1 g ( x ) sin a x 15b 3 2 2 1 g ( x ) sin a ( x 30 ) b 3 2 The parent function f ( x ) sin x undergoes a vertical compression of factor 2 3, a 1 horizontal stretch of factor 1 2, and a horizontal translation 30 to the right. 2

The argument of a function is the input to the function. For the function 1 g(x) 2 3 sin A2 x 15B , the argument 1 is A2x 15B .

Copyright 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

The amplitude of the curve is 2 3 , the period is

360
1 2

720, and the axis of the

curve is y 0. There is a horizontal shift 30 to the right.


y 2 1 180 0 1 2 180 360 540 x 720

Start with the parent function f ( x ) sin x. The amplitude is 1. The period is 360.

R12 Transformations of Trigonometric Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

565

y 2 1 180 0 1 2 180 360 540 x 720

Apply the compression and stretch. There is no reflection. 2 1 y sin a x b 3 2 The amplitude is 2 3. The period is 360.

y 2 1 180 0 1 2 180 360 540 x 720

Apply the translation. 2 1 g ( x ) sin a ( x 30 ) b 3 2 The amplitude is 2 3. The period is 360. The axis is y 0. There is a horizontal shift of 30 to the right.

Practising
1. For each of the following transformed functions, identify the parent function. Describe the transformations

that have been applied to create the transformed function. State the amplitude, period, and axis, and determine whether there is a horizontal shift. Then sketch a graph of the transformed function. a) f ( x ) 4 sin(2x ) 4 b) f ( x ) cos(3x 90 ) 2 c) y 1 2 sin c ( x 60 ) d 2 3
Copyright 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

566

Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

R13 Solving Trigonometric Equations in Degrees


Trigonometric functions can have many solutions, due to their periodic nature. The number of solutions for a function depends on the domain of the function. The solutions can be found using various approaches, as shown in the following examples.
EXAMPLE

USING SPECIAL TRIANGLES AND THE CAST RULE

Solve sin u 0.5 where u 3 0, 360 4 .


Solution
y opposite

Since sin u r hypotenuse, we can see that u 30 is a solution. The terminal arm for 30 is in quadrant I.
S ( 3, 1) 1 2 y A

The value of 0.5 is recognizable as a special value from the special 306090 triangle. The CAST rule states that sine values are positive for first quadrant and second quadrant angles. The terminal arms of these angles are mirror images in the y-axis.

( 3, 1) 150 2 1 x 30 3

Copyright 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

The angle in quadrant II is 180 30 150. There are no other values of u in the domain 3 0, 360 4 . Therefore, the solutions are u 30 or 150.

R13 Solving Trigonometric Equations in Degrees: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

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EXAMPLE

USING A CALCULATOR AND THE CAST RULE

Solve cos u 0.8 for u, to the nearest degree, where u 3 0, 360 4 .


Solution

The cosine ratio is negative in quadrants II and III. Since 2 0.8 is not from a special triangle, we use a calculator to determine the related acute angle. The related acute angle is about 37.
S y A

143

The angle u in quadrant II is 180 37 143. The angle u in quadrant III is 180 37 217. Therefore, the two solutions in the required domain are 143 and 217.

EXAMPLE

USING THE x-y-r DEFINITIONS AND A CALCULATOR

Solve tan u 2 for u, to the nearest degree, where u 3 0, 360 4


Solution
y x 2
2 1

2 1 , so we can use

( x, y ) (1,2) and ( 1, 2) as the points on the terminal arm.

By definition, tan u x.

568

Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

Copyright 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

y (1, 2) 117 297 63

Determine the inverse cosine of 2 to find the related acute angle.

(1, 2)

The related acute angle is about 63. The diagram shows that the angles in the required domain are u 360 63 297 and u 180 63 117 Therefore, the two solutions in the required domain are 117 and 297.

Practising
Copyright 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

1. Solve each trigonometric function, to the nearest degree, where 0 u 3600.

a) b)

3 2 2 tan u 5 cos u

c)

tan u 1

d) sin u 0.554 f) cos u 5 1.5

d) sin u 1 c) 4 sin u 1

2. Solve, where 0 u 3600.

a) 2 cos u 1 0 b) 3 tan u 3

d) 3 cos u 2 1

R13 Solving Trigonometric Equations in Degrees: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

569

R14 Proving Trigonometric Identities


An identity is an equation that is true for all possible values of its variable. To disprove an identity (in other words, to prove that an equation is not an identity), we need to find only one value of the variable that does not satisfy the equation. To prove that an equation is an identity, we need to show that the two sides of the equation are equal for all possible values of the variable. To do this, we need to rewrite one or both sides of the equation by substituting known identities and/or using algebraic techniques.
Algebraic Techniques Reciprocal Identities Quotient Identities Pythagorean Identities

factoring

csc u sin u

1 , sin u 0 1 , cos u 0 1 , tan u 0

tan u cos u cot u sin u

sin u , cos u 0 cos u , sin u 0

cos 2u sin 2u 1

expanding and simplifying adding or subtracting rational expressions using a common denominator

sec u cos u cot u tan u

1 tan 2u sec 2u

cot2 u 1 sec 2 u

EXAMPLE

Show that cos u sin u 1 is not an identity.


Solution

To prove that this equation is not an identity, we need to find a value of u that does not satisfy the equation. Try u 45. Left side cos 45 sin 45 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 For u 45, the equation is not satisfied. Therefore, the equation cos u sin u 1 is not an identity. Right side 1

570

Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

Copyright 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

EXAMPLE

2
tan u 1 1 tan u sin u cos u

Prove each identity. tan u sin u a) cos u 1 sin 2 u


Solution

b)

a) To prove the identity, we must work with each side independently. tan u sin u RS LS cos u 1 sin 2 u sin u cos u cos u sin u cos 2 u sin u cos 2u

Since we have shown that the left side and right side are equal, the equation is an identityevery possible value of u will satisfy the equation. There are values of u that will result in each side being undefined, however, so a restriction is needed: cos u 2 0. b) Work with each side independently. 1 LS tan u tan u sin u cos u cos u sin u sin 2u cos 2u sin u cos u sin u cos u RS 1 sin u cos u

Copyright 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

1 sin u cos u Since the left side and right side are equal, the equation is an identity. Again, restrictions are needed to avoid undefined values: sin u 0, cos u

0.

Practising
1. Prove each of the following identities.

a)

1 1 sin u tan u cos u cos u

c) d)

1 cos2 u sin u cos u tan u tan2 u sin2 u 1 tan2 u 0.

b) sin 4u 2 cos 4u 5 sin 3u 2 cos 2u


2. Prove that sin2 x a 1

1 b 1, where sin x tan2 x

3. Prove that (1 cos2 x )(1 cos2 x ) 2 sin2 x sin4 x.

A14 Proving Trigonometric Identities: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

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